Careers for Geniuses & Other Gifted Types

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Careers for You Series

McGraw-Hill’s

CAREERS FOR

GENIUSES & Other Gifted Types

JAN GOLDBERG SECOND EDITION

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Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 0-07-159419-1 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: 0-07-148216-4. All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark. Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps. McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. For more information, please contact George Hoare, Special Sales, at [email protected] or (212) 904-4069. TERMS OF USE This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGraw-Hill”) and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill’s prior consent. You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms. THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise. DOI: 10.1036/0071482164

This book is dedicated to the memory of my beloved parents, Sam and Sylvia Lefkovitz. Your inspiration lives on.

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Contents

CHAPTER ONE

CHAPTER TWO

CHAPTER THREE

Acknowledgments

vii

Introduction: Being Gifted Who Is a Genius, and What Does It Mean?

ix

Careers in the Biological Sciences Working in the Surround of Living Things

1

Careers in Medicine Pushing the Frontiers—with Lives at Stake

21

Careers in the Agricultural Sciences Feeding and Clothing the Billions

39

CHAPTER FOUR

Careers in the Physical Sciences Searching the Earth and Its Oceans and Atmosphere—and Other Planets and Space 67

CHAPTER FIVE

Careers in the World of Invention Dreaming New Eurekas

CHAPTER SIX

CHAPTER SEVEN

Careers in Aeronautics Reaching for the Stars

99

117

Careers in Engineering Designing New Ways to Make Things Work 129

v

vi • CONTENTS

CHAPTER EIGHT

CHAPTER NINE

CHAPTER TEN

Careers in Computer Science and Mathematics Accommodating Infinite Numbers, Keys, and Links

159

Careers in Music Creating with Mathematics, Sound, and Soul

181

Careers in Art Bringing Thoughts and Feelings into Visible Form

199

Acknowledgments

T

he author gratefully acknowledges the numerous professionals who graciously provided information about their careers and agreed to be profiled in this book, as well as the following individuals:

• My dear husband, Larry, for his inspiration and vision • My children, Sherri, Deborah, and Bruce, for their encouragement and love

• Family and close friends—Adrienne, Marty, Mindi, Cary, Michele, Paul, Michele, Alison, Steve, Marci, Steve, Brian, Steven, Jesse, Colin, Andrew, Bertha, and Aunt Helen—for their kindness and support • Diana Catlin for her insights and input The author also wishes to thank Barbara Wood Donner for her assistance in revising this edition.

vii Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.


Introduction: Being Gifted Who Is a Genius, and What Does It Mean?

Imagination is more important than knowledge. —Albert Einstein

A

lbert Einstein was a remarkably ordinary-looking man, but his imagination was capable of tremendous—seemingly superhuman—leaps. His genius seemed intuitive and inspired, even to others in his field, and the discoveries that came of it were so advanced that they were beyond the comprehension of most other people. He became the twentieth century’s super athlete of the mind. The photo of him in cardigan sweater and old gray slacks, white-haired and a little disheveled, bicycling unsteadily on his two-wheeler on the campus of Princeton University, is familiar to the whole world. Even the photo of him sticking out his tongue is famous—and funny!

The Opportunities and Pitfalls of Being a Genius Genius has always intrigued us. People are often mystified by the intelligence that rises above the crowd, the creative person whose ix Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

x • INTRODUCTION

mind is always chock-full of ideas or the gifted child who daydreams the class time away and then articulates an astonishing insight or aces the tests anyway. Such phenomenal people exist among us everywhere. Geniuses have not always had an easy time of it in society because of their intelligence and their unorthodox ideas. Often in centuries past they were feared and persecuted because they were different or because their ideas were revolutionary, perhaps threatening the stability of the existing order. In some societies they became priests or shamans, where they had a recognizable role and perhaps a more comfortable life. Some tribal societies even today have traditional customs for the management of gifted or unusual people. An older and established teacher, or shaman, will take over the training of the gifted youngster and act as a guide, helping them to develop their talents and to get along in life without creating chaos or bringing down the wrath of their society upon their heads. Sometimes very gifted people, especially as children, are lonely for the companionship of others who can talk their language. Sometimes superior mental capacities are combined with special needs, such as severe eyesight problems, lack of physical coordination, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), autism, or Asperger’s syndrome. Sometimes as young children, geniuses and other gifted individuals are ostracized by their peers, and sometimes their own parents or teachers don’t know quite what to do with them. If you are an intellectually gifted person, this may sound familiar, and you may be thinking, “Sometimes we don’t even know what to do with ourselves!” Or, maybe you have been lucky and have found yourself in a good environment that has been able to offer you ample contact with peers, understanding and recognition from parents and teachers, and educational and social opportunities that allowed you to grow and develop.

INTRODUCTION • xi

In recent years, opportunities for gifted children have been improving, especially in countries that have developed special educational programs for gifted children and where education and information have become more readily available to those who are parenting and teaching gifted children. Many parents and teachers are able to recognize and welcome giftedness and are confident and prepared in providing the support and opportunities that gifted children need in order to develop. Broader educational opportunities are being created in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, as well as in other countries. Parents and teachers are becoming more sophisticated, and knowledge of the possibilities for the children’s growth and development is expanding. So-called gifted programs are available in many of the elementary and secondary school systems in America. Parent-teacher organizations, national associations, and youth groups have been formed to disseminate information and provide access to experts in special education. Information about private and/or special schools, competitions and awards, scholarships, and internship opportunities for gifted young people is becoming more widely accessible as the Internet brings knowledge of these opportunities to a broader audience. Lastly, the expansion of the frontiers in nearly every field—in medicine, the arts, physical science, aeronautics, and others—is rapidly opening greater opportunities for highly intelligent and gifted young people. Electronic communication via the Internet and the ease of world travel have begun to create the global village imagined nearly half a century ago by Marshall McLuhan. If you are very intelligent and well trained, have good physical and mental health, and have gained high levels of professional skills, the world is more open to you today than it has ever been. Studying with a research institute in Rome or a marine science post in Antarctica is no longer out of sight. If you want to do medical

xii • INTRODUCTION

research in the Amazon or study religion in Nepal, you can readily find out about the possibilities and—within a very few minutes—know the names and addresses of the persons in charge. The websites of the most powerful international think tanks and great universities and research centers on every continent are easily accessed by every bright young student with a hookup to the Internet. With the advantage of this continually expanding global communication, young people can learn about opportunities in every part of the world. The future holds increasing promise for the careers of the brightest and most creative. In the late nineteenth century, (Joseph) Ernest Renan, a famous French philosopher and scholar, commented on the tremendous advances in knowledge availability that had occurred over history until his time. His thoughtful observation reminded his peers how much they had to be thankful for, and it reminds us today, more than a hundred years later, of how much we have gained with the expansion of the Internet and the globalization of the intellectual and academic communities of the world. Renan said, “The simplest schoolboy is now familiar with truths for which Archimedes would have sacrificed his life.” The sweep of knowledge that is given into our grasp by electronic communication today would have taken Renan’s breath away. Can you imagine what Archimedes would have thought of it? The words genius or gifted often come to mind when we think of such people as painters, sculptors, musicians, scientists, engineers, computer scientists, mathematicians, astronauts, and doctors. Though there might not be total agreement on the definition of the word genius, most dictionaries define a genius as someone who has exceptionally great natural ability. Does this sound like you? While it is true that these special individuals may be found following a wide variety of career paths, some fields are often especially attractive to men and women of superior and pioneering intellect. The fields we have chosen to include in this book provide

INTRODUCTION • xiii

opportunity for original work of the most significant and satisfying nature: biological sciences, medicine, agricultural sciences, physical sciences, invention, aeronautics, engineering, computer science, mathematics, music, and art.

What Is Genius? Before we go on, it might be tantalizing to consider the question, “What is genius, anyway?” It’s not easy to define, but people have been trying for thousands of years. Dr. Alfred Barrios is a clinical psychologist, founder and director of the Self-Programmed Control Center of Los Angeles, and author of the book, Towards Greater Freedom and Happiness. He has said that the careers of people like Thomas A. Edison and Albert Einstein and other geniuses from the past show that there are twenty-four characteristics that most people we think of as geniuses have in common: drive, courage, devotion to goals, knowledge, honesty, optimism, ability to make good judgments, enthusiasm, willingness to take chances, dynamic energy, enterprise, persuasion, outgoingness, ability to communicate, patience, persuasion, perfectionism, humor, versatility, adaptability, curiosity, individualism, idealism and altruism, and imagination. Barrious also argues that anyone can develop these characteristics. These are all admirable traits, and surely any one person who has developed all of them is a very remarkable person in anyone’s eyes. In our societies, we notice these people for their talents, personality, character, and accomplishments. Sometimes we also reward them or memorialize them in order to remember what they have brought to the world. When we are the ones who are gifted, or our children or students are the ones who display special talents and genius, we hope to find the right pathways, education, and opportunities to put this genius to good work. Intelligence and aptitude tests, special education programs, scholarships and awards, internships and

xiv • INTRODUCTION

mentoring programs can all be used to help identify and develop genius in our society today. This book will provide some new information about fields of work, professional organizations involved with them, and additional sources of helpful information. No one tool is enough, because the career of a genius or specially gifted person is built, over the years, with ongoing hard work. As with every career, a degree of luck, trial, and error will enter in as well. We need to learn as much as we can and continue to learn as we make career decisions throughout life. Along the way, we can also learn from the thoughts and experiences of other gifted people. Presented below are some perspectives on genius from a number of people who can rightfully be considered to be a part of that special category. You’ll recognize many of these names, but if some are strangers to you, take a few moments and look them up on the Internet. Each of the lives—and the work—of these geniuses is unique, just as your own life and work will be. Hold that thought as you consider the question, “What is a genius, anyway?” Geniuses are like thunderstorms. They go against the wind, terrify people, cleanse the air. —Søren Kierkegaard

Genius is not so much about new ideas as it is about clarity of ideas. Two people can have the same idea, yet it will be genius in the one and mediocrity in the other. —Kevin Solway

Genius is the ability to act rightly without precedent—the power to do the right thing the first time. —Elbert Hubbard

The first and last thing required of genius is the love of truth. —Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe

INTRODUCTION • xv

The ability of someone to choose and arrange the details of their creative field guided by a vision is a major hallmark of a genius. —John Briggs

Neither a lofty degree of intelligence nor imagination nor both together go to the making of genius. Love, love, love, that is the soul of genius. —Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

A man of genius makes no mistakes. His errors are the portals of discovery. —James Joyce

Genius . . . is the capacity to see ten things where the ordinary man sees one. —Ezra Pound

Genius not only diagnoses the situation but supplies the answers. —Robert Graves

The principal mark of a genius is not perfection but originality, the opening of new frontiers. —Arthur Koestler

It is impossible that a genius—at least a literary genius—can ever be discovered by his intimates; they are so close to him that he is out of focus to them and they can’t get at his proportions; they can’t perceive that there is any considerable difference between his bulk and their own. —Mark Twain

xvi • INTRODUCTION

The world is always ready to receive talent with open arms. Very often it does not know what to do with genius. —Oliver Wendell Holmes

Genius is the ability to reduce the complicated to the simple. —C.W. Ceran

Genius is that energy which collects, combines, amplifies, and animates. —Samuel Johnson

These are the prerogatives of genius: to know without having learned; to draw just conclusions from unknown premises; to discern the soul of things. —Ambrose Bierce

Genius is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration. —Attributed to Thomas Edison

Great geniuses have the shortest biographies. Their cousins can tell you nothing about them. They lived in their writings, and so their house and street life was trivial and commonplace. —Ralph Waldo Emerson

A fine genius in his own country is like gold in the mine. —Benjamin Franklin

Geniuses are commonly believed to excel other men in their power of sustained attention. . . . But it is their genius making them attentive, not their attention making geniuses of them. —William James

INTRODUCTION • xvii

Genius is no snob. It does not run after titles or seek by preference the high circles of society. —Woodrow Wilson

Genius is not a single power. . . . It reasons, but it is not reasoning; it judges, but it is not judgment; it imagines, but it is not imagination; it feels deeply and fiercely, but it is not passion. It is neither, because it is all. —Edwin Percy Whipple


CHAPTER ONE

Careers in the Biological Sciences Working in the Surround of Living Things

It’s been 50 years since James Watson and Francis Crick disclosed the secrets of DNA in a modest one-page article in the scientific journal, Nature. By describing for the first time the famous double helix, and hinting at the breathtaking implications of their discovery, these once obscure scientists launched a worldwide surge in biological research and exploration—the results of which now promise to change nearly everything. —Tim Pawlenty, Governor of Minnesota

W

ith Watson and Crick’s announcement of the identification of DNA, “the strands of life,” the study of molecular and genetic biology was launched into a new era, and bold new research projects arose and were fostered by institutions all over the world. Even as recently as twenty years ago, no one could have foreseen all of the growth that has occurred and that has shaped the biological sciences community as we know it today. The advances in bioresearch and biotechnology have swept like wildfire, affecting research concepts and practices in laboratories in every country on Earth.

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2 • CAREERS FOR GENIUSES

The vast potential of genetic research precipitated this growth, but many other concurrent factors contributed to the tremendous increase in the scope and speed of research achievements, nearly all of them serendipitously supported and linked to the continually growing numbers of computers, software programs, and use of the Internet. Vastly increased speed of calculations for experiments and data management, accompanied by nearly instant global communication, have created astonishing change in the nature and proliferation of all scientific work. Compared to that of earlier generations, biological scientists today work in an expanded, dynamic, and global world of knowledge and information exchange. Whether working in indoor laboratories, on polar ice caps, or in deep-sea research, biologists today are immediately present and participating in an enormous, worldwide scientific community. Specialists in almost all of the biological areas are also interdisciplinary and have expanded their expertise to include related areas. For example, a tropical plant specialist may also have substantial expertise in tropical ecology and climate, and a marine biologist may also be an expert in deepsea geology. Advances in biological knowledge in all areas have been phenomenal. Biological discoveries are continually astonishing the world, from the structures and functions of smaller and smaller organisms to the web of life in the Amazon rain forest to the world’s atmospheric conditions to the vast organization of the findings of the Human Genome Project and the cloning of living animals to the discoveries in stem cell research, new vaccines, and new knowledge of viruses and other disease-causing organisms. Colleges and universities; local, state, and national governments; international research institutions; commercial companies; and independent individuals are investing time and money in biological and biotechnological projects and enterprises at a rate that has been unmatched in history.

CAREERS IN THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES • 3

The New Biotechnology: Genetic Modification The tremendous potential of biotechnology, or the science of genetically modifying living organisms to serve human needs, has captured worldwide attention. Golden Wheat, a genetically modified (GM) grain that includes added nutrients from another plant spliced into its genes, is both celebrated and the focus of international controversy. It has increased potential to serve human need, and it also presents an unknown—will its altered genetic makeup cause problems later on, problems that we cannot yet identify? Golden Wheat is in use in many countries, and more are planning to use it. In the meantime, some neighboring countries are objecting because the pollen from Golden Wheat is blowing on the wind, and their crops are being changed—whether they wish them to be modified or not. To experiment with living things is to experiment with forces sometimes beyond our knowledge or control, so controversy will accompany this work throughout the foreseeable future. Legal, political, and moral decisions must be made as this science progresses, and biotechnology is expected to create its own revolution. Economically progressive states such as Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, New York, Texas, and Washington have already fostered forward-looking programs and research centers. Nearly every one of the fifty states has begun to become involved. Canada has developed programs, as have Australia, China, England, and India. Most countries worldwide are becoming involved, as are most agricultural research institutions. Commercial exploitation of the possibilities for profit is pushing investment and product development by corporations, as well, although no great commercial profits have yet been realized.


Many new biotech products are becoming the patented property of the companies that have developed them and, as such, may be priced beyond the capacity of many farmers and consumers, and even countries, to benefit from them—thus creating new challenges, which must also be met.

If You Are Considering This Field The state of the art in biological science is breathtaking, and so are the challenges. They include solving enormous problems, such as global hunger and poverty, the need for more successful crops and ample food production, the need for potable water, the need for renewable energy sources, the threat of global warming and climate changes, the global spread of diseases like HIV/AIDS and bird flu, and the disposal of human and other animal wastes, including nuclear wastes and other hazardous substances. If you are a scientist by nature and a person who loves life and its complexity, who loves to search for answers and to create successful new methods and procedures for research, perhaps biological science could be your intellectual home. Let’s take a look at the basics and see if this will give you a sense of the day-to-day realities of this field.

HELP WANTED—BIOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH SCIENTIST More than a job—an opportunity. Our corporation seeks a research scientist who will drive development of our core technologies through design, execution, and analysis of experiments, and who will assist in development of intellectual property for the company. We are looking particularly for talented and driven individuals to join our research team in developing the next generation of genetic analysis tools. Based in Connecticut and founded on technology licensed from a nearby university,


our corporation seeks individuals who will share our vision of building a world-class organization that will significantly impact humanity through biotechnology.We offer competitive compensation along with excellent benefits, including a 401(k) plan, health insurance, health club membership, and opportunity for equity participation. Requires Ph.D. in molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, or related field. Postdoctoral and/or industry experience is an advantage but is not required. You must possess expert knowledge of molecular biology and cloning technology with a broad understanding of genetics, biochemistry, and instrumentation. Qualified candidates will possess excellent communication, laboratory, and computational skills. A proven research and publication record and strong analytical skills are required. For immediate consideration, please send your resume by mail, fax, or e-mail.

The World of Biological Scientists Biological scientists today are broadly knowledgeable and highly skilled in the life sciences as well as in mathematics, chemistry, computer sciences, and perhaps one or more other areas such as statistical analysis. As biologists, they are devoted to the study of living organisms and their relationships to their environments. Many biological scientists work in the area of research and development. Some conduct basic research to increase our knowledge of living organisms. Others, in applied research, use the knowledge provided by basic research to develop new medicines, increase crop yields, and improve the environment. Biological scientists who conduct research usually work in laboratories using electron microscopes, computers, thermal cyclers, and a wide variety of other equipment. Some of these professionals may conduct experiments on laboratory animals or


greenhouse plants, and many also perform a substantial amount of research outside of the laboratory. Plant biologists, or botanists, for example, may conduct research in tropical rain forests to determine what plants grow there, or ecologists may study how the life-forms of forest areas recover after a fire. Most biological scientists who come under the broad category of biologist can be further classified by the types of organisms they study or by the specific activities they perform.

Aquatic Biologists Aquatic biologists study plants and animals that live in water. Marine biologists study saltwater organisms, and limnologists study freshwater organisms. Marine biologists are sometimes erroneously called oceanographers, but oceanography usually refers more specifically to the study of the physical characteristics of oceans and the ocean floor.

Biochemists In recent years, the field of biochemistry has become one of the most dynamic in biological research. Biochemists study the chemical composition of living things. They explore the complex chemical combinations and reactions involved in metabolism, reproduction, growth, and heredity. Much of the work in biotechnology is done by biochemists and molecular biologists because this technology involves understanding the complex chemistry of life forms.

Botanists Plants and their environments are the subjects of botanical research. Some botanists study all aspects of plant life; others specialize in areas such as identification and classification of plants, the structure and function of plant parts, the biochemistry of plant processes, the causes and cures of plant diseases, and the ancestry of plants that can be traced in the fossil remains of vari-


ous geological periods. More information about plant scientists is presented in Chapter 3, which deals with careers in agriculture.

Microbiologists The growth and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, or fungi is studied by microbiologists, who also specialize in a number of unique areas. Medical microbiologists study the relationship between organisms and disease or the effects of antibiotics on microorganisms. Other microbiologists may specialize in environmental, food, agricultural, or industrial microbiology; virology (the study of viruses); or immunology (the study of mechanisms that fight infections). Many microbiologists also work in areas of biotechnology as they advance knowledge of cell reproduction and human disease.

Physiologists The life functions of plants and animals are the subject of physiological research, both in the whole organism and at the cellular or molecular level, and under normal and abnormal conditions. Physiologists may specialize in certain plant or animal functions, such as growth, reproduction, photosynthesis, respiration, or movement, or in the physiology of a certain area or system of the organism, such as the circulatory system or the skeletal structure.

Zoologists Zoologists study animal origins, physiology, behaviors, diseases, and life processes. Some research involves live animals in controlled or natural surroundings, while other research involves dissection of dead animal specimens to study their structures or the effects of various environmental elements on the animals. Zoologists are usually identified by the animal group they study; for instance, ornithologists focus on birds, mammalogists are interested in mammals, herpetologists focus on reptiles, and ichthyologists study fish.


Ecologists The relationship among and between organisms and their environments and the effects of influences such as population size, pollutants, rainfall, temperature, and altitude are studied by ecologists. Ecological science is of particular importance in dealing with the problem of global warming, and this field is growing rapidly.

Medical Scientists Biological scientists who do biomedical research are usually called medical scientists. Medical scientists working on basic research delve into the functioning of normal biological systems in order to understand the causes of and to discover treatment for diseases and other health problems. Medical scientists skilled in microbiology often work to identify changes in a cell, chromosome, or gene that signal the development of medical problems, such as in different types of cancer. After identifying specific structures or changes in organisms that provide clues to health problems, medical scientists may then work on the treatment of problems. A medical scientist involved in cancer research, for example, might try to formulate a combination of drugs that will lessen the effects of the disease. Medical research scientists who are also medical doctors might administer drugs to patients in clinical trials, monitor their reactions, and observe the results. Medical scientists who do not have medical degrees normally collaborate with medical doctors who deal directly with patients. The medical scientists might then return to the laboratory to examine the results and, if necessary, adjust dosage levels to reduce negative side effects or to induce better results. In addition to using basic research to develop treatments for health problems, medical scientists attempt to discover ways to prevent health problems from developing, such as identifying links between the body’s hormones and enzymes and the risk of development of obesity, diabetes, or alcoholism. More related


information is presented in Chapter 2, which deals with careers in medical science.

Biotechnologists The tremendous scope and fundamental nature of recent advances in basic biological knowledge, especially at the genetic and molecular levels, continue to spur the field of biotechnology. With this new knowledge and technology, biological and medical scientists are manipulating the genetic material of animals and plants, attempting to make organisms more productive or disease resistant. Some of the earliest applications of this technology occurred in medical and pharmaceutical areas. Many substances not previously available in large quantities are now beginning to be produced by biotechnological means, and some may be useful in treating cancer and other diseases. Advances in biotechnology have opened up research opportunities in almost all areas of biology, including new and potentially highly profitable commercial applications in agriculture and the food and chemical industries.

Education and Training Biological scientists who intend to teach at the college level, perform independent research, or serve as administrators are generally required to earn doctoral degrees. Usually master’s degrees are sufficient for some jobs in applied research and for jobs in management, inspection, sales, and service. Bachelor’s degrees will suffice for some nonresearch jobs. Outstanding graduates with bachelor’s degrees are sometimes able to work in laboratory environments on their own projects, or they may find beginning work as research assistants. Others become biological technicians, medical laboratory technologists, or (with courses in education) high school biology teachers. Many with bachelor’s degrees in biology enter medical, dental, veterinary, or other health profession schools.


Most colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degrees in biological science, and many offer advanced degrees. Curricula for advanced degrees often emphasize a subfield such as microbiology or botany, but not all universities offer all curricula. Advanced degree programs include classroom and fieldwork, laboratory research, and a thesis or dissertation. Biological scientists who have advanced degrees often take temporary postdoctoral research positions that provide specialized research experience. In private industry, some biological scientists may become managers or administrators; others leave biology for nontechnical managerial, administrative, or sales jobs. A doctorate in a biological science is the minimum education required for prospective medical scientists because the work of medical scientists is almost entirely research oriented. This degree qualifies one to do research on basic life processes or on particular medical problems or diseases and to analyze and interpret the results of experiments on patients. Medical scientists who administer drug or gene therapy to human patients, or who otherwise interact medically with patients such as in diagnosis or treatment of disease or prescribing medications, must have a medical degree. It is particularly helpful for medical research scientists to earn both doctoral and medical degrees. Medical scientists are usually expected to spend several years in postdoctoral positions before they are offered permanent jobs. Postdoctoral work provides valuable laboratory experience, including background in specific processes and techniques (such as gene splicing) that is transferable to other research projects later on. In some institutions, the postdoctoral position may lead to a permanent position.

Employment Outlook According to the United States Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), employment for biological scientists is


expected to grow as fast as the average for all employment through 2014, with biotechnology driving investment and development. Cuts in federal spending projected in the national budget in January 2007 indicate slowing in spending for education and research overall, but nearly all of the fifty states have instituted biotechnology initiatives of their own. In Canada, major biotechnology initiatives have also begun, and Africa, Asia, Australia, and Europe have done the same. The BLS warns that an economic downturn could affect investment in new or risky projects and even the extension or renewal of existing projects. Despite prospects of average job growth from now through 2014, biological and medical scientists can expect to face considerable competition for coveted basic research positions. More biological scientists will be needed to determine the environmental impact of industry and government actions and to prevent or correct environmental problems. Expected expansion in research related to health issues such as AIDS, cancer, diabetes, and Alzheimer’s disease should also result in growth.

Earnings The National Association of Colleges and Employers reported an average beginning salary for recent graduates with bachelor’s degrees in the biological and life sciences of $31,258 in 2005. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported the median annual earnings of biochemists and biophysicists at $68,950 in May of 2004, with the lowest 10 percent earning less than $38,710 and the highest 10 percent earning more than $110,660. Median earnings for other specialists were $54,840 for microbiologists and $50,330 for zoologists and wildlife biologists. The average 2005 salary for general biologists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions in the federal government was reported at $69,908. Specialists in microbiology received an average salary of $80,798; ecologists, $72,021; physiologists,


$93,208; geneticists, $85,170; zoologists, $101,601; and botanists, $62,207.

Professional Lives The following firsthand accounts provide glimpses of the day-today realities of careers in the biological sciences.

Amadeo J. Pesce, Ph.D. Dr. Amadeo J. Pesce knew early on that he was interested in medical research, so that’s where he was focused. He earned his undergraduate degree at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Then he attended Brandeis University for his graduate degree in biochemistry. His postdoctoral scholarship was at the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana. He also has board certification from the American Board for Clinical Chemistry, which he thought was very important. Certification is given to those who have the proper scientific background, five years of experience in the field, and successful completion of an examination. Dr. Pesce is now professor of pathology, director of the toxicology laboratory, and professor of experimental medicine at the University of Cincinnati Hospital. In most cases Dr. Pesce works as part of a team of researchers. The composition of the team may change, depending on the project. Participants may include postdoctoral fellows, part-time or full-time technologists, pathologists, mathematicians, psychiatrists, substance-abuse counselors, and other health and scientific professionals. Dr. Pesce is usually involved in projects at the same time. One project was to help pace patients by monitoring the effectiveness of the drug called AZT, which was being used in the treatment of AIDS. His team developed the technology to measure the concentration of drugs inside the cell and worked very closely with the clinician and the clinical trials that were conducted. Another project involved the study of developing agents to help combat sub-


stance abuse by reducing craving and other aspects that make people want to continue to use drugs. In this project, the team worked with a group of psychiatrists and substance-abuse counselors who provided medical specimens from the patients for the researchers to monitor. Dr. Pesce says, “In addition to the hours spent in the laboratory, a considerable portion of my time is spent thinking and writing. One must think things through and be able to communicate them effectively and efficiently in order for the research to have meaning. As I always tell my students, if it’s not written down, it was never done.” As an administrator, Dr. Pesce has other responsibilities, namely, supervising a postdoctoral fellow and handling personnel issues and administrative problems. At this point in his life, he finds that he is able to accomplish this and keep fairly regular working hours. But when he was younger, he says, he worked from seven in the morning until ten at night, five days a week, and the other two days, he worked eight to ten hours a day. He notes that this was not required, but he had decided to be one of the four most recognized authorities in the field. Dr. Pesce says that he set upon a path of learning all he could and then proceeded to put out a series of eighteen books about the field, which required an immense amount of work. He says jokingly, “I tell everyone that I did this to become rich and famous (my children always told me to skip the fame). But as it turns out, all I got was the fame. However, even though I didn’t make the money I had hoped for, it has still been very rewarding. Fans as far away as Australia have asked me to sign their copies of my books.” Dr. Pesce finds that his career has many other rewards. First and foremost is the accomplishment of developing a theory and finding supporting data. After all, he notes that projects are funded by grants for which you must show results by a certain date in order for funding to continue. “The worst part of the job is when you write a paper and it gets rejected by your peers,” he says, “and you


think they’re wrong, and in fact you know they’re wrong!” Overall, he feels that he has done some pioneering work for people that has proved to be quite fruitful and rewarding. He gives an example regarding transplant patients. Some of the drugs used to treat these patients are very expensive, he says, and he and his team were able to devise a way of cutting the cost of some of those drugs from about $6,000 a year to about $1,200. This means that Third World countries can actually afford the drug for their transplant patients. As he notes, “That’s quite an improvement! “To be successful in this career,” he adds, “it helps to have an understanding partner, as I did. And since it is so important to be able to interact with people, exchange ideas, and get them to help with particular areas of your project, you must have the ability to get along with all kinds of people. You have to be aware of what issues others have and be able to accommodate them so they’ll accommodate you in return. I have found that this is the proper approach to a successful collaboration. It’s not unlike working with others on a book or any other project in which a number of people need to extend themselves in order to fulfill a common goal.”

Dr. H. Graham Purchase Dr. H. Graham Purchase was born in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), began his education in Kenya, and received his university training in South Africa. He is now a veterinary medical researcher and the director of veterinary medical research at Mississippi State University. His father, who was also a veterinarian who worked in research, always said that since animals feed on plants, it is wise to learn about the plant world before going to veterinary school. So Dr. Purchase went to college when he was sixteen and earned a bachelor’s degree in botany. Following this, he completed his veterinary degree in South Africa, practiced for two years, and then fulfilled his dream of coming to the United States to do research.


While employed in the United States, he earned master’s and doctoral degrees at Michigan State University, majoring in microbiology and public health. He says that although it took eight years to complete the doctorate, it was well worth it. He began his research in a poultry laboratory in East Lansing, Michigan, and after a few years, met an American girl, married her, and decided to become a citizen of the United States. He worked at the poultry research laboratory, performing research on tumor viruses of poultry species, for about thirteen years. He feels that he was definitely in the right place at the right time, because the laboratory discovered the cause of one of the most economically devastating poultry diseases of the world, a form of cancer known as Market’s disease. The laboratory created a vaccine that would prevent the disease. The first commercially applicable cancer vaccine ever developed, it was initially patented and used extensively in the United States and is now used worldwide. Dr. Purchase says that this period was the most exciting and rewarding of his life. As a “bench” or laboratory researcher, he examined the cultures of cells in which the disease-causing viruses or the vaccine that prevented the disease were grown. He would regularly visited the necropsy room to find birds that had died in the experiments. He would then examine those birds to discover what they died from to verify that the death was not unrelated to the experiment. The rest of the day usually involved writing manuscripts and grant proposals. Often, he says, he took work home with him because he couldn’t get it all done during the workday. After thirteen years of research, Dr. Purchase moved into administration and was offered a job in Washington, D.C. He spent fourteen years there in nine different jobs in research administration. The research was in a variety of areas: plant, animal, human nutrition, family economics, soil, and water. But he continued to have a great interest in veterinary research and, when the opportunity presented itself at Mississippi State’s College of


Veterinary Medicine, he took it. Mississippi State now focuses its research on the prime commodities of Mississippi, which include one of the state’s big income producers—catfish—and its number one product—poultry. “As a research administrator, a typical day here involves interacting with many individuals one-on-one,” says Dr. Purchase. He handles the budget of the college as well as signing budget forms and various commitment forms, such as those allowing individuals to travel, enabling people to buy new equipment, or permitting staff to be hired. He also reviews manuscripts and proposals to make sure that they’re suitable. The college is accredited by the American Association for the Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care, which, he notes, has very high standards of review for all experiments on animals. Every single experiment that involves animals therefore has to be reviewed by an Animal Care and Use committee to make sure that the animals are not harmed unnecessarily. The accreditation also involves making sure that the facilities are maintained, so that is another area of concern for him. “A good part of my day is devoted to meetings with my superiors to inform them about how the research projects are progressing,” he says. He frequently escorts visitors through the research facilities. He prepares reports on the research that the college is doing—most of which, he says, are lay reports for general use for administrators and legislators. The actual writing of the research itself, he notes, is done by the faculty. Their system is set up so that a designated faculty member writes the proposals, then the manuscripts are sent out for peer review to make sure that the conclusions are supported by the data. He orchestrates that review process. At Mississippi State, there are many levels of researchers working. Generally speaking, Dr. Purchase says, the principal investigators, or leaders (those who actually design the experiments), have doctoral credentials. But there are also a number of technicians, some with master’s degrees, others with bachelor’s degrees, as well


as animal caretakers and animal technicians. Some of them have technician degrees; others are high school graduates. In addition, a number of students working toward bachelor’s degrees do laboratory cleanup to gain some experience in the field. Then there are graduate students and individuals who already have their bachelor’s degrees who are going on to get their master’s or doctoral degrees. He notes that those students spend a good deal of the time with their major professors learning how to conduct experiments and do research, so that when they graduate they’ll know how to perform these tasks independently. Dr. Purchase states, “If your grades are good, if you perform well during examinations, and if you can become an expert in your area, research is a wonderful career. It’s challenging and very innovative. I enjoy the ability to develop something and to find out new things. But it’s very rigorous, too.” He adds that most researchers are not at work from nine to five. They arrive early in the morning, frequently miss their lunch breaks, and take work home at night or come in at night and on weekends to keep their work going. He concludes, “Research means pushing forward the frontiers of science and, to succeed, you must be trained, prepared, and dedicated to putting in the necessary hours and effort.”

