Career Development Programs: Preparation for Lifelong Career Decision Making

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Author: Wendy Patton | Mary McMahon

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Careers Cover PRINT

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Career Development Programs includes a history of career development programs in Australia and presents a chapter on how to implement such programs across a range of settings. Contributors to the book are drawn from Australia and overseas. With its emphasis on lifelong career development, the book provides examples of programs operating across the lifespan from school age to retirement. In addition, it provides chapters on topics seldom addressed and groups rarely catered for such as athletes, dancers and people with disabilities. This book is an invaluable resource for career teachers and counsellors working in schools and private practice, university counselling departments, rehabilitation counsellors, and human resource departments and personnel consultants. It is also an ideal reference for tertiary students pursuing this field of study.

About the editors Wendy Patton, PhD, is Associate Professor and Acting Head of the School of Learning and Development at the Queensland University of Technology. She edited the Australian Journal of Career Development from 1997 to 1999 and is currently international advisor for the British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, and the International Journal of Educational and Vocational Guidance. Mary McMahon, PhD, is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Queensland University of Technology. Wendy and Mary both teach in the Career Guidance Area of Interest in the Master of Education course at QUT. This collaboration on Career Development Programs reflects the editors’ understanding of the needs of career professionals and their desire to communicate best practice to them.

Career Development Programs Preparation for lifelong career decision making

Changes in the world of work and the evolving nature and structure of careers have placed considerable demands on the provision of systematic developmental career programs through the lifespan. Career development programs provide individuals with planned learning experiences that develop knowledge, skills and attitudes to assist them in making informed decisions throughout their working lives.

Career Development Programs

Edited by Wendy Patton and Mary McMahon

Preparation for lifelong career decision making

Edited

by

Wendy

Patton

and

Mary

McMahon

Career Development FINAL

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Edited

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Wendy

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Mary

McMahon


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First published 2001 by Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd 19 Prospect Hill Road, Camberwell, Melbourne, Victoria, 3124 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Copyright © 2001 Wendy Patton and Mary McMahon All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Copyright Act 1968 of Australia and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the written permission of the publishers. Edited by Brigid James, Writers Reign Cover and text design by Polar Design Index by Russell Brooks Printed by Ligare Pty Ltd National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data: Career development programs: preparation for lifelong career decision making. Bibliography. Includes index. ISBN 0 86431 392 6. 1. Vocational guidance – Australia. 2. Career education – Australia. I. Patton, Wendy, 1957– . II. McMahon, Mary, 1955– . 370.1130994 Visit our website: www.acerpress.com.au


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Contents Author biographies

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Section 1 — Theory, policy, practice: an overview Chapter one Career development practice: a refocus and renewal (Wendy Patton and Mary McMahon)

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Chapter two Implementing career development learning programs (Wendy Patton and Mary McMahon)

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Chapter three Career development programs for career development facilitators (Dave E. Redekopp and J. Barrie Day)

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Section 2 — Career theory in program development Chapter four Career development, disability and vocational rehabilitation (Nicholas Buys, Laurie Buys, Elizabeth Kendall and Deborah Davis)

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Chapter five Applying cognitive information processing theory (Janet G. Lenz, Robert C. Reardon, Gary W. Peterson and James D. Sampson)

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Chapter six The Career Choice Cycle Course (Lee-Ann Prideaux)

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Section 3 — Career programs throughout the lifespan Chapter seven K–12 career education programs: from rhetoric to practice (Mary McMahon and John Carroll)

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Chapter eight Career development in the post-secondary curriculum (Sharon Crozier)

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Chapter nine An on-line job search workshop for post-secondary students (Vivian Lalande and Sharon Crozier)

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Chapter ten Career development within organisational programs (Sandy Santic)

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Chapter eleven Lifelong career development (Elizabeth Ozanne)

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Section 4 — Career development programs for special groups Chapter twelve Career development programs for athletes (David Lavallee, Trish Gorley, Ruth Lavallee and Paul Wylleman)

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Chapter thirteen Career transition programs for dancers (Susan Ryan)

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Chapter fourteen Facilitating career guidance for unemployed workers (Wendy Patton)

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Chapter fifteen Career programs for people with disabilities (Robyn M. Gillies and Karen Knight)

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Chapter sixteen Outplacement programs in Australia: A consultant’s perspective (Anita Cyngler)

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References

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Index

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Author Biographies Laurie Buys Laurie Buys, PhD, is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Humanities and Human Services at Queensland University of Technology. She is also Director of the Centre for Community and Cross Cultural Studies and has research interests in the areas of older adults and people with disabilities. Nicholas Buys Nicholas Buys, PhD, is Head, School of Human Services and Director, Centre for Human Services at Griffith University, Logan Campus in Queensland. He teaches in the area of rehabilitation counselling and has worked in vocational rehabilitation services in Australia and the United States. He was the Founding Editor of the Australian Journal of Rehabilitation Counselling and has a number of publications in the area of rehabilitation. John Carroll John Carroll, BSc, DipPsych, CertT, is currently Senior Guidance Officer in the Careers and Guidance section of Education Queensland. He has been involved in careers work in state and independent schools and in central office positions for over twenty-five years, has contributed to a number of research articles, and has been a frequent conference presenter. Sharon Crozier Sharon Crozier, PhD, is Director and Senior Counsellor at the Counselling and Student Development Centre at the University of Calgary. Sharon is most interested in the career development and decision making of post-secondary students, the use of technology to enhance the career planning of students and women’s relational career development. Anita Cyngler Anita Cyngler, BA, DipEd, GradDipCareers, has over sixteen years experience in career development. For the last five years, she has divided her time between working in the Career Transition Management Division of TMP Worldwide, and her private practice. Her work involves career coaching, outplacement, termination support, change management and leadership development, both with individuals and in workshops. Deborah Davis Deborah Davis is employed as a Rehabilitation Adviser within Q-COMP – the workers compensation regulator in Queensland. She has worked as a Rehabilitation Counsellor for WorkCover Queensland and is completing research in the area of career development as part of a Master of Human Services with Honours at Griffith University.