For More Information For information on biology and related education, scholarships and awards, mentoring, and careers, contact the professional societies and associations listed below. National Academy of Sciences 500 Fifth Street NW Washington, DC 20001 www.national-academies.org


Biochemistry and Molecular Biology American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 9650 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20814 www.asbmb.org

Biological Sciences American Institute of Biological Sciences 1444 I Street NW, Suite 200 Washington, DC 20005 www.aibs.org

Biotechnology Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO) 1201 Maryland Avenue SW, Suite 900 Washington, DC 20024 www.bio.org

Botany Botanical Society of America PO Box 299 St. Louis, MO 63166 www.botany.org

Microbiology American Society for Microbiology 1752 N Street NW Washington, DC 20036 www.asm.org

Physiology American Physiological Society 9650 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20814 www.the-aps.org


Information About Federal Jobs Information on applying for a job with the federal government can be obtained from the U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for the local number. Additional information can be found online at the official OPM website: www.usajobs.opm.gov. Information on federal job opportunities is also available from the local office of your state employment service.


CHAPTER TWO

Careers in Medicine Pushing the Frontiers— with Lives at Stake

[Those] who are occupied in the restoration of health to others, by the joint exertion of skill and humanity, are above all the great of the earth. They even partake of divinity, since to preserve and renew is almost as noble as to create. —Voltaire (1694–1778), French philosopher, writer, and historian

A

medical career—whether in medical research or in medical practice—is one of the oldest and most honored professions on Earth. Of all careers, it is one of those that call most compellingly to people of idealism who want to serve humanity. In all times and cultures, the healer—the shaman, the curandera, the alchemist, the medicine man, or the physician—has had power in the community and has been viewed with respect and hope. It is no accident that many families have longed to have their children become doctors or that the brightest students have been encouraged by their teachers and professors to consider this path. Perhaps in no other profession do we wish to have geniuses congregate more than in the field of medicine. No other profession has such an immediate and intimate effect on us throughout our physical lives than that of medicine. Life itself is often in a doctor’s hands, and we each hope that our own doctor is truly a genius. Similarly, medical researchers hold the key to whether or



not life-saving medications, procedures, or devices become available to the world. The medical professions provide an intensely human destiny, worthy of consideration by the gifted person who is both a scientist and a humanist by nature. Physicians are urgently needed in the world today for major medical problems such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, the resurgence of tuberculosis (TB), an epidemic of diabetes, diseases of malnutrition in many areas—including some in the United States—and myriad opportunistic diseases that relentlessly pursue those whose immune systems are already compromised. There are limitless opportunities to serve. Traditionally, the opportunity to become a doctor has depended upon intelligence, educational background, ability to afford medical school and the long years of study and training, and whether the student could compete successfully to become one of the limited numbers accepted into medical schools. In some places, personal minority factors such as gender, race, or ethnicity have kept some bright and talented people out of medical schools, but in recent decades in the United States, Canada, England, and many other countries, these barriers have been greatly reduced. Equal opportunity laws and changes in the majority societies have opened the gates more widely to a diversity of intelligent and promising medical students. Another negative factor, however, is limiting the number of doctors in America and elsewhere. That factor is, simply, lack of money. We’re not talking about money for medical school tuition here, but money for medical liability insurance, and enough money to be able to stay in the profession over the long haul. It is serious enough that a doctor shortage exists in many parts of the country. This development is relatively new. As recently as the 1980s, most doctors in America were able to make a very good income. Their services were, and are, very highly valued, but several things have happened since that time. The insurance industry has become less regulated by laws and is now able to charge much

CAREERS IN MEDICINE • 23

higher fees and to set many of their own rules regarding what they will and will not pay when claims are made. The federal government’s rules for Medicare and Medicaid have changed and have become more stringent about the amounts that they will pay for various medical services and procedures. Some doctors now refuse to take Medicare and Medicaid patients, and many senior and disabled citizens have, therefore, some difficulty in finding doctors. In addition, different kinds of medical costs, such as medical equipment, office and laboratory services, and voluminous record-keeping requirements, have skyrocketed. Today, many doctors are facing difficult financial situations. Instead of becoming wealthy, many doctors are having to ask themselves, “Can I afford to continue in medical practice?” A variety of solutions to these financial challenges are being tried. Group practice helps to control costs, and many doctors are moving into this kind of arrangement. Some doctors’ groups have incorporated and bought the hospitals in which they do most of their work. Some doctors have given up their medical practices in states where the insurance industry is least regulated and have moved to nearby states where their malpractice insurance is more affordable. This has happened particularly in certain specializations, such as obstetrical-gynecological practices, in part because they are considered by the insurance industry to be at high risk for lawsuits, so their liability insurance rates are extremely high, some in excess of $200,000 per year. As you consider the possibility of a medical career, you will want to keep up with the developments in the field by regularly reading a variety of the most important professional publications. Professional medical associations are listed at the end of this chapter to provide sources for regular newsletters and other professional publications that are accessible by Internet and in book form. Each association also supplies ongoing news of employment trends and publishes notices and ads announcing actual job openings in the United States and abroad.


HELP WANTED—EXPERIENCED PHYSICIANS Our urban medical group is seeking a highly gifted, knowledgeable, compassionate, and experienced pediatrician to bring additional support and strength to our outstanding team of eight doctors. We work with a major metropolitan hospital in state-of-the-art surroundings and serve a richly varied multiethnic patient population in northern Midwest. Our team includes nationally known specialists in pulmonary medicine, cardiology, and pediatric orthopedics. A colleague with a strong record and strength in epidemiology or acute and chronic disease management would be especially welcome. Please respond immediately. A family physician is needed in our traditional inpatient/outpatient practice with two other physicians in a ninety-sixbed hospital. Prefer at least three to five years of experience in small to midsize urban hospital setting. We offer a beginning salary of $145K with benefits and annual bonus. Located in midwestern city, population 150,000. Experienced primary care physician needed for busy New England private practice; join one other physician; board certification required; excellent starting salary; partnership considered after two years. Small formerly industrial city location; three hospitals—one parochial, one municipal, one private—serve partly mountainous rural tricounty area. County family clinic needs board-certified family practice medical doctor with solid obstetric/gynecological and pediatric experience, multilingual Spanish/English, for multicultural practice in south Texas. Must be dedicated, congenial, calm, patient, and sturdy. Work with seven-member staff, heavy involvement with community, family, and patient health education. Start date and salary to be determined.


Leading major medical center in Southern California needs outstanding family physician with solid experience and teaching interests.Will be involved in teaching and overseeing hospital residents; work with seven other attending physicians. Highly desirable living area with university hospitals and research facilities. Competitive salary with benefits package, as well as continuing education and other professional support.

Welcome to the World of Medicine Medical careers include those in medical research or in medical practice. There are two basic types of physicians—the M.D., or doctor of medicine, and the D.O., or doctor of osteopathic medicine. M.D.s are also known as allopathic physicians. While M.D.s and D.O.s may use all accepted methods of treatment, D.O.s put special emphasis on holistic care, preventative medicine, and the body’s musculoskeletal system. Primary care physicians, including those who focus on general and family medicine, general internal medicine, or general pediatrics, account for about one-third of all M.D.s. When we get sick (or simply want to stay well), we consult these professionals first. Thus, primary care physicians tend to see the same patients over and over again, often for many years. Over time, the primary care physician may become a mainstay for individual patients and families, acting as a counselor and friend in addition to caring for physical health. Family physicians emphasize comprehensive health care for patients of all ages and for the family as a whole. General internists provide care mainly for adults who have a wide range of problems associated with the body’s organs. General pediatricians focus on children’s health. When necessary, primary care physicians refer patients to specialists, who are experts in a variety of medical areas such as


neurology, obstetrics and gynecology, orthopedics, or cardiology. D.O.s are more likely to be primary care providers than allopathic physicians, although they can be found in all specialties.

Specialists The American Medical Association reported that 59.2 percent of doctors specialized in areas other than primary care medicine. The following shows the breakdown of specialties among all physicians in 2003 (some physicians have more than one specialty): SPECIALIZATION Primary care Internal medicine Family medicine/general practice Pediatrics Obstetrics and gynecology Specialties Surgical specialties, selected Anesthesiology Psychiatry All other specialties

PERCENT 40.8 15.1 12.8 7.6 5.3 59.2 14.6 5.4 5.4 33.9

On the Job The working life of a physician is often difficult. Doctors are required to work long days with irregular hours. They often travel from their private offices to the hospitals with which they are affiliated in order to treat their patients. They are often called upon for emergency situations at any time of day or night. When they are not seeing patients, they may spend a good part of their time advising patients who call with various medical concerns and complaints. Most of the daily demands upon a doctor are impor-


tant ones, and they are often required to make life-or-death decisions, sometimes at a moment’s notice.

Work Environments Most doctors—about 65 percent—work out of an office (including HMOs and clinics), and another 25 percent are employed by hospitals. Most of the remaining doctors practice in medical services that are a part of the federal government, many in the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) hospitals and clinics and in the Public Health Service of the Department of Health and Human Services. A few doctors work in remote rural areas, and some—especially in developing or unstable countries—work in highly dangerous situations, including natural disasters and epidemics, poverty, crime, and war zones, for such agencies as the Red Cross, Red Crescent, and Doctors Without Borders/Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF), as well as religious missionary and other nonprofit humanitarian organizations and NGOs (nongovernment organizations). In the most hard-hit areas of civil war, genocide, poverty, and disease, medical care is desperately needed. Dr. Jean-Herve Bradol, president of the French chapter of MSF, said of one area, “There is so little care available that the only responsible ethical position is to take action.” Humanitarian medical organizations welcome volunteers, and internships are also available with most of them. In the United States, medical services are not uniformly available in all areas of the country. The northeastern and far-western states have the highest ratio of physicians to population; the south central states have the lowest ratio. In areas of low income levels, there are serious doctor shortages. Osteopaths (D.O.s) are more likely than M.D.s to practice in small cities and towns and in rural areas. More M.D.s tend to locate in urban areas, close to hospital and educational centers. Osteopathic physicians are found most often in states that have osteopathic schools and hospitals. In one survey, about half were


found to be practicing in six states: Florida, Michigan, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Texas.

Education and Training Many years of formal study are required to become a doctor. This usually includes four years of undergraduate school, four years of medical school, and three to eight years of internship and residency, depending on the medical specialty selected. Some medical schools offer a combined undergraduate and medical school program that lasts six years instead of the usual eight. In undergraduate school, the premedical or “premed” curriculum includes work in physics, biology, mathematics, English, organic and inorganic chemistry, social sciences, and humanities. In addition, premed students often volunteer at local medical facilities to gain valuable practical experience.

Medical School The minimum educational requirement for entry to a medical or osteopathic school is three years of college, and most applicants have at least a bachelor’s degree. In fact, many have advanced degrees. Getting accepted to a medical school is no easy task. There are many qualified candidates, so competition is keen. Medical schools require applicants to submit transcripts, scores from the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), and letters of recommendation. They also take into account such elements as leadership qualities, strength of character, personality, and participation in extracurricular and volunteer activities. Most schools also require applicants to have an interview with a member of the admissions committee. The first two years of medical school are spent primarily in laboratories and classrooms, taking courses in anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, psychology, microbiology, pathology, medical ethics, and laws governing medicine. The prospective physicians also learn to take medical histories, exam-


ine patients, and diagnose illnesses, working under the supervision of experienced physicians. During their last two years, students also work with patients under the supervision of experienced physicians in hospitals and clinics. Through rotations in internal medicine, family medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, psychiatry, and surgery, they gain a breadth of experience in the diagnosis and treatment of illness.

Residencies Upon graduation from medical school, most M.D.s enter a residency in a specialty that takes the form of paid, on-the-job training. This is usually in a hospital. After graduating, most D.O.s serve a twelve-month rotating internship, then enter a residency that may last from two to six years. Residencies in managed-care facilities may offer an advantage for the experience they provide with this increasingly common type of medical practice.

Licensing Doctors in all fifty states, plus the District of Columbia and the U.S. territories, must meet mandatory licensing requirements before being allowed to practice medicine. To be licensed, physicians must graduate from an accredited medical school, pass a licensing examination, and complete one to seven years of graduate medical education. Although physicians licensed in one state can usually get a license to practice in another without further examination, some states limit reciprocity. Graduates of foreign medical schools can qualify for most state licenses after passing an examination and completing a residency in a U.S. hospital.

Board Certifications Physicians who wish to specialize are required to engage in additional training. M.D.s and D.O.s may spend up to an additional seven years seeking board certification in a specialty. A final


examination immediately after residency, or after one or two years of practice, is also necessary for board certification by the American Board of Medical Specialists (ABMS) or the American Osteopathic Association (AOA). There are twenty-four specialty boards dealing with the various specializations, from allergy and immunology to urology. For certification in a subspecialty, such as pediatric urology, for example, physicians usually need another one to two years of residency.

Personal Qualifications Individuals who wish to become physicians must have a deep and honest desire to serve patients, must be self-motivated, and must be able to survive the pressures and long hours of medical education and practice. Physicians must also have a good bedside manner that is wise and both kind and firm. They must have physical and emotional stability and endurance and the ability to make difficult decisions in emergencies. They must be dedicated and willing to continue to study and keep abreast of new information and knowledge all of their working lives. Becoming a doctor is financially draining and, although the cost of education has continually increased, financial assistance has not. More than 85 percent of all medical students must borrow money to cover their expenses, so they often start their professional lives deeply in debt and must work for years to pay back the loans. In the first years of their medical practice, many young doctors are like indentured servants to their own careers.

Employment Outlook As of 2005, there were slightly more than 560,000 physicians and surgeons in the United States, and approximately one out of seven were self-employed, or in private practice. About 60 percent of salaried physicians and surgeons were employed in the practices of other physicians, and 16 percent were employed by private hospi-


tals. Others were the employees of clinics, outpatient care centers, hospitals, health services, and institutions of the federal, state, or local governments, including colleges and universities, as well as private colleges, universities, and professional schools. Group practice is becoming increasingly important as a means of dealing with increasing financial and time pressures caused by the rising costs of liability and malpractice insurance, equipment and supplies, employees such as nurses and assistants, office space and utilities, and the tremendous volume of paperwork and communication required for dealing with insurance companies, government agencies, and other third-party payment institutions. Physicians can rarely afford to go into private practice when they complete their residencies and internships today. More than 85 percent have had to borrow large sums to complete medical school and will have to pay back the loans. Most new physicians will go to work for other physicians in a group practice or for a hospital or other institution where they will have a reliable income for the foreseeable future. Being able to afford a practice of their own may be several more years in the future.

Job Growth According to the U.S. Department of Labor, opportunities for physicians in research or in medical practice are expected to grow slightly more than the average for all occupations through the year 2014 due to continued expansion of the health care industry. The aging of the U.S. population, along with availability of increasingly complex technologies, methods, and medications to cure disease, heal disabilities, and prolong life, is expected to fuel growth in this field well into the foreseeable future. The possibility of higher costs for medical care may cause some consumers to have to go without, but this may cause increased political pressure for solutions to the American health care system, and both of these conditions may cause changes in the job market for physicians in medical practice and in medical research.


The American Medical Association has warned of doctor shortages escalating in some specialties and geographic areas, and health reforms are expected to be widely discussed and instituted in local, state, and federal governing bodies during the next decade. The Department of Labor has also warned that, because physician training takes so long and employment change happens gradually, experienced physicians may, in the short term, need to work longer hours, delay retirement, or take measures to increase productivity, such as using more support staff to provide services, in order to meet growing medical needs.

Earnings Doctors’ earnings are still quite high. Median annual income, after expenses, for all physicians in 2005 was about $160,000, according to the American Medical Association. The income of doctors in various specializations, however, varies quite a bit. According to the Medical Group Management Association’s Physician Compensation and Production Survey, the median compensation in 2004, by specialty, for doctors with more than two years of experience, was as shown below. The figures include bonuses and other nonwage compensation, such as grants and awards. Anesthesiologists Family physicians (general) Internists (general) Obstetricians/gynecologists (general) Pediatricians (general) Surgeons (general)

$321,686 $156,010 $166,420 $247,348 $161,331 $282,504

Medical residents earn much lower salaries and, according to the Association of American Medical Colleges, the average stipend for medical residents ranged from $40,788 for interns to about $44,491 for third-year residents in 2005.


Doctors in private practice usually have higher incomes than those who are employed in groups or by institutions. Selfemployed physicians must provide their own medical insurance and retirement programs and often have high overhead and other expenses to consider.

Professional Lives The following personal accounts of a brilliant medical researcher and a doctor shed light on this challenging and rewarding career.

Harold E. Yarmus Dr. Harold Yarmus, with his long-time colleague Dr. J. Michael Bishop, became world famous for their work in the development of a new theory of the origin of cancer, which holds that the disease occurs as a result of mutations of our own genes. They won a Nobel Prize in physiology/medicine in 1989 for the discovery of the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes. Yarmus and Bishop discovered that genes in cancer-causing retroviruses are closely related to the genes in normal, noncancerous cells in many organisms. These normal forms of cellular genes have existed for more than a billion years of animal evolution and are involved in normal processes of cell division and differentiation, such as in the development of undifferentiated epithelial cells into taste bud cells. In some situations, however, such as during cell division or the rearrangement of chromosomes or affected by harmful effects of pollution or viruses, these genes can begin to mutate and will cause the cell to keep on dividing indefinitely, becoming a cancerous growth. Because of the implications of their discovery, subsequent cancer research has been able to build upon the awareness that cancer-causing genes in cells are mutations of the cells’ normal genes and that a genetic basis is also involved in cancer development.


Harold Yarmus was born in Oceanside, New York, in 1939. He grew up loving literature and was an English major at Amherst College and later at Harvard. He subsequently earned his M.D. at Columbia University’s College of Physicians and Surgeons. He was influenced by the work of Jacques Monod and François Jacob in gene control in bacteria and set his course in medical research. In 1970, Dr. Yarmus began working with Dr. Bishop at the University of California at San Francisco. Over a decade their research demonstrated that genes within normal cells carried the potential to develop cancerous cells. Yarmus also contributed to the research on the retrovirus that was causing AIDS. In 1993, Dr. Yarmus was nominated by President Clinton to become Director of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and in 1999 he became president and director of the Memorial SloanKettering Cancer Center in New York.

Lawrence C. Newman, M.D. Dr. Lawrence Newman is the director of the Headache Institute at St. Luke’s Roosevelt Hospital Center in New York. He received his B.A. from Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts, his M.A. in biology in 1979, and his M.D. from the Universidad Autonoma de Guadalajara, Mexico, in 1983. He did his residency in internal medicine in Elmhurst Hospital Center in Queens, New York; a residency in neurology at Albert Einstein College of Medicine in the Bronx, New York; served as chief resident in neurology at Albert Einstein College; and received a Headache Fellowship at Montefiore Medical Center in the Bronx. His childhood pediatrician made a deep impression on him, and he spent his college summers doing research in the pediatrician’s lab. His great uncle was also an inspiration. Dr. Newman says that his uncle “was, and probably still is, the best physician I have ever met. He was a fantastic diagnostician, had a wonderful bedside manner, and was a true gentleman. . . . One of my biggest thrills was having my uncle attend one of my lectures and remark that he actually learned something!”


Dr. Newman at first thought that he was going to be a pediatrician. Throughout medical school, he maintained that belief, but during his training, he found that he had a very hard time treating children who were very ill. Many nights he would come home and cry, and he realized he could not do this for the rest of his life. He discovered that the field of neurology was fascinating. The different parts of the nervous system—the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves—made up a complicated network; determining where a problem lay was like figuring out a puzzle. He found that he could tell exactly what part of the nervous system was injured by closely examining the patient. He also found that headaches held a special fascination for him. Patients with headaches were usually young and otherwise totally healthy. Nonetheless, their lives had been completely disrupted by these painful attacks, as had the lives of those around them—their families, friends, neighbors, and coworkers. He felt that most headache patients were not being properly treated by their physicians and were often misunderstood and left to suffer needlessly. Trying to figure out what type of headache the patient had was a challenge that he enjoyed. Since there are approximately three hundred medical conditions for which headache is a symptom, the study of headaches can be challenging. For Dr. Newman, trying to determine the correct treatment—not everything works for everybody with the same condition—is an intriguing aspect of the profession, but the greatest part is helping to end suffering and get people back to their lives. His job has many different parts, and he finds that some are more enjoyable than others. The parts he enjoys most involve taking care of patients. He sees patients in his office four days a week from ten in the morning until five in the afternoon. He takes a history and then asks them a lot of questions about their headaches and their health. Then he examines them and sets up a treatment plan to help them as much as possible to prevent the attacks and also to treat attacks when they occur. He has treatment rooms in


his office to take care of patients who have developed pain at home and are not getting relief from the medications they are taking. He is able to treat them in the office with injectable medications or can even set up an intravenous treatment for them there. Dr. Newman is involved with clinical trials of new medications and is able to try promising new medications before they are approved for national use. The clinical trials help to determine whether the medications are effective and whether they are safe. He frequently lectures to medical students, doctors in training, and practicing doctors about the newest and best ways to treat patients with headaches. He has written for books and journals and has presented the findings of his work at large medical conferences throughout the world. Sometimes the work is stressful—especially on the days when the patients aren’t doing well. There are a lot of telephone calls to answer, even after the office closes, because people can get sick at any time—daytime, nighttime, even holidays. Although he doesn’t enjoy the very long hours that often do not leave enough time to spend with his family, there is no job he would rather do, and he has never had any regrets. Dr. Newman says, “The hours are long, the work is stressful, and the training needed to be a doctor takes many years—four years of college, four years of medical school, and then five years of training—but I would do it all again. Being a physician is everything I imagined it would be when I was a kid, looking up to my pediatrician and my uncle.” His advice to others who want to go into medicine is not to give up. “Always try new avenues,” he says. “Because so many people were trying to get into medical school when I applied, it was very difficult. So I went out of the country. Many of my friends gave up and went into business. That would definitely have been a mistake for me. So just keep going!”


For More Information American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine 5550 Friendship Boulevard, Suite 310 Chevy Chase, MD 20815 www.aacom.org Association of American Medical Colleges 2450 N Street NW Washington, DC 20037 www.aamc.org American Academy of Pediatrics 141 Northwest Point Boulevard Elk Grove Village, IL 60007 www.aap.org American Board of Medical Specialties 1007 Church Street, Suite 404 Evanston, IL 60201 www.abms.org American College of Physicians 630 Race Street Philadelphia, PA 19106 www.acponline.org American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists 409 Twelfth Street SW PO Box 96920 Washington, DC 20090 www.acog.org


American College of Surgeons Division of Education 633 North Saint Clair Street Chicago, IL 60611 www.facs.org American Medical Association 515 North State Street Chicago, IL 60610 www.ama-assn.org American Osteopathic Association 142 East Ontario Street Chicago, IL 60611 www.osteopathic.org American Psychiatric Association 1000 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 1825 Arlington, VA 22209 www.psych.org American Society of Anesthesiologists 520 North Northwest Highway Park Ridge, IL 60068 www.asahq.org U.S. Department of Health and Human Services National Institutes of Health National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20894 www.nlm.nih.gov

CHAPTER THREE

Careers in the Agricultural Sciences Feeding and Clothing the Billions

Today, agriculture has contributed to human civilization by improving nutrition and living standards. It has ensured the production and distribution of agricultural, fishery and forestry products and enough food to feed everyone on this planet. Despite the progress achieved in agriculture and rural development, more than 850 million people still remain hungry and poor. Our greatest challenge is to reach the World Food Summit and first UN Millennium Development Goal to halve by 2015 hunger and poverty worldwide. —Kofi Annan, United Nations Secretary-General, October 2006

T

he challenges facing the field of agriculture today are as large as the planet and as complex as the populations of things that live upon it. Agriculture is challenged to feed and clothe the billions of humans and to do so in new and better ways that will consume less, and restore more, of the planet than ever before. Never before have human beings had such comprehensive knowledge that we, through our own use of Earth, can save or destroy the life of the planet. Today we can see from satellite photos the devastation of large areas that have been deforested and



others that have become deserts, and we can observe the melting of the ice caps at the poles. The person who chooses agricultural science as a career has the opportunity to address issues that have become critical to the renewal of Earth’s major biomes and to the preservation of many of its life forms.

Addressing the Most Urgent Challenges Norman E. Borlaug, winner of the 1970 Nobel Prize for international work to improve agriculture to end hunger and director of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center in Mexico City, is often called the Father of the Green Revolution. He once said: . . . we must not only increase our food supplies but also insure them against biological and physical catastrophes by international efforts to provide international granaries of reserve food for use in case of need. And these food reserves must be made available to all who need them—and before famine strikes, not afterwards. Man can and must prevent the tragedy of famine in the future instead of merely trying with pious regret to salvage the human wreckage of the famine, as he has so often done in the past. We will be guilty of criminal negligence, without extenuation, if we permit future famines. Humanity cannot tolerate that guilt. Governments of nearly all countries and the United Nations Food and Agricultural (FAO) organization, which is made up of 174 member nations, have put into place major agricultural research projects to meet urgent, current needs, which include:

• World hunger, malnutrition, and poverty—getting adequate food to all places where it is needed

• Global warming and climate change

CAREERS IN THE AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES • 41

• Deserts and desertification—drylands covering more than 40 percent of Earth’s surface are home to more than two billion people who depend upon local agriculture and are subject to extreme poverty • Worldwide population growth and expansion of basic needs • Need for national and international agreements and legislation governing the use and availability of radical new biotechnology plant and animal forms • Need for sustainable agricultural systems for farm and forestry products The importance of this effort was emphasized at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in South Africa in 2002, when the enormity of the need was stated: “An estimated 200 million people go hungry every year . . . and about two-thirds of the world’s farmland is affected by degradation.” In Africa, the Maputo Declaration of 2003 committed African nations to using a full 10 percent of their entire national budgets for agricultural and rural development, and this effort is beginning to show results in some of the participating countries.

World Development Report 2008 For the first time since 1981, agriculture is the main focus of the World Bank’s 2008 World Development Report (WDR), which emphasizes the grave importance of agriculture in the twenty-first century. The Global Donor Platform for Rural Development (a twenty-six-nation consortium) has provided much of the content and support. More than a quarter of a century of change since 1981 has brought new factors to the agricultural development world, with the entry of large-scale use of genetically modified crops in some parts of the world and the creation of research facilities and the interest of venture capital for many more such products to come. The political players’ roles have changed dramatically as well, with China, India, and other Asian and African countries gaining


new and increasing commercial and political power. The WDR is an important tool for the international debate and opinion that will shape emerging policies for individual, public, and commercial development of agriculture in many areas, globally, in years to come. Detailed information about the report can be found at www.econ.worldbank.org/wdr.

The International Importance of Agricultural Genetic Resources In the last fifty years, the importance of genetic research and genetic modification (GM) of plants and animals has soared. The ability to alter the DNA of plants and animals has made all the difference, and jobs for agricultural biologists, botanists, and zoologists have increased. Research projects are being carried on by agricultural colleges and universities, government agencies, and private corporations, with the objective of developing more biologically viable and economically profitable products. African, Asian, Australian, North and South American, and European groups of all kinds are taking part, with very little regulation or control. For seven years, the FAO Conference of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture worked on negotiations to create the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. It was finally ratified by forty nations and went into effect in the ratifying nations in 2004. The treaty provides for the fair use of all genetic resources— “any genetic material of plant origin of actual or potential value for food and agriculture”—and for international conservation of biodiversity for the benefit of all people. Through this treaty, countries have agreed to establish an effective and transparent system for sharing the benefits of genetic plant resources in a fair and equitable way.


The system applies to more than sixty-four major crops and forages. It protects the rights of farmers, consumers, the scientific community, international agricultural research centers, and both the public and private sectors, as well as the environment and future generations’ needs for biodiversity. Member governments are represented in the governing body and have the responsibility of establishing rules for commercial payments, access to plant genetic resources, funding, and enforcement of the conditions of the agreement. A list of the member nations and official versions of the international treaty in several languages are available at www.fao.org/AG/cgrfa/itpgr.htm.

National and International Agriculture Organizations Many organizations have created special programs, and new organizations have arisen to deal with various aspects of agriculture today because of the immense significance of agriculture worldwide and because of the political implications of world hunger, food production and distribution, and agricultural commerce and regulation. It is important to investigate and recognize their roles in our international social, economic, and political systems. A selected list is provided below. As you research some of these, you will find links to many others and can begin to build your understanding of the global agricultural environment. Association of Agricultural Research in the Near East and Northern Africa (AARINENA) Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institutes (APAARI) Advanced Research Institute (ARI) American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)


Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) International Agricultural Research Center (IARC) International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) United Nations Development Program (UNDP)

The CGIAR Centers—“Nourishing the World through Scientific Excellence” CGIAR, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, supports worldwide hunger relief and economic development work through its fifteen research centers. The centers are independent, and each has its own charter and international board of trustees and staff. Their locations are revealing; nearly all are in the centers of political power or in geographical areas of greatest agricultural needs and greatest potential for change, as shown here: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Africa Rice Center, Cotono, Benin Bioveristy International, Rome, Italy Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, Cali, Colombia Center for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, Mexico City, Mexico Centro Internacional de Papa, Lima, Peru International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo, Syrian Arab Republic International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, India International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria


11. International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya 12. International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Phillippines 13. International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka 14. World Agroforestry Center, Nairobi, Kenya 15. WorldFish Center, Penang, Malaysia In cooperation with various civil society groups (CSOs), governmental agencies, and groups in the private sector, CGIAR has developed a competitive grants program, funded in 2007 by the U.K. Department for International Development, Norway, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), and the World Bank. Proposals are received each year for projects that will involve mutually interested groups in research, apply novel approaches for cooperation among different groups, and create new avenues for developing ongoing knowledge sharing in a growing network of CSO and CGIAR partners. Additional information on applying and a twenty-two-page booklet of guidelines are available online at www.cgiar.org/csos/ cso_cgiar_grant_program.html.

The USDA Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES) Congress created CSREES in 1994, combining the former Cooperative State Research Service (CSRS) and the former Extension Service (ES) to form a single agency. CSREES is one of four USDA agencies that make up its Research, Education, and Economics (REE) mission area. The other three include: Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Economics Research Service (ERS) National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS)


The USDA-REE agencies provide leadership in creating and disseminating biological, physical, and social sciences information related to agricultural research, economic analysis, statistics, extension, and higher education. CSREES functions to advance knowledge for agriculture, the environment, human health and well-being, and communities by supporting research, education, and extension programs in the Land-Grant University System and other partner organizations throughout the fifty states. CSREES does not perform actual research, education, and extension but helps to fund it at the state and local levels and provides program leadership in these areas.

• National program leadership. CSREES helps states identify and meet research, extension, and education priorities in areas that affect agricultural producers, small business owners, youth and families, and others. • Federal assistance. CSREES also provides annual funding to land-grant universities and competitively granted funds to researchers in land-grant and other universities. CSREES has working partnerships with the Land-Grant University System in each state, as well as with other federal agencies, nonprofit associations, professional societies, commodity groups and grower associations, multistate research committees, private industry, citizen groups, foundations, regional centers, the military, task forces, and other groups. CSREES responds to quality-of-life problems such as: Improving agricultural productivity Creating new products Protecting animal and plant health Promoting sound human nutrition and health Strengthening children, youth, and families (including through the 4-H program) Revitalizing rural American communities


• Agricultural Extension Agencies. Much of this work is done through the extensive network of state, regional, and county extension offices in every U.S. state and territory. These offices respond to public inquiries and conduct informal, noncredit workshops and other educational events. For more than ninety years, the agricultural extension agent has been the first and most familiar point of contact with the USDA for millions of Americans. For example, if you, as a student, would like to arrange to take pictures of poultry farming near your university, the agricultural extension agent might likely be the first phone call you would make. The Extension Office provides a wealth of information in—famously, through the years—a friendly and down-toearth manner. The agricultural extension agent has been traditionally a “good person to know.” He or she is a good place to start in discussing the importance of different jobs in agricultural science. If that person has been on the job for any considerable amount of time, there is a wealth of knowledge to be gained about what’s happening in agriculture in your area. The agent knows what really matters to the small farmers and the large growers and producers and what they think should be done about it. CSREES operates fifty-nine programs grouped under the following headings, called national emphasis areas:

• • • • • • • •

Agricultural and Food Biosecurity Agricultural Systems Animals and Animal Products Biotechnology and Genomics Economics and Commerce Families, Youth, and Communities Food, Nutrition, and Health Natural Resources and Environment


• Pest Management • Plants and Plant Products • Technology and Engineering Information about jobs in each of these areas is available through the CSREES offices, as well as in the federal job openings that are posted in the federal office buildings in each state. Learn more at www.csrees.usda.gov.

The Working World of Agricultural Science HELP WANTED—FOOD SCIENTIST Experienced food scientist needed for Space Food Systems laboratory, located at one of the country’s space centers, to develop food products for use on board the International Space Station.Will conduct research and development activities supporting shelf-life extension of shelf-stable bakery products used in space flight.Will create and maintain foodsystem documentation, including food manufacturing specifications. Candidate must possess an M.S. in food science with a minimum of four years of industry experience in food product development. Also must possess a basic knowledge of analytical laboratory equipment and procedures. Salary commensurate with experience. Apply online with complete resume, references, and security clearance code.

Agricultural scientists study farm crops and animals and develop ways of improving their quantity and quality. They look for techniques to conserve soil and water, ways to improve crop yield and


quality with less labor, and avenues to control pests and weeds more safely and effectively. In work related to food science, they research methods of converting raw agricultural commodities into attractive and healthy food products for consumers. Agricultural science is closely related to biological science, and agricultural scientists use the principles of biology, chemistry, and other sciences to solve the problems of agriculture. They often work with biological scientists on basic biological research projects, or they may concentrate on applying technological advances to agriculture. Many agricultural scientists work in basic or applied research and development. Others manage or administer research and development programs or manage marketing or production operations in companies that produce food products or agricultural chemicals, supplies, and machinery. Some agricultural scientists are consultants to business firms, private clients, or government agencies.

Specializations Many kinds of specialists are involved in the work of planning, research, development, and distribution of the world’s agricultural products.

Food Science Some food scientists engage in basic research, discovering new food sources; analyzing food content to determine levels of vitamins, fat, sugar, or protein; or searching for substitutes for harmful or undesirable additives, such as nitrites. Others work in product development or enforce government regulations. Food scientists are usually employed in the food processing industry, at universities, or by federal, state, or local government agencies. They help meet consumer demand for food products that are healthful, safe, palatable, and convenient. To accomplish this, they


use their knowledge of chemistry, microbiology, biotechnology, and other sciences to develop new and better ways of preserving, processing, packaging, storing, and delivering foods.

Plant Science Genetic engineering or genetic modification (GM) has revolutionized some areas of plant science in recent years. The work of plant scientists includes the disciplines of agronomy, biotechnology, botany, crop science, entomology, microbiology, nanotechnology, and plant breeding, among others. These scientists study plants and their composition, as well as their growth in different soils and climates. They help producers of food, feed, and fiber crops provide ample nutrition to a growing population while conserving natural resources and maintaining the environment. Agronomists and crop scientists not only help increase productivity, but also study ways to improve the nutritional value of crops and the quality of seed. Some crop scientists study the breeding, physiology, and management of crops and use genetic engineering to develop crops resistant to pests and drought.

Soil Science Soil scientists study the chemical, physical, biological, and mineralogical composition of soils as they relate to plant or crop growth. They study the responses of various soil types to fertilizers, tillage practices, and crop rotation. Many soil scientists who work for the federal government conduct soil surveys, classifying and mapping soils. They provide information and recommendations to farmers and other landowners regarding the best use of land and how to avoid or correct problems such as erosion. They may also consult with engineers and other technical personnel working on construction projects about the effects of, and solutions to, soil problems. Since soil science is closely related to environmental science, soil scientists also apply their knowledge to ensure environmental quality and effective land use.


Animal Science Animal scientists develop better, more efficient ways of producing and processing meat, poultry, eggs, and milk. Dairy scientists, poultry scientists, animal breeders, and other related scientists study the genetics, nutrition, reproduction, growth, and development of domestic farm animals. Some animal scientists inspect and grade livestock or food products, purchase livestock, or work in technical sales or marketing. As extension agents or consultants, animal scientists advise agricultural producers on how to upgrade animal housing facilities properly, lower mortality rates, or increase production of animal products, such as milk or eggs. An entomologist might deliver presentations to local farmers about insect problems in growing corn and other crops.

Agricultural and Related Job Titles Job titles vary a great deal in the industry, and you may find agriculture jobs listed in any of the following forms, as well as others. You can use these as key words in Internet job searching, as well as in searching through print materials.

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

Agricultural Engineer Agricultural Equipment Design Engineer Agricultural-Research Engineer Agriculture Consultant Agriculture Scientist Animal Biotechnology Specialist Animal Geneticist Biofuels Specialist Crop Science Specialist Environmental Analyst Environmental Engineer Environmental Land Use Specialist Food Chemist


• • • • • • •

Food Products Researcher Geneticist Plant Genomics Specialist Plant Science Specialist Range Management Specialist Research Biologist Soil Scientist

Education and Training Training requirements for agricultural scientists depend on the specialty and the type of work performed. A bachelor’s degree in agricultural science is sufficient for some jobs in applied research or in assisting in basic research, but a master’s or doctoral degree is required for basic research. A doctoral degree in agricultural science is usually needed for college teaching and for advancement to administrative research positions. Degrees in related sciences such as biology, chemistry, or physics or in related engineering specialties also may qualify persons for some agricultural science jobs. All of the fifty states have land-grant colleges that offer agricultural science degrees. Many other colleges and universities also offer agricultural science degrees or some agricultural science courses. However, not every school offers all specialties. A typical undergraduate agricultural science curriculum includes communications, economics, business, and physical and life sciences courses, in addition to a wide variety of technical agricultural science courses, including biotechnology. All students must be proficient in computer technology related to their specialties, and colleges and universities increasingly are offering integrated programs of interdisciplinary courses. For prospective animal scientists, the technical agricultural science courses might include animal breeding, reproductive physiology, nutrition, and meats and muscle biology. Students preparing to become food scientists take courses such as food


chemistry, food analysis, food microbiology, and food processing operations. Those preparing to be crop or soil scientists take courses in plant pathology, soil chemistry, entomology, plant physiology, and biochemistry, among others. Advanced degree programs include classroom and fieldwork, laboratory research, and a thesis based on independent research. Agricultural scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and in writing. Most agricultural scientists also need an understanding of basic business principles. Agricultural scientists who have advanced degrees usually begin in research or teaching. With experience, they may advance to jobs such as supervisors of research programs or managers of other agriculture-related activities. Both Canada and the United States have a large number of fine agriculture schools. In Canada, the University of Alberta, University of Manitoba, Ontario Agricultural College, University of Saskatchewan, MacDonald Campus of McGill University, and Nova Scotia Agricultural College provide strong traditional as well as progressive and forward-looking programs. For a comprehensive list of agriculture schools in the United States, go to www.univsource.com/agri.htm.

Employment Outlook Employment of agricultural scientists in the United States and Canada is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Generally speaking, those with advanced degrees will be in the best position to compete for jobs as research scientists. Competition for teaching positions in colleges or universities and for some basic research jobs may be keen, even for doctoral holders, as federal and state budget cuts may limit funding for these positions through the year 2014. Work in other countries is expected to become increasingly available for


those with excellent backgrounds in research and development, although competition from agricultural scientists from India, Pakistan, and several Asian countries is increasing rapidly.

Earnings According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), agricultural and food scientists in the United States earn, on average, about $45,000 per year. This includes salaries across the broadest scope of the industry, from entry-level to managerial positions. The BLS reported that median annual earnings of food scientists and technologists were $50,840 as of May 2004, with the middle 50 percent earning between $36,450 and $72,510. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,410, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $91,300. Median annual earnings of soil and plant scientists were $51,200, with the middle 50 percent earning between $37,890 and $69,120. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,660, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $88,840. The BLS also reported median annual earnings of $49,920 for plant scientists in May 2004. In 2005, the average salary for federal employees across nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $87,025 in animal science and $73,573 in agronomy. Entry-level salary offers in 2005 for graduates with a bachelor’s degree in animal sciences averaged $30,614 a year; for plant sciences, $31,649 a year; and in other agricultural sciences, $36,189 a year, according to the National Association of Colleges and Employers.

Professional Lives Take a look at the following profiles to see whether this career path is the right choice for you.


Carl. I. Evensen, Ph.D., Assistant Extension Specialist Dr. Carl I. Evensen served as assistant extension specialist for natural resource management and environmental quality in the Department of Agronomy and Soil Science at the University of Hawaii in Honolulu. He had enjoyed gardening and growing crops all of his life, so the decision to go into agriculture as a profession was natural. He liked working with other people and found that he enjoyed agricultural extension work, since it combined both of these interests and inclinations. He earned a bachelor’s degree in biology from Whitman College in Walla Walla, Washington, and then joined the Peace Corps. He spent two years in Kenya working as a horticultural extensionist in an isolated part of the Coast Province called the Taita Hills. He described this as a wonderful, life-changing experience, which convinced him that he wanted to work in agriculture, but it also pointed out the gaps in his knowledge. He went back to school to study in the strong tropical agriculture program at the University of Hawaii. His master’s program was spent studying agroforestry in Hawaii, while his doctoral research was performed in Indonesia, working on a soil management project. These studies gave him a strong background in soil fertility and crop nutrition. The overseas work experiences broadened his perspective and helped him understand the needs of foreign graduate students. His subsequent job as an agronomist (1989–1993) at the Hawaii Sugar Planter’s Association (HSPA) was valuable in giving him experience with large-scale plantation agriculture as a contrast to his previous work with small-scale subsistence farmers. At HSPA, he began to work with soil and water conservation issues and problems. Dr. Evensen describes his work as extremely variable. Most of his time is spent on extension-related activities, which involve planning trainings for extension agents (the faculty in the field


who work most closely with farmers), speaking at and attending meetings with other government agencies and private industry, conducting teacher trainings, and making presentations at public events. Every day is different and holds its own challenges and rewards. He seeks grant funding and has led five projects in four years, mostly dealing with demonstrations of soil conservation, pesticide reduction, and education on pollution control. He also has administration and reporting responsibilities with all of these activities. Some days are spent entirely in his office, on the phone or the computer, writing reports, summarizing data, and responding to e-mail or correspondence. Other days are spent entirely in the field, teaching or collecting data in field projects. Usually, several days a month are spent traveling to neighboring islands to meet with agents and farmers or to participate in training. Several hours or sometimes days each week are spent in meetings, either at the university or with various interagency groups. He teaches two graduate classes, Agriculture and the Environment and Sustainable Agriculture, and he developed a new undergraduate course, Environmental Issues. He serves as a member of a number of graduate student committees and has frequent meetings with students to discuss their projects. A great deal of time is required for preparation and grading of the students’ comprehensive exams, reading and commenting on their theses or dissertations, and participating in the final defense of their research. He enjoys the variety of activities and new challenges he faces every day, teaching and working with graduate students and getting out into the field to work on projects or with farmers and agents. His less enjoyable responsibilities include reporting and project administration. He comments that he sometimes gets overwhelmed when a series of planned activities and unplanned requests or requirements coincide. Overall, he feels this type of job is very rewarding but also overwhelming and all-consuming. It is important to be organized and


frequently to reprioritize the multiple and changing activities so that really critical things get done in a timely manner. It is also important to avoid becoming consumed by the job, and it is essential to make time for individual and family life in order to avoid becoming burned out.

Art Davis, Ph.D., Cereal Chemist Dr. Art Davis always knew he was headed into biology and the sciences. He obtained a bachelor’s degree from Oregon State University and spent two years in the Peace Corps before going on to graduate school at Kansas State University, where he earned a master’s and a doctorate in cereal chemistry. After working for Pillsbury Company in its research and development department, he assumed a position heading a research group for the American Institute of Baking for about two and a half years. Following that, he served on the faculty of Kansas State University for nine years. Subsequent positions included quality assurance manager for General Foods Bakeries and three years as the director of technical services for the Green Giant Fresh Vegetables Group. He became director of Scientific Services at the American Association of Cereal Chemists, which offered about thirty short courses and continuing education programs to provide basic information in food science in areas such as water activity, wet milling sensory analysis, food technology, batter and breading technology, chemical leavening, breakfast cereal technology, chemistry technology, and principles of cereal science. He says that individuals often come with biology, microbiology, or engineering backgrounds but need more specific information or training in food science, and the association provides this for people both in the United States and abroad. Another service provided is proficiency certification for laboratories. Dr. Davis observes the popularity of outsourcing for particular operations in the food industry, saying, “Because there’s a critical size that must be reached before it’s feasible to establish your own


research and development group, smaller companies tend to depend on their suppliers to do their research and development for them. For instance, my experience at the General Foods Bakeries taught me that you can mix doughnut batter, starting with flour, sugar, salt, and so forth, but because of some of the peculiarities of putting doughnut mixes together, it’s a lot more efficient to buy a mix from a company that makes doughnut mixes. If you’ve got a problem with it, you can ask them to solve it, or if you want something a little bit different, you can ask them to create that for you. Flavor houses, mix suppliers, and fats and oils suppliers have their own research and development divisions, as do some of the bakers and mills. These are the people who can get you the properties you want. Thus, they’ll go into their labs and massage the molecules until they come up with what you are looking for.” For those interested in getting into food science, he recommends Kansas State University’s Department of Grain Science and Industry. He says that the undergraduate program, which includes serious chemistry, physics, and a little bit of engineering course work, is so excellent that almost every student who graduates invariably receives at least a few job offers. There is also a graduate program that provides a strong background and solid job offers for its graduates. For those planning on doing research at a university, Dr. Davis recommends getting a doctorate. However, he notes that industry doesn’t get terribly hung up on degrees. He knows a number of good researchers with master’s degrees who have gone on and done quite well, as well as a few with bachelor’s degrees who have distinguished themselves. Ultimately, he says, “if you are an able researcher, there are opportunities out there for you.”

Brent Steven Sipes, Ph.D., Plant Pathologist Dr. Sipes was encouraged by a neighbor to garden as a child, and his interest in plants and their biology, systematics, and cultivation became a permanent part of his life. He received a B.S. degree


from Purdue University and an M.S. and Ph.D. from North Carolina State University. Dr. Sipes says, “Growing up in the sixties and seventies, I was also very conscientious about environmental stewardship. This activism motivated me to help in the proper use of pesticides to avoid problems that seemed to plague agricultural production. Becoming a plant pathologist was a natural outgrowth.” His first job was in a commercial greenhouse in Louisville, Kentucky, growing roses that were shipped all over the Midwest. “We had to regularly treat the plants with chemicals to ensure acceptable quality and maintain production,” he explains. He spent three college summers working at the Morton Arboretum in suburban Chicago, where he was tutored by professional horticulturists who cared about plants and their well-being. These people instilled in him the desire to perform quality work that would ensure that future generations would enjoy the plants in the collections of the arboretum. He also learned much about plant classification—what makes a rose a rose and a maple a maple, rather than an oak. As an assistant professor, he notes that his days can vary greatly. Some days are spent indoors moving from one committee meeting to the next, and some are spent at his desk analyzing and preparing data for presentations. He says, “Perhaps the best days are those when I am in the field collecting samples, setting up a test, or treating an experiment.” He also attends scientific meetings held all over the world. He describes his work life, saying that he has a great deal of flexibility as to the order of his day. He likes to start early while the day is cool, around 7 A.M., and finish before it gets really hot, by 3:30 or 4 P.M., even if he is inside all day. He notes that because 60 percent of his work involves field experiments, much of the work depends upon the weather. “Rain can really ruin our best plans,” he says. “Consequently, sometimes the work is very slow and easy, whereas other times everything needs to be done and there is hardly any time to take a breath.”


He works between forty-eight and fifty hours per week, although he usually doesn’t keep track of the hours. He works with many different types of people—senior professors, administrators, technical staff who assist him in his research, and students. He finds that each group is different, and the challenge is to work well with each one. He also says that the people in his laboratory are much like a family—they get along well together, although they may not always share the same opinions. He sums up his work by saying, “What I like most about my work is the ability to pose questions and contemplate how to answer them. I like the freedom to choose my own path. I like to analyze data to answer those questions. I am honored by the respect my work affords me in the community.”

Professional Resources Keeping up with important issues in the field is necessary for making effective professional and career decisions, and you will need to become familiar with the professional literature in the field. Two of the major publications are described below. Agricultural Research Magazine is a publication of the U.S. Department of Agriculture that features articles on current and important topics and projects in the field. This professional magazine is a high-quality, general-interest publication that will give you a good idea of significant projects and the kinds of work being carried on in the industry. For example, some of the topics from just the February 2007 issue included Africanized honey bees, getting more sugar from cane, curbing a psyllid to help protect citrus, plans of the United States and Brazil for germ plasm exchange, finding a cure for a sugar beet disease, pectin extraction from citrus and sugar beets, defeating coccidiosis in chickens, and getting rid of anaplasmosis. For more information, visit www.ars.usda .gov/is/AR/index.html.


The Journal of Agricultural Science is a British publication that publishes papers concerned with the advance of agriculture and the use of land resources throughout the world, representing original scientific work related to strategic and applied studies in agricultural science, including agronomy; crop physiology, crop protection, breeding, genetics, and pathology; soil science; animal nutrition, physiology and genetics; organic and sustainable agricultural systems; and the mathematical and statistical methods used in experimentation and data analysis. More information is available at www.journals.cambridge.org/jid_AGS.

The USDA National Agricultural Library The United States Department of Agriculture maintains professional resources of many kinds, and one of the most useful to students and professionals alike is the National Agricultural Library. Its vast collections provide data resources and print, multimedia, and photographic resources that cover all the regions of the United States and other nations as well. You will find many useful departments within the library’s resources that will help in planning your education and research. A few are described below.

• The Technology Transfer Information Center (TTIC) helps innovators find research and patent information; technical assistance; and funding, partnerships, and market opportunities to commercialize new products, processes, and services. The center also provides access to technology transfer literature. • Biofuels are becoming increasingly important, and a whole section provides information on this area, including an ethanol and biodiesel website. • A Food and Agricultural Sciences Research Projects directory is sponsored by USDA, in which you can research by topic and geographical area as well as by name.


• Patents and Partnerships is another key area for you to consider, and the USDA maintains patent and licensing information for products that have been registered in the field. • Business Opportunities. The USDA provides research, technology, and market information related to business opportunities in all fifty states.

Grants When you begin planning research projects, either independently or in cooperation with a college, university, or other research organization, you will need to identify sources of available grants and other funding for your work. Many different kinds of government grants are available for research and experimental and developmental projects, and extensive information about applying is available from the USDA. Some of the various types and amounts of these grants are described below.

• Farmer grants test new crops, practices, and systems through on-site experiments and share the results with other farmers. Grants average about $5,200 and are capped at $10,000. Farmer grant applications are due in December. • Partnership grants are awarded for on-farm research and demonstration projects developed by agricultural professionals who work directly with farmers. Grants are capped at $10,000, and applications are due in November. • Professional development grants allow experienced agricultural educators to develop opportunities for extension and other agricultural professionals to learn about sustainable concepts and practices. Proposed projects must address certain priority areas, and awards range from


$60,000 to $175,000. A preproposal is required; the deadline is in May. Invited full proposals are generally due in early November. • Research and education grants involve scientists, producers, and others in an interdisciplinary approach to important issues in sustainable agriculture. Previous grants have ranged from $4,300 to $331,500; the average grant is around $90,000. A preproposal is required; the deadline is in May. Invited full proposals are generally due in early November. • Sustainable community grants involve organizations such as community nonprofits, the Cooperative Extension Service, local governments, educational institutions, planning boards, farming cooperatives, and incorporated citizens’ groups. The purpose of these grants is to reconnect rural revitalization and farming. Most grants are capped at $10,000 (except for certain areas covered by the Appalachian Initiative, which are capped at $25,000). Sustainable community grant applications, including the Appalachian Initiative, are due in November.

For More Information Additional information about careers in agricultural and food science is available from the organizations listed below. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Public Information Request Services Sir John Carling Building 930 Carling Ave Ottawa, ON K1A 0C7 Canada www.agr.gc.ca


American Phytopathological Society 3340 Pilot Knob Road St. Paul, MN 55121 www.aspnet.org American Society of Agronomy Crop Science Society of America Soil Science Society of America 677 South Segoe Road Madison, WI 53711 www.agronomy.org Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES) Waterfront Centre 800 Ninth Street SW Washington, DC 20024 www.csrees.usda.gov Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Via delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome, Italy www.fao.org Institute of Food Technologists The Society for Food Science and Technology 525 West Van Buren Street, Suite 1000 Chicago, IL 60607 www.ift.org


United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 1400 Independence Avenue SW, Stop 2201 Washington, DC 20250 www.usda.gov Information on acquiring jobs in agricultural and food science with the federal government can be obtained from the U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local phone number, or visit the official jobs website at www.usajobs.opm.gov.


CHAPTER FOUR

Careers in the Physical Sciences Searching the Earth and Its Oceans and Atmosphere— and Other Planets and Space

Charles David Keeling’s measurements of the global accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere set the stage for today’s profound concerns about climate change. They are the single most important environmental data sets taken in the 20th century. —Charles F. Kennel, Director, Scripps Institution of Oceanography

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cientists today are extremely concerned about the problems that can be foreseen for our cities and economies in the face of global warming and the massive climate changes that have already begun. Many physical scientists—the astronomers, astrophysicists, chemists, and physicists who observe and study Earth and its oceans, atmosphere, space, our sun, and the planets—have the responsibility for the surveillance and analysis of this new and overarching concern. The awareness of an asteroid that could move into Earth’s path in a few decades is also of major importance for physicists. In addition, half of the country’s environmental satellites are set to come to the ends of their schedules and stop working by 2010— leading to a loss of the data used to study climate change, predict 67

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natural disasters, and monitor land use—so the work of restoring and replacing the units of this system lies ahead. Anyone of talent, intelligence, and the necessary skills will find major challenges in this field in the foreseeable future, if they wish to take them on. In spite of the major challenges that will exist for some physicists, most other physical scientists will still use their skills for everyday work—research and development and the production of the goods and services that we need for everyday life and our progress into the future. Let’s take a closer look at the different categories of work done by chemists, physicists, astronomers, geologists, geophysicists, and meteorologists—the main categories of scientists in this field. In each area of specialization, there are different job categories and levels of seniority and responsibility. The job advertisement below provides an example of some basic job titles.

HELP WANTED—SCIENTISTS Our company is a global leader in the development, manufacture, and marketing of innovative specialty chemicals. Our high-quality products place the company at the leading edge of the industry and are recognized as the worldwide industry standard.We are seeking qualified candidates to coordinate, direct, and perform analytical activities involving complex problems in support of research, development, technical support, and international regulatory affairs. Some travel may be required. The ideal candidates will have strong communications skills to interact with internal and external clients, be adept at sample handling and preparation, and be able to coordinate multiple assignments simultaneously in various areas. Additionally, candidates must possess academic or industrial

CAREERS IN THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES • 69

experience across multiple fields, with electrical and/or industrial engineering background. Bilingual in Spanish, Japanese, or Chinese a plus. Your level of education and experience will determine position level. Salary is commensurate with experience, and the company offers excellent benefits and incentives. Immediate openings include the following:

• Senior Scientist: Requires Ph.D. in chemistry or equivalent and at least two years of relevant experience, or an M.S. and at least seven to ten years of experience. • Scientist II: Requires M.S. in chemistry or equivalent and three to six years of experience, or a B.S. and at least five years of experience. • Scientist I: Requires M.S. in chemistry or equivalent or technical discipline plus two to three years of relevant experience, or a B.S. in chemistry or technical discipline with at least three to five years of relevant experience. • Associate Scientist: Requires an M.S. in chemistry or equivalent or technical discipline and two years of experience, or a B.S. and three to four years of experience.

The Working World of Physical Science The physical sciences involve a number of disciplines: chemistry, physics, astronomy, geology and geophysics, and meteorology. Within each of these broad categories are specialties, each focused on a different aspect of the environment.

Chemists Without chemists, we would live in a world without paints, synthetic fibers, drugs, cosmetics, hand lotions, deodorants,


perfumes, insect repellants, electronic components, gasoline and other petroleum products, and thousands of other things that we take for granted in daily life. Chemists search for and put to practical use new knowledge about chemicals. Although chemicals are often thought of as artificial or toxic substances, all physical things, whether naturally occurring or of human design, are composed of chemicals. Chemists often specialize in a subfield. Analytical chemists determine the structure, composition, and nature of substances and develop analytical techniques. In addition, they identify the presence and concentration of chemical pollutants in air, water, and soil. Organic chemists study the organic chemistry of the vast number of carbon compounds. Many commercial products, such as drugs, plastics, and fertilizers, have been developed by organic chemists. Inorganic chemists study compounds consisting mainly of elements other than carbon, such as those used in making electronic components. Physical chemists study the physical characteristics of atoms and molecules and investigate how chemical reactions work. Many physical chemists work toward developing new and better energy sources. Research and Development (R&D). Chemists involved in basic research investigate the properties, composition, and structure of matter and the laws that govern the combination of elements and reactions of substances. In applied research and development, chemists create new products and processes or improve existing ones, using knowledge gained from basic research. For example, synthetic rubber and plastics resulted from research that was done on uniting small molecules to form larger ones (polymerization). Production and Quality Control. Chemists also work in production and quality control in chemical manufacturing plants. They prepare instructions that specify ingredients, mixing times,


and temperatures for each stage in the process. They also monitor automated processes to ensure proper product yield and test samples to ensure that they meet industry and government standards.

Physicists Using observation and analysis, physicists explore and identify basic principles governing the structure and behavior of matter, the generation and transfer of energy, and the interaction of matter and energy. Some physicists use these principles in theoretical areas, such as the nature of time and the origin of the universe; others apply their physics knowledge to immediately practical areas such as the development of advanced materials for electronic and optical devices and medical equipment. Some physicists design and perform experiments with lasers, cyclotrons, telescopes, mass spectrometers, and other equipment. They also find ways to apply physical laws and theories to problems in nuclear energy, electronics, optics, materials, communications, aerospace technology, navigation equipment, and medical instrumentation. Most physicists work in research and development. Some do basic research to increase scientific knowledge. Physicists who conduct applied research build upon the discoveries that have already been made through basic research, and they work to develop new devices, products, and processes. For example, basic research in solid-state physics led to the development of transistors and then to the integrated circuits and chips that are used in computers. Research equipment is also designed by physicists. This equipment often has additional unanticipated applications. All of the following devices were designed for other applications: lasers are used in surgery, microwave devices are used for cooking food in household ovens, and certain highly specialized measuring instruments are used to analyze blood or the chemical content of foods. Physicists generally specialize in one of many subfields—elementary particle physics, nuclear physics, atomic and molecular


physics, physics of condensed matter (solid-state physics), optics, acoustics, and plasma physics (the physics of fluids). Some even specialize in a subdivision of one of these subfields; for example, within condensed matter physics, subspecialties include superconductivity, crystallography, and semiconductors. Hundreds of laboratories for this work exist in many countries of the world, and more are being developed as more nations become involved in research and development. The three largest and most famous of the laboratories in this field are CERN, Fermilab, and SLAC. CERN. The world’s largest particle physics center is CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, located on the Franco-Swiss border near Geneva, Switzerland. CERN, founded in 1954, now has twenty member states. CERN scientists have made many important discoveries and received prestigious awards, including Nobel Prizes. The discovery most widely used is the World Wide Web. It was developed to improve and speed up the information sharing among physicists working all over the world, and it now has billions of academic, commercial, and private users. In 1984, CERN scientists Carlo Rubbia and Simon Van der Meer received the Nobel Prize in physics for “their decisive contributions to the large project which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of the weak interaction.” In 1992, Georges Charpak received the Nobel Prize for “his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber, a breakthrough in the technique for exploring the innermost parts of matter.” Charpak’s multiwire proportional chamber, invented in 1968, and his subsequent developments launched the era of fully electronic particle detection. Charpak’s detectors are now being used for biological research and could eventually replace photographic recording in applied radiobiology. For more information about CERN, or to apply for staff, student, fellowship, and associate programs, go to www.cern.ch.


Fermilab. In the United States, Fermilab, founded by Robert Wilson, is a center for research in particle physics. It exists to study the questions: What is the universe made of? How does it work? Where did it come from? Fermilab’s mission defines the goal of high-energy physics research: learning how the universe is made and how it works. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), through its Office of Science, supports more than 90 percent of the federally funded research in high-energy physics in the United States. Universities Research Association (URA) Inc., a consortium of eighty-nine research universities in the United States and abroad, operates Fermilab under a contract with the DOE. Fermilab is the largest high-energy physics laboratory in the United States and is second in the world only to CERN, the European Laboratory for Particle Physics. Fermilab’s Tevatron is the world’s highest-energy particle accelerator and collider. In the Tevatron, counter-rotating beams of protons and antiprotons produce collisions, allowing scientists to examine the most basic building blocks of matter and the forces acting on them. Fermilab contributes to the large Hadron Collider at CERN. Particle physics research has grown into an international effort, with experiment collaborations numbering in the hundreds. Discoveries in high-energy physics have revolutionized understanding of the interactions of the particles and forces that determine the nature of matter in the universe. Research at Fermilab will address the big questions of particle physics today: Why do particles have mass? Does neutrino mass come from a different source? What is the true nature of quarks and leptons? Why are there three generations of elementary particles? What are the truly fundamental forces? How do we incorporate quantum gravity into particle physics? What are the differences between matter and antimatter? What are the dark particles that bind the universe together? What is the dark energy that drives the universe apart? Are there hidden dimensions beyond the ones we know? Are we part of a multidimensional megaverse? What is the universe


made of? How does the universe work? For more information or to apply for a position at Fermilab, visit www.fnal.gov. SLAC. The Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory (SLAC) is another of the world’s leading research laboratories. Established in 1962 at Stanford University in Menlo Park, California, its mission is to design, construct, and operate state-of-the-art electron accelerators and related experimental facilities for use in highenergy physics and synchrotron radiation research. The work of the highly trained staff of physicists, engineers, computer scientists, and other professionals has led to many breakthroughs in science and technology and has been recognized with many awards and honors, including three Nobel Prizes in physics. The world’s first x-ray laser will advance understanding of “everything from the hidden physic inside planets to how proteins function as the engines of life to building nanotechnology devices for the backbone of future industry and technology.” It will have applications in biology, electronics, energy production, industry, medicine, nanotechnology, and solid-state physics, as well as areas that don’t even exist yet. For more information or to apply for a position at SLAC, visit www.slac.stanford.edu.

Astronomers All physics involves the same fundamental principles, so specialties may overlap, and physicists may switch from one subfield to another. Also, growing numbers of physicists work in combined fields, such as biophysics, chemical physics, and geophysics. Astronomy is sometimes considered a subfield of physics. Astronomers use the principles of physics and mathematics to learn about the fundamental nature of the universe, including the sun, moon, planets, stars, and galaxies. They may also apply their knowledge to problems in navigation and space flight. Astronomers who are primarily involved in research continually analyze large quantities of data gathered by observatories and


satellites and then write scientific papers or reports on their findings. Most astronomers spend only a few weeks of each year actually doing direct observations with optical telescopes, radio telescopes, and other instruments.

Geologists and Geophysicists Geology and geophysics are closely related fields, but there are also major differences. Geologists study the composition, structure, and history of the earth’s crust. They try to find out how rocks were formed and what has happened to them since their formation. Geophysicists use the principles of physics and mathematics to study not only the earth’s surface, but also its internal composition, ground and surface waters, atmosphere, and oceans as well as its magnetic, electrical, and gravitational forces. Both geologists and geophysicists, however, commonly apply their skills to the search for natural resources and to the solution of environmental problems. Geologists and geophysicists examine chemical and physical properties of specimens in laboratories. They may study fossil remains of animal and plant life or experiment with the flow of water and oil through rocks. Some geological scientists may combine environmental expertise, or work with environmentalists, to play an important role in preserving and cleaning up the environment through designing and monitoring waste disposal sites, preserving water supplies, and locating safe sites for hazardous waste facilities and landfills. Geoscientists working in the oil and gas industry sometimes process and interpret the maps produced by remote sensing satellites to help identify potential new oil or gas deposits. Seismic technology is also an important exploration tool. Seismic waves are used to develop three-dimensional computer models of underground or underwater rock formations. Geologists and geophysicists also apply geological knowledge to engineering problems in constructing large buildings, dams,


tunnels, and highways. Some administer and manage research and exploration programs; others become general managers in petroleum and mining companies. Numerous subdisciplines or specialties fall under the two major disciplines of geology and geophysics and further differentiate the kind of work that geoscientists do.

• Petroleum geologists explore for oil and gas deposits by

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studying and mapping the subsurface of the ocean or land, analyzing soil and substrata samples, and making depth tests for samples. Mineralogists analyze and classify minerals and precious stones according to composition and structure. Paleontologists study fossils found in geological formations to trace the evolution of plant and animal life and the geologic history of the earth. Stratigraphers help to locate minerals by studying the distribution and arrangement of sedimentary rock layers and by examining the fossil and mineral content of such layers. Marine geologists, often called oceanographers, study and map the ocean floor and collect information using remote sensing devices aboard surface ships or underwater research craft. Geodesists study the size and shape of the earth, its gravitational field, tides, polar motion, and rotation. Seismologists interpret data from seismographs and other geophysical instruments to detect earthquakes and locate earthquake-related faults. Physical oceanographers study the physical aspects of oceans, such as currents and the interaction of sea surface and atmosphere. Hydrologists study the distribution, circulation, and physical properties of underground and surface waters.