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J. Barrie Day J. Barrie Day is a principal partner of the Life-Role Development Group Limited. Barrie’s work takes him across Canada, teaching leadership and career development, developing career development products and consulting to organisations. Formerly, Barrie was Executive Director of the Centre for Career Development Innovation, Concordia College and Executive Director, Training Services, Alberta Career Development and Employment. Robyn M. Gillies Robyn Gillies, PhD, is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Education at the University of Queensland. Her research interests include group processes in learning and socialisation, career education, and the career development needs of students and adults with disabilities. Trish Gorely Trish Gorely has a PhD in Sport and Exercise Psychology from the University of Western Australia. Her current position is Lecturer – Young People and Sport, at Loughborough University, England. Her current research program focuses on the development of commitment in talented young athletes and the development and maintenance of healthy lifestyles. Elizabeth Kendall Elizabeth Kendall, PhD, has qualifications in psychology and fifteen years experience in the area of community-based rehabilitation following traumatic brain injury. She is currently a Research Fellow in the Centre for Human Services where she undertakes research in the area of community-based rehabilitation following motor vehicle accidents. Karen Knight Karen Knight is a psychologist with the Queensland Department of Health where she has worked in programs to enhance the life opportunities of at-risk students. She is an active executive member of the National Federation of Blind Citizens of Australia, and has lobbied extensively in different government and non-government forums for greater employment opportunities for people who are blind or vision-impaired. Vivian Lalande Vivian Lalande, PhD, is a Senior Counsellor at the Counselling and Student Development Centre in the University of Calgary, Canada. She attained her PhD at the University of Calgary and is a chartered psychologist. Her many interests include career counselling and development, program evaluation and the provision of counselling services at a distance. David Lavallee David Lavallee, PhD, is a Reader in Exercise and Sport Psychology in the Scottish School of Sports Studies at the University of Strathclyde, Scotland. A Chartered Psychologist and Associate Fellow with the British Psychological Society, he has more than sixty publications in academic and professional outlets. His general area of research and applied interest is in counselling in sport and exercise settings. Ruth Lavallee Ruth Lavallee, MMedSci, is a Senior Lecturer at Leeds Metropolitan University and has been Director of Undergraduate Sport and Exercise Science there for three years. She received her Masters in Medical Science from the University of Sheffield, England, and since then has conducted research in a range of psychophysiological aspects of sport and exercise.


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Janet G. Lenz Janet G. Lenz, PhD, is the Associate Director for Career Advising, Counseling, and Programming in the Career Center at Florida State University, and a Senior Research Associate in the FSU Center for the Study of Technology in Counseling and Career Development. She received her Bachelor’s degree in Sociology from Virginia Commonwealth University. She received her Masters in Student Personnel Administration and her PhD in Counseling and Human Systems, both from Florida State University. Mary McMahon Mary McMahon, PhD, is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Queensland University of Technology. With Wendy Patton, she edited Career development in practice: A systems theory perspective and co-authored Career development and systems theory: A new relationship. In addition, Mary has an extensive publishing record in national and international refereed journals. She edited the newsletter of the Queensland Guidance and Counselling Association, Connections, for three years. Mary also teaches in the Career Guidance Area of Interest in the Master of Education course at Queensland University of Technology. Elizabeth Ozanne Elizabeth Ozanne, PhD, currently heads the Ageing and Long Term Care Research Unit in the School of Social Work at the University of Melbourne. She has published numerous journal articles, chapters and several books on ageing and community care policy in Australia. Wendy Patton Wendy Patton, PhD, is Associate Professor and Acting Head of the School of Learning and Development, Queensland University of Technology. With Mary McMahon, she edited Career development in practice: A systems theory perspective and co-authored Career development and systems theory: A new relationship. In addition, Wendy has an extensive publishing record in national and international refereed journals. She edited the Australian Journal of Career Development from 1997–99 and is currently international advisor for the British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, and the International Journal of Educational and Vocational Guidance. Wendy coordinates the Career Guidance Area of Interest in the Master of Education at Queensland University of Technology and teaches units in this course. Gary W. Peterson Gary W. Peterson, PhD, is Professor and Training Director for the academic program, Psychological Services in Education in the College of Education, Florida State University. He teaches courses in personality assessment, research methods and consultation and organisational development. His research interests include cognition in problem solving and decision making, career assessment and test construction. Lee-Ann Prideaux Lee-Ann Prideaux taught for over a decade before completing a BPsych(Hons) in order to ‘do more with kids’. Now in the final stages of her PhD at Griffith University, her research interests include career education of adolescents, career self-efficacy and Social Cognitive Career Theory.


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Robert C. Reardon Bob Reardon has held full-time counselling and teaching positions at Florida State University (FSU) since 1966, when he was first employed in the Counseling Center. He obtained his PhD in Counselor Education from the university in 1968. Today, he is a faculty member in the Division of Student Affairs, and his current position is Director of Instruction, Research, and Evaluation in the Career Center; Professor in the Department of Human Services and Studies; and Co-Director (with Jim Sampson) of the Center for the Study of Technology in Counseling and Career Development. Dave E. Redekopp Dave E. Redekopp is a Principal Partner of the Life-Role Development Group Limited, Director of Program Development, Career Development Department, Concordia University College of Alberta and a Governor of the Canadian Career Development Foundation. Dave is primarily involved with research and development initiatives (work dynamic research, program development and product development). Susan Ryan Susan Ryan is a psychologist with ten years experience across university career counselling, vocational rehabilitation and career transition settings. She is currently completing a PhD at Queensland University of Technology on dancers’ lifespan development. She has taught in developmental psychology, educational psychology and post-graduate career development courses. James P. Sampson, Jr James P. Sampson, Jr, PhD, is a Professor at Florida State University where he teaches courses in career development and computer applications in counselling. He is also Co-Director of the Center for the Study of Technology in Counseling and Career Development, established to improve computer applications in counselling and guidance. Sandy Santic Sandy Santic is currently working as a Human Resources consultant in a large public sector organisation, where she developed their career development program. Sandy has recently guestlectured in units in the Master of Education Program at the Queensland University of Technology. She has a degree in psychology and a Master of Education in Career Guidance. Paul Wylleman Paul Wylleman has a PhD in clinical psychology and is an associate professor at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium, where he teaches psychology of sport, exercise and leisure. He also coordinates the Department of Top-level Sport and Study and provides career counselling to elite-level student athletes. Paul has been leading a Special Interest Group on Sports Career Transitions since 1993.