They study the form and intensity of precipitation, its rate of infiltration into the soil, its movement through the earth, and its return to the ocean and atmosphere. The work they do is particularly important in environmental preservation and remediation.

Meteorologists Meteorologists study the atmosphere’s physical characteristics, motions, processes, and the way the atmosphere affects the rest of our environment. The best-known application of this knowledge is in forecasting the weather. However, weather information and meteorological research also are applied in air-pollution control, agriculture, air and sea transportation, defense, and the study of trends in the earth’s climate. Meteorologists and atmospheric scientists, with a host of other kinds of specialists, are currently at work trying to solve the problems of depletion of the earth’s ozone layer and of global warming. Operational Meteorologists. This largest group of specialists, known professionally as operational meteorologists, forecast the weather. They study information on air pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind velocity, and they apply physical and mathematical relationships to make short- and long-range weather forecasts. Data are gathered from weather satellites, weather radar, and remote sensors and observers in many parts of the world; the data are analyzed and used in forecasts to inform not only the general public but also entire industries such as shipping, aviation, agriculture, fishing, and utilities that depend upon accurate weather information for both economic and safety reasons. Data from weather balloons that are launched several times a day to measure wind, temperature, and humidity in the upper atmosphere are supplemented by data from far more sophisticated


weather equipment that can transmit information as frequently as every few minutes. Doppler radar, for example, can detect rotational patterns in violent storm systems, allowing forecasters to better predict the occurrence, direction, and intensity of thunderstorms, tornadoes, and flash floods. Physical Meteorologists. These researchers study the atmosphere’s chemical and physical properties; the transmission of light, sound, and radio waves; and the transfer of energy in the atmosphere. They also study factors affecting the formation of clouds, rain, snow, and other weather phenomena, such as severe storms. Climatologists. Climatologists collect, analyze, and interpret past records of wind, rainfall, sunshine, and temperature in specific areas or regions. Other research meteorologists examine the most effective ways to control or diminish air pollution or improve weather forecasting using mathematical models. Weather stations are found all over the country, usually placed in airports, in or near cities, and in isolated and remote areas. Some meteorologists also spend time observing weather conditions and collecting data from aircraft.

Education and Training Science education, regardless of one’s final career choice, involves a lot of overlap among disciplines, but most career paths require a special educational track.

Chemists A bachelor’s degree in chemistry or a related discipline is usually the minimum education necessary to work as a chemist. However, a high percentage of research jobs require not only a master’s


degree, but a doctorate. Increasing competition for jobs is upping the minimum requirements, as are the increasing complexity and demanding nature of the jobs themselves. Many colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degree programs in chemistry, most of which are approved by the American Chemical Society (ACS). Several hundred colleges and universities also offer advanced degree programs in chemistry. Students planning careers as chemists should enjoy studying science and mathematics and should like working with their hands building scientific apparatuses and performing experiments. In addition to required courses in analytical, inorganic, organic, and physical chemistry, undergraduate chemistry majors usually study biological sciences, mathematics, and physics. Computer courses are invaluable, as employers increasingly require job applicants to have advanced computer skills, to be able to apply them to modeling and simulation tasks, and to be familiar with a broad scope of the information technology used in the field. Laboratory instruments are also computerized, and the ability to operate and understand equipment is essential. Because research and development chemists are increasingly expected to work on interdisciplinary teams, some understanding of other disciplines, including business, marketing, finance, and economics, is desirable, along with leadership ability and good oral and written communication skills. Experience, either in academic laboratories or through internships or co-op programs in industry, is also important. Many employers of research chemists, particularly in the pharmaceutical industry, prefer to hire individuals with several years of postdoctoral experience. In government or industry, beginning chemists with bachelor’s degrees work in technical sales or services or in quality control. Others may assist senior chemists in research and development laboratories. Some may work in research positions, analyzing and testing products, but these may be technicians’ positions, with limited upward mobility. Many employers require chemists


working in basic and applied research to have a doctorate, and it is usually a requirement for advancement to administrative positions. Many people with only bachelor’s degrees in chemistry enter other occupations in which their chemistry background can be helpful, such as technical writing or chemical marketing. Some enter medical, dental, veterinary, or other health-profession schools. Recent chemistry graduates may become high school teachers, and those with doctorates may teach at the college or university level. However, then they are usually regarded primarily as science teachers or college or university faculty, rather than as chemists. Others may qualify as chemical engineers, especially if they have taken some courses in engineering.

Physicists and Astronomers Most jobs for physicists and astronomers that are in research and development require a doctoral degree. Additional experience and training in a postdoctoral research assignment, although it may not be required, is helpful in preparing for a permanent research position. The same level of education is required in most cases for the many physicists and astronomers who ultimately take jobs teaching at the college or university level. Those who hold bachelor’s or master’s degrees in physics are rarely qualified to fill positions as physicists. They are, however, usually qualified to work in engineering-related or other scientific fields as technicians or to assist in setting up laboratories. Some may qualify for applied research jobs in private industry or nonresearch positions in the federal government. In spite of increasing competition, a master’s degree may be sufficient to land a teaching job at a two-year college, if other qualifications are high. In the United States and Canada, hundreds of colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degrees in physics. Undergraduate programs provide a broad background in the natural sciences and


mathematics. The courses required for a typical physics major include mechanics, electromagnetism, optics, thermodynamics, atomic physics, and quantum mechanics. More than two hundred U.S. colleges and universities have physics departments that offer doctorates in physics. Graduate students usually concentrate in a subfield of physics, such as elementary particles or condensed matter. Many people begin studying for their doctorates immediately after their bachelor’s degrees. More than fifty universities offer a doctoral degree in astronomy, either through an astronomy department, a physics department, or a combined physics/astronomy department. Applicants to astronomy doctoral programs face keen competition for available slots. Those planning a career in astronomy should have a very strong physics background. In fact, an undergraduate degree in physics is excellent preparation, followed by a doctorate in astronomy. Advanced mathematical and scientific ability, advanced computer skills, an inquisitive mind, imagination, and the ability to work independently are important traits for anyone planning a career in physics or astronomy. Prospective physicists who hope to work in applying physics knowledge to practical problems in industrial laboratories should broaden their educational background to include courses outside of physics, such as economics, computer technology, and national and international affairs. Good speaking and writing communication skills are also important because many physicists work as part of a team or have contact with persons with nonphysics backgrounds, such as clients or customers. Having a working knowledge of at least one foreign language also strengthens your application. The starting position for most physics and astronomy doctoral graduates is conducting research in a postdoctoral position, which involves working with experienced physicists while continuing to conduct research in their specialties and to further develop ideas and results to be used in later work.


Geologists and Geophysicists Good jobs with good advancement potential in geology and geophysics usually require at least a master’s degree. Individuals with a bachelor’s degree plus strong backgrounds in physics, chemistry, mathematics, or computer science may also qualify for some geophysics or geology jobs. A doctoral degree is required for most research positions in colleges and universities and is also important for work in federal agencies and some state geological surveys that involve basic research. Hundreds of colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degree programs in geology, geophysics, oceanography, or other geosciences. Other programs offering related training for beginning geological scientists include geophysical technology, geophysical engineering, geophysical prospecting, engineering geology, petroleum geology, hydrology, and geochemistry. In addition, several hundred universities award advanced degrees in geology or geophysics. Traditional geoscience courses emphasizing classical geologic methods and topics, such as mineralogy, paleontology, stratigraphy, and structural geology, are important for all geoscientists. Students who are interested in working in the environmental or regulatory fields should also take courses in hydrology, hazardous waste management, environmental legislation, chemistry, geologic logging, and mechanics. Some employers seek only those applicants with field experience, so a summer internship or employment in an environmentally related area may be beneficial to prospective geoscientists. Geologists and geophysicists often begin their careers in field exploration or as research assistants in laboratories. They are given more difficult assignments as they gain experience. Eventually they may be promoted to project leaders, program managers, or other management or research positions. Geologists and geophysicists need to be able to work as part of a team. Computer modeling, data processing, and effective oral


and written communication skills are important, as is the ability to think independently and creatively.

Meteorologists A bachelor’s degree with a major in meteorology, or a closely related field with solid course work in meteorology, is the usual minimum requirement for a beginning job as a meteorologist. Although positions in operational meteorology are available for those who have earned a bachelor’s degree, obtaining a graduate degree enhances advancement potential. A master’s degree is usually necessary for conducting research and development, and a doctorate may be required for some research positions. Students who plan a career in research and development need not necessarily major in meteorology as an undergraduate; a bachelor’s degree in mathematics, physics, or engineering may provide excellent preparation for graduate study in meteorology. The National Weather Service is the largest employer of civilian meteorologists. Because meteorology is a small field, relatively few colleges and universities offer degrees in meteorology or atmospheric science, although many departments of physics, earth science, geography, and geophysics offer atmospheric science and related courses. Prospective students should make certain that courses required by the National Weather Service and other employers are offered at the college they are considering. Computer science courses, additional meteorology courses, and a strong background in mathematics and physics are important to all prospective employers. Many programs combine the study of meteorology with another field, such as agriculture, engineering, or physics. For example, hydrometeorology—which studies the effect of precipitation on the hydrologic cycle and the environment—combines hydrology, the study of the earth’s water systems, and meteorology. Entry-level meteorologists often do routine data collection, computation, analysis, and forecasting. Beginning meteorologists


in the federal government are usually placed in intern positions for training and experience. Experienced meteorologists may advance to various supervisory or administrative jobs or may handle more complex forecasting jobs. Increasing numbers of meteorologists are establishing their own weather consulting services.

Employment Outlook Employment in the physical sciences is generally expected to grow or remain steady through 2014. Specific employment information for each discipline is presented below.

Chemists Employment of chemists is expected to grow through 2014 about as fast as the average for all occupations. The chemical industry, the major employer of chemists, should face continued demand for goods, especially for new and better pharmaceuticals and personal care products, as well as more specialty chemicals designed to address the specific problems of and applications needed to serve an aging population. Stronger competition among drug companies, the return to the United States of large numbers of military personnel with continuing medical needs, and the aging of the population are among the several factors that are expected to contribute to the need for innovative and improved drugs. To meet these demands, research and development expenditures in the chemical industry will continue to increase. Developments in biotechnology and pharmaceuticals are expected to drive job growth and stability in those areas, contributing to employment opportunities for chemists. Employment growth is expected to be slower in the remaining segments of the chemical industry, but there will still be a need for chemists to develop and improve personal products such as cosmetics and cleansers, as well as the technologies and processes used to produce chemicals for all purposes. Job growth will also be


spurred by the need for chemists to monitor and measure air and water pollutants to ensure compliance with local, state, and federal environmental regulations. Because much of the employment growth for chemists is expected to be related to new and experimental drug research and development and to environmental issues, analytical, environmental, and synthetic organic chemists are expected to enjoy good job prospects.

Physicists and Astronomers Many physicists and astronomers are employed on research projects that are defense related, and funding cuts may cause some reduction of employment in these areas. Need for new research and development in alternative energy fields will provide additional employment for some physicists, some of them with the U.S. Department of Energy, the Nuclear Energy Regulatory Commission, and other civilian government agencies. Proposed employment cutbacks and overall budget tightening in the federal government will also affect employment of physicists, especially those dependent on federal research grants. In addition, the number of doctorates granted in physics has been much greater than the number of openings for physicists for several years. Although physics enrollments are starting to decline slightly, the number of new doctoral graduates is likely to continue to be high enough to result in keen competition for the kind of research and academic jobs that those with new doctorates in physics have traditionally sought. Also, more prospective researchers will likely compete for less grant money. Although research and development budgets in private industry will continue to grow, many research laboratories in private industry are expected to reduce basic research, which is where much physics research takes place, in favor of applied or manufacturing research and product and software development. Furthermore, although the median age of physicists and astronomers


is higher than the average for all occupations and many will be eligible for retirement in the next decade, it is possible that many of them will not be replaced when they retire.

Geologists and Geophysicists Many geologists and geophysicists work within the petroleum industry or in related job areas, especially in exploration for oil and gas. This industry is subject to cyclical fluctuations. Fluctuating oil prices, higher production costs, extensive destruction to oil installations in major storms, improvements in energy efficiency, reduced oil reserves, and restrictions on some potential drilling sites have caused exploration activities to decrease in recent years and have limited openings in the petroleum industry for geoscientists working in the United States. Overall employment of geologists and geophysicists is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Other setbacks have been offset by the increased demand for these professionals in environmental protection and reclamation. Geologists and geophysicists will continue to be needed to help clean up contaminated environmental sites in the United States and to help private companies and government comply with more numerous and complex environmental regulations. Jobs requiring training in engineering geology, hydrology, and geochemistry should increase. The number of geoscientists obtaining training in these areas has been increasing, however, so applicants may experience increased competition despite the increasing number of jobs available.

Meteorologists If the number of degrees awarded in atmospheric science and meteorology remain near current levels, coupled with projected slower-than-average employment growth in the short term, applicants for these jobs may face steep competition. However, increased demand for meteorologists to analyze and monitor the


dispersion of pollutants into the air to ensure compliance with federal environmental regulations is expected to build gradually through the year 2010, as stringent new governmental regulations are developed and put in place to meet the challenge of global warming.

Earnings According to the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, median annual earnings of physicists were $87,450 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $66,590 and $109,420. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $49,450, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $132,780. For astronomers, median annual earnings were $97,320 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $66,190 and $120,350, the lowest 10 percent earned less than $43,410, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $137,860. According to a 2005 National Association of Colleges and Employers survey, the average annual starting salary being offered to physics doctoral degree candidates was $56,070. The American Institute of Physics reported a median annual salary of $104,000 in 2004 for its full-time members with doctorates, excluding those in postdoctoral positions. The median was $94,000 for those with master’s degrees and $72,000 for bachelor’s degree holders. Those working in temporary postdoctoral positions earned significantly less. Physicists employed by the federal government earned an average salary of $104,917 in 2005; astronomers and space scientists earned an average $110,195.

Professional Lives Read the following accounts of some remarkable scientists whose careers can inspire your own efforts in the field.


Charles David Keeling, Ph.D. For many years, and until his death at age seventy-seven in 2005, Charles David Keeling was the world’s leading authority on atmospheric greenhouse gas accumulation and a world-famous climate-science pioneer at Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD). Dr. Keeling was the first to confirm the rise of atmospheric carbon dioxide by very precise measurements, and his record of the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide measured at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, and other “pristine air” locations represents what many scientists recognize as the most important time-series data set for the study of global change. Dr. Keeling’s measurements of the global accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere form the basis for today’s awareness of climate change. Dr. Keeling was a world leader in the study of the geochemistry of carbon and other aspects of atmospheric chemistry, with emphasis on the carbon cycle in nature. He conducted research on changes to the atmosphere related to the combustion of fossil fuels and large changes in land use. He studied the relationships between the carbon cycle and changes in climate. He also studied the role of oceans in modulating atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and was engaged in exploring other frontiers of climate science, such as tidal effects. Charles David Keeling was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania, in 1928 and received a B.A. in chemistry from the University of Illinois in 1948 and a Ph.D. in chemistry from Northwestern University in 1954. During the 1950s, the late Roger Revelle, worldrenowned oceanographer and director of Scripps from 1950 to 1964, became concerned about the potential for a greenhouse effect resulting from increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide from use of fossil fuels. He established an ongoing research program to monitor carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and, in 1956, recruited


Keeling, who at that time was a postdoctoral fellow in geochemistry at the California Institute of Technology. Dr. Keeling was also a Guggenheim Fellow at the Meteorological Institute of the University of Stockholm (1961–1962), and a guest professor at the Second Physical Institute of the University of Heidelberg, Germany (1969–1970), and the Physical Institute of the University of Bern, Switzerland (1979–1980). In 1993, he received the Blue Planet Prize from the Science Council of Japan and the Asahi Foundation; in 1991, the Maurice Ewing Medal of the American Geophysical Union; and in 1981, the Second Half Century Award of the American Meteorology Society. Dr. Keeling was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Geophysical Union, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science and a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Philosophical Society. In 2002, he was awarded the National Medal of Science, the nation’s highest recognition for lifetime achievement in scientific research. In 2005, he was awarded the Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement, considered to be the world’s most distinguished award in environmental science. He had major responsibility for two international conferences on oceanic and atmospheric carbon dioxide and was the author of more than ninety-five research articles. He was a long-standing member of the Commission on Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Pollution of the International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics and was the scientific director of the Central CO2 Calibration Laboratory of the World Meteorological Organization. His influence and legacy in the field are of significance worldwide and have been of utmost importance in bringing the world’s attention to the urgency of the work that must be done to combat global warming.


Sara Sawtelle, Ph.D., Chemist Dr. Sara Sawtelle taught for several years at the college level before becoming a chemist and a manager at Environmental Test Systems in Elkhart, Indiana. The company was looking for a chemist with good communication and people skills. At the time, Dr. Sawtelle was teaching at a local college. She began her employment with Environmental Test Systems (ETS) in May 1997. ETS was founded in 1985 to develop consumer and industrial applications for reagent strip technology. Test strips have been widely used in the medical diagnostic industry since the 1960s, when their introduction revolutionized the way physicians performed urinalyses and blood tests. The company has adapted the technology for applications in such diverse fields as pool and spa water testing, drinking water quality testing, automobile and diesel truck coolant testing, and industrial inprocess testing. Research and development efforts are ongoing as scientists continuously explore a variety of potential applications for the test strip. “My job does not have a typical day,” says Dr. Sawtelle. “I am very busy but not overstressed. I work forty-plus hours per week in an atmosphere that is very team oriented.” She is part of the marketing department, which she says enables her to share the joy of chemistry with others, particularly nonchemists. She finds those interactions intriguing and usually comes away feeling that she is learning more all the time. Dr. Sawtelle works in an environment that encourages out-ofthe-box thinking. Her day-to-day duties include assisting customers with technical questions and acting as the technical liaison between the lab and the marketing department. She talks with customers about products, learns about new products that are coming out, and helps in the legwork of developing and marketing new products. Dr. Sawtelle was attracted to the field because of all the interesting things that are part of chemistry, and the more she learned,


the more intrigued she became with how chemistry and life were connected. She pursued an education focused in science and earned her B.S. in chemistry from Clarion University of Pennsylvania in 1988. Subsequently, she earned her Ph.D. in analytical chemistry from Boston College in Massachusetts in 1992. She says that her work environment is very enjoyable and that, in her company, everyone from the president down to the line worker is considered important and has an invaluable function. She notes that that is a nice atmosphere in which to thrive. The most difficult part of her job is working with difficult customers. “This is to be expected,” she says. “Still, the hard part is not letting them get to you so that you join them in their attitude.” Most of Dr. Sawtelle’s job centers around communication— communication within the company, communication between scientists and nonscientists, communication with customers explaining problems to them in lay terms. “Communication is also of the utmost importance in presentations,” she says, “which are given to professionals who use our products in the field.” She mentions that her previous experience of teaching chemistry at the college level for five years has been very valuable in her current work. “Among other things,” she says, “it taught me how to listen and not jump to conclusions about what a person may be asking.” Dr. Sawtelle concludes, “My advice to others interested in this field is to believe in yourself and not to try to be someone else. Don’t try to change who you are. And don’t expect the first job you get out of college or school to be the right job for you. “As you grow as a person, be willing to try new things or new career paths. I never thought I would be where I am. I expected to become a college professor. But once I tried it, I found that there were aspects of that profession that did not work for me. I like being in the position I am in. So my advice is to make sure you like your career, or it is just not worth your energy. If you don’t like it, move on.”


James L. Erjavec, Environmental Geologist James L. Erjavec earned a B.S. in geology from Cleveland State University in Ohio and an M.S. in economic geology from the University of Arizona in Tucson. Eventually, he became employed by Parsons Infrastructure and Technology in Cincinnati, Ohio. “What attracted me to geology is that it is a field that incorporates almost all of the other sciences—chemistry, astronomy, biology, and so on,” says Erjavec. Geology and the earth were always of interest to him, even as a child collecting fossils from stream cuts. As he grew up, he says, the more he read about Earth, the more fascinated he became. Geology became his passion. When he entered college, he knew that it was the field he wanted to study. “Everything we are and everything we do relates to geology in some manner,” he says. “I felt that not only as a career, but also as a fulfillment of my goals, the study of geology would open my eyes to the wonders and mysteries of our planet. So far I have not been wrong.” His first job in the field was with Texaco in Los Angeles, California, right out of graduate school. At the time, he says, a geologist could easily find employment in the oil industry. Although his degree was more related to mining and mineral resources, such jobs were scarce. The training he required to convert from “hard” rock to “soft” rock geology was obtained through Texaco. When the state of the petroleum industry changed from good times to bad, he realized that just having a degree in geology was not enough to warrant continued employment. The company had incorporated computer systems into the exploration program, but he says that he was flustered by their complexity. One day he asked a coworker how he had become so proficient on computers. “He told me bluntly, ‘Keep working at it. Don’t be afraid to try things. The more you use computers, the more you’ll understand them. Eventually, it will become so familiar to you that you’ll think nothing of what I’m doing.’”


Erjavec says that he took this advice seriously and in time found himself doing all of his work on the computer. Then one day, he realized that what his coworker had told him had happened—he had passed some magical gate and actually understood what it was that he was doing and the entire chain of logic that enabled him to do it. He was promoted to the computer systems group and began training others in the use of the systems. Within a year, though, the Texaco oil wells went dry, and he was laid off along with many others. Because he had extensive computer knowledge, he says, he was able to switch careers and obtain a job with Intergraph Corporation, the vendor that Texaco bought its systems from. Though the work was not closely tied to geology, he enjoyed the challenge of a new field. His change of career fields paid off when he moved back into a geology role with Parsons, using his combination of computer and geology experience to his advantage. His current job is a combination of challenging projects and routine tasks. Normally, he says, he works with computers every day, all day. The work involves the analysis and graphical depiction of subsurface and surface data that is used to guide many of the cleanup and restoration operations at the Fernald Environmental Management Project in southwest Ohio, a site of uranium contamination. He works closely with engineering groups who design and implement the processes for contaminant removal and environmental restoration. Using Geographic Information System (GIS) technologies, he develops maps, cross sections, terrain models, contaminant plume models, and calculated data sets. He also assists with a wide variety of activities that occur at the site. He even does fieldwork on occasion, and geology is often part of his work. The workweek is normally forty hours and the atmosphere relaxed. But because deadlines are dictated by the EPA and DOE, he notes, some months become hectic.


What he likes most about the work is that he is able to use his geology education in his position. Also, he finds that the work is often challenging and thought provoking. It is the type of work where new and innovative ideas are needed to keep things moving. The types of jobs he works on vary considerably. The downside, he says, is that work is often sporadic in nature because of government schedules. Some months are extremely busy— everyone seems to need something done for his or her particular operation—while other months are slower. He advises others: “Focus on staying self-motivated. Realize that a college degree does not guarantee employment in your area of study. Be flexible and willing to see opportunities for growth as you mature in your working career. Gain as much knowledge and skills in other areas as you can. This will give you more success in staying employed and will allow you to change career fields if you desire (or need to). And to reiterate—be self-motivated.”

For More Information American Astronomical Society 2000 Florida Avenue NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20009 www.aas.org Offers a pamphlet on careers in astronomy

American Chemical Society 1155 Sixteenth Street NW Washington, DC 20036 www.acs.org General information on scholarships, mentoring programs, the ACS Scholarship Discussion Forum, and career opportunities and earnings for chemists


American Geological Institute 4220 King Street Alexandria, VA 22302 www.agiweb.org Provides information on education, AGI Associates Program, Science Undergraduate Laboratory Internship (SULI) programs through the U.S. Department of Energy, awards, training, and career opportunities for geologists

American Geophysical Union 2000 Florida Avenue NW Washington, DC 20009 www.agu.org Provides information on training and career opportunities for geophysicists and publishes books, journals, and e-publications

American Institute of Physics Career Planning and Placement One Physics Ellipse College Park, MD 20740 www.aip.org General information on career opportunities in physics, publications including Physics Today, calendar of events in the field, and information on education options

American Meteorological Society 45 Beacon Street Boston, MA 02108 www.ametsoc.org/AMS Offers information on meteorology careers and job listings dealing with climate change, storms, global environmental science; provides


notices, instructions, and application forms for seminars, certification programs, awards, and fellowships

American Physical Society Education Department One Physics Ellipse College Park, MD 20740 www.aps.org Physical Societies exist all over the world; offers international information on careers, events, competitions, awards and prizes, scholarships, and ongoing educational programs in major institutions

Argonne National Laboratory Division of Educational Programs 9700 South Cass Avenue Argonne, IL 60439 www.newton.dep.anl.gov Information on student and graduate internships and educational programs in physics

Geological Society of America PO Box 9140 Boulder, CO 80301 www.geosociety.org Provides information on education in undergraduate and graduate programs

Marine Technology Society 5565 Sterrett Place, Suite 108 Columbia, MD 21044 www.mtsociety.org Provides lists of education and training and career programs in oceanography and related fields; provides United States and


Canadian sections, scholarships, an Employment Center, and information for ocean engineers, technologists, policy makers, and educators

Careers with the United States Government Information on acquiring a job as a chemist, geologist, geophysicist, hydrologist, meteorologist, or oceanographer with the federal government may be obtained from the Office of Personnel Management through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number. Information also is available online at www.usajobs.opm.gov.


CHAPTER FIVE

Careers in the World of Invention Dreaming New Eurekas

So—it’s like all these influences came together, and out came a product that I knew would be easy to use, the way I liked to use a computer . . . which was to solve engineering problems, and occasionally to solve a puzzle, and also to play games. —Steve Wozniak, inventor of the personal computer

A

period of more than four thousand years in the stream of human existence passed between the invention of the wheel, first made of wood and used to pull carts in Mesopotamia about 3800 B.C., to the earliest known use of a mechanical windmill, which was in Persia about the year 600 A.D. Since then, in less than half that time, humankind has covered great stretches of the surface of the earth with its inventions—of metals and concrete and plastics and glass; of engines and ships and rails and wings; of paper and film and color and light, and, unfortunately, of millions of tons of refuse and castaway items. We have invented and gathered to ourselves many, many things and tossed as many into the garbage. Even the miraculous—and now almost indispensable—personal computer is contributing massively to filling up our solid-waste disposal dumps. With our inventiveness, we have used up a great deal of Earth’s resources, and with population growth, we have overcrowded much of its 99 Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.


surface. Perhaps the most important role of future inventions, therefore, must be to help us make do with much less—to streamline our possessions, and our needs, and to make our existence more elegant and more spare. We urgently need inventions to heat and cool our living environments, to help us bring global warming under control, to feed billions of people, and to keep us healthy—and also to keep us from growing to be too many more. We need to invent ways to stop violence and war, disease, and suffering; ways to allow everyone to share the work and the rewards of labor more equitably; ways to govern ourselves and to communicate more successfully. So we need inventions of the mind and of the human spirit, as well as for the needs of our human bodies, and we need inventions of exquisite altruism as well as of great commerce. Earth, it seems, now that our inventions permit us to see it from afar, is more finite and precious than we had ever dreamed. If we have invented, for thousands and thousands of years in the past, what we could take from and do with the resources of Earth, now we must more rapidly invent to restore it, and invent to honor, restore, and sustain our connection to it. If our best minds put themselves to work using the best tools of all the previous inventions and discoveries, they have at their command the wisdom and knowledge of all the prophets and philosophers, the physicists and mathematicians, the engineers, and all the scientists and artists who have gone before, and, if they carefully focus their goals—at this apex of human production—perhaps they will be able to invent the new concepts and forms that are needed to meet the challenges that face us now.

The World of Inventors Were you the kind of child who was always devising a better way to do something or make something—create a secret language or build a faster toy car or a more humane mousetrap? Perhaps you

C A R E E R S I N T H E WO R L D O F I N V E N T I O N • 1 0 1

are destined to become an inventor. Consider the following questions, and you may gain some insights into your interest in inventing things. 1. Have you always enjoyed taking things apart (and putting them back together)? 2. Do you often find that you have a better way to do something? 3. Do you like to draw systematically or sketch ideas? 4. Are you an innovator? 5. Do you like working independently and alone? 6. Can you withstand disappointment when things don’t work out as planned and simply keep on trying with more ideas? 7. Are you a dreamer of new ideas, concepts, and forms? 8. Are you self-motivated? 9. Do you follow through on projects on your own? If you answered yes to the majority of these questions, then you may be an inventive type. Inventors are often people who feel compelled to create something where there once was nothing. They may have some idea of what path to follow, but they really don’t know if their choices will take them where they want to go. Unlike other people, many inventors just can’t go through life making use of things in the usual ways. They are compelled to take things apart, ponder upon what they see, and contemplate ways that things could work better. Inventors just can’t resist the urge to explore their environment by “playing” with the things around them. This chapter deals mostly with the world of physical inventions in science and technology, which are created by independent inventors and by inventors working as employees, primarily in the research and development (R&D) departments of various universities, technical institutes, corporations, and government


organizations. If you are an inventor by nature, perhaps you will want to consider one of these environments. HELP WANTED—INVENTOR The Research and Development team in our major plastics manufacturing corporation needs an extraordinarily creative thinker to lead group efforts to develop new products.You would have engineering, production, and support staff at your disposal to create working prototypes to your specifications.We are looking for a team leader whose track record includes several U.S. patents and who has ideas and drive to pursue many more as part of our small, hands-on, corporate management team. Salary is commensurate with education and experience. Ideas and proven inventive abilities are priorities for obtaining the position. Excellent benefits package plus generous incentive plan for successful ventures. Send resume and copies of at least two previous patents.

Employment Options Inventors fall into two basic categories—those who work for themselves and those who work for someone else. Although it is true that the greatest number and most complex of inventions are made by the research and development departments of large corporations, universities, and governmental agencies, there are still many independent inventors out there—creating and improving on what already exists, obtaining patents, and bringing their new concepts to the public—all on their own. Freelance inventors have a great deal of conceptual freedom, and most enjoy this privilege so much that they do not want to work for anyone else. However, anyone who is interested in


becoming a freelance inventor should seriously consider the benefits of working for someone else, at least initially. Inventors who work for other people have some important advantages over those who work for themselves. While working for someone else, an inventor can gain valuable knowledge about procedures, systems of thinking, and how modern inventing works. They may also gain important contacts. They are usually able to work with larger, more expensive equipment than they could afford on their own. They don’t have to do as much of the work needed to get their products to the public, and they get a steady paycheck. On the other hand, employed inventors rarely can keep the rights to the things that they invent; they don’t have much control over the future of their creations, and they continue to get the same steady paycheck in the same amount, even if they just made a billion dollars for their employers! Of course, there are exceptions—sometimes an independent inventor may do some contract research and development on the side, and some employed inventors may also be working on personal invention projects in their spare time at home. Although independent inventors can focus on work in nearly any area—from the simple to the very complex—they tend to invent smaller, less-expensive devices and gadgets, such as what most of us have in our homes—paper clips, potato peelers, and pencil sharpeners. These may all seem like very simple, mundane inventions, but they make our lives much easier.

Invention, Innovation, and Discovery The words invention, innovation, and discovery are often used synonymously, but actually there are distinct differences. An invention is something brand new. Even though some of the parts of the invention may not be based on original ideas, the finished product must become something that is totally new.


Innovation is far more common than invention. An innovation improves on an already existing process or product, but nothing new is created. Discovery can happen as a planned event or a total accident of luck. For example, Benjamin Franklin is generally credited with discovering electricity. Actually, he really didn’t, but he was the first to perform a major experiment with it and the first to discover its properties. In fact, he provided us with most of what we know about electricity—even to this day. But there was no invention involved—simply a huge, important discovery that was based upon observation.

How It Works “From the simple to the complex” is a familiar formula for success. For a first invention, start with something simple. Then check your idea against the registered patents at one of the more than seventy U.S. patent depository libraries, which are located throughout the country, to make sure that you don’t duplicate someone else’s idea. Each of these libraries maintains a complete listing of all patents previously granted. Once you come up with an idea, you need to build a prototype—a first example of your product. If your product is a simple household gadget, you can probably build it yourself. If it is something large and complex, you may need help to make it a reality. Banks are the usual source of financing. Alternatives to banks are venture capitalists—individuals or organizations that provide funding, or capital, for new business ideas. They can be easier to win over than banks, but they will want to share in the profits as a return on their investment. Banks lend you money and expect to be paid back with interest, whereas venture capitalists lend you money in exchange for a percentage of the eventual profits of your product. It is important to at least apply for a patent before showing your creation to any potential manufacturer, but you are safe in dis-


cussing your ideas with a reputable attorney. If you consult a patent attorney, the initial fee will be in the range of $500 to $1,000. The complete costs of securing a patent will begin at about $5,000 (including attorney fees). Patent attorneys will assist with the process of patenting your product and protecting it from business predators who might try to take unfair advantage of you and your idea. Independents can either license their inventions to a manufacturer or set up their own companies and make an attempt to produce and market their inventions on their own. With a licensing agreement, the inventor receives a percentage royalty based upon the number of items sold by the manufacturer. To start your own company, you have to raise capital and have the management resources to produce the item. You may or may not make a profit, depending upon how successful sales are and how efficiently you operate the business. It is not unusual for the process of getting an invention into the marketplace to take a long time. In fact, it takes an average of two years to completely negotiate the process for most inventions, and this is only if the idea is an exceptionally good one. Most go back to the drawing board many times before manufacturing begins in earnest, meaning that it still takes a year or two to get your idea into production even after you have managed to elicit interest from manufacturers.

The National Inventors Hall of Fame In 1973, the United States Patent and Trademark Office and the National Council of Intellectual Property Law Associations founded the organization known as the National Inventors Hall of Fame. Several cities vied for the privilege of hosting the museum, and Akron, Ohio, was the winner. The organization also hosts Invent Now America, a biannual contest for inventors nationwide, in collaboration with the United States Patent and Trademarks Office, Time magazine, and the History Channel. As of 2006, there were 313 inductees. Inductees to


the Hall of Fame are chosen by a national panel of inventors and scientists. There are satellite offices in Washington, D.C. and Los Angeles. The following list shows the 2006 Inventors Hall of Fame Inductees:

• Herman Affel, 1893–1972, and Lloyd Espenschied, • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

1889–1986: Coaxial cable Karl Bosch, 1884–1940, and Fritz Haber, 1868–1934: Ammonia production process Willard Boyle, 1924–, and George Smith, 1930–: Chargecoupled device Vinton Cerf, 1943–, and Robert Kahn, 1938–: Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Robert Gore, 1937–: GORE-TEX® Richard Hoe, 1812–1886: Rotary printing press Benjamin Holt, 1849–1920: Track-type tractor Ali Javan, 1926–: Helium-neon laser Robert Langer, 1948–: Controlled drug delivery Julio Palmaz, 1945–: The Palmaz® Intravascular Stent Gregory Pincus, 1903–1967: Oral contraceptive pill Games Slayter, 1896–1964; Dale Kleist, 1909–1998; and John Thomas, 1907–1991: Fiberglass Elihu Thomson, 1853–1937: Arc lighting William Upjohn, 1853–1932: Dissolvable pill Granville Woods, 1856–1910: Railroad telegraph

Education and Training If you are interested in scientific and technical work, you should consider the best technical institute and university training that you can get. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Virginia Polytechnic, Illinois Institute of Technology, University of California at Los Angeles, and many others may provide the environment that you are looking for. If you plan to work for an employer, you will need the college degree and will do best with an advanced degree.


It is true that many inventors from the past—and even today— have been self-taught. No courses are available in Invention 101. Although there is no clear-cut educational program for becoming an inventor, there are some obvious steps to take in order to develop yourself for the kind of inventing that most intrigues you. You will probably already have discovered that you have mechanical aptitude or that you are interested most in computer hardware or in the design of aerodynamic forms. Whatever area has captured your imagination, you will probably find that a broad general education will be helpful because it provides a greater field of knowledge and ideas from which to draw. A basic education in the physical sciences, mathematics, and computer sciences will provide a useful foundation. Engineering, computer science, design, CAD, production and manufacturing, and materials handling may also be needed. Adequate English and composition skills to write and submit proposals and make presentations of your inventions to potential patrons or clients are important, as well. Even if you intend to work for an employer, you will usually be required to write and present proposals and reports, both for your internal corporate management and for outside clients. Some of these reports may also include financial, marketing, and sales projections. You may find that you need basic business courses, including finance, product planning and production, and marketing and sales. As your career progresses, you will easily determine whether it would be helpful for you to study engineering, design, manufacturing, transportation, or distribution, if these elements affect your own work, or if you want to have a more informed voice in the decision-making processes and corporate planning. If you decide to be a freelance inventor, you will need education and training in basic budgeting, bookkeeping, and accounting, unless you have a reliable person to do it for you or you can afford to pay for these services. A solid foundation in computer skills is necessary for most jobs today and may be even more important to you if you are working


alone. Proficiency in Microsoft Office or other office software is essential for most jobs. You will need a word-processing program, such as Microsoft Word or WordPerfect, plus a spreadsheet program, a data management program, and a presentation program. Microsoft Office supplies all of these and is widely used, but you should find out what is most commonly used in the industry that you want to work with—either as an employee or as a consultant or contractor. You will want to make sure that you can communicate efficiently with others in your company or with your clients, if you are an independent, and that you are able to do the project reports and presentations that are usually required. You can build up some of these skills gradually, and you will need to investigate the corporate culture in your field to see what you will need at the beginning. If you’re very lucky, you may also find beginning work for a company that is large enough to have administrative assistants to do the word processing and spreadsheets for the project development employees. Or, conversely, small enough that the owner or owners are part of the inventing staff, there is a real “shirt-sleeves” camaraderie, and everyone pitches in to share skills and information with much flexibility and very little formal expectation of each other’s “office” skills. In addition to basic courses and computer skills, learn everything you can about inventing, including its history and its modern applications and routines. Read some biographies about famous inventors. Try to figure out what common traits inventors have. Do you see those traits in yourself? There are many good books on inventing that take you through the processes step by step, from getting your idea down on paper to making a prototype, getting a patent, finding funding, negotiating a deal with a manufacturer, and marketing your invention. Becoming a successful inventor in today’s world usually requires a solid education, because in order to improve things effectively and get backing for your ideas, you need to know how things work now. Choose the area that interests you, major in that


area in college, and gain internships. All inventors should know a lot about at least one area and a little about everything else. Not everything has to be learned in a classroom. Read books and magazines on a wide variety of topics. Journals and magazines such as Discover and Scientific American are useful for keeping up on the field. Attending workshops geared to inventors is sometimes a good way to network and share experiences. If you think you are an inventor, you already know the drill. Observe the world around you. How can things be improved? Where do you see that things are lacking? What items would make life easier for most of us? How can you make a contribution to society? Dream your dreams. Research the areas that are relevant. Jot things down. As ideas come to you—sometimes as snippets of ideas or very general solutions to problems—keep them in a good, simple filing system so that you can easily refer to and, when the time comes, organize your ideas so that you can proceed. Explore, compare, contrast, and imagine. When you think you have come up with an idea, try it out! Does it seem feasible? Does it work physically? How does it need to be adjusted? Do you know how to accomplish these refinements? Always challenge yourself to come up with something even better. Plant the seeds of creative new ideas in your mind and see what sprouts from there. Don’t forget that all inventors build on what exists already, taking up where the last inventors left off. Analytical skills are essential to being successful as an inventor. The best way to improve these skills is to sign up for science classes because analysis is an important part of every class. Other good classes to foster this are history, philosophy, and English. History encourages you to identify and analyze why things happened the way they did. Philosophy teaches an understanding of values. English teaches how to organize and express thoughts in an understandable and efficient way. Inventors—particularly independent inventors—must have a fertile imagination, persistence, discipline, tenacity, an outstanding


work ethic, and the ability to be productive. Don’t think of your inventing as a hobby—take it seriously. Persistence and hard work are what separates successful inventors from those who are merely tinkerers. There are no shortcuts to success.

Employment Outlook Inventors who work as employees are usually part of the research and development (R&D) departments of corporations or work in research and development in various parts of government agencies or in universities. It’s difficult to judge the employment outlook for inventors. However, we know that we live in a world that is constantly looking for new and innovative products and services. We know, also, that large companies, government agencies, and universities will always have people working on research and development in order to feed this interest. In addition, there will always be independent inventors with foresight enough to see new and exciting products that will benefit people all over the world.

Earnings Independent inventors’ incomes can range from nothing to unlimited figures; inventors who are full-time employees in research and development usually receive regular salaries that are quite good. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 2004 nonsupervisory workers in scientific research and development services earned $1,006 per week on average, which was substantially higher than the $529 average for all industries. The earnings of those engaged in research and development in the physical, engineering, and life sciences differ substantially from the earnings of those in research and development in the social sciences and humanities, with respective average weekly salaries of $1,041 and $741.


Earnings also varied considerably by occupation, with workers in management and professional occupations earning more. Occupations with higher earnings also typically reflect higher levels of education and experience. Independent inventors often have difficulty making a living from their inventions, and only a small number actually make a substantial amount of money from them. Many maintain a day job as an employee, sometimes in a related work area, and work on their inventions in their spare time. At the other end of the scale, many of the world’s billionaires (about 946 worldwide, according to the Forbes 2007 list of the world’s wealthiest people) are inventors. They may not be inventing now, but many of them originally achieved their high income levels by having invented something very useful or very much desired.

Professional Lives The following three profiles of inventors can provide insight into the path to success.

Alfred B. Nobel, Chemist, Inventor, Entrepreneur, Philanthropist Alfred Bernhard Nobel was born in Stockholm, Sweden, on October 23, 1833, and moved to Russia when he was a young boy. His father owned and operated a mechanical engineering workshop there, and Alfred showed an early interest. He was a good student who liked science and learned foreign languages readily. He also studied literature and philosophy, although he never graduated from a college or university. When Alfred was thirty, he went back to Sweden. He worked as a chemist in his father’s workshop, and within a year, he had improved upon the explosive, nitroglycerine, and began manufacturing it in 1864. He opened plants in several countries, and in 1867, he applied for a patent on a new type of nitroglycerine, which he called dynamite.


He eventually improved on that form also and took part in developing a gelatin nitroglycerine, which was somewhat safer to handle. Alfred Nobel registered a total of 355 patents, some of which were very valuable, and in time he became one of the wealthiest men in Europe. He spent his entire life working on his inventions, managing his business interests, traveling, and studying the society around him. He was somewhat shy and lonely, but he had strong ideas about the social and economic institutions and conditions of his time. He was sixty-three years old when he died in December of 1896. Within a month, the world knew that he had left most of his fortune to fund the Nobel Foundation. The income of the investments was to be used each year to fund the Nobel Prizes for persons whose work had done the most to benefit humanity. For more than a hundred years, the Nobel Prize has come to symbolize the achievement of excellence and profound contribution to the world.

Abul Hassam, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry The National Academy of Engineering announced in January of 2007 that the $1 million Grainger Challenge Prize for Sustainability would go to Dr. Abul Hassam, a chemistry professor at George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia. The Sustainability Prize was funded by the Grainger Foundation, which established a challenge to create a solution to the problem of the highly poisonous arsenic in drinking water that was causing skin disease and incurable cancers in certain parts of East India and Bangladesh. The winning invention was to be an affordable, reliable, and environmentally friendly solution to the arsenic problem, and it had to be one that did not require electricity, which was not available in many areas where the arsenic problem occurred. Abul Hassam is a native of Bangladesh. He moved to the United States in 1978. He became a citizen and earned a doctorate in ana-


lytical chemistry. He then devoted many years of his career to research and experimenting with ways to combat the arsenic problem. Over the years, Dr. Hassam tested hundreds of prototypes for inexpensive and efficient filtering systems. Eventually he developed a simple, maintenance-free system that uses charcoal and sand, along with crushed brick and irregularly-shaped pieces of porous cast iron. Each filter requires twenty pounds of the iron, which forms a chemical bond with the arsenic and removes almost all of it from the well water. The filtration systems cost about $40 each and are being made in Bangladesh. More than thirty thousand are being distributed, and some are already in use in villages in Bangladesh and East India. Hassam plans to use 70 percent of the prize money to help provide filters to needy communities, 25 percent to do more research, and 5 percent to be donated to his university.

Gordon Matthews, Inventor Credited with more than forty-five patents, Gordon Matthews is best known as the inventor of voice message exchange (VMX), more commonly known as voice mail. In recognition of his industry contributions, he has received the Inventor of the Year Award from the Texas Bar Association and an Industry Achievement Award from the International Communications Association. Matthews earned his B.S. in engineering physics from the University of Tulsa in Oklahoma. He began his career as an engineer in 1962, first with IBM and later with Texas Instruments, where he managed the development of the first minicomputer-based message switching system. In 1969, he founded his first company, Computer Control Systems, where he introduced a store-andforward switching system used in the brokerage industry. A year later, he founded Action Communication Systems, where he managed the development of two products, the Telecontroller and the WATSBOX. The latter became the forerunner of today’s computer-driven telephone systems.


In 1976, Matthews founded VMX to develop the first commercial voice messaging system. He sold the first system to the 3M corporation and played an integral part in all subsequent sales and marketing. During this time, he also oversaw the intellectual property of the enterprise, resulting in the granting of the pioneer patent for voice mail. When Matthews recognized the need for call management systems for the burgeoning small office/home office and consumer markets, he founded Matthews Communications in 1996. He died in 2002. Matthews said that he considered himself an entrepreneur and inventor and that his unique talent was to create solutions to problems that impacted many people. His entrepreneurial ability was to create companies and products that could be made profitable and create solutions and shareholder value for the owners of the company. His first invention was an aircraft speech recognition system that would allow pilots to control cockpit functions, such as changing radio or navigational frequencies while flying at night or in formation. Matthews said there was no typical day. He tried to be sensitive to everyday problems around him that needed solutions. If there were large numbers of people with the same problem, and the system could be implemented with existing technology, then he tried to create an environment whereby the problems were solved via products or services. In order to do this, he believed it was better to work in an active environment, where he was exposed to many situations. Part of the responsibility of creation is to implement; therefore, significant time was spent in either taking the lead or assisting others in capital raising, team selection, product development, and product introduction. He said that the most rewarding part of his work was inventing products or services that enrich many people’s lives. He found his work so enjoyable that he couldn’t think of a downside.


Matthews said, “I would advise others to make sure your real talent is to create and invent and that you have the ability to be a generalist while looking for a solution (invention). Once you have found it, you must be able to focus entirely on that opportunity until it is solved. How much more rewarding work could one do than to develop something that truly benefits humankind in some way? Go for it!”

For More Information American Society of Patent Holders (Independent Inventors) Inventive Place 221 South Broadway Street Akron, OH 44308 www.invent.org/asph.html Invent America! PO Box 26065 Alexandria, VA 22313 www.inventamerica.org Invent Now National Inventors Hall of Fame 221 South Broadway Akron, OH 44308 www.invent.org Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation Room 1016, MRC 604 Fourteenth Street and Constitution Avenue NW Smithsonian Institution PO Box 37012 Washington, DC 20013 www.invention.smithsonian.org


United Inventors Association 999 Lehigh Station Road Henrietta, NY 14467 www.uiausa.com Excellent resource for beginning and experienced inventors; provides sample nondisclosure agreements, advice on related issues such as what to avoid about invention marketing companies, and Q&As from a panel of experts; includes list of inventor organizations and resources; provides (for a fee) an innovation assessment service

CHAPTER SIX

Careers in Aeronautics Reaching for the Stars

You realize that . . . on that little blue and white thing, is everything that means anything to you—all of history and music and poetry and art . . . on that little spot you can cover with your thumb . . . and you realize . . . that there’s something new there, that the relationship is no longer what it once was. —Apollo Astronaut “Rusty” Schweikart on viewing Earth from space while on the Apollo Mission

T

he space age began in the United States with the establishment of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1959, created as a response to the launch of Sputnik I the year before by the USSR. The agency’s first goal was realized in 1969 when Neil Armstrong landed on the moon. Although many Americans may now consider space flights as almost routine, this is hardly the case. Each flight is unique, contributing astonishing and often previously unimagined insights into space and our solar system and galaxy. In addition, every flight is accompanied by the awareness of the tremendous risks being taken by the human beings whose lives are invested in this particularly heroic and extremely uncertain career. In 1967, Roger B. Chaffee, Edward White, and Virgil Ivan Grissom perished during the testing of the Apollo I rocket; the tragic deaths of the 117 Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.


astronauts aboard the Challenger and Columbia stay in our hearts and thoughts, reminding us of how dangerous the flights are and how costly they can be. Those who are willing to become astronauts are people of the highest intelligence, skills, and courage. Although they are few in number, their heroism and their dedication to their work and to the safety and success of their colleagues have been an inspiration to millions.

The World of Aeronautics Though the word astronaut means “sailor among the stars,” astronauts spend most of their time on the ground, preparing themselves to operate in space and gain knowledge of new horizons. Other specialists in the industry are similarly earthbound, except in their imaginations and the conceptions of space travel that inform all of their efforts.

Working as Space Shuttle Crew Members Once astronauts are chosen and assigned to missions, they take their places as part of space shuttle crews, which consist of at least five people: the commander, the pilot, and three mission specialists, all of whom are NASA astronauts. Some flights also call for payload specialists, scientists or engineers responsible for the cargo being carried into space. Occasionally, special technicians, physicians, meteorologists, or biologists are also included. Crew members are cross-trained so that each one is able to handle at least one other associate’s duties whenever necessary. Each crew member of the spacecraft has certain regular duties that are essential to the success of the mission:

• Pilot astronauts are the commanders, or pilots, of the space shuttle. They are in charge of the vehicle, crew, and success

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of the mission. They maneuver the orbiter, supervise the crew and the operations of the vehicle, and are responsible for the safety of the flight. The commander and the second in command on the ship are both pilot astronauts who have had flight training in the military and who know how to fly aircraft and the spacecraft. Pilots help the commander control and operate the orbiter and may also help to manipulate satellites by using a remote control system. Like other crew members, they sometimes do work outside the craft or may take care of the payload. • Mission specialist astronauts work closely with the commander and pilot and are responsible for coordinating onboard operations involving crew activity and planning and overseeing payload activities. They are required to have a detailed knowledge of shuttle systems and are expected to perform duties such as experiments, space walks, and payload-handling functions. • Payload specialists are skilled in operating shuttle equipment. Selection of the payload specialist member is made by the payload sponsor or client and is approved by NASA. Payload specialists receive intensive training for their mission assignments, such as launching a satellite into orbit. They also receive comprehensive flight training to become familiar with all of the shuttle systems.

Work Aboard the Ship Astronauts conduct a variety of experiments and other types of research under conditions of near-zero gravity. Laboratories may focus on or be related to earth sciences or astronomy. Astronauts may also be in charge of deploying, servicing, or retrieving satellites or working with meters, sensors, special cameras, or other technical equipment. While in space, astronauts are also able to increase our knowledge by observing various phenomena of the solar system and of Earth, such as geological formations or pollution currents.


As with any profession, a career as an astronaut has some drawbacks. One commonly shared among astronauts is lack of time for family because of the intensity of the required workload. Hours can be long and unpredictable. A great deal of ordinary travel is involved, especially during the busiest times three months before and two months after a launch. A workday can last from 7:30 A.M. until 11 P.M. or even around the clock. These demands of the job are in addition to the basic fact that most people would consider being an astronaut a high-risk occupation.

Education and Other Requirements Prospective astronauts should take advanced placement classes in math, biology, or physical science in high school. English and a foreign language are also important. A candidate should also earn high grades and score well on standardized tests. The minimum degree expected is a bachelor’s degree from an accredited institution, plus three years of related professional experience. In addition, most astronauts have postgraduate degrees, as well as considerable experience in their fields. Individual biographies of the astronauts, describing their backgrounds and education, are available from NASA online at www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios. NASA sponsors student programs, summer internships, and co-op programs that provide valuable experience for young people who are interested in the Astronaut Candidate Program. Students should investigate the possibilities as soon as possible, even as early as junior high or early in high school, and apply as soon as possible because the positions fill up very quickly. Flight experience is a requirement to become a pilot or commander on a space shuttle mission. NASA requires at least one thousand hours of flight time for the person in command. While not a requirement, flight experience is also advantageous for mission specialists.


As of 2007, military experience was not required for the Astronaut Candidate Program. Of the ninety-four mission specialists on board in 2007, thirty-two were military and sixty-two were civilian. There are currently no age requirements for astronauts, but excellent physical health is necessary. Candidates in the past have ranged between the ages of twenty-six and forty-six, with the average age being thirty-four. Eye surgery of any kind is a disqualifying factor; no laser or other surgery on the eyes is permitted. Candidates for the Astronaut Candidate Program must be U.S. citizens. The only non–U.S. citizens accepted as astronauts are international astronauts and payload specialists. We have international agreements with other countries, including Brazil, Canada, Japan, and Russia, each of which maintains its own national space agency, as well as with the European Space Agency.

Becoming a Candidate United States civilian applicants can apply for the program using the U.S. Government Application Form 171. Military applicants must apply through their commanding officers in accordance with military procedure. Full instructions for making application are given on the NASA website (www.nasa.gov). All applications are ranked by considerations such as physical proportions, health, education, and expertise. Just as in any other application process, the applicant is competing against many other candidates—an average of more than four thousand other applicants for about twenty slots that open up every two years. The applications are then narrowed down to the most qualified— usually around 120 applicants—who then are selected to go through about a week of interviews, medical exams, and orientation. The Astronaut Selection Board (ASB) looks particularly for people who have done well in a technical field. Candidates should make sure that they have superior recommendations—especially


from undergraduate and graduate school professors—that attest to problem-solving abilities, communication skills, and ability to work well in a team setting. The ASB interviews all finalists and assigns each one a rating based on experience and potential, motivation, ability to function as a member of a team, communicative abilities, and adaptability. Some applicants do not possess the required interpersonal skills or other requisite characteristics for the position and may be rejected solely on that basis. A significant number of applicants do not meet medical standards, and still others withdraw after gaining a complete understanding of the job. Pilots are chosen exclusively from a pool of high-achieving jet pilots who have accumulated more than a thousand hours of time in the air. Most pilot/commanders are individuals who have served or are currently serving in the armed forces. Civilian mission specialists are those with advanced training in areas such as astronomy, biology, medicine, or mathematics. Based on information collected during the interview and examination process, the ASB chooses its final candidates and passes those recommendations on to the NASA administrator, who makes the final selection. Candidates who are selected begin a rigorous training program at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.

Training During training at the Johnson Space Center, astronauts must take further course work. In the formal academic areas, novice astronauts take a full range of basic science and technical courses, including mathematics, earth resources, meteorology, guidance and navigation, astronomy, physics, and computer sciences. They also spend time in weightless-simulation drills, learning how to


conduct necessary work while wearing a space suit. Astronaut training is highly specialized and requires the efforts of hundreds of persons and numerous facilities. Initial training for new candidates consists of a series of courses in aircraft safety, including instruction on ejection, parachuting, and survival, to prepare them in the event their aircraft is disabled and they have to eject or make an emergency landing. Pilot and mission specialist astronauts are trained to fly highperformance jet aircraft to sharpen their flying skills and become familiar with high-performance jets. As manned space flight programs have become more sophisticated, so too has the complex training process needed to meet the demands of operating the space shuttle. Basic knowledge of the shuttle system, including payloads, is obtained through lectures, briefings, textbooks, and flight operations manuals. Future crew members are trained in orbiter habitability, routine housekeeping and maintenance, waste management and stowage, television operations, and extra-vehicular activities. The student astronauts gain hands-on experience in trainers, which contain computer databases with simulations software, allowing students to interact with controls and displays like those of a shuttle crew station. Here they can develop work procedures and learn to respond effectively to malfunction situations in a shuttle-like environment. Astronauts in training receive extensive instruction about weightlessness. Learning to function in a weightless environment is simulated in aircraft and in an enormous neutral-buoyancy tank at the center. Training culminates in the intensive weeks prior to the flight when the flight crew and ground controllers rehearse the entire mission in joint training exercises.


Job Settings for Astronauts and Related NASA Employees Pilot and mission astronauts work mainly at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas (JSC). Other NASA space and research centers include Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California; Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland; Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama; Kennedy Space Center, Kennedy Space Center, Florida; Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia; Glenn Research Centers, Plum Brook Station, Cleveland, Ohio; and Stennis Space Center, Bay Saint Louis, Mississippi.

Earnings According to the NASA website’s published information in 2007, civilian astronaut candidates received salaries in accordance with the federal government’s General Schedule pay scale for grades GS-11 through GS-13. The grade was based upon the individual’s academic degrees, civilian work, and military experience. The GS-11 starting pay was quoted at $56,445 per year; a GS-13 could earn up to $104,581 per year. Military astronaut candidates remain in an active-duty status for pay, benefits, leave, and other similar military matters and are assigned to Johnson Space Center for a specified period of time.

A Professional Life James Arthur Lovell Jr., Astronaut As a high school junior, James Arthur Lovell Jr. launched a rocket with the help of a chemistry teacher and two friends. Though it rose only eighty feet in the air and was only partially successful, Lovell knew even then that he longed for a career in rocket science.


True to his ambition, Lovell became a U.S. Navy test pilot and was chosen to be an astronaut in 1962. He served as module pilot for the Apollo 8 mission (the first manned flight to orbit the moon) and as a member of the Gemini 7 crew (in space for two weeks). He worked with pilot Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin on Gemini 12 and served as commander of Apollo 13 in 1970. The Apollo 13 mission was very nearly a disaster, when an explosion caused the shuttle to lose oxygen and power. For four days, the world waited and prayed that somehow the astronauts would make it back home safely. The story of the Apollo 13 mission was made into a movie, based upon Lovell’s book, originally titled Lost Moon, with actor Tom Hanks playing the part of Lovell. To become familiar with the details, Hanks traveled to meet and fly with Lovell. “I tried to convey to him my feelings, my actions, my views, my goals, my inner being, so he could gain some insights and a perception of the character,” explains Lovell. “To tell you the truth, I would have worked for NASA for nothing,” says Lovell. “It was such an amazing and interesting job.” He says that he wasn’t the only one who felt that way—most of the other astronauts and a lot of other people who worked for NASA did, too. In fact, the attrition rate at the time was almost zero because no one wanted to leave. He thinks that it’s because the sense of achievement and satisfaction you receive as an astronaut for a job well done is incredible—pioneering new avenues, new vistas, seeing things for the first time. He says that Apollo 8 was an awe-inspiring flight because he and his mission mates were the first to see the far side of the moon—obviously one of the great milestones of his career. He feels that to become a successful astronaut, a candidate must have the following qualities: “curiosity, the ability to handle stress, the facility to work well in team situations, the initiative to see problems and overcome them, sufficient training in a particular discipline, such as biology or engineering, and the ability to perform optimally with only five or six hours of sleep per night!” He


notes that it’s also important to be goal-oriented and persistent. “You need to be the kind of person who is motivated to accomplish goals and be qualified and ready to enhance luck to make it work for you in the best way possible.” Lovell feels that NASA will continue its efforts because it has proven to be a viable, creative program. Funding will fluctuate up and down, he cautions, and the numbers of people involved may vary, but it will always attract well-qualified individuals who are motivated to explore new worlds and share in the thrill of learning things we never knew before.

For More Information For information about aviation, aerospace, aeronautics, astronautics, flight training, and related training and careers, contact the following associations. Aerospace Industries Association 1000 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 1700 Arlington, VA 22209 www.aia-aerospace.org American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Suite 500 Reston, VA 20191 www.aiaa.org Federal Aviation Administration 800 Independence Avenue SW, Room 810 Washington, DC 20591 www.faa.gov


NASA Headquarters Public Communications and Inquiries Management Office Suite 5K39 Washington, DC 20546 www.nasa.gov www.nasajobs.nasa.gov Provides information about the U.S. Space Camp/Space Academy for students, adults, and teachers; a wealth of information about NASA, astronauts, educational and career opportunities, student employment opportunities, and job openings and application procedures


CHAPTER SEVEN

Careers in Engineering Designing New Ways to Make Things Work

Engineering is the science of economy, of conserving the energy, kinetic and potential, provided and stored up by nature for the use of man. It is the business of engineering to utilize this energy to the best advantage, so that there may be the least possible waste. —Willard A. Smith (1908)

I

t has been said that the story of civilization is the story of engineering. A great deal of our knowledge of the progress of the ancient civilizations can be observed in the remains of the works of their engineers. The Great Pyramids and the architectural ruins of classical Athens, Carthage, and Rome all speak to us of the knowledge and sophistication of the engineering feats of their times. We marvel at the Valley of the Kings, the Temple of Athena, the Coliseum, the Appian Way, and the far-reaching aqueducts that brought running water into the very heart of the households of Pompeii. Franklin D. Roosevelt said in 1931, “There can be little doubt that in many ways the story of bridge building is the story of civilization. By it we can readily measure an important part of a people’s progress.” His thoughtful comment brings to mind the



Roman roads and bridges that we can still see today—not only in Italy, but around all the shores of the Mediterranean and far north among the hills of parts of Europe and the British Isles. The engineering works of the ancient civilizations provide evidence of their astonishing mathematical, physical, and artistic expertise. We can easily observe that they were scientists and scholars who studied and valued knowledge and who preserved and passed it on from generation to generation. We know that the ancients honored their engineers. It was written that in ancient Rome, when a master engineer’s work was being completed, he would stand directly beneath the arch as the keystone was put in place, thereby assuring that, if it should fail, he would die beneath it. Engineering is a scientific, mathematical, and creative profession whose members are dedicated to bringing ideas into concrete reality, and their mantra and most earnest focus is, “Will it work?” Their solid contributions have traditionally placed them among society’s most trusted and respected citizens. The following anonymous list of some of the personal characteristics of engineers is fun to consider. If you decide to follow this profession, you may want to add some items of your own to the list. TOP FIVE REASONS TO DATE AN ENGINEER 1. The world does revolve around us, and we always pick the coordinate system. 2. You’ll find out what those other buttons on your calculator do. 3. We know how to handle stress and strain in our relationships. 4. You’ll get help with your math homework. 5. Your family will approve.

Surely at this time in the history of civilization on Earth, there is nothing that we need more than the conservative use of all our

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resources, with the least possible waste. If today’s engineers can bring urgently needed economy to the solution of our many current needs and concerns, then the civilized world shall be forever grateful.

The Working World of Engineering Engineers apply the theories and principles of science and mathematics to the solution of practical technical problems. Often their work is the link between scientific knowledge and discoveries and their commercial application. Engineers design machinery, products, systems, and processes for efficient and economical performance. They design industrial machinery and equipment for manufacturing defense-related goods and weapons systems for the armed forces; design, plan, and supervise the construction of buildings, highways, and rapidtransit systems; and design and develop systems for the control and automation of manufacturing, business, and management processes. Engineers consider many factors in developing a new product. For example, in developing an industrial robot, they determine precisely what function it needs to perform; design and test the necessary components; fit them together in an integrated plan; and evaluate the design’s overall effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety. This process applies to products as diverse as toys, computers, gas turbines, helicopters, and bridges. Many engineers work in testing, production, or maintenance in addition to design and development. Here they may supervise production in factories, determine the causes of machinery breakdowns, and test various manufactured products to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost to complete projects. Some work in engineering management or in specific areas of sales where an engineering background enables them to discuss the technical aspects of particular products and assist in planning their installation or use.


HELP WANTED—STAFF ENGINEER Our company develops and markets innovative products such as sutures and ligatures for surgical use.The staff engineer will assess new technologies and product opportunities, focusing on intellectual property, feasibility of approach, product safety, and technical alternatives. He/she will oversee collaborations with external technology sources, lead the incorporation of new technologies, develop prototypes, and provide technical training for the work group. The candidate must have a Ph.D. in engineering or physics and one to two years of product design and development experience, preferably with medical devices. Five years of experience in assessment of intellectual property and technology or a degree in engineering (B.S. or M.S.) is also acceptable. A background in patent searching, claims comparison, and patent mapping, along with working knowledge of domestic and international patents and thorough knowledge of the product development process are also required. The successful candidate will have strong presentation, communication, and interpersonal skills.The company offers competitive salary and benefits, including medical/dental, a 401(k), a pension plan, and a comprehensive wellness program. Please apply directly online. Engineers often use computers to create simulations to test how particular machines, structures, or systems will operate. Many engineers also use computer-aided design (CAD) systems to produce and analyze designs and to operate certain kinds of large, complex systems. They may spend a great deal of time consulting with other engineers and preparing reports because many complex projects require extensive interdisciplinary teams. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects.


Engineering Specializations Most engineers specialize. More than twenty-five major specialties are recognized by professional engineering societies, and within the major branches are numerous subdivisions. Structural, environmental, and transportation engineering, for example, are subdivisions of civil engineering. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one field of technology, such as propulsion or guidance systems.

Acoustical Engineers Acoustical engineers deal with the physics of sound. Their work often involves architectural projects, military projects such as submarine and aircraft construction, and the effects of sound waves on a myriad of other constructions.

Aerospace Engineers Aerospace engineers design, develop, test, and help manufacture commercial and military aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft for use in commercial aviation, defense systems, and space exploration. They work in structural design, guidance, navigation and control, instrumentation and communication, and production methods. They may specialize in particular types of aerospace products, such as commercial airplanes, helicopters, spacecraft, or rockets. Aerospace engineers may be experts in acoustics, aerodynamics, propulsion, thermodynamics, structures, celestial mechanics, or guidance and control systems.

Biomedical Engineers Biomedical engineers apply the principles and knowledge of engineering to medical and physiological problems. According to the National Institutes of Health, this science integrates physical, chemical, mathematical, and computer sciences and engineering principles with the study of biology, medicine, psychology, and


health. These engineers develop innovative biologics, materials, processes, implants, devices, and informatics approaches for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, for patient rehabilitation, and for improving health. Their work ranges from the molecular to the organ systems levels. Teaching hospitals and universities are developing new and integrated approaches for these interdisciplinary students. For example, Dr. James Burgess of Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh began a program in 2006 for engineering students in the bioengineering program to visit operating rooms at Allegheny General Hospital and work one on one with surgeons to learn about surgery and identify surgical engineering needs. He has another program at Johns Hopkins Medical Center.