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1 s e c t i o n

Theory, policy, practice: an overview


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c h a p t e r

Career development practice: a refocus and renewal Wendy Patton and Mary McMahon

Well-documented changes in the world of work have increased exponentially the importance of career guidance services. The career guidance field has taken up the challenges of renewed training of professionals, invigorated practices in relation to education programs, counselling and information, and engaged in extended and sustained thinking on the responses of the field to the changes. The career guidance field has been expanding the focus of its interventions and stressing the need to examine its development to date and the most appropriate directions for the future. For example, the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance conducted a conference in 1996 on the changing demands of career guidance and, in 2000, embarked on the development of a new journal. In 1999, a major international symposium held in Canada focused on career development and public policy (Hiebert & Bezanson, 1999), with work ongoing in 2001. New editions of major theoretical texts have been developed (Brown & Brooks, 1996; Osipow & Fitzgerald, 1996) and new texts featuring new theoretical formulations and the interplay between theory and practice also have been published (Patton & McMahon, 1999; Savickas & Walsh, 1996). This chapter will examine the changing context in which career development and career development practice occur. It emphasises the importance of reconceptualising career guidance as lifelong learning if individuals are to construct satisfying life careers for themselves within changing environments. The beginning section of the chapter presents definitions of key terms used throughout the book. Changes in the world of work and implications for career guidance practice are then discussed. Finally, the status of career guidance practice in Australia and other Western countries is explored.

Definition of terms: career development programs in context Career guidance covers a range of activities that are designed to assist individuals make and implement informed choices related to their career development. These activities include career development programs, career information and career counselling. The changing nature of the world of work and of career has led to a changed focus in the practice of career guidance that traditionally emphasised the expert guiding, or ‘matching’ of individuals with jobs. There has been a shift to making the activities


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incorporated within the practice of career guidance enhance individuals’ decision making based on their own understanding of their abilities, skills, interests and values, and of the options open to them. With the ongoing and repeated nature of decision making which will increasingly be part of individuals’ working lives, this focus on learning outcomes from guidance aims to equip the individual with the necessary skills to deal with other decisions in the future. Similar definitions of career guidance are adopted in other countries (e.g. Department of Education and Employment, 1995) although in some countries the focus may be more narrowly targeted into educational or vocational guidance (Watts et al., 1993). Career development programs may be offered in schools where they are more commonly referred to as career education, through colleges and universities and in other organisations, where they are most often located within employee training and development structures. The Career Education Taskforce of the Ministerial Council for Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA, 1998) defines career education as being concerned with: the development of knowledge, skills and attitudes through a planned program of learning experiences in education and training settings which will assist students to make informed decisions about their study and/or work options and enable effective participation in working life. The principles of this definition apply to all career development programs, no matter what target group and organisational setting. In the organisational literature, career development is defined as: an ongoing process of planning and directed action toward personal work and life goals. Career development is the outcome of the individual’s career planning and organisation’s provision of support and opportunities (Simonsen, 1997, p. 6). Within this field, career development systems or programs have been referred to as ‘processes and practices that link an individual’s career goals with organisations’ HR needs’ (Gutteridge, Leibowitz & Shore, 1993, p. 72). Career counselling is a more intensive activity and is most often conducted in a oneto-one or small-group setting. It is concerned with assisting individuals to identify, own and manage their career concerns. Herr (1997) broadly defines the principal content of career counselling as the ‘perceptions, anxieties, information deficits, work personalities, competencies and motives that persons experience in their interaction with their external environment’ (p. 85). Career counselling encompasses a wide variety of strategies and approaches, embodied in Krumboltz’ (1996) assertion that: career counseling is the most complex type of counseling because the counselor must possess all the skills of other counselors and, in addition, know employment trends, methods of preparing for work roles, career assessment techniques, and methods for changing work-related behavior, emotions and cognitions (p. 59). Career information is also a very inclusive concept and consists of job and occupational descriptions, information about employment trends and consequent opportunities or

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declines in opportunity, details about courses and qualifications, and information about costs, remuneration and financial assistance associated with the options.

Career guidance and the changing world of work Traditional career guidance of the 19th and early 20th centuries was associated with the shift from an agrarian-based economy to one based on manufacturing and industry. This shift increased occupational diversity and demanded more expertise in career decision making than the family and related networks, the traditional providers of such guidance, could provide (Herr, 1997). The industrial age also spawned the development of education for a greater proportion of the population, an education which was to a large extent a preparatory ground for the workforce. Within this context, education preceded and prepared for employment, and career guidance was concentrated at the point where individuals moved from one system to the other. Traditionally, therefore, career services have been concentrated at the decision point between education and employment, often in an adhoc manner (Watts, 1996a). It is no longer startling to refer to the dramatic changes in the world of work. These have been extensively documented in a range of sources (Feller & Walz, 1996; Herr, 1997; Patton & McMahon, 1999; Watts, 1996a). We are entering a post-industrial or post-modern era, where traditional notions of work and career are no longer relevant. The diversity in occupational structures at the beginning of the industrial era is being replaced by a globalised workforce which is characterised by considerable flux and turbulence in occupational structures. Most writers commenting on the changing world of work draw attention to issues such as: • globalisation of the workforce • a growing global labour surplus • organisational transformations in the workforce • the rising importance of the knowledge worker • a growing awareness of linkages between world of work experiences and physical and mental health, family responsibilities and life options • relevant changes to government policy and legislation with respect to issues such as child-care provision for women in the workforce and school-to-work transition • demographic trends related to new entrants to the labour market, for example women and migrants. The traditional employment system is changing dramatically. Full employment is a thing of the past, one job for life is an outcome few can expect and job mobility and career change are increasingly common. The notion of an individual with one job is also changing; increasingly individuals will construct a career portfolio, or a series of jobs which encompass the working week (Hall, 1996). Herr (1992) emphasises that careers do not exist in the same way as jobs and occupations, rather they are the creations of individuals. Individuals need to ‘regard themselves as being self-employed’ (Collin & Watts, 1996, p. 391), as they are expected to ‘manage their own career’ (Savickas, 1997,

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p. 256) and in doing so take responsibility for their own learning and ‘career-long selfdevelopment’ (Collin & Watts, p. 391). Writers (e.g. Ellyard, 1993; Handy, 1985, 1991) continue to remind us that most people will need to adjust to several career changes throughout their lifetime, work for a number of organisations and experience times of unemployment and under-employment. Thus workers find themselves in a foreign world of work, facing a complex array of issues for which most are ill prepared. As a result, individuals can no longer rely on the same beliefs, skills and values to be successful and satisfied in their careers. The rationale for increased interest in career guidance is firmly centred in public and private good (Watts, 2000). While career guidance serves to prepare individuals for the world of work, it also serves to increase social equity in relation to access to educational and vocational opportunities, in addition to its broader economic value, nationally and globally (Bimrose & Wilden, 1994; Herr, 1992; Killeen, White & Watts, 1992; Watts, 2000). Krumboltz (1996) claimed that ‘The economic welfare of the nation depends on its citizens learning career relevant skills and characteristics and learning to adapt to a constantly changing work environment’ (p. 75). Watts (1996a) asserted that the function of career guidance in this context is as a market maker: the education, training and labour markets can work more effectively if all players are informed of the options and movements within each market. Within this changing world, career guidance is regarded as being increasingly significant (Watts, 1996a). However, within the changing work environment and definitions of career (Richardson, 1996; Watts, 1996a), the practice of career guidance also needs to change. First, it is recognised that career guidance does not occur in a vacuum, it is intricately linked to the contexts in which individuals operate and in which the process operates. It is increasingly being influenced by national and global perspectives. Herr (1992) noted that: as individual nations become increasingly interdependent players in what is clearly becoming a global economy, they share concerns about strategies to develop functionally literate and productive workforces; mechanisms to help youth make the transition from school to work and to distribute persons among available occupations; procedures to help persons make the adjustment to work effectively and obtain job satisfaction; plans to deal with high rates of youth unemployment and/or rapidly aging workforces; and methods by which employers and work settings can be increasingly attentive to the needs of employees, seeing them in holistic rather than fragmented ways (p. 255). Second, a broader ‘content’ of career guidance is needed. Collin and Watts (1996) stress the need for closer links between career guidance and financial guidance, relationship counselling and stress counselling. Herr (1997) commented that career counselling: may best be thought of as a continuum of intervention processes that range from facilitating self and occupational awareness, exploration of possibilities and the

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learning of career planning skills, to stress reduction or anger management, issues of indecisiveness, unemployment and work adjustment issues (p. 11). Third, career guidance needs to be available and accessible for a much larger number and broader range of individuals. In addition, career guidance must be accessible to individuals throughout their working lives. A vast literature documents the dearth of services available for adults and individuals who are unable to access services attached to schools, colleges and universities (Hawthorn, 1996a,b; Jackson et al. 1996; McCrossin, 1994; Patton, 1999; Splete & Hutton, 1995; Watts, 2000). Related data emphasises that adults recognise their need for career planning (Donohue & Patton, 1998; NCDA, 2000). The National Career Development Association/Gallup National Survey of Working America identified one in ten adults who reported needing assistance with career planning, or with selecting, changing or getting a job in the previous year (NCDA). Finally, a number of authors have stressed the need for refocused approaches to career services. Krumboltz (1996) commented that: conceiving of career counselling as a learning experience positions it as one of the central educational goals of the nation. It is no longer merely a matchmaking service, a frill for those who ought to have been able to figure out a good match for themselves (p. 75). Collin and Watts (1996) also emphasise the need for career guidance services to be cast within a learning framework: • the role of career education in initial education needs to be strengthened and re-cast as the foundations for lifelong career development • in career guidance methodology, more attention needs to be paid to the constructivist approaches, helping individuals to develop their subjective career narratives • to provide a formal frame for career narratives but also to maintain the dialectic between subjective and objective careers, career guidance services need to support individuals in regular recording of achievement and action planning (pp. 394 –5). The comments of Collin and Watts (1996) draw attention to three key issues: 1 The new understanding of career and the changing context of career development. 2 The responsibility of individuals to chart their own path of career development in a time of change. 3 The relationship between career development and learning. This view of career development and the centrality of the individual in the process brings with it significant challenges to the way in which traditional career development practices need to be conceptualised and conducted. The links between the concept of lifelong learning and career development have strengthened, as it is the only way for individuals to keep pace with the rapidly changing


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society in which we live. It is imperative that individuals are encouraged and know how to learn, and that they take responsibility for learning throughout their lifespan (Cornford, Athanasou & Pithers, 1996). Indeed, Mirvis and Hall (1996) claim that the new career will require ‘learning a living’ (p. 80), rather than simply earning a living. Echoing sentiments expressed earlier in this chapter, Cornford et al. (1996) claim that engagement in lifelong learning ‘appears to offer benefits in terms of economic productivity’ as well as ‘longer-term benefits for the individual’ (p. 43). The organisational literature focuses on the following benefits as a rationale for career development: revision of outdated employee expectations, displaying commitment to continuous learning, ensuring equal opportunity, competitive organisation, flexible employees and recruiting the right people (Simonsen, 1997). Hutton (1996) emphasises the dual benefits to employees and the organisation from career development programs.