Ceramics, Metallurgical, and Materials Engineers Ceramics, metallurgical, and materials engineers develop new types of ceramics, composites, metal alloys, and other materials to meet special requirements. Examples are the ceramic tiles that protect the space shuttle from burning up during reentry and the alloy turbine blades used in jet engines. Ceramic engineers develop new ceramic materials and methods for making ceramic materials into useful products. Ceramics include all nonmetallic, inorganic materials that require high temperatures in processing. Ceramic engineers work on glassware, semiconductors, automobile and aircraft engine components, fiber-optic phone lines, tile, and electric power line insulators. Most metallurgical engineers are employed in one of three main branches of metallurgy—1) extractive or chemical, 2) physical, or 3) mechanical or process.

• Extractive metallurgists are concerned with removing metals from ores and refining and alloying them to obtain useful metal.


• Physical metallurgists study the nature, structure, and physical properties of metals and their alloys and methods of processing them into final products. • Mechanical metallurgists develop and improve metalworking processes, such as casting, forging, rolling, and drawing. Materials engineers evaluate technical requirements and materials specifications to develop materials that can be used, for example, to reduce weight but not strength of an object. They evaluate materials and develop new ones, such as the composite materials that were required for use in the Stealth aircraft.

Chemical Engineers Chemical engineers apply the principles of chemistry and engineering to solve problems involving production of chemical products or the use of chemicals in other industries. Most are involved in the production of chemicals and chemical products. They design equipment and develop processes for producing chemicals, plan and test methods of manufacturing products, and supervise production, often including inspection and quality control. Chemical engineers also work in other industries, such as electronics, environmental engineering, wastewater management, petroleum products, and various kinds of manufacturing. Because their duties cut across many fields, chemical engineers apply chemistry, physics, mathematics, and mechanical and electrical engineering in their work. They frequently specialize in a particular operation, such as oxidation or polymerization. Others specialize in a particular area, such as pollution control or production of a specific product, such as plastics or chlorine bleach.

Civil Engineers Civil engineers design and supervise the construction of airports, bridges, buildings, levees, roads, tunnels, and water supply and


sewage systems. Major specialties within civil engineering include construction, environmental, geotechnical, structural, transportation, and water resources engineering. Many civil engineers hold supervisory or administrative positions, ranging from supervisor of a single construction site to city engineer. Others may work in design, construction, research, and teaching. Many are employed by the military.

Combustion and Explosives Engineers Combustion and explosive engineers work closely with civil, hydroelectric, and mining engineers, as well as others. They are the “blasters” who are responsible for breaking rock to make way for highways, bridges, hydroelectric dams, and buildings. These scientists design blasts, install and monitor explosives, and install seismographs to make sure explosions are within governmentregulated levels. They supervise hole drilling, placement and linkage of explosives, and blasts. They inspect the sites following the explosions and submit detailed records to both the project managers and engineers and to multiple government agencies.

Computer Software Engineers Computer software engineers design and create the software that runs computers. This includes both the operating systems and all other software used with computers, from personal computers to servers and systems to massive networks.

Electrical and Electronics Engineers Electrical and electronics engineers design, develop, test, and supervise the manufacture of electrical and electronic equipment. Electrical equipment includes power-generating and transmission equipment used by electric utilities, electric motors, machinery controls, and lighting and wiring in buildings, automobiles, and aircraft. Electronic equipment includes computer hardware, communications and video equipment, and radar.


Electrical and electronics engineers design new products, write performance requirements, develop maintenance schedules, and troubleshoot for major installations. They also test equipment, solve operating problems, and estimate the time and cost of engineering projects. Electrical and electronics engineers specialize in communications; computer electronics; electrical equipment manufacturing; power generation, transmission, and distribution; and subdivisions of these areas, such as robotic control systems or aviation electronics.

Industrial Engineers Industrial engineers are heavily involved with production, manufacturing, and quality control. They determine the most effective ways for an organization to use the basic factors of production— people, machines, materials, information, and energy—to make or process a product. They act as a bridge between management and operations and are more concerned with increasing productivity through the management of people, methods of business organization, and technology than are engineers in other specialties who generally work more with products or processes. Industrial engineers study the product and its requirements, design manufacturing and information systems, and use mathematical analysis methods, such as operations research, to solve organizational, production, and related problems most efficiently. They develop management control systems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis, design production planning and control systems to coordinate activities and control product quality, and design or improve systems for the physical distribution of goods and services. Industrial engineers conduct plant-location analyses to find new locations with the best combination of raw materials, transportation, and costs. They develop wage and salary administration


systems and job evaluation programs. Many industrial engineers move into management positions because the work is so closely related.

Manufacturing Engineers Manufacturing engineers are involved in the design and building of equipment and tools; they work with all aspects of manufacturing. They consult with management to determine what manufacturing equipment will be necessary and how existing equipment may have to be modified. They often continue to be involved throughout the manufacturing process to maintain quality control and efficiency and are often involved in establishing and maintaining quality control programs throughout the manufacturing plants.

Mechanical Engineers Mechanical engineers plan and design tools, engines, machines, and mechanical equipment. They may be involved in physical distribution systems for solids, gases, and liquids, and many are employed in the petroleum and chemical industries. In addition, many design and develop power-producing machines, such as internal combustion engines, steam and gas turbines, and jet and rocket engines. Another responsibility might be to create and develop power-using machines, such as refrigeration and airconditioning equipment, robots, machine tools, materials handling systems, and industrial production equipment. Specialties include applied mechanics, design engineering, heat transfer, power plant engineering, pressure vessels and piping, and underwater technology. The work of mechanical engineers varies by industry and function. Mechanical engineering is the broadest engineering discipline, extending across many interdependent specialties that are applied in various industries. Mechanical engineers may work in production operations, maintenance, or technical sales. Many are administrators or managers.


Mining Engineers Mining engineers locate, extract, and prepare metals and minerals for use by various manufacturing industries. They design open-pit and underground mines, supervise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels in underground operations, and devise methods for transporting minerals to processing plants. Mining engineers are responsible for safe, economical, and environmentally sound operation of mines. Some work with geologists and metallurgical engineers to locate and appraise potential ore deposits. Others develop new mining equipment or direct mineral processing operations to separate minerals from dirt, rock, and other materials with which they are mixed. These engineers may specialize in mining a single mineral or ore, such as coal or bauxite. With increased emphasis on protecting the environment, many mining engineers work on solving problems related to land reclamation and air and water pollution.

Nuclear Engineers Nuclear engineers conduct research on nuclear energy and radiation. They design, develop, monitor, and operate nuclear power plants that are used to generate electricity and to power ships. They may work on nuclear fuel cycles; fusion energy; the production, handling, and use of nuclear fuel; and the safe disposal of waste produced by nuclear energy. Some specialize in development of nuclear weapons; others develop industrial and medical uses of radioactive materials, such as equipment to diagnose and treat medical problems.

Petroleum Engineers Petroleum engineers are explorers who search for workable reservoirs containing oil or natural gas. When an area of significant potential is discovered, petroleum engineers work to achieve maximum profitable recovery from the reservoir by determining and developing the most efficient production methods.


Petroleum engineers develop and use various enhanced recovery methods, such as injecting water, chemicals, or steam into an oil reservoir to force out more of the oil, or horizontal drilling or fracturing to connect more of a gas reservoir to a well. Even the best methods in use today recover only a portion of the oil and gas in a reservoir, and petroleum engineers continually work to devise new ways to increase this proportion.

Precision Engineers Scientists in precision engineering are responsible for research, design, development, and engineering of high-accuracy components, such as precision controls, nanotechnology, precision optics, semiconductor processing, standards, and ultraprecision machinery.

Other Engineering Careers These additional branches of engineering are sometimes included as a part of or may overlap other branches:

• Architectural engineering: design of a building’s internal support structure

• Automotive engineering: vehicle design, development, and manufacture; building of prototypes and new models in the automotive industry • Environmental engineering: a growing discipline involved with identifying, solving, and alleviating environmental problems • Geotechnical engineering: design and construction of special earthworks, foundations, and paving needed for controlling behavior of earth materials such as sand, shale, and other formations • Marine engineering: design, manufacture, and use of marine vehicles, structures, and systems


• Refrigeration engineering: design, development, and engineering of custom thermal process technology for use in extreme environments • Steam engineering: design and engineering of equipment and processes for steam and water treatments, steam generation, boiler efficiencies, and water and wastewater treatment

Education and Training A bachelor’s degree in engineering from an accredited engineering program is usually required for beginning engineering jobs. College graduates with a degree in a physical science or mathematics may occasionally qualify for some engineering jobs, especially in engineering specialties in high demand. Most engineering degrees are granted in branches such as electrical, mechanical, or civil engineering. Engineers trained in one branch of engineering may eventually work in another because professionals in every branch of engineering have knowledge and training that can be applied to many fields. Electrical and electronics engineers, for example, work in the medical, computer, missile guidance, power distribution, and other fields. This flexibility allows employers to meet staffing needs in new technologies and specialties where engineers are in short supply. It also allows engineers to shift to fields with better employment prospects or to ones that match their interests more closely. In addition to the standard engineering degree, many colleges offer two- or four-year degrees in engineering technology. These programs prepare students for practical design and production work rather than for jobs that require more theoretical, scientific, and mathematical knowledge. Graduates of four-year technology programs may get jobs similar to those obtained by graduates with bachelor’s degrees in engineering. Some employers regard


four-year engineering technology graduates as having skills between those of a technician and an engineer. Graduate training is essential for engineering faculty positions but is not required for the majority of entry-level engineering jobs. Many engineers obtain graduate degrees in engineering or business administration to learn new technology, broaden their education, and enhance promotion opportunities; others obtain law degrees and become attorneys. Many high-level executives in government and industry began their careers as engineers. A large number of colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degrees in engineering, and many offer bachelor’s degrees in engineering technology, although not all are accredited programs. Although most institutions offer programs in the larger branches of engineering, only a few offer some of the smaller specialties. Programs of the same title may vary in content; for example, some emphasize industrial practices, preparing students for jobs in industry, while others are more theoretical and are better for students preparing to do graduate work. Therefore, students should investigate curricula and check accreditations carefully before selecting a college. Admission requirements for undergraduate engineering schools include advanced courses in high school mathematics and the physical sciences. Bachelor’s degree programs in engineering are typically designed to last four years, but many students find that it takes between four and five years to complete their studies. In a typical four-year college curriculum, the first two years are spent studying basic sciences (mathematics, physics, and chemistry), introductory engineering, and the humanities, social sciences, and English. In the last two years, most courses are in engineering, usually with a concentration in one branch. For example, the last two years of an aerospace program might include courses such as fluid mechanics, heat transfer, applied aerodynamics, analytical mechanics, flight vehicle design, trajectory dynamics, and aerospace propulsion systems. Some programs offer a general engi-


neering curriculum; students then specialize in graduate school or on the job. Some engineering schools and two-year colleges have agreements in which the two-year college provides the initial engineering education, and the engineering school automatically accepts those credits and admits students for their last two years. In addition, a few engineering schools have arrangements in which students spend three years in a liberal arts college studying preengineering subjects and two years in the engineering school and receive a bachelor’s degree from each. In addition, some colleges and universities offer five-year master’s degree programs. Some five- or even six-year cooperative (co-op) plans combine classroom study and practical work, permitting students to gain valuable experience and finance part of their education. In the United States, all fifty states and the District of Columbia require registration for engineers whose work may affect life, health, or property, or who offer their services to the public. Licensees are designated as Professional Engineers (PEs). Registration generally requires a degree from an engineering program accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), four years of relevant work experience, and successful completion of a state examination. Recent graduates can take the examination in two stages. The Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) examination can be taken upon graduation. Engineers who pass this examination are designated as Engineers in Training (EITs) or Engineer Interns (EIs). After gaining substantial work experience, EITs can take the second examination, the Principles and Practice of Engineering. Most states recognize licensure from other states, and engineers may be registered in more than one state. Beginning engineering graduates usually do routine work under the supervision of experienced engineers and, in larger companies, may also receive formal classroom or seminar training. As they gain knowledge and experience, they may be assigned


more difficult tasks with greater independence to develop designs, solve problems, and make decisions. Engineers may become technical specialists or may supervise a staff or team of engineers and technicians. Some eventually become engineering managers or enter other managerial, management support, or sales jobs. Successful engineers must be able to work as part of a team and should be creative, analytical, and detail oriented. In addition, engineers should be able to communicate well, both orally and in writing.

Employment Outlook Employment opportunities in engineering are expected to grow about as fast as the average for all jobs through the year 2014. The areas of biotechnology and computer engineering, environmental pollution control, and floodwater and wastewater control are expected to grow more rapidly. Many of the jobs in engineering are related to national defense. Because defense expenditures have skyrocketed in recent years, engineers may continue to be in demand for jobs in engineering in defense-related areas, although change can be expected in all areas of the economy if defense spending is sharply curtailed or in the event of a recession. For the foreseeable future, employers will rely on engineers to further increase productivity as they increase investment in plants and equipment to expand output of goods and services. In addition, competitive pressures and advancing technology will force companies to improve and update product designs frequently. Finally, more engineers will be needed to improve deteriorating roads, bridges, and other public facilities and infrastructure as national and state budgets allow. Only a relatively small proportion of engineers leave the profession each year. A greater proportion of replacement openings is


created by engineers who transfer to management, sales, or other professional specialty occupations than by those who leave the labor force. Many engineers work on long-term research and development projects or in other activities that may continue even during recessions. New computer-aided design (CAD) systems have improved design processes, enabling engineers to produce or modify designs much more rapidly. Engineers now produce and analyze many more design variations before selecting a final one. However, the advantages of this technology are not expected to limit employment opportunities. It is important for engineers to continue their education throughout their careers because much of their value to their employers depends upon their knowledge of changing needs and the evolution of the latest technology. The pace of technological change varies by engineering specialty and industry. Engineers in high-technology areas, such as advanced electronics, find that technical knowledge can become obsolete very rapidly. Engineers who have not kept current in their fields may find themselves passed over for promotions and are vulnerable when layoffs occur. On the other hand, these rapidly changing areas are likely to offer the greatest challenges, most interesting work, and highest salaries. Choices of engineering specialty and employer require careful assessment, not only of the potential rewards but also of the risks of technological obsolescence.

Earnings Earnings for engineers vary significantly by specialty, industry, and education. Even so, as a group, engineers earn some of the highest average starting salaries among those holding bachelor’s degrees. Table 1 shows average starting salary offers for engineers in various specialties.


TABLE 1. Average Starting Salary Offers for Engineers ENGINEERING CURRICULUM BACHELOR’S Aerospace/aeronautic/ astronautic $50,993 Bioengineering/ biomedical $48,503 Chemical $53,813 Civil $43,679 Computer $52,464 Electrical/electronics/ communications $51,888 Industrial/manufacturing $49,567 Materials $50,982 Mechanical $50,236 Mining/mineral $48,643 Nuclear $51,182 Petroleum $61,516

MASTER’S

PH.D.

$62,930

$72,529

$59,667 $57,260 $48,050 $60,354

— $79,591 $59,625 $69,625

$64,416 $56,561 — $59,880 — $58,814 $58,000

$80,206 $85,000 — $68,299 — — —

Source: 2005 National Association of Colleges and Employers Survey

According to the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, “variation in median earnings and in the earnings distributions for engineers in the various branches of engineering also is significant.” Table 2 shows earnings distributions by percentile for engineers in specialties as of May 2004. In the federal government, mean annual salaries for engineers ranged from $70,086 in agricultural engineering to $100,059 in ceramic engineering in 2005.

Professional Lives The following profiles provide a close-up look at life as an engineer in three different disciplines.


Table 2. Earnings Distributions for Engineers in Specialties SPECIALTY Aerospace Agricultural Biomedical Chemical Civil Computer hardware Electrical Electronics Environmental Industrial Marine Materials Mechanical Mining/geological Nuclear Petroleum

10% $52,820 $37,680 $41,260 $49,030 $42,610 $50,490 $47,310 $49,120 $40,620 $42,450 $43,790 $44,130 $43,900 $39,700 $61,790 $48,260

50% $79,100 $56,520 $67,690 $76,770 $64,230 $81,150 $71,610 $75,770 $66,480 $65,020 $72,040 $67,110 $66,320 $64,690 $84,880 $88,500

90% $113,520 $90,410 $107,530 $115,180 $94,660 $123,560 $108,070 $112,200 $100,050 $93,950 $109,190 $101,120 $97,850 $103,790 $118,870 $140,800

Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics

Ernestine Meyers, Senior Environmental Engineer Ernestine Meyers serves as senior environmental engineer for the Division of Sanitation Facilities Construction in the Office of Environmental Health and Engineering of the U.S. Public Health Service in Albuquerque, New Mexico. While she was growing up, her summers were spent out in the field with her father, where she became familiar with the inner workings of the Indian Health Service. Her father worked for the agency as an environmental health technician for thirty-two years. Together they would travel to different reservations, where she would observe what he did. She met and talked with engineers and


got to know what they were responsible for. And, of course, she helped whenever she could. With her father as a role model, and with a love for science and the outdoors, she was sure she had found her career direction. Born on a New Mexico Pueblo reservation, Ernestine Meyers was the oldest of four children. When she was given her choice to attend the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) school that was run by the federal government or a public school in a nearby town, she decided to attend the public school, which was a few miles from the pueblo. Even at the high school level, she enjoyed science and knew that it would be her field of concentration. During the summer of her junior year in high school, she attended the Minority Introduction to Engineering course at New Mexico State University. She was exposed to all the different types of engineering. Civil engineering easily became her choice because she had always loved the outdoors. She knew she would not be happy sitting at a desk or computer all the time. After high school, Ernestine enrolled at New Mexico State University, since she had already received a positive introduction to its engineering program. In addition, her uncle worked there, and she had friends going to school there. She was awarded a four-year Professional Guild Scholarship from the U.S. Health Service and became a freshman in the fall of 1979. The scholarship paid for all her undergraduate education, but, in return, she was obligated to work for the agency for four years following her graduation from the university. After receiving her bachelor of science degree in environmental engineering, she was assigned to the city of Tuba, Arizona, on the Navajo Reservation. As a field engineer, she was responsible for planning and organizing the construction of sanitation facilities and bringing in water lines for individual families. She found it to be very rewarding work, and when she left, the Navajo Nation presented her with an achievement medal for the work she had done during those four years.


Ernestine says that a typical day might consist of working on the plans and designs for a pueblo spring house, spending time with the surveyors who were doing the groundwork for some of her projects, working on specifications or proposals for future projects, dealing with contractors, or helping out the other engineers when they had any technical questions. Another focus of her work was her membership in the Commission Corps of the Public Health Service, one of the branches of the military. Upon finishing her bachelor of science degree, she had a choice of entering as civil service or applying for the Commission Corps. She elected to apply for the Commission Corps because she was told that she would probably advance more quickly that way. Eventually she achieved the rank of lieutenant commander. In August of 1988, she transferred to the Pacific Northwest and worked with three different Native American tribes, assuming the same duties as she had previously. She was the only field engineer in the office, however, and it was “kind of scary at first,” but she learned to be independent. In 1991, she was selected Engineer of the Year for the Portland area. After three years, the Indian Health Service chose her to earn a master’s degree in environmental engineering. The offer allowed her to attend school for one year and still receive her annual salary. All educational expenses were absorbed by the agency. She felt that this was such a wonderful offer, she could not turn it down. She returned to New Mexico State University for her advanced degree. She says that the only hard part was that she had to finish in one year, and the program was really a two-year program. It was difficult to keep up, but, she says, “If you are dedicated to accomplishing something, you will succeed. It may not be easy, but nothing that’s worth accomplishing ever is. Every time you reach a goal you’ve set for yourself, it’s time to set another. You should always do the best you can. Just meeting minimum standards is not good enough.”


Albert L. de Richmond, Mechanical Engineer Albert L. de Richmond is associate director of Health Devices Group at ECRI of Plymouth Meeting, Pennsylvania. He earned his B.S. from Penn State, his M.S. from Virginia Tech, and did postgraduate work at Drexel University in Philadelphia. Subsequently, he received his Pennsylvania professional engineer’s license in 1983. He thought about becoming an engineer in high school and says that, at that time, the SATs provided some guidance on what careers best suited a person, according to scores on the test. He “just missed” the score that pointed to medicine. Engineering was indicated for him, and it was supported by his outside school interests, which included taking things apart to find out how they worked, building things, doing backyard experiments, reading about science, and working in power plants and refineries. He chose his particular specialty after hearing about it during his freshman year. It was presented as being the foundation of most of the other engineering disciplines and as providing a broad education. It was also mathematically oriented and offered a way of thinking about the world and how it works. In graduate school, he took many additional courses that would enable him to apply for medical school, but that did not work out. However, medicine still remained an area of interest. In graduate school, he started out in biomechanical engineering, but his professor became critically ill, and the program was discontinued. He became a graduate teaching assistant and found that work to be very enjoyable. Later, he worked for General Electric’s Re-Entry Systems Division and for two mid-size companies that made heavy processing equipment. He enjoyed that area because he was able to experiment, to get into the field where the equipment was used, to get into the factories where they built the equipment, and to solve problems with the designs. During his tenure at those companies, he took the professional engineer’s exam and became licensed in Pennsylvania, then he


went to work for a small company as a research designer. There, he enjoyed setting up the prototype lab and working with relatively new computer analysis programs. Next he moved to his present organization as an evaluation engineer for a special project. Completion of the special project led to moving within the organization to the medical device evaluation group, which finally united de Richmond’s two areas of interest—engineering and medicine. During his forty-hour work week, he deals with clinicians and manufacturers and helped them solve problems through engineering. His job involves talking with subscribers, supervisees, managers, and visitors; examining medical devices, computer problems, and working situations; interpreting information in standards and published articles; reading draft articles for the organization’s journals and periodicals and other pertinent articles; writing journal articles, new standards, and reports; and making decisions about planning future articles, how to test items, and analyzing outcomes. On a typical day, he spends a few minutes on many topics, bouncing from one to another as needs arise due to e-mail, office visits from coworkers, meetings, telephone calls, more information, discussions, and so forth. He is always busy and, even at rest, is continually thinking about the various things he is working on or has yet to do. Sometimes the work is relaxed, but other times it is quite tense due to the importance of the event, such as a deposition or a personnel issue. The work also carries risks, such as contracting a disease from contaminated equipment that has been received for an accident investigation. The work environment is casual and friendly. Most people have their own offices, and none have doors. Anyone can ask anyone else for information or help at any time. The employees all have beepers, and the building has telephones everywhere so they can be in instant contact, should a customer need their expertise. Most of the employees have access to the building 24–7, and most also come in after normal hours to do additional work.


The best aspects of his job involve the variety of the work, the ability to help others and have a positive effect, and working with people who are intelligent and capable. “I would recommend that others who are interested in this field read voraciously and widely,” advises Albert de Richmond. “Go to college and learn how to think. Pick a subject and study it, but don’t expect to use all of it in the workaday world. Be a generalist. Learn how to multitask. Figure out how to control stress. Become flexible in thinking and in body. Learn about people and how they operate. And, last but not least, learn how to balance the important things in your life.”

For More Information The following sources can provide information about careers in engineering and the educational requirements for various areas of specialization.

Professional Organizations The agencies and organizations below provide information on education, training, awards, scholarships, and internship opportunities in a breadth of engineering disciplines. American Association of Engineering Societies 1620 I Street NW, Suite 210 Washington, DC 20006 www.aaes.org American Society of Engineering Education (ASEE) 1818 N Street NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20036 www.asee.org Provides industry news, publications, Science and Engineering Apprenticeship Program for high school students at participating


regional laboratories, college scholarships, international fellowships (www.Tech-Interns.com), graduate and undergraduate information

National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) 1420 King Street Alexandria, VA 22314 www.nspe.org The Junior Engineering Technical Society (JETS) 1420 King Street, Suite 405 Alexandria, VA 22314 www. jets.org Serves precollege engineering interests; includes career exploration and a newsletter

National Academy of Sciences 500 Fifth Street NW Washington, DC 20001 www.national-academies.org Engineering division provides mentoring, scholarships, information about the academies, competitions, and awards

Canadian Council of Professional Engineers (CCPE) 180 Elgin Street, Suite 1100 Ottawa, ON K2P 2K3 Canada www.ccpe.ca Canada’s bilingual (English and French) engineering society

Society of Women Engineers 230 East Ohio Street, Suite 400 Chicago, IL 60611 www.swe.org


By Specialization ACOUSTICAL ENGINEERING Audio Engineering Society 60 East Forty-Second Street, Room 2520 New York, NY 10165 www.aes.org AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Suite 500 Reston, VA 20191 www.aiaa.org Devoted to global leadership in the aerospace community; internship information, educational resources, and student branches AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING Institute of Transportation Engineers 1099 Fourteenth Street NW, Suite 300 West Washington, DC 20005 www.ite.org BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING Institute of Biological Engineering PO Box 24267 Minneapolis, MN 55424 www.ibeweb.org CHEMICAL ENGINEERING American Institute of Chemical Engineers Three Park Avenue New York, NY 10016 www.aiche.org


CIVIL ENGINEERING American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 1801 Alexander Graham Bell Drive Reston, VA 20191 www.asce.org

Canadian Society for Civil Engineers 4920 de Maisonneuve Boulevard West, Suite 201 Montréal, QC H3Z 1N1 Canada www.csce.ca ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 1828 L Street NW, Suite 1202 Washington, DC 20036 www.ieee.org In Canada: www.ieee.ca One of the world’s largest professional organizations in engineering; provides numerous member and student programs, including mentoring programs, major industry conferences, educational programs, and publications ENERGY ENGINEERING Association of Energy Engineers 4025 Pleasantdale Road, Suite 420 Atlanta, GA 30340 www.aeecenter.org

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) One United Nations Plaza, Room DC-1-1155 New York, NY 10017 www.iaea.or.at


ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING American Academy of Environmental Engineers 130 Holiday Court, Suite 100 Annapolis, MD 21401 www.aaee.net EXPLOSIVES ENGINEERING International Society of Explosives Engineers 30325 Bainbridge Road Cleveland, OH 44139 www.isee.org GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society 1720 South Bellaire, Suite 110 Denver, CO 80222 www.eegs.org INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING Institute of Industrial Engineers 3577 Parkway Lane, Suite 200 Norcross, GA 30092 www.iienet.org MARINE ENGINEERING American Society of Naval Engineers 1452 Duke Street Alexandria, VA 22314 www.navalengineers.org

Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers 601 Pavonia Avenue Jersey City, NJ 07306 www.sname.org


MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING Society for Manufacturing Engineers One SME Drive PO Box 930 Dearborn, MI 48121 www.sme.org MECHANICAL ENGINEERING The American Society of Mechanical Engineers Three Park Avenue New York, NY 10016 www.asme.org METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING The American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers 8307 Shaffer Parkway PO Box 270278 Littleton, CO 80127 www.aimeny.org REFRIGERATION ENGINEERING American Society of Refrigeration, Heating, and Air Conditioning Engineers 1791 Tullie Circle NE Atlanta, GA 30329 www.ashrae.org SOFTWARE ENGINEERING IEEE Computer Society 1730 Massachusetts Avenue NW Washington, DC 20036 www.computer.org


Software Engineering Institute 4500 Fifth Avenue Pittsburgh, PA 15213 www.sei.cmu.edu STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING National Council of Structural Engineers Associations 645 North Michigan Avenue, Suite 540 Chicago, IL 60611 www.ncsea.com

Structural Engineers Association International www.seaint.org

CHAPTER EIGHT

Careers in Computer Science and Mathematics Accommodating Infinite Numbers, Keys, and Links

There was something special about the IBM 650, something that has provided the inspiration for much of my life’s work. Somehow this machine is powerful in spite of its severe limitations. Somehow it is friendly in spite of its primitive man-machine interface. —Donald Kluth, Stanford University Fletcher Jones Professor of Computer Science, Emeritus

S

ince he first laid eyes upon the IBM Type 650 in a window in 1958, Donald Kluth has become a guru in the world of computer science. He is the author of the seven-volume series, The Art of Computer Programming, the discipline’s most respected reference guide. The IBM Type 650 was one of the earliest mass-produced computers and, although it was large and unwieldy, it captured the imagination of Donald Kluth. He turned his mathematical genius and his love of challenges to the emerging science of computers. Since that time, he has won nearly every major award in computer science, including the Grace Murray Hopper Award, 1971; the



Turing Award, 1974; membership, the National Academy of Sciences, 1975; the National Medal of Science, 1979; and the Kyoto Prize, 1996. His love of computer science and his work in the field has influenced the lives of untold numbers of computer science students and scholars in the years that followed his first fascination, just as the computer itself has entered our lives and influences all of us today in untold numbers of ways.

The Working World of Computer Science The rapid spread of computers and computer-based technologies over the past several decades has generated a need for skilled, highly trained workers to design and develop hardware and software systems and to incorporate these advances into new or existing systems. Although many narrow specializations have developed and no uniform job titles exist, this professional specialty group is widely referred to as computer scientists and systems analysts. HELP WANTED—SENIOR BUSINESS SYSTEMS ANALYST We are currently seeking a business systems analyst to work directly with management and users to analyze, specify, and design business applications. He or she will be in charge of developing detailed functional specifications using structured design methodologies and computer-aided system engineering tools.The successful candidate will assist in establishing operational procedures and redefining work flows. He or she will discuss technical and business system issues with project leaders, project teams, consultants, management, and users and will provide technical direction to junior systems analysts.

C A R E E R S I N C O M P U T E R S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S • 1 6 1

Qualified candidates will have a bachelor’s degree in management information systems, engineering, business, computer science, or a related scientific or technical discipline; master’s preferred. Seven to ten years of experience developing information systems required. A master’s degree in a related field is equivalent to two years of experience.

Computer Scientists Computer scientists include computer engineers, database administrators, computer support analysts, and a variety of other specialized professionals. Computer scientists are responsible for designing computers, conducting research to improve their design or use, and developing and adapting principles for applying computers to new uses. Computer scientists perform many of the same duties as other computer workers throughout a normal workday, but their jobs are distinguished by the higher level of theoretical expertise and innovation they apply to complex problems and the creation or application of new technology. The professionals in this group who are employed by academic institutions work in areas ranging from theory to hardware to language design. Some work on multidiscipline projects, such as developing and advancing uses for virtual reality. Their counterparts in private industry work in areas such as applying theory, developing specialized languages, or designing programming tools, knowledge-based systems, or computer games. Computer engineers work with the hardware and software aspects of systems design and development. They may often work as part of a team that designs new computing devices or computer-related equipment. Database administrators work with database management systems software. They reorganize and restructure data to better suit


the needs of users. They also may be responsible for system security and maintaining the efficiency of the database and may aid in design implementation. Computer support analysts provide assistance and advice to users, interpreting problems and providing technical support for hardware, software, and systems. They may work within an organization or directly for the computer or software vendor.

Systems Analysts Problem solving is the realm of systems analysts, who use their knowledge and skills to implement the means for computer technology to meet the individual needs of an organization. They study business, scientific, or engineering data processing problems and design new solutions using computers. This process may include planning and developing new computer systems or devising ways to apply existing systems to operations that are now completed manually or by some less-efficient method. Systems analysts may design entirely new systems, including both hardware and software, or add a single new software application to harness more of the computer’s power. They work to help an organization realize the maximum benefit from its investment in equipment, personnel, and business processes. How Systems Analysts Work. Systems analysts begin an assign-

ment by discussing the data processing problem with managers and users to determine its exact nature. A considerable amount of time is devoted to clearly defining the goals of the system and understanding the individual steps used in the process. In this way the problem can be broken down into separate programmable procedures. Analysts then apply various techniques, such as structured analysis, data modeling, information engineering, mathematical model building, sampling, and cost accounting. It is important to specify the files and records to be accessed by the system and


design the processing steps as well as the format for the output that will meet the users’ needs. Once the design has been developed, systems analysts prepare charts and diagrams that describe it in terms that managers and other users can understand. They may prepare cost-benefit and return-on-investment analyses to help management decide whether the proposed system will be satisfactory as well as financially feasible. When a system is accepted, systems analysts determine what computer hardware and software will be needed to set up the system or implement changes to it. They coordinate tests and observe initial use of the system to ensure that it performs as planned. They prepare specifications, work diagrams, and structure charts for computer programmers to follow and then work with them to debug, or eliminate errors from, the system. Programmer Analysts. In some organizations a single worker

called a programmer analyst is responsible for both systems analysis and programming. As this practice becomes more commonplace, analysts will increasingly work with computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools, object-oriented programming languages, and client-server applications, as well as with multimedia and Internet technology. Frequently, the inability of different computers to communicate with one another creates an obstacle that is complicated by expanding computer use. Many systems analysts are involved with connecting all the computers in an individual office, department, or establishment. This networking has many variations and may be referred to as local-area networks (LANs), wide-area networks (WANs), or multiuser systems. A primary goal of networking is to allow users of microcomputers, also known as personal computers or PCs, to retrieve data from a mainframe computer and use it on their machines. This connection also allows data to be entered into the mainframe from the PC and accessed by other users on the network.


Compatibility. Because up-to-date information—accounting

records, sales figures, or budget projections, for example—is so important in modern organizations, systems analysts may be instructed to make the computer systems in each department compatible so that facts and figures can be shared readily through a central network server or across platforms. Similarly, electronic mail requires open pathways to send messages, documents, and data from one computer mailbox to another across different equipment and program lines. Analysts must design the gates in hardware and software to allow free exchange of data and custom applications as well as the computer power to process it all. They study the seemingly incompatible pieces and create ways to link them so users can access information from any part of the system.

The Working World of Mathematicians Mathematicians are practitioners and experts in one of the most basic of sciences. They are charged with the responsibility of creating new mathematical theories and techniques involving the latest technology and solving economic, scientific, engineering, and business problems using mathematical knowledge and computational tools. Mathematical work falls into two broad classes: theoretical (pure) mathematics and applied mathematics. However, these classes are not sharply defined and often overlap.

Theoretical Mathematicians Theoretical mathematicians advance mathematical science by developing new principles and new relationships between existing principles of mathematics. Although they seek to increase basic knowledge without necessarily considering its practical use, this pure and abstract knowledge has been instrumental in producing or furthering many scientific and engineering achievements.


Applied Mathematicians Applied mathematicians use theories and techniques, such as mathematical modeling and computational methods, to formulate and solve practical problems in business, government, engineering, and the physical, life, and social sciences. For example, they may analyze the mathematical aspects of computer and communications networks, the effects of new drugs on disease, the aerodynamic characteristics of aircraft, or the distribution costs or manufacturing processes of businesses. When confronted with difficult problems, applied mathematicians working in industrial research and development may develop or enhance mathematical methods. Some mathematicians, called cryptanalysts, analyze and decipher encryption systems designed to transmit national security–related information. Mathematicians use computers extensively to analyze relationships among variables, solve complex problems, develop models, and process large amounts of data. Much work in applied mathematics is carried on by persons other than mathematicians.

Related Professions Because mathematics is the foundation upon which many other academic disciplines are built, the number of workers using mathematical techniques is many times greater than the number actually designated as mathematicians. Engineers, computer scientists, physicists, and economists are among those who use mathematics extensively but have job titles other than mathematician. Some workers, such as statisticians, actuaries, and operations research analysts, actually are specialists in a particular branch of mathematics.

Education and Training The educational path you follow depends on your career specialty, although there is considerable overlap in computer science and


mathematics. In both areas, a bachelor’s degree is usually the minimum educational requirement.

Computer Scientists and Systems Analysts Employers’ preferences depend on the work to be done, and many computer scientists develop advanced computer skills in other occupations in which they work extensively with computers and then transfer into computer occupations. For example, an accountant may become a systems analyst specializing in accounting systems development, or an individual may move into a systems analyst job after working as a computer programmer. Employers almost always seek college graduates for professional computer positions; for some of the more complex jobs, those with graduate degrees are preferred. Generally, a doctorate, or at least a master’s degree, in computer science or engineering is required for computer scientist jobs in research laboratories or academic institutions. Some computer scientists are able to gain sufficient experience for this type of position with only a bachelor’s degree, but this is difficult. Computer engineers generally require a bachelor’s degree in computer engineering, electrical engineering, or math. Computer support analysts may also need a bachelor’s degree in a computerrelated field, as well as significant experience working with computers, including programming skills. For systems analyst or even database administrator positions, many employers seek applicants who have a bachelor’s degree in computer science, information science, computer information systems, or data processing. Regardless of the type of college major, employers generally look for people who are familiar with programming languages and have broad knowledge of and experience with computer systems and technologies. Computer programming or systems design courses offer good preparation for a job in this field. For jobs in a business environment, employers usually want systems analysts to have a background in business management or a closely related field, while


a background in the physical sciences, applied mathematics, or engineering is preferred for employees in scientifically oriented organizations. Systems analysts must be able to concentrate, think logically, have good communication skills, and enjoy working with ideas and people. Since they must often deal with a number of tasks simultaneously, they need to be organized and detail minded. Although both computer scientists and systems analysts often work independently, they also may work in teams on large projects. They must be able to communicate effectively with computer personnel, such as programmers and managers, as well as with other staff who have little or no technical background. Technological advances come so rapidly in the computer field that continuous study is necessary to keep skills up-to-date. Continuing education is usually offered by employers, hardware and software vendors, colleges and universities, or private training institutions. Additional training may be obtained through professional development seminars offered by professional computing societies. The Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals offers the designation Certified Computing Professional (CCP) to those who have at least four years of work experience as a computer professional or at least two years of experience and a college degree. Candidates must pass a core examination that tests general knowledge plus exams in two specialty areas (or in one specialty area and two computer programming languages). The Quality Assurance Institute awards the designation Certified Quality Analyst (CQA) to those who meet education and experience requirements, pass an exam, and endorse a code of ethics. Neither designation is mandatory, but professional certification may provide the job seeker with a competitive advantage. Computer engineers and scientists employed in industry may eventually advance into managerial or project leadership positions. Those employed in academic institutions can become heads of research departments or published authorities in their fields.


Computer professionals with several years of experience and considerable expertise in a particular area may choose to start their own computer consulting firms. After several years of service, systems analysts may be promoted to senior or lead systems analysts. Those who show leadership ability also can advance to management positions such as manager of information systems or chief information officer.

Mathematicians A bachelor’s degree in mathematics is the minimum education needed for prospective mathematicians. In the federal government, entry-level job candidates usually must have a four-year degree with a major in mathematics or another major with math major equivalent (twenty-four semester hours of mathematics courses). In private industry, job candidates generally must have a master’s or a doctoral degree to obtain jobs as mathematicians. Most positions designated for mathematicians are in research and development labs as part of technical teams. These research scientists engage in either pure mathematical (basic) research or in applied research focusing on developing or improving specific products or processes. The majority of bachelor’s and master’s degree holders in private industry work not as mathematicians but in related fields, such as computer science, with job titles such as computer programmer, systems analyst, or systems engineer. The bachelor’s degree in mathematics is offered by most colleges and universities. Mathematics courses usually required for this degree are calculus, differential equations, and linear and abstract algebra. Additional course work might include probability theory and statistics, mathematical analysis, numerical analysis, topology, modern algebra, discrete mathematics, and mathematical logic. Many colleges and universities urge or require mathematics majors to take several courses in a field that uses or is closely related to mathematics, such as computer science, engineering, operations research, physical science, statistics, or


economics. A double major in mathematics and another discipline, such as computer science, economics, or one of the sciences, is especially desirable. Mathematicians today should have substantial knowledge of computer programming because most complex mathematical computation and much mathematical modeling is done by computer. Mathematicians need good reasoning ability and persistence in order to identify, analyze, and apply basic principles to technical problems. Communication skills are also important as mathematicians must be able to interact with others, including nonmathematicians, and discuss proposed solutions to problems. Students in graduate school conduct research and take advanced courses, usually specializing in a subfield of mathematics. Some areas of concentration are algebra, number theory, real or complex analysis, geometry, topology, logic, and applied mathematics. Graduate students in applied mathematics receive training in the field in which the mathematics will be used. Fields that use mathematics extensively include physics, actuarial science, engineering, and operations research. Of increasing importance are computer and information science, business and industrial management, economics, statistics, chemistry, geology, life sciences such as biotechnology, and the behavioral sciences.

Employment Outlook Take a look at the following projections to learn more about future employment opportunities in computer science and mathematics.

Computer Scientists and Systems Analysts According to the U.S. Department of Labor, job candidates with an advanced degree in computer science or computer engineering or with an M.B.A. in information systems should be able to expect


good employment prospects. College graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer science, computer engineering, information science, or management information systems also should have good prospects, especially if they have both formal education and practical experience. Graduates with degrees in other fields who have had courses in computer programming, systems analysis, and other information technology areas also should continue to find jobs in computer fields. Computer scientist and database administrator are expected to be among the fastest-growing occupations through 2014. Employment of these computer specialists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations as organizations continue to adopt and integrate increasingly sophisticated technologies. Job increases will be driven by very rapid growth in computer systems design and related services, which is projected to be one of the fastest-growing industries in the U.S. economy. Job growth is not expected to be as rapid as during the previous decade, however, as the information technology sector begins to mature and routine work is increasingly being outsourced. Many job openings will arise annually from the need to replace workers who move into managerial positions or other occupations or who leave the labor force. The demand for networking to facilitate the sharing of information, the expansion of clientserver environments, and the need for computer specialists to use their knowledge and skills in a problem-solving capacity will be major factors in the rising demand for computer scientists and database administrators. More sophisticated and complex technology is continually being implemented across all organizations, fueling demand for computer scientists and database administrators. Demand is also growing for network systems and data communication analysts to help firms maximize efficiency with available technology. Expansion of electronic commerce—doing business on the Internet—and the continuing need to build and maintain data-


bases that store critical information on customers, inventory, and projects are fueling demand for database administrators familiar with the latest technology. Increasing importance placed on cybersecurity—the protection of electronic information—is resulting in a need for workers skilled in information security. The introduction of WiFi—the wireless Internet—creates new systems to be analyzed and new data to be administered. Growth in these areas is expected to sustain demand for specialists who are knowledgeable about network, data, and communications security.

Mathematicians According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment of mathematicians is expected to decline through 2014, reflecting the reduction in the number of jobs with the title mathematician. Competition is expected to be keen for the limited number of jobs. Master’s and doctoral degree holders with a strong background in mathematics and a related discipline, such as engineering or computer science, should have the best opportunities. Mathematicians study and find work in computer science and software development, physics, engineering, financial analysis, and operations research. Private industry jobs require at least a master’s degree in mathematics or in a related field. Bachelor’s degree holders in mathematics usually are not qualified for most positions, and many seek advanced degrees in mathematics or a related discipline. Jobs in theoretical research usually require a doctorate. Because the number of doctoral degrees awarded in mathematics continues to exceed the number of university positions available, many of these graduates will need to find employment in industry and government. Mathematicians will continue to find work as actuaries, statisticians, computer programmers, computer systems analysts, computer scientists, database administrators, computer software


engineers, and operations research analysts. Candidates with mathematics backgrounds may also be successful candidates for jobs as teachers, engineers, economists, market and survey researchers, financial analysts and personal financial advisors, and physicists and astronomers.

Earnings Salaries vary between the disciplines and are also determined in large part by the region of the country and the size and type of employer. The following section provides details of earnings from the most recent available data as this book goes to press.

Computer Scientists According to the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, median annual earnings of computer and information scientists employed in research were $85,190 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $64,860 and $108,440. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $48,930, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $132,700. Median annual earnings of computer and information scientists employed in computer systems design and related services were $85,530. Median annual earnings of database administrators were $60,650. The middle 50 percent earned between $44,490 and $81,140. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $33,380, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $97,450. Median annual earnings of database administrators employed in computer systems design and related services were $70,530, and for those in management of companies and enterprises, median earnings were $65,990. Median annual earnings of network systems and data communication analysts were $60,600 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $46,480 and $78,060. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $36,260, and the highest 10 percent earned more


than $95,040. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of network systems and data communications analysts were as follows: Wired telecommunications carriers Insurance carriers Management of companies and enterprises Computer systems design and related services Local government

$65,130 $64,660 $64,170 $63,910 $52,300

According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, starting offers for graduates with a doctoral degree in computer science averaged $93,050 in 2005. Starting offers averaged $50,820 for graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer science; $46,189 for those with a degree in computer systems analysis; $44,417 for those with a degree in management information systems; and $44,775 for those with a degree in information sciences and systems. According to data from Robert Half International, a firm providing specialized staffing services, starting salaries in 2005 ranged from $67,750 to $95,500 for database administrators. Salaries for networking and Internet-related occupations ranged from $47,000 to $68,500 for local-area network administrators and from $51,750 to $74,520 for Web developers. Starting salaries for information security professionals ranged from $63,750 to $93,000 in 2005.

Mathematicians According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, median annual earnings of mathematicians were $81,240 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $60,050 and $101,360. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $43,160, while the highest 10 percent earned over $120,900. In early 2005, the average annual salary for mathematicians employed by the federal government in


supervisory, nonsupervisory, and managerial positions was $88,194; that for mathematical statisticians was $91,446; and for cryptanalysts the average was $70,774.

Professional Lives Read the following firsthand accounts of professionals in computer science and mathematics to learn more about the day-today realities of these career fields.

Krista Jacobsen, Senior Systems Engineer Krista Jacobsen received her bachelor of science degree in electrical engineering from the University of Denver and both her master of science and doctorate from Stanford University. She was attracted to electrical engineering because she found those courses to be the most challenging she had ever encountered. She was awarded scholarships to an outstanding graduate school and was also awarded graduate fellowships. While working on her doctorate, she worked at Amati as a computer systems consultant. When the time came to look for a postgraduation job, Amati was quick to make her an offer. She still interviewed at other companies but knew in advance that she wanted to stay with Amati because the company had been very good to her. She felt a loyalty to stay and become part of its team. Her responsibilities at Amati include designing and managing the company website; writing and running computer simulations to project the performance of systems; investigating alternative solutions and creating new products; and writing and presenting technical contributions for standards meetings. She provides technical support as necessary to the sales and marketing departments, which frequently requires travel to other companies or to conferences. On the road once or twice a month, she gives presentations and attends meetings. At the office, she spends a lot of time writing. She often writes internal documents


explaining the problems she has been looking at and the solutions that she and her colleagues prepare. To people contemplating similar careers, she says, “My advice is to work hard so you can reap the rewards. Many people drop out of engineering programs because some of the courses seem so difficult. The key is to survive the nasty courses and excel in the courses you enjoy. The road gets easier and more interesting as you progress, and eventually you’ll find out that a career in engineering is fun, rewarding, and challenging.”

Steven Brent Assa, Research Scientist Steven Assa is a research scientist. He earned his bachelor of arts degree in mathematics and Scandinavian literature and his doctorate in mathematics from Ohio State University in Columbus. He discovered in college that what he really liked was mathematics and Scandinavian literature (Ibsen and Strindberg). Mathematics appealed to him because he believed that God spoke to people through universal laws that were conveyed in goodness and love through mathematical equations. For him, understanding these equations was the same as understanding the way the world is, which is a first step to accepting the beings in the world. “My current job is the most wonderful job that I can imagine,” he says. “I may sound over the top on this, but over the past five years I have begun to see the beauty of mathematics in the physics applications that I work on at a level that makes me honored to think that I understand even a small part of their beauty and organic purpose. I spend about eight hours at my office, but I spend many more hours a day thinking about the meaning and elegance of the equations that I manipulate.” His current project is to build a 3-D geometry modeling system for geological applications. In the process, he works with geologists, physicists, computer scientists, and other mathematicians. He claims that there are never enough hours in the day for him to talk to all the people with whom he interacts.


His typical day begins with answering mail and checking in with a junior colleague with whom he is working closely. If either of them has questions regarding the previous day’s collaboration, they review them. Otherwise, they decide what aspect of the project to consider, decide who looks at which issues, then separate for a few hours. Dr. Assa makes notes, decides how to approach the projects, and then closes his door and concentrates on the project. Users of the computer system that he has built often interrupt with questions, but he enjoys the exchanges and the challenges of the new issues that are brought up. He finds the work mentally draining at times but takes breaks and sometimes goes back to one of his classical mathematical physics books to “regain a sense of clarity” and get away from the immediate problem for a few minutes. About his work, Dr. Assa says, “In a sentence, I have a job that permits me to be a permanent graduate student research assistant, with myself as the boss. Most of all I like the idea that I am able to propose the majority of my work. However, my work is not openended—far from it. I work on projects that have a very visible payoff for my company, but I am able to focus on the parts that are exciting to me. I am trusted and have the respect of my management. I have no managerial urge, and the company has not tried to force me into this level.” The least agreeable part of what he does, he says, is to make certain that he is not drafted back into the day-to-day engineering ranks of the company. He did that for about nine years, and, while it was certainly good training in general computer systems design, product completion, and group effort, today he finds that he needs time to dream. After his first patent was issued, he says, the company realized that his talents could be used more efficiently in his present position. To students who are considering a lifetime in this kind of work, he says, “I would recommend that you never lose your need to understand why things are the way they are. Talk to people about


your ideas and spend your time trying to make something useful out of them. Read, read, read—especially the classics. Clarity of thought is timeless and independent of the (specific) problem being addressed.”

For More Information Further information about computer careers is available from the following organizations. American Mathematical Society (AMS) 201 Charles Street Providence, RI 02904 www.ams.org Publishes several important professional journals and Mathematical Reviews, a database with reviews of a broad scope of mathematical publications; also provides information about mathematics career opportunities and professional training

Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) 2 Penn Plaza, Suite 701 New York, NY 10021 www.acm.org The world’s first computer society, ACM is active in professional leadership in both the United States and Canada, and provides professional publications, a career resource center, scholarships and awards

Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences (CBMS) 1529 Eighteenth Street NW Washington, DC 20036 www.cbmsweb.org Includes sixteen societies; publications; provides a resource guide on careers in the mathematical sciences


Institute for the Certification of Computing Professionals 2350 East Devon Avenue, Suite 115 Des Plaines, IL 60018 www.iccp.org Provides information about the designation Certified Computing Professional

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society Headquarters Office 1730 Massachusetts Avenue NW Washington, DC 20036 www.computer.org Mathematical Association of America (MAA) 1529 Eighteenth Street NW Washington, DC 20036 www.maa.org Focuses on undergraduate education; maintains branches in twentynine regional sections of the United States; publishes a number of magazines and journals

National Workforce Center for Emerging Technologies Bellevue Community College 3000 Landerholm Circle SE, N258 Bellevue, WA 98007 www.nwcet.org


Quality Assurance Institute (QAI) 2101 Park Center Drive, Suite 200 Orlando, FL 32835 www.qaiworldwide.org Confers the designation Certified Quality Analyst; provides international leadership in information services professions and certification; sets professional standards; provides extensive member services; and hosts major conferences

Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM) 3600 University City Science Center Philadelphia, PA 19104 www.siam.org


CHAPTER NINE

Careers in Music Creating with Mathematics, Sound, and Soul

Achievement is the construction of something. Like with students sometimes, they get so caught up in philosophical discourse that they don’t realize that in art the artifact is what’s important. ‘Oh, really, you feel that way? Okay, where is your novel? Where is your film, are we going to see that now? Or, where are your compositions?’ I’m all for talking, but that’s what I tell them. —Wynton Marsalis, musician, composer, jazz trumpeter

P

eople are usually hard-put to come up with a definition of music, but each of us knows what music is in our own lives. It is nursery rhymes and lullabies, a jazz harmonica that a neighbor played in summertime, soap opera themes floating from windows in midafternoon, or the “Star Spangled Banner” sung before baseball games. For some it is folk tunes, gospel music, popular hits, rap music, the “Wedding March,” solemn dirges, marches, or the classical melodies that we have heard all of our lives in our homes and communities. Few, if any, boundaries exist in the world of music. We each have different experiences with music, and we have our own favorites when it comes to listening to it or making it. If you are thinking about a career in music, there are many options open:



composer, vocalist, or instrumentalist, among others. There are many ways to get an education and to begin a career.

The Working World of Musicians Musicians may play musical instruments, sing, compose, arrange, or conduct groups in instrumental or vocal performances. They may perform alone or as part of a group; before live audiences or on the radio; or in recording studios, on television, in movie productions, or over the Internet.

HELP WANTED—MUSICIAN Bayside South Shore Symphony is seeking an exceptionally talented and experienced pianist for accompaniment and solo performance who is able to work harmoniously with conductors and all members of the orchestra and is familiar with the Symphony’s repertoire. Must be especially accomplished in music of the Baroque. Auditions by invitation only. Those who qualify may apply, with curriculum vitae and reviews, to the Music Director.

Musicians may specialize in a particular kind of music or performance. Instrumental musicians play a musical instrument in an orchestra, band, rock group, or jazz group. Classical musicians may perform with professional orchestras or in small chamber music ensembles or as individuals. Musicians may play any of a wide variety of string, brass, woodwind, or percussion instruments or electronic synthesizers. These talented professionals may learn how to play several related instruments, such as trumpet, French horn, and trombone, thus improving their employment opportunities.

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Singers interpret music using their knowledge of voice production, melody, and harmony. They may sing character parts or perform in their own individual styles. Often classified according to their voice range—soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, or bass— singers may also be classified by the type of music they sing, such as opera, rock and roll, reggae, folk, rap, or country western. Orchestra conductors lead instrumental music groups, such as orchestras, dance bands, and various popular ensembles. Conductors audition and select musicians, choose the music to accommodate the talents and abilities of the musicians, and direct rehearsals and performances, applying conducting techniques to achieve desired musical effects. Musicians often perform at night and on weekends and spend considerable time in practice and rehearsal. Performances frequently require travel. Because many musicians find only parttime work or experience unemployment between engagements, they often supplement their income with other types of jobs. In fact, many decide they cannot support themselves as musicians and take permanent, full-time jobs in other occupations while working only part-time as musicians. More than half of all musicians who are employed work only part-time, and many musicians are self-employed. Many work in cities in which entertainment and recording activities are concentrated, such as New York, Los Angeles, and Nashville. Musicians may work in opera, musical comedy, and ballet productions. Many are organists who play in churches or synagogues. Two out of three musicians who are paid a salary work in religious organizations. Musicians also perform on contract or for short engagements in clubs and restaurants and for weddings and other events. Wellknown musicians and groups have business managers and agents who arrange their performances, and they give their own concerts, appear on radio and television, make recordings and music


videos, and go on concert tours. The U.S. Armed Forces offer some jobs in their bands and smaller musical groups.

Education and Training Music training often begins at a very early age. Many people who become professional musicians begin studying an instrument as young children. They may gain experience playing in a school or community band or orchestra or with a group of friends. Vocal musicians may begin training as participants in church and other youth choirs, where training may not be rigorous but is often very good. These groups also provide valuable experience in performing. Singers usually start serious training when their voices mature. They may pursue classical music training in bel canto or another classical music method, or they may study with private teachers in a variety of styles. Musicians need extensive and prolonged training to acquire the necessary skill, knowledge, and ability to interpret music. This training may be obtained through private study with an accomplished musician, in a college or university music program, in a music conservatory, or through practice with a group. For study in an institution, an audition frequently is necessary. Formal courses include musical theory, music interpretation, composition, conducting, and instrumental and voice instruction. Many colleges, universities, and music conservatories grant bachelor’s or higher degrees in music. Many also grant degrees in music education to qualified graduates who then obtain a state certificate to teach music in an elementary or secondary school. A selected list of top music schools appears at the end of this chapter. Young people who are considering careers in music should have musical talent, versatility, creative ability, and the poise and stage presence to face large audiences. Since quality performance requires constant study and practice, self-discipline is vital. Musi-


cians who play concert and nightclub engagements must have physical stamina for frequent travel and night performances. They must also be emotionally stable enough to be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when auditioning for work. Advancement for musicians generally means becoming better known and performing for greater earnings with better-known bands and orchestras. Successful musicians often rely on agents or managers to find them performing engagements, negotiate contracts, and plan their careers.

Employment Outlook The U.S. Department of Labor reports that overall employment of musicians, singers, and related workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Most new wage and salary jobs for musicians will arise in religious organizations. Slower-than-average growth is expected for self-employed musicians, who generally perform in nightclubs, concert tours, and other venues. Growth in demand for musicians will generate a number of job opportunities, and many openings also will arise from the need to replace those who leave the field because they are unable to make a living solely as musicians or for other reasons.

Earnings According to the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median hourly earnings of musicians and singers were $17.85 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.68 and $30.75. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.47, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $53.59. Median hourly earnings were $20.70 in performing arts companies and $12.17 in religious organizations.


Annual earnings data for musicians and singers are not available because of the wide variation in the number of hours worked by musicians and singers and the short-term nature of many jobs, which may last for only a day or a week; it is extremely rare for musicians and singers to have guaranteed employment that exceeds three to six months. Median annual earnings of salaried music directors and composers were $34,570 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,040 and $51,770. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,960, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $75,380. Yearly earnings typically reflect the number of gigs a freelance musician or singer played or the number of hours and weeks of salaried contract work, in addition to a performer’s professional reputation and setting. Performers who can fill large concert halls, arenas, or outdoor stadiums generally command higher pay than those who perform in local clubs. Soloists or headliners usually receive higher earnings than band members or opening acts. The most successful musicians earn performance or recording fees that far exceed the median earnings. According to the American Federation of Musicians, weekly minimum salaries in major orchestras ranged from about $700 to $2,080 during the 2004–2005 performing season. Each orchestra must work out a separate contract with its local union, but individual musicians may negotiate higher salaries. Top orchestras have a season ranging from twenty-four to fiftytwo weeks. In regional orchestras, minimum salaries are often less because fewer performances are scheduled. Regional orchestra musicians often are paid for their services without any guarantee of future employment. Community orchestras often have even more limited levels of funding and offer salaries that are much lower for seasons of shorter duration. Competition for musician jobs is keen, and talent alone is no guarantee of success. The glamour and potentially high earnings


in this occupation attract many talented individuals. However, being able to play several instruments or several types of music may enhance a musician’s employment prospects.

Professional Lives The following profiles provide insight into the lives of two professional musicians.

Ed Goeke, Music Director Ed Goeke is music director of Christ Episcopal Church in Overland Park, Kansas. He has both a B.A. and an M.A. in music education from the University of Iowa and an M.A. from the University of Kansas in Lawrence, where he is a Ph.D. candidate in music education. Goeke says that he studied voice, piano, and French horn from the time he was in junior high school. Both of his parents are music educators, so it was a natural thing for him to enter a career in music. “Music has affected my whole life,” he says. “It is my life. I can’t imagine not having musical outlets. I will probably never leave music. What I find most gratifying is performing well, knowing that people are grateful for a job well done.” Sunday is the culmination of the work he does all week. The day starts around 8 A.M. with warm-up for the first service at 8:45 A.M. This is an ensemble of eight to ten people. When this service is over, then rehearsal starts (9:30 or so) for the 10:45 service. This is a choir of twenty-four people with an organist. The service is over around noon. There is a break for lunch, then around 2:30 rehearsal starts for the 5:30 service. He organizes and plans for the current week’s service and some for the next week’s selection. The day usually ends around 7 P.M. He says that it’s very casual at the church in terms of dress and chain of command. A great deal of time is spent in rehearsal and planning for worship services. The busiest time, he finds, is the


whole month of December due to the number of liturgies and the importance of the spiritual services. Goeke took this job because it enables him to use his classical background and work in a traditional setting while also leading others in contemporary music. He enjoys working with a fine group of people who offer a variety of musical talent. He also likes working with a mission in mind—having a goal of bringing people closer to God through worship by providing windows of opportunity through excellent music. What he likes least is reproducing music and having to stay on top of all of the paperwork. He advises that church jobs are changing dramatically. The best way to be equipped, he says, is to get very good at one thing. For example, if you want to be a music director of a church fulltime, then it is important to have excellent keyboarding skills. He recommends gaining skills in arranging and improvisational skills and exposure to a wide variety of music. He also notes that it is important to be able to work well with people, which can be accomplished by performing in church choirs and acquiring experience. “It’s important that you are a people person,” he concludes, “that you are a team builder and a consensus builder, that you are sensitive to people’s needs, that you have a thorough knowledge of what makes music good, and that you have a background in performance. Also desirable is a solid knowledge of literature for choirs, a background in liturgy, the ability to take available resources and arrange on the spot, the ability to communicate effectively, and good organizations skills.”

Priscilla Gale, Opera Singer Soprano Priscilla Gale attended both the Juilliard School of Music and the Cleveland Institute of Music. She has also studied in Austria and with private teachers Luigi Ricci (in Rome) and Michael Trimble. Currently, when she’s not performing with an opera company or symphony orchestra, she is a faculty member at


Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut, where she teaches voice. Having come from a very musical family of pianists, singers, and violinists, she was at the piano at the age of five. Her family always assumed that she would pursue a career as a pianist, but she realized that her real joy and fulfillment was in singing. As she began to explore that world more thoroughly, she says, she discovered opera and found her home. She received her first professional contract with the Ft. Wayne (Indiana) Symphony Orchestra during her senior year at the Cleveland Institute of Music. “Every engagement a singer or performer receives changes you in the most wonderful way,” Gale says. “You, as an artist, grow on multiple levels—personally, inwardly and artistically, outwardly— and one thing leads to another. Each time, your life as an artist is changed; you grow in some immeasurable, wonderful way, and the possibilities are limitless.” She cautions that no one job site is like another. In opera, for example, the rehearsals are intense, with the appropriate union breaks but with long, long days, usually exceeding ten to twelve hours over a period of two or three weeks. It really depends on how a company works, and they all work differently. Orchestra jobs, on the other hand, tend to be over a three- or four-day period. Usually you have a piano rehearsal with the conductor, then there are one or two orchestra rehearsals, followed by the performances. It is always busy and intense, but exciting. It is fast paced, and one must know one’s craft. There is little room for poor preparation. “And,” she adds, “you must always have the ability to adjust to every circumstance and environment, for no two are ever the same. Every conductor is different, every director, and so forth. You must be very adaptable and professional.” What Gales loves most about her work is the ability to touch an audience—people she never meets individually, but collectively. “My heart and soul meet theirs,” she says. Ruefully, she admits that there are just not enough performance opportunities


for everyone, and it is no longer possible to make a full-time living at this career unless you are one of the lucky top 20 percent. “I always tell people who want to do this kind of work to look inward and ask if there is anything else in life that will bring them happiness and fulfillment,” she advises. “If so, then I suggest that they do that instead. If not, then they should by all means pursue this career. But know that it is—especially in the beginning—a very difficult business and a difficult life.” Gale notes that talent is but a small piece of what is needed to pursue a career in music. “In fact,” she says, “most people cannot comprehend the level of sacrifice that this career requires—there is a wonderful, romantic notion of being the ‘starving artist,’ but there’s nothing romantic about it when you’re living it. “With hard work, determination, perseverance, and an unwavering faith in yourself,” she concludes, “anything can happen. The journey is an incredible ride and one I would not have missed. And as I look back at my past, at my present, and toward my future, I can honestly say that I am one of the lucky ones.”