Status of career guidance in Australia Morgan and Hart (1977) traced the beginnings of traditional vocational guidance in Australia to the 1920s. However, the acknowledgment of the need for a broader and more consolidated program basis to career services in schools was not evident until the first national career education conference in 1977 (Hart & Morgan, 1977). The development of career education in Australia was a reflection of theoretical and practical developments occurring in Britain and the United States during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, and subsequent Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Australian reports which recommended a more planned and consolidated approach to careers work. In 1977, Morgan and Hart commented on the ‘ad-hoc experimentation’ (p. 6) that occurred in Australia in relation to career education in the 1960s and 1970s, and reviews of career education practices across the states in 1996 revealed that little had changed (Shears, 1996). A myriad of national reports (Australian Educational Council Review Committee, 1991; Australian Education Council, 1992a; Davis & Braithwaite, 1990; National Board of Employment, Education and Training, 1991) have advocated the importance of the lifelong nature of career development and have recommended that career education be embedded in the curriculum from preschool to Year 12. However, despite considerable policy attention at the national and state level (e.g. CEAV/Dusseldorp Skills Forum, 1997; Cumming, 1996; Review of the Provision of Career Guidance Services in Education Queensland Schools, 1999), ‘In real terms … career education has received scant attention in the major curriculum reforms across Australia’ (McCowan & McKenzie, 1997, p. vii). However, a number of policy initiatives have reinvigorated discussion on career education. The Adelaide Declaration on National Goals for Schooling in the 21st century (MCEETYA, 1999) emphasises the importance of schools ensuring that students: have employment related skills and an understanding of the work environment, career options and pathways as a foundation for, and positive attitudes towards, vocational education and training, further education, employment and lifelong learning (Goal 1.5).

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In addition, MCEETYA (2000) agreed that career information and guidance and access to student services are key elements underpinning successful transition for all school students to further education, training and employment. However, while these policy reports have emphasised the need for a comprehensive career education program as a part of the core secondary school curriculum, appropriately resourced with a trained full-time careers coordinator, there has actually been a decline in real support for career education (McCowan & Hyndman, 1998; van Beek, 2000), and careers personnel in schools have had their time devoted to careers work reduced (Harrison, 1999). While a review of six countries (France, Germany, New Zealand, Canada, the United States and Britain) conducted by McCowan and Hyndman (1998) revealed career activity being seen as a high national priority, Australia remained ‘conspicuous for its lack of focus on career activity as a major national priority’ (p. 39). The many government policies and reports have not translated into a consistent national practice in education, training and employment services. Unlike other countries, there is no formalised government or statutory authority or system that exists to oversee the provision of career guidance and counselling services to the population. Career work has been undervalued in this country and existing infrastructure is lacking. Unlike other countries, there is little recognition of the importance of a career advisory system. No obvious sources of sustained support exist at an influential level of the (national) government, and no business or government instrumentality takes responsibility for this important area (McCowan & Hyndman, p. 40).

Career guidance around the world Notwithstanding the previous sections about practice in Australia, most writers agree that career guidance is quite young in the development of its theory and practice (Herr, 1997) and that comparative literature on guidance models is limited (Watts, 1996b). Watts et al. (1993) identified differing structures in different countries in the roles of the career counsellor, in the structures in which they work, and in the state of development and status of career services. Other authors have focused on the relevance of stages of social transition in explaining developments in the provision of career guidance services (Pope, 2000). A review of the stages of development in the Unites States illustrates social changes and their influence on the development of career guidance provision. Guidance had its genesis in schools in the 1920s with an emphasis on vocational guidance, in particular occupational selection and placement. This ‘services model’ (Gysbers, 1990, p. 3), firmly founded in the trait-factor traditions, emphasised orientation, assessment, information, counselling, placement and follow-up. By the late 1920s, a need for guidance for personal adjustment had been realised and the ‘process model’ (p. 3), with its emphasis on counselling and the counsellor, emerged. Vocational guidance gradually became subsumed under a broad guidance umbrella which also incorporated educational and personal social guidance. During this period of development, guidance had increasingly been seen as an ancillary service in schools


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where the emphasis was on the position rather than the program of guidance it offered. During the 1960s and 1970s, the concept of developmental guidance programs emerged, stimulated by a renewed interest in ‘vocational-career’ guidance and developmental guidance. It was not until 1972 that the ‘lack of an appropriate organizational structure for guidance in America’s public schools was finally being addressed’ (Gysbers, 1990, p. 1) through the development of guidance programs. The first manual for a Comprehensive Guidance Program Model was completed in 1974 (Gysbers & Moore, 1974). The work of Gysbers and Moore (1974) is significant in that it adopted the broadest definition of career, including all the roles an individual may assume in various settings throughout a lifespan. In addition, it focused on whole-of-life career development, defining it as ‘self-development over a person’s life span through the integration of the roles, settings and events in a person’s life’ (Gysbers, 1990, p. 8). In addition, Gysbers and Moore’s Comprehensive Guidance Program Model recognised the need for guidance for all students and not just secondary school students at transition points. Implementation of comprehensive guidance programs continued through the 1980s and into the 1990s (Gysbers & Henderson, 1997). Watts (1996b) discusses a framework for understanding the differences between guidance services across countries, emphasising that these differences are a function of the stage of economic development, different political systems, social and cultural factors, education, training and employment systems, and professional and organisational structures. He notes that guidance services are less necessary in less developed countries with little division of labour. However, as societies move into the post-industrial age, the need for guidance services will be more imperative. Similarly, he comments that countries with market economies and democratic political climates are more likely to perceive guidance as important. In relation to social and cultural factors, Watts emphasises that societies with strong social stratification require less formal guidance as roles are more socially circumscribed and family and informal networks provide most of the needed guidance. In societies where there is more social mobility and the number and range of choices is large: … formal guidance assumes greater importance: individuals have a wider field of choice available to them, and their family and informal networks are less likely to provide informed help in relation to the full range of opportunities (p. 56). Watts also discusses the location of guidance services within education, training and employment systems. In countries where liberal-pragmatism underpins curriculum theory, guidance is more likely to be able to assume a central role in education, such as in the United States, Denmark and the Netherlands, as opposed to in France. Similarly, where the vocational education and training system is a core part of schoolto-work transition guidance services are more likely to be based within labour market institutions. For example, in Germany vocational guidance is a monopoly of a single body, the Bundesanstalt fr. Arbeit, whereas in France the main guidance services are part of the education system. Finally, Watts notes that there are also major differences in professional and organisation structures, including an influence on professional

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identity and definition of the guidance provider’s role, the extent of training and the location of the professional’s workplace. Evaluating the efficacy of the different provisions of these services is beyond the scope of this chapter. Whether a formal monopoly as in Germany is more effective than a service carried out by a wide variety of agencies in many different settings remains unanswered. It is interesting that the German monopoly is increasingly being broken as new private and voluntary agencies are beginning to emerge (Watts, 2000). In addition, it is clear that different countries have identified local issues and responded with local resources. Examples of these include the group employment programs in Canada (Amundson & Borgen, 1988), peer counselling and distance education in Canada (Cahill & Martland, 1997), joint programs between schools and university counselling services centres and psychology departments in Chile (Aisenson, 1997), and the Internet career development programs, also developed in Canada (Lalande & Crozier, discussed in Section 2 of this book). Other programs include psycho-social counselling for the unemployed with the collaboration of trade unions in Germany (Kieselbach & Lunger, 1990) and a similar program within the building industry in Australia (Furness, 1999).

Conclusion This chapter has highlighted the relationship between social change and career guidance provision, and has emphasised the imperative to renew and refocus career guidance services as lifelong learning for all individuals throughout the life span. It illustrates the variety in the developmental models of career guidance services around the world, noting that so many examples are related to local needs and resources. The next chapter focuses on implementation issues in program development, including the development of a rationale, determination of content, learning approaches and practical issues of implementation, and includes a discussion on evaluation approaches.


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2

c h a p t e r

Implementing career development learning programs Wendy Patton and Mary McMahon

The previous chapter firmly established the need for career guidance and identified broad differences in the positioning of career guidance within national policy agendas. It also emphasised the need to renew and refocus career guidance services within a lifelong learning framework. This chapter extends this perspective and focuses on the program component of career guidance services. This chapter will outline the following: • • • • • • •

a rationale for a program approach to career development current status of programs what is included in career development programs principles of good career development programs steps in implementing programs experiential learning approaches evaluation of career development programs.

Rationale for a program approach The previous chapter identified a number of elements which are incorporated within career guidance, including career information, career development programs and career counselling. Career development programs are important because they are able to relate to the contextual influences that are part of the particular environment in which the individual is learning. The opportunity to work with a group offers the advantages of shared experiences as well as cost benefits. In addition, an individual who has experienced career development learning as part of a program is likely to require less from the more intensive career counselling process. Finally, Law (1999) suggests that many of the program objectives he identifies can only be adequately met in curriculum settings. In relation to schools, career education – the planned program of learning experiences advocated by career development writers – creates the opportunity of career development learning to interrelate with other curriculum areas (Gysbers, 1990; McCowan & McKenzie, 1997; Patton & McMahon, 1999). In keeping with the systems theory approach advocated by Patton and McMahon, career development learning works best when integrated into the curriculum rather than as a marginalised extra. McCowan and McKenzie (1994) commented that career development facilitators should be able to link career education ‘to curriculum and classroom practices and these in turn to


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student development and the world of work’ (p. 33). In Canada, Hiebert (1993) calls for a career development culture, an attitude of awareness, which can be developed through integration of career concepts in all subjects at all year levels. A similar perspective is evident in the organisational career development literature. A number of authors suggest that career development programs should not be seen as a stand-alone activity, indicating that it is most successful when it forms part of a broader staff development program (Overman, 1993; Young, 1996). A lack of career development systems within strategic planning is the major difficulty reported by organisations in Australia attempting to implement career development programs (Armstrong, 1992). Examples of integration of programs with other human resource initiatives include the integration of career development programs with performance management, continuous improvement, succession planning, diversity and promotion and reward systems at Amoco (Gutteridge et al., 1993) and at Corning Corporation (Leibowitz et al., 1990).

Current status of programs As discussed in chapter one, there is a variety in the nature and location of career guidance services throughout the world. There is also a variable commitment to career programs, in schools and in other settings. In relation to schools, career education programs should lay the foundations for lifelong career development. The career management skills should include how to access and utilise career guidance services in the future. However, Watts (2000) comments that: There is concern in several countries that too much career education provision in schools at present is of poor quality, delivered by teachers who are inadequately trained for such work, and with inadequate support in the form of quality standards, inspection mechanisms and performance measures (p. 310). Such provision often leaves people with negative perceptions of career guidance services. Similar sentiments are expressed in Australia (Career Education Association of Victoria/Dusseldorp Skills Forum, 1997; McCowan, 1996). Despite this negative picture, it is clear that there are exemplary programs in existence, in schools and in other settings. In addition to those which are included in this text, other school programs include those described in Boland (1992), Gibson (2000), Robinson (1997) and those featured in Career Education and Guidance for the Next Millennium (Career Education Association of Victoria/Dusseldorp Skills Forum, 1997). In other settings, Furness (1999) describes a program offered as part of a trade-union-based service. A range of issues arise as impediments to the development of programs. A number raised in the Education Queensland (1999) Review of Career Guidance in Queensland Schools echo those discussed elsewhere (Watts et al., 1993; Watts, 2000). These include negative perceptions about the aims and value of career guidance, absence of policy guidelines and approved programs, restricted time and lack of expertise of appropriate personnel and inadequate professional development for other staff, lack of commitment and support from decision makers, inadequate resources and funding, absence of monitoring and reporting of outcomes, and lack of internal communication in the organisation.