For More Information There are literally hundreds of professional associations for musicians. Contact any of the following for more information about education, career preparation, and employment in this field. American Federation of Musicians (AFM) 1501 Broadway, Suite 600 New York, NY 10036 or Canadian Office AFM 75 The Donway West, Suite 1010 Don Mills, ON M3C 2E9 Canada www.afm.org


American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) Los Angeles National Office 5757 Wilshire Boulevard Los Angeles, CA 90036 or New York National Office 260 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10016 www.aftra.com American Guild of Music (AGM) PO Box 599 Warren, MI 48090 www.americanguild.org American Guild of Musical Artists (AGMA) 1430 Broadway, Fourteenth Floor New York, NY 10018 www.musicalartists.org American Guild of Organists (AGO) 475 Riverside Drive, Suite 1260 New York, NY 10115 www.agohq.org Provides international information, education, and certification

American Music Conference (AMC) 5790 Armada Drive Carlsbad, CA 92008 www.amc-music.org Support for music education, awards, parent/educator information


American Musicological Society 6010 College Station Brunswick, ME 04011 www.ams-net.org Calendar of events, honors, awards, information about graduate and undergraduate education, grant programs, publications, United States/Canada directory

American Symphony Orchestra League (ASOL) 33 West Sixtieth Street, Fifth Floor New York, NY 10023 www.symphony.org Career information, meetings, news, research, awards, job listings, and education updates

Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) 320 West Fifty-Seventh Street New York, NY 10019 www.bmi.com Represents more than three million songwriters, composers, and publishers; maintains offices in New York, Atlanta, London, Los Angeles, Miami, Nashville, and Puerto Rico

Chamber Music America 305 Seventh Avenue New York, NY 10001 www.chamber-music.org Awards, important industry magazine, grants

Chorus America Association of Professional Vocal Ensembles 1156 Fifteenth Street NW, Suite 310 Washington, DC 20005 www.chorusamerica.org Promotion of choral industry, job openings, annual awards


College Music Society 312 East Pine Street Missoula, MT 59802 www.music.org Publishes a newsletter and a directory of colleges, conservatories, and universities

Concert Artists Guild (CAG) 850 Seventh Avenue, Suite 1205 New York, NY 10019 www.concertartists.org Annual competition, artist management

International Conference of Symphony and Opera Musicians (ICSOM) 6607 Waterman St. Louis, MO 63130 www.icsom.org Represents more than four thousand musicians in the United States, Canada, and Puerto Rico

National Association of Schools of Music 11250 Roger Bacon Drive, Suite 21 Reston, VA 20190 http://nasm.arts-accredit.org Organization of schools and conservatories; provides information about music schools, industry promotion, accreditation

Orchestras Canada 202-56 The Esplanade Toronto, ON M5E IA7 Canada www.oc.ca National services organization for all Canadian orchestras; presents national awards; provides publications and job listings


Society of Professional Audio Recording Services 9 Music Square South, Suite 222 Nashville, TN 37203 www.spars.com Members list, industry news, and industry links

Schools of Music Listed below are some of the most famous music schools in the United States and Canada, where you will find some of the world’s top musicians and some of the best teachers and programs. There are many more; this is just a beginning to help you discover the exciting scope of the training that is available. Eastman School of Music University of Rochester 26 Gibbs Street Rochester, NY 14604 www.esm.rochester.edu Indiana University Jacobs School of Music 1201 East Third Street Merrill Hall 003 Bloomington, IN 47405 www.music.indiana.edu Maintains link to the William and Gayle Cook Music Library

The Juilliard School Music Division 60 Lincoln Center Plaza New York, NY 10023 www.juilliard.edu


Mannes College The New School for Music 150 West Eighty-Fifth Street New York, NY 10024 www.mannes.edu McGill University School of Music 845 Sherbrooke Street West Montréal, QC H3A 2T5 Canada www.mcgill.ca Oberlin College Conservatory of Music 39 West College Street Oberlin, OH 44074 www.oberlin.edu/con University of Texas at Austin School of Music One University Station E3100 Austin, TX 78712 www.music.utexas.edu Wolf Trap Foundation for the Performing Arts 1645 Trap Road Vienna, VA 22182 www.wolftrap.org


Yale University School of Music Leigh Hall 435 College Street PO Box 208246 New Haven, CT 06520 www.yale.edu/music/ysm.html

Selected Music Festivals, Worldwide Aspen Music Festival (Aspen, Colorado) Austin Chamber Music Festival (Austin, Texas) Bellingen Global Carnival: World Music, Dance, and Arts Festival (Australia) Bellingham Festival of Music (Bellingham, Washington) Berkeley Festival and Exhibition (Berkeley, California) Bloomington Early Music Festival (Bloomington, Indiana) Boston Early Music Festival (Cambridge, Massachusetts) Boulder Bach Festival (Boulder, Colorado) Brevard Music Center and Festival (Brevard, North Carolina) Britt Festivals (Jacksonville, Oregon) Doheny Blues Festival (Doheny State Park, California) Festival de Música de Canarias (Spain) Festival de Wallonie: Classical Music Festival (Belgium) Festival International de Jazz de Montréal (Quebec, Canada) Four Winds Music Festival (Australia) Glastonbury Festival of Contemporary Performing Arts (England) Great American Brass Band Festival (Danville, Kentucky) Greenlight Youth Festival of the Arts (Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada) Green Mountain Music Festival (Green Mountain, Vermont) Hermoupolis Guitar Festival (Greece) Houston International Festival (Houston, Texas) Icicle Creek Chamber Music Festival (Leavenworth, Washington)


International Music Festival (Sweden) Istanbul International Jazz Festival (Turkey) Kent/Blossom Music Festival (Kent, Ohio) Kitakyushu International Music Festival (Japan) Lancut Music Festival (Poland) Las Vegas Music Festival (Las Vegas, Nevada) Lotus World Music Festival (Bloomington, Indiana) Louisiana State University Festival of Contemporary Music (New Orleans, Louisiana) Max Aronoff Viola Institute (Bothell, Washington) Midsummer Mozart Festival (San Francisco, California) Monterey Bay Ragtime Festival (Monterey, California) Montreux Atlanta Music Festival (Atlanta, Georgia) Montreux Festival (Switzerland) Musicfest Canada (Toronto, Ontario, Canada) New Orleans Jazz Heritage Festival (New Orleans, Lousiana) Nordic University Choir Festival (Denmark) Norfolk Chamber Music Festival/Yale School of Music (New Haven, Connecticut) Oklahoma International Blue Grass Festival (Guthrie, Oklahoma) Orford Chamber Music Festival (Canton d’Orford, Québec, Canada) Oregon Bach Festival, University of Oregon School of Music (Eugene, Oregon) Park City International Music Festival (Park City, Utah) Royal Northern College of Music, Manchester International Cello Festival (England) Ravinia Festival (Highland Park, Illinois) Reading Rock Festival (Reading, Pennsylvania) Rocky Mountain Ragtime Festival (Boulder, Colorado) Salzburg Music Festival (Austria) Santa Barbara Music Academy of the West (Santa Barbara, California)


South by Southwest Music Festival (Austin, Texas) South Shore Summer Music Festival (Westport, Connecticut) Southern California Reggae Fest (San Diego, California) Spoleto Festival (Italy) Stonesong Summer Festival (Bloomington, Indiana) Tanglewood Music Festival (Boston, Massachusetts) Time of Music: Contemporary Music Festival (Finland) Token Creek Chamber Music Festival (Madison, Wisconsin) Tucson Winter Chamber Music Festival (Tucson, Arizona) Vancouver Chamber Music Festival (Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada) Verbier Festival and Academy (Switzerland) Windham Chamber Music Festival (Windham, New York) The Winnipeg Folk Festival (Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada) World Sacred Music Festival (Morocco)

CHAPTER TEN

Careers in Art Bringing Thoughts and Feelings into Visible Form

Life is pretty simple: You do some stuff. Most fails. Some works. You do more of what works. If it works big, others quickly copy it. Then you do something else. The trick is the doing something else. —Leonardo da Vinci

T

he translator of the da Vinci quotation above has used a modern American English vernacular. The effect is slightly startling. Leonardo da Vinci is so famous as an artist in the western world that mention of his first name alone is enough to bring some of his masterworks to mind. Someone says, “Leonardo,” and we think instantly of Mona Lisa or The Last Supper or a small sketch of a helicopter, imagined and drawn by this master artist hundreds of years ago during the Italian Renaissance. And yet, his message, quoted above, speaks to us all as if he were saying it today—it voices a familiar idea that we all recognize. It is something we tell ourselves—to keep going, not to slow down or coast. Especially for artists, this is the trick—to create, and then to create again. In twenty-first-century America, artists are of two kinds— we call them fine artists, or studio artists, and commercial artists. The fine artists create their art for its own sake and work as independents, earning their livings, to the extent that they can, from



occasional sales and commissions of their work. Many of these artists must work at day jobs to support themselves and their art. Commercial artists earn more regular incomes because they create to sell to the commercial market, and they are paid for their services as graphic designers, illustrators, cartoonists, advertising artists, or other commercial art roles. Studio artists often have trouble paying their bills and sometimes become so disheartened that persevering in their art is all but impossible. Commercial artists must keep on creating and producing for their employers, day after day. Sometimes the work is stultifying and repetitious, and they consider giving it all up. Neither group has a perfect world. Sometimes they keep on, just hoping they’ll be the lucky ones—“Next time, it will be me!” And, of course, sometimes it really is, and they become successful.

HELP WANTED—ARTISTS Five graphic artists needed for major national project. Must be able to work on renewable three-month contract under direction of art department of established Madison Avenue agency. Assignment in-house. Must be experienced in design, layout, and state-of-the-art software for print, multimedia, digital, and interactive media advertising. Apply with resume and up to six nonreturnable copies of previous work.

The Working World of Art Few studio artists can move immediately from school into a career that provides adequate financial support, especially not at first. It takes time to build a reputation and clientele, and during the lean years, many artists seek out additional employment so they can be assured of a regular paycheck.

C A R E E R S I N A RT • 2 0 1

Whether you’re moonlighting in other work areas or are able to devote yourself fully to your art, you probably have questions about the different forms of studio art and the options for employment.

Painters Painters often work on canvas or textured papers, and they usually produce two-dimensional paintings, though they are not restricted to this form. Some paint murals or frescoes or paint on billboards, furniture, jewelry, or clothing. Artists’ surfaces are limited only by their imaginations. Painters study and may use various techniques of layering, texturing, shading, perspective, color mixing, and many others. They may produce works that portray realistic scenes, or they may work in various abstract styles, evoking different moods and emotions. The materials they use include oils, watercolors, acrylics, magic markers, pencils, pen and ink, charcoal, and pastels.

Sculptors Sculptors work with three-dimensional art forms, either molding and joining materials, such as clay, glass, wire, plastic, or metal, or cutting and carving forms from a block of plaster, wood, stone, or even ice. Some sculptors combine materials such as concrete, metal, wood, plastic, and paper. Their work may be as small as a miniature ceramic bird the size of a thimble or a statue the size of a three-story building. A sculpture may be fixed and stationary, or it may be a mobile that hangs in an atrium.

Potters Potters work with a variety of clays—from low-fire clays to highfire stoneware or porcelain—and either hand build their artwork or turn different forms using a potter’s wheel. Potters have the choice of electric wheels or kick wheels. They may work in


production style, turning out large numbers of the same item, or they may create only one-of-a-kind pieces. The process includes drying and trimming the pieces and firing them. Different surface textures, carving, and glazing may be added to the pieces at different stages. Potters may follow existing glaze recipes or experiment with different chemicals to formulate their own. Potters may study in different countries to learn particular aesthetics and techniques and may import clays and minerals for glazes from different parts of the world.

Printmakers Printmakers create printed images on fabric, paper, or other media. They use designs cut into wood, stone, linoleum, or metal or made from computer-driven data. The designs may be molded, carved, engraved, etched, or derived from computers in the form of inkjet, laser, or giclée prints.

Stained-Glass Artists Stained-glass artists work with glass, paints, leading, wood, and other materials to create functional as well as decorative artwork such as windows, skylights, or doors. They repair existing stainedglass windows or produce new designs.

Computer Graphics Artists Contemporary computer graphics artists use software programs of various kinds to create their artwork. They work in many areas of graphic design, digital design, game art and design, interactive media design, and Web design. They create games, cartoons, websites, and advertising.

Photographers Photographers work in fine art photography or in commercial photography, where they take pictures for specific fees as freelance


photographers, or work for a newspaper, magazine, or other organization. Photographers use a variety of equipment when taking photographs, including cameras, lenses, film, filters, tripods, flash guns, and light meters. The digital revolution has brought an array of new equipment. Those who perform their own darkroom work use chemicals and paper in much the same way a painter uses paint and canvas. They usually capture realistic scenes of people, places, and events, or through the use of various techniques, both natural and contrived, they can also create special effects. Commercial photographers create photographs for use by industry, catalogs, sales and marketing, advertising, public relations, illustration and documentation, promotion, and portrait work, including head shots for actors, dancers, singers, models, and other performers. In addition, photographers may work as camera people for film, motion picture, and television productions. They may also work with webmasters in the design of websites.

Woodworkers Woodworkers create furniture or accessories such as jewelry boxes, bowls, and picture frames. The saying goes that a woodworker is only as good as his or her tools. Some woodworkers choose to work only with hand tools, such as planers and chisels. Others stock their workshops with a full array of power tools, including table saws, joiners, routers, and sanders. Woodworkers also use a variety of oils, paints, stains, and varnishes.

Other Arts and Crafts A myriad of other arts and crafts forms exists, including weaving, needlepoint, crewel, beadwork, quilting, rug making, basket weaving, papier-mâché, and doll making. Artisans work with a limitless variety of materials in producing their art.


Where Do Studio Artists Find Work or a Market for Their Sales? Artists work in a variety of venues, and studio artists spend many hours looking for opportunities to exhibit and sell their work. Many artists work in relative poverty all their lives because the market for fine art is not anywhere near as great as the number of fine artists who are putting forth work in the United States or in other parts of the world. Many fine artists find teaching is a way to support themselves, and they do their own work in the time that is left. Grants, awards, and prize money may provide some support, but these sources are occasional and temporary. It is a fact of life that fine artists must either have independent wealth, must be supported by other people, or must be skilled businesspeople and know how to make a living while carefully budgeting their schedules to allow themselves enough time to create their works of art.

Studios and Storefront Galleries Studio artists usually work independently, choosing subject matter and media that can best be used to express their concepts. They may work in art school space, maintain studios in their homes, use store fronts as combination studio-galleries, or share space with other artists in co-op studios. There is a trend in many large cities and even in some out-of-the-way areas for artists to share space in cooperatively owned studios or in rented warehouses or storefronts that have been converted for their specific needs. Artists with their own or shared space often adapt storefronts as galleries in which to sell their work. They may also depend on stores, museums, corporate collections, art galleries, and private individual buyers as outlets for their work. Some work may be done on request—on commission—from specific clients. Occasionally a private individual client or a gallery client will become a patron


and will help to support an artist in exchange for receiving a certain amount of that artist’s work over a period of time.

The Role of an Agent When fine artists become masters in their craft, they can benefit from having agents who take on the work of placing their art in good galleries and art shows so that it has the best chance of selling. Good agents are extremely careful in selecting the artists they represent, and competition for the best agents is intense. Some agents advertise competitions for new clients and host their new clients’ artwork on the agency’s website.

Design Studios Commercial artists generally work in art and design studios situated in business offices or other commercial spaces or as independent contractors or freelancers working in their own home studios. Some prefer to work alone; others require the stimulation of other artists working nearby. For those, sharing space with other artists is often a viable alternative to the lone studio—both for stimulation and for economic reasons, since shared space usually costs the artist less money.

Art Fairs Some artists follow the art-fair or craft-fair circuit and pack up their work and tour the country on a regular basis, deriving most, if not all, of their annual art income from this source alone. However, many artists will tell you that this option is risky, with no guarantee of sales. In addition, the art-fair circuit is vulnerable to changes in weather, to the whims of impulse buyers, and even to the changing tastes of true art lovers and regular collectors. In short, the art-fair market is very unpredictable. Prize money from art fairs and art shows is only rarely substantial, and in many cases is more of an honorarium than a monetary factor. As one artist said recently, “I won first prize, but it didn’t


cover the cost of the paint and canvas, and it didn’t cover the cost of the gas to get there, either.” One serious painter, who exhibited beautiful framed portraits and landscapes at the Chicago Gold Coast Art Fair every year, also made a large batch of miniature paintings. They were about two by three inches, with light-weight wood frames, and each one rested on a little easel of its own. The subjects were all the same— just a thumbprint, in a pastel color, with an earnest little face drawn on it. Above, in tiny letters, a title said, “Thumbody loves you!” On the back, a tiny sticker stated the artist’s name and the name and date of the Chicago Gold Coast Art Fair. The artist sold these for a dollar, and they were popular souvenirs. Unless there was really terrible weather, she always sold enough to pay for her entry and booth fees, and sometimes she made a profit—even in years when she didn’t sell a single one of her serious works.

The Internet and Mail-Order Sales The Internet has created a terrific opportunity for many artists and craftspeople. Because artists can advertise on the Internet at much lower cost than in most print publications, the electronic marketplace has given a boost to art and crafts sales. By using such service organizations as eBay or by having their own websites, many artists have been able to increase their reputations and their sales in recent years. Selling agents such as ArtToGet.com specialize in selling artwork for artists who do not have the time or skills to monitor a website themselves. Art galleries, museums, and gift shops are also benefiting from the Internet’s accessibility and its effectiveness in reaching buyers worldwide. Mail-order publications are also available, as well as catalogs and mailing services that cater to almost every art and craft, from original paintings to doll collecting to antique quilt restoration. Many artisans and craftspeople become familiar with a breadth of


the magazines and other publications that are geared toward their crafts. There they can find a home to advertise their products to a targeted audience of known buyers and collectors.

Living History Establishments and Fairs Some craftspeople and even some fine artists can find employment and a market for their work in living history museums, such as the restored village of Colonial Williamsburg in Virginia, Roscoe Village in Ohio, or Plimoth Plantation in Plymouth, Massachusetts. These museums employ skilled artisans or lease them space on the grounds of the restoration. There you may find potters, silversmiths, jewelry makers, candle makers, soap makers, coopers and basket makers, weavers, needleworkers, costumers, woodworkers, blacksmiths, and fine artists who do portraits or local landscapes in watercolor or another medium. These are just a few of the many kinds of artists who work on-site to sell their goods and to demonstrate early crafts and trades. Some of these artisans wear period costumes and perform their arts while playing the roles of particular characters of the time. Others wear twentieth-century clothing and discuss their craft from a modern perspective. In addition to demonstrations, artisans often produce many of the items that are on display in the various exhibits or that are placed for sale in museum gift shops. The artisans may be producing nearly everything the visitors see around them, including the gifts, furniture, cookware, and sometimes even the actual buildings, such as those that can be seen at Colonial Williamsburg and Plimoth Plantation.

Education and Training Your talent speaks for you in the fine arts field, and there are no formal training requirements. However, it is very difficult to become skilled enough to make a living without the foundation of


good basic training. Bachelor’s and graduate degree programs in fine arts are offered in many colleges and universities, and there are fine art schools that provide excellent fine art training, although most do not provide academic degrees. Many art schools and colleges and universities have recently developed substantial course offerings for computer-aided design, digital media, and interactive media design. Japanese designers have led the field in the use of the electronic media for designs of cartoons and have swept the children’s television market, making Pokemon a household word. Examples of institutions that have built up their design departments with ample electronic skill-building courses incllude: Temple University, where students have an option for six full weeks of study in Japan, not only in electronic media design, but in traditional Japanese culture and design; and the University of Southern California, where a new section is established as the Design and Media Arts Center, with additional courses available in the Department of Film, Television, and Digital Media. One advantage to completing college is that the artist would be able to teach in many institutions that most likely would be closed to someone without a degree. It can also be very important that, in addition to the skills learned or honed, a breadth of contacts are often made during the student’s formal training years, and the instructors are often working artists with hands-on experience and a great deal of practical as well as professional advice to offer.

Employment Outlook The glamour and attraction of fine and commercial arts and crafts draws many people with creative ability who want to pursue a livelihood in the various sectors of this field. As a result, there is always keen competition for both salaried and freelance work, especially in the fine arts. Employment of fine artists for commissions and artist-in-residence jobs and similar positions is expected


to grow moderately in the coming years because of population growth, rising incomes, and growth in the number of people who appreciate fine arts. Demand for artists also depends upon the health of the overall economy, the levels of disposable income available in the population at large, and the levels of foundation and other institutional funding that are available, as well as upon the levels of funding for state arts programs and nationally through the National Endowment for the Arts. As has been true for a century or more in developed countries, commercial art and design are expected to provide much more employment. Computer-related design jobs are expected to grow faster than average in the coming decade in the Americas, Asia, Africa, Australia, and Europe. Talented and skilled designers who are also skilled computer experts will stand the best chance of steady, ongoing, and wellpaid employment.

Where Artists Are Working According to the Department of Labor’s Bureau of Statistics, about 63 percent of all artists in the United States were selfemployed, and the remaining 37 percent who were employed held about 208,000 jobs in 2004. Employment was distributed as follows: Multimedia artists and animators Art directors Fine artists, including painters, sculptors, and illustrators Artists and related workers, all other Craft artists

94,000 71,000 29,000 8,500 6,100

Of the artists who were not self-employed, many worked in advertising and related services; newspaper, periodical, book, and


software publishers; motion picture and video industries; specialized design services; and computer systems design and related services. Some self-employed artists offered their services to advertising agencies, design firms, publishing houses, and other businesses on a contract or freelance basis.

Earnings Earnings for self-employed visual artists vary widely. Those who are struggling to gain experience and a reputation may be forced to charge what amounts to less than the market price for their work. Self-employed artists do not receive benefits such as paid holidays, sick leave, health insurance, or pensions. A very few outstanding and well-established fine artists—the best of the best— may be able to earn much more than salaried artists. Artists who are lucky to land shows with galleries usually determine with the gallery owner in advance how much each would earn from a sale. Gallery commissions in established metropolitan galleries average 40 to 50 percent of the sale price. Only the most successful fine artists are able to support themselves solely through sale of their works, however. Salaries for artisans within living history museums differ, depending on whether they are full-time or part-time. The latter group earns an hourly wage ranging between $8.50 and $12. If the artists lease space and sell their arts and crafts as independent contractors, their pricing and sales vary greatly, depending on the attendance at their displays and the appeal of their products to the buyers. The U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Statistics, reported the following earnings: Median annual earnings of salaried art directors were $63,840 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,890 and $88,120. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $35,500, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $123,320. Median annual earnings were $66,900 in advertising and related services.


Median annual earnings of salaried craft artists were $23,520 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,950 and $32,980. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,740, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $44,490. Median annual earnings of salaried fine artists, including painters, sculptors, and illustrators, were $38,060 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,990 and $51,730. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,390, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $68,860. According to the Association of Medical Illustrators, the median earnings in 2005 for salaried medical illustrators were $59,000. Median annual earnings of salaried multimedia artists and animators were $50,360 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,980 and $70,730, while the lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,030. The highest 10 percent earned more than $94,260. Median annual earnings were $67,390 in motion picture and video industries and $46,810 in advertising and related services.

Professional Lives The following artists share what it’s like to be a professional trying to make a living in the arts.

Debra Moss, Freelance Photographer and Writer Debra Moss worked as a freelance contract archeologist surveyor for five years in Florida, Georgia, and the U.S. Virgin Islands after receiving her master of arts degree in archeology from Ohio State University in Columbus. In 1987, she became a freelance photographer while living in the Virgin Islands. She covered Caribbean travel, yachting, and sailing regattas. Then she began searching for a way to add creativity and soul to her life, so she built a portfolio and started sending it out to magazines, hoping to sell her work. Several editors called her and


said they loved her photos, but could she write something to go with them? She had always loved writing, so she gave it a shot. Soon she was specializing in selling text and photo packages to magazines. Eventually she had more than 150 published credits, including some very well-respected ones, such as for work published in the magazines Outside, Bicycling, Yachting, and many others. Moss wrote columns on computer use for writers, historical and architectural photography, and how to shoot sailboat races and other action sports. She was able to become the press liaison for the internationally known America’s Paradise Triathlon on the island of St. Croix. She says, “My technique is somewhat unique—I use only natural light and have never owned a flash system, so all my work is done outdoors. I try only to capture beauty and have never gone in for what I call the somber side of the profession—‘photography noir.’” She has discovered that travel photography has allowed her to travel to many places on a magazine’s budget, something she calls the greatest lure. For example, she says, a magazine sent her to Costa Rica to shoot and write an article on surfing. Since she is a surfer, this was quite an enticing offer. She says that she loves her work and that people are always stunned by the way her camera sees things. Moss took a creative writing class once but says that she has no formal education, nor has she ever even taken a photography course. “I am told I have an eye,” she admits, “which I believe is an innate ability to see the world in a specific way. I learned this from a famous photographer who looked at my work and said exactly that—‘Well, you certainly have the eye.’ After that, it’s mostly a matter of learning the mechanics of light, shutter, and lens—the tools of the trade.” After six years of college, she says, she learned that anything you could ever want to know is in books, so she read every photogra-


phy book she could find, then went out and shot a hundred rolls of film. That was the sum total of her training. Moss finds that every day is a completely new experience. She doesn’t photograph every day because she works on assignment, but she does usually write each day. Occasionally, she goes out and shoots for fun so as not to lose sight of the joy she used to feel when she did it only for herself and not for a paying customer. In a normal week, she says, she works about five hours a day, five days a week. The rest of the time she trains for triathlons and surfs. “Not a bad life!” she admits. The element that bothered her most at first was her insecurity. She says that she hadn’t proved to herself that she had earned the right to represent herself as a photographer. She found her first assignment rather scary, as she was expected to produce what someone else wanted—and what if she couldn’t, or her camera broke, or it rained? Over the years she has learned what she can do, what she is pretty good at, and what she can do that hardly anyone else can. That self-knowledge of confidence about her specialties has taken her stress away. Moss also notes that the uncertainty of payment when you freelance almost requires you to have a steady backup income (she says that a spouse or trust fund is nice) or at least a nest egg so that you can go for six months without seeing a dime to get you through “until that blissful day when ten checks arrive in the mail together.” Other than that, she says that being a photographer “is just about the neatest profession there is.” Her final words of advice: “I would recommend that you read everything there is to read, always take your camera with you everywhere you go, and let this wonderful invention take you places you would never have gone.”

Carol Revzan, Weaver “I love to make things,” says Carol Revzan, weaver and yarn business owner from Evanston, Illinois. “And it all started when my


grandmother taught me to knit and crochet many years ago. After I had been doing that for many years, I saw an antique coverlet, and I knew I had to learn to weave. Several years later, I found a teacher and starting weaving.” Rezvan finds taking a strand of yarn and manipulating it into fabric or clothing endlessly fascinating. The possible combinations of color, texture, and weave structures ensure that she will never be at a loss for what to do next. She says that she has never been without a project involving yarn or thread. She also loves selling yarn and helping people find just that right yarn for their next project. Rezvan has a studio in her home and works alone. A typical workday for her starts about 9 A.M. and involves weaving until noon, with more weaving after lunch. Later in the afternoon, she works on finishing past projects or planning new ones. A good bit of time is required to design and plan a project before yarn can be threaded onto the loom. She also hosts once-a-month weaving classes and always makes sure to have time for anyone to stop by and purchase yarn. What she likes most about her work is being able to set her own schedule, develop designs and projects, and have time to continue to learn and stretch herself creatively. “And,” she adds, “do I love taking finished cloth off the loom!” What Rezvan likes least about her work is that it is a bit lonely at times and that it’s hard to get a good financial return for the time and effort put into handwoven things. She advises prospective weavers, “I would tell others that good weaving techniques are essential and that a background in color theory and art are most helpful. Though it’s difficult to make a living at it, combined with other activities, it can be very rewarding.”

Dave Knoderer, Artist Dave Knoderer is a self-employed artist based in Sarasota, Florida. His artistic nickname is “Letterfly.” He attended the University of Southern Illinois at Carbondale and then was an artist apprentice


for several years. He keeps up with his education by attending several annual workshops and maintaining memberships in several art-related associations. Knoderer’s marketing materials describe him this way: “Letterfly is the top producer of the high-quality airbrushed murals seen on the outsides of luxury motorhomes. Wildlife and animal depictions provide the mainstay for these works. In addition to paintwork on the exterior of motorhomes, the artist also produces mural work found in homes and oil paintings on canvas.” Knoderer says that, as a child, he was encouraged to create, and he found that painting and exhibit building came naturally to him. He was attracted to the profession by the ability to provide a service to almost anyone (at the beginning) in about any location. He enjoys the freedom to be creative and explore this wonderful land and provide a service to everyone. “The most fulfilling part of my job,” he says, “is experiencing the magnitude of joy that my customers have as the result of my completing a painting for them. My love of my fellow man coupled with sharing my gift with them is very fulfilling.” He also enjoys his horses and finds the developing of a highly trained dancing horse another artistic form that is strictly spontaneous, in contrast to a painted piece that is timely. One art form complements the other, he explains, and he continues with them both to this day. Knoderer spends about a quarter of his time communicating with people and writing stories and getting publicity in the right places. He says he spends less and less time—or so it seems— behind a brush. When he does work, he is focused and pours all he has into the project. He muses, “Perhaps the new blend of investing my time is better for the diversification of creation.” He lives an itinerant lifestyle, so every job seems like an adventure. He never knows whether he is going to have to trudge through the mud at a current construction site to get to work on the mural he has been commissioned to do, or whether he will be provided with a spacious shop to begin the project in the midst of luxury.


“The creative energy I have is satisfied when I am asked for my ideas,” he says. “It seems that, of all I do, it is having ideas that elevates me above my peers and makes me a person in demand. Oddly enough, the having of ideas isn’t what earns any money; it is only after the idea is presented as a plan and executed as a finished work that it realizes any income.” While he recognizes that being itinerant allows him to be very selective about the jobs he wants to do, the bad side is that he does not have the permanence in the community he desires, and he has no family. When he meets his soul mate, he says, it will be time to make some more appropriate changes and travel less. Knoderer advises, “Tremendous sacrifice is what it took for me to get to the level of ability that I enjoy today. Dedication and perspiration are also essential ingredients. Becoming an artist and having the ability to give of this wonderful gift have always been paramount to me. Perhaps the most despised part of the artistic life is the business end. In the early stages of my career, I was very naive. As a result, I was taken advantage of. Potential and practicing artists should be aware that a strong business head is a tremendous asset.”

For More Information For information about art schools, art education in colleges and universities, art shows and other events, scholarships, and professional events, contact the organizations below. American Craft Council Information Center 72 Spring Street New York, NY 10012 www.craftcouncil.org A nonprofit educational organization with information for students, parents, educators, and artists about library resources, calendar of events, shows, and markets


National Assembly of State Arts Agencies 1029 Vermont Avenue NW, Second Floor Washington, DC 20005 www.nasaa-arts.org Information about state and local programs in art, including reviews of funding programs and grants, awards, local initiatives, and major contests in fine arts and commercial art and design

Art Schools The list below includes some of the most famous and widely recognized schools of art in the world. For extended lists of art schools and four-year colleges and universities in the United States that offer art majors of different kinds, contact the National Association of Schools of Art and Design, a national organization of more than 240 schools, colleges, and universities offering art education in fine art and commercial art and design, including graphic and computer assisted design. The National Association of Schools of Art and Design 11250 Roger Bacon Drive, Suite 21 Reston, VA 20190 http://nasad.arts-accredit.org Long established in New York City, the Art Students League has been an incubator of some of the most famous fine art talent to come from the United States. For information about curriculum, tuition, instructors, art styles, and education, contact: The Art Students League 215 West Fifty-Seventh Street New York New York 10019 www.theartstudentsleague.org Perhaps the most romanticized art school in the world, Paris IV is the Sorbonne School that teaches art and archaeology. In close


proximity to the Louvre, it attracts fine artists from all over the world. In the United States, many schools provide for an exchange program—a “junior year in Paris”—which often means a junior year of study at the Sorbonne and, for artists, at the Louvre. The Sorbonne Paris School IV 3, Rue Michelet 75006 Paris, France www.paris4.sorbonne.fr

Major Art Reference Libraries For research on art, artists, instructors, museums, galleries, schools, art foundations, scholarships, awards, and art fairs, shows, and festivals in the Americas and the United Kingdom, contact the libraries listed below. National Art Library Victoria and Albert Museum Cromwell Road South Kensington United Kingdom www.vam.ac.uk/nal Major reference library; houses the curatorial department for the art, craft, and design of the book

Art Libraries Society of North America (ArLIS/NA) 232-329 March Road Box 11 Ottawa, ON K2K 2E1 Canada www.arlisna.org Founded in 1972; provides art information for librarians, visual resources professionals, educators, and others


Scholes Library of Ceramics New York State College of Ceramics Alfred University Two Pine Street Alfred, NY 14802 www.scholes.alfred.edu Healey Library University of Massachusetts Boston 100 Morrissey Boulevard Boston, MA 02125 www.lib.umb.edu Charles Voorhies Fine Art Library Pacific Northwest College of Art 1241 Northwest Johnson Street Portland, OR 97209 http://library.pnca.edu Independent art college library collection providing historical and contemporary perspectives of art

Rochester Institute of Technology Cary Collection 90 Lomb Memorial Drive Rochester, NY 14623 http://wally.rit.edu/cary Graphic arts library and digital image database

University of New Mexico Fine Arts Library MSC05 3020 University of New Mexico Albuquerque, NM 87131 http://elibrary.unm.edu/falref


Avery Architecture and Fine Arts Library Columbia University Libraries 535 West 114th Street New York, NY 10027 www.cc.columbia.edu UCLA Arts Library Box 139203, 1400 Public Policy Building Los Angeles, CA 90095 www.library.ucla.edu Leonardo da Vinci and Renaissance materials

University of Florida Architecture and Fine Arts Library 201 Fine Arts Building A Gainesville, FL 32611 http://afalib.uflib.ufl.edu Arts Library University of California Santa Barbara, CA 93106 www.library.ucsb.edu/arts Houses both art and music collections

About the Author

J

an Goldberg fell in love with the printed page and with making books even before her second birthday. Regular visits to the book bindery where her grandfather worked produced a magical impression of the sights and sounds and smells of bookmaking that she carries with her to this day. Her childhood was filled with composing poems and stories, reading books, and playing library. In elementary and high school, she poured forth an assortment of contributions to school newspapers. While a college student, Goldberg wrote extensively and, after receiving a degree in elementary education, was able to extend her love of reading and writing to her students. In the career education and exploration field, Goldberg has written for General Learning Corporation’s Career World magazine, as well as for publications produced by CASS Communications. She has contributed to a large number of projects for various educational publishers, including Free Spirit Publishing, Capstone Publishing, Publications International, Scott Foresman, Addison-Wesley, and Camp Fire Boys and Girls. As a feature writer, Goldberg’s work has appeared in Parenting, Today’s Chicago Woman, Friendly Exchange, Correspondent, Chicago Parent, Opportunity, Successful Student, Complete Woman, North Shore, and the Pioneer Press newspapers. In addition, she has written articles for a number of online websites, including Arthur Andersen’s Knowledgespace.com and onhealth.com. In addition to Careers for Geniuses and Other Gifted Types, she is the author of Careers for Class Clowns and Other Engaging Types,

Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

Careers for Color Connoisseurs and Other Visual Types, Careers for Competitive Spirits and Other Peak Performers, Careers for Courageous People and Other Adventurous Types, Careers for Extroverts and Other Gregarious Types, Careers for Patriotic Types and Others Who Want to Serve Their Country, Careers in Journalism, Great Jobs for Accounting Majors, Great Jobs for Computer Science Majors, Great Jobs for Music Majors, Great Jobs for Theater Majors, On the Job: Real People Working in Communications, On the Job: Real People Working in Entertainment, On the Job: Real People Working in Science, Opportunities in Research and Development Careers, Opportunities in Entertainment Careers, and Opportunities in Horticulture Careers, all published by McGraw-Hill. Goldberg also serves as a writing workshop leader for both children and adults, an activity that comes as second nature to her and that she thoroughly enjoys.

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