Implementing Career Development Learning Programs

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Content and process of career development programs Career development learning needs to include both content learning and process learning. The content ranges from self-knowledge and self-assessment to highly detailed information about course, career options and appropriate pathways. Specific areas of content include: • the world of work (paid and unpaid) and its changing nature • the knowledge and skills people need at work and the expectations of employers • awareness and understanding of career options and pathways available • knowledge about primary education, training and employment-related information sources and services • knowledge and understanding of decision-making processes that can be applied when making career choices • changing labour market opportunities • awareness and understanding of aspects of the self, such as interests, abilities, values, motivations, and how these change throughout life • knowledge of processes to implement decisions • relationships between career decisions and life goals. The systems theory framework developed by Patton and McMahon (1999) can serve as an outline of all the areas of relevant content to consider for individuals in their career decision-making process (see Figure 1). If the influences identified in this framework are included within a career development program, this ensures a comprehensive inclusion of important program components. Process learning includes skills that are transferable through such things as selfreliance and self-promotion, exploring and creating opportunities, action planning, networking, decision making, negotiation, coping with uncertainty and transfer skills (Collin & Watt, 1996). In addition, learning needs to be viewed from a developmental perspective. A clear emphasis that comes through in these skills is the process emphasis needed in career development learning. In addition, career self- management skills enable young people to move into the future as lifelong learners prepared to manage their own careers. Law (1999) identifies important ongoing self-management skills that are a response to the greater complexity of career management impacted by the changing world of work structures and practices. He emphasises that information is not knowledge until it is processed, a notion in keeping with constructivist thinking. The key evaluation of learning is how well learners can apply their constructed knowledge in the real-life situations they encounter. Law presents a sequence of learning: Process moves from (1) baseline sensing of impressions; through (2) sifting of that material into useful patterns; on to (3) focusing aspects which attract attention and suggest enquiry; and so to (4) understanding how causes can be linked to effects and the consequences of action can be anticipated (p. 39).

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FIGURE 1

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The career decision-making process

PRESENT

peers political decisions

gender

education institutions

values family

health

sexual orientation

disability employment market

ability

beliefs

interests

INDIVIDUAL

personality self-concept

age

physical attributes

ethnicity

historical trends

skills

world of work knowledge

workplace

media

aptitudes

socio-economic status community groups

recursiveness

URE FUT

PAS T

geographical location

globalisation

change over time

chance

© Patton & McMahon, 1999

Examples of the objectives Law identifies under career-learning thinking: progressive learning practice are as follows: • probe what are significant features of work, role and self • link fragments of significant experience into coherent bases for action • anticipate the probable consequences and get ready to deal with them • take ongoing control of how to gain career learning (p. 41). In a broader sense, process refers to the interaction between the variables, identified in the systems theory framework (Patton & McMahon, 1999) as recursiveness (see Figure


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1). The emphasis within the career development literature, and indeed of this book, is that career development is an ongoing process of interaction between the individual and the systems in which he or she operates. Process learning includes understanding this principle and its relationship with individual career decision making.

Best practice in career development programs A range of principles outlining best practice in career programs has been identified. It is not surprising that the principles that have been most influential in Australia have been developed in relation to career programs in schools, as that is traditionally where the emphasis on career education has been (Career Education Association of Victoria/Dusseldorp Skills Forum, 1997; McCowan & McKenzie, 1997). In relation to career education and guidance in schools, the CEAV/DSF suggest that best practice career education and guidance is: • client focused • mainstream and systemic • multi-faceted • actively involves students (or clients) • involves the wider school community • uses relevant, accessible and user-friendly information. These principles relate mainly to program issues. Additional principles that address professional issues include that: • personnel involved in coordinating and delivering programs are adequately trained • personnel have access to appropriate resources • management actively endorses and supports the program. • programs are regularly monitored and reviewed. These principles are formulated with schools and other educational institutions in mind, however they are adaptable to other settings where little emphasis has traditionally been given to the development of career programs. In particular, principles can be developed in relation to the client group, program development and maintenance, the relationship between the program and the broader community, and professional issues.

Principles related to the client group 1 The needs of the client group should be the focus. Participants of career programs are the reason for the program’s existence. So it needs to focus on their identified needs and existing knowledge as a base for further development. Thus, identifying client (for example student, employee, unemployed individual) and community (for example employers, school, training organisation) and needs, and monitoring outcomes of the program on its success in meeting those needs become of paramount importance. The overall program goal is to assist program participants to ‘make the fullest use of their learning experiences … in order to choose their future work

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areas appropriately and to be aware of the wide range of implications these choices may have on their lives’ (McCowan & McKenzie, 1997, p. 20). Tangible outcomes for individuals from career development programs include portfolios and action plans. 2 Career programs should actively involve clients. Career programs may be viewed as integral to the participants’ roles as lifelong learners. Consideration needs to be given to the nature of learning. Learning is a holistic process that occurs within individuals and involves thinking, feeling, perceiving and behaving. It is through this process that new knowledge is created (Patton & McMahon, 1999). Thus individuals are active participants in their learning who cannot create new knowledge unless information is related to something they already know. Opportunities for participants to share, gather and provide information with their peers and colleagues, as per the concept of transition teams (Career Education Association of Victoria/Dusseldorp Skills Forum, 1997) are critical. Programs designed around the principles of experiential learning (detailed later in this chapter) are ideally suited to maximise participant learning.

Principles related to program development and maintenance 1 Career programs should be multi-faceted. As there is a lack of an established history of career programs in many settings, their development and implementation is advantaged if they are perceived as relevant to client needs. Programs include a range of content and process learning (as discussed earlier in this chapter) undertaken inside and outside the program setting. Thus activities such as work shadowing, work experience and mentoring may provide useful learning experiences. Program participants necessarily have a variety of learning styles that need to be catered for through a variety of learning experiences. It is not adequate for program facilitators to merely present information. In addition, practice involves close liaison between providers of career information, career counselling and training in other settings. 2 Career programs require regular monitoring and review. Program monitoring and review can occur formally and informally. Dissemination of this information to participants and the broader community ensures that the program is better understood and is therefore more likely to maintain its place (McMahon & Carroll, 1999b). Participants should not only be actively involved in the program itself, but should also be involved in its ongoing monitoring and evaluation. Indeed, as discussed later in this book, satisfied program participants become excellent advertising for the continuation of a program.

Principles related to the relationship between the program and the broader community 1 Career programs should be integral to professional development programs in organisations and widely accessible in the community.


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Career development has long been recognised as a lifelong process. It has now been accepted that individuals will experience career transition several times in a lifetime as a result of the change in the world of work. As a consequence, they will have a need for ongoing career guidance. Organisations provide an ideal setting for career programs to be conducted. Increasingly workers are employed for short-term contracts, tenure is less certain and individuals are being urged to manage their own careers. The provision of career programs as part of the ongoing professional development program offered by organisations reflects responsiveness to the changed world of work. 2 Career programs should actively involve relevant stakeholders and appropriate representatives of the wider community. It is vital that all relevant stakeholders be involved in the career program. In schools this includes employers, support services, mentors, parents and former students. Vorbeck (1998) identifies the following as key players in career guidance programs: the school including teachers, counsellors and administration officers; universities and other institutions of higher education; adult education institutions; representatives from the world of work; parents; peers; and the media. In organisations this includes management, employees, community representatives, adult education institutions, training providers and the media. Again, Patton and McMahon (1999) identify key aspects of the social and environmental systems, perspectives which need to be incorporated into career programs (see Figure 1).

Principles related to professional issues 1 Personnel involved in coordinating and delivering programs should be adequately trained. Career development is a complex process that touches the subjective and affective domain of individuals. While careers work has traditionally been portrayed as deceptively simple (McMahon & Patton, 2000), the complexity of the world of work and more recent understandings about career and career development necessitate that program facilitators are adequately trained. There is abundant evidence that this is an area in particular need of development (Patton, 2000; Watts, 2000). In addition, these personnel need access to appropriate resources. 2 Career programs should use relevant, accessible and user-friendly information. The provision of an information framework, through personnel and computer technology, is crucial to maintain the currency and local, national and international relevance of much of what is important in a career program. In Australia and New Zealand, a major emphasis has been the development of national career information systems. The development of information systems that are reflective of changes in the world of work and the many permutations and combinations of career that exist remains a challenge. 3 Management should actively endorse and support the program. Active endorsement and support requires appropriate workload provision for a coordinator or program manager. The significance of this principle is evidenced in the

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conduct of career education in schools where traditionally career programs have been conducted as a marginal activity and career coordinators have not been allocated sufficient time. Where the school administration has been supportive and convinced of the worth of career programs, it has been possible to develop sound program frameworks and implement comprehensive programs (McMahon & Carroll, 1999a,b; Santic, 2000). Career program facilitators are well advised to develop sound rationales for their programs, work closely with management and provide them with evidence of the success of the program through ongoing monitoring and review.

Steps in program implementation There are a number of steps that need to be planned prior to implementation of a career program. 1 A clear statement of rationale needs to be prepared. This involves identifying the needs of the target group. In the case of a school, Robinson (1997) describes a whole-school approach to this assessment of needs. McCowan and McKenzie (1997) outline useful headings. These include population, school leavers, special groups, post-school destinations, retention rate, existing curriculum and subject choice for school. In relation to community, they include geographic location, transport, economic base, local labour market and community resources. In relation to career education program, they include lessons, experiential activities, cross-curriculum, interviewing and counselling, accommodation and facilities and the use of local networks. Santic (2000) conducted focus groups with organisation staff, interviews with management and presentations to select groups in order to develop a rationale for her career program in a large government organisation. 2 Identification of program goals needs to be made. These goals may be very broad and follow the key four elements of career development (selfawareness, opportunity awareness, knowledge of decision processes and ability to apply that knowledge, and skills to cope with the transition). They may be specific, for example assisting a particular group to choose a course following the program. Goal specification will also assist in determining outcome statements for the purposes of monitoring and evaluation. 3 The target group for the program and the potential size of that group needs to be determined. In some instances, it may be decided to begin with a sample of an overall group, for example one year level, and then expand to the larger group, for example the whole school. 4 The structure of the program needs to be determined. As we have already discussed, best practice principles demand that career programs be incorporated within other programs and not presented as an add-on activity. Law (1999) describes how the mainstream curriculum needs to be transformed to enable the links with career education to be more recognisable. Law suggests that such integration:


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provides needed time and space for students to identify purposes, to make links – including links across subjects and within the community – and to try and modify strategies. Students can learn, for example, how to write a letter of application by applying communication enabled in English, using enquiry methods adapted from science and practising empathising abilities first encountered in history; and they try it out first on a work experience placement (p. 50).

5

6 7

8

Chapter seven in this text describes a career education program integrated from kindergarten to Year 12. The school’s approach to careers has a strong focus on key competencies, well-developed connections between school and everyday life, and a strong integration of computers into the program. Implementation issues regarding the length, time and location of a program need to be addressed. If it is located firmly within a school curriculum program, these questions are less relevant. If a school is only able to deliver a separate program, that is one separate lesson each week, these questions need to be answered as part of the planning process. Santic (2000) reports on issues in developing a program for 2000 employees geographically dispersed across a large area. In this case, issues of time, location and program length were crucial. Teaching strategies and learning approaches need to be affirmed. The next section of this chapter discusses these in more detail. Resources, both people and print, need to be assessed and finalised. Who is to coordinate the program? Who will deliver the program? What training (if any) have these people received? What support do they require? Who else in the community can be accessed? What resources are already available? What additional resources are required? All of these questions, and related ones, need to be answered in this planning phase. Monitoring and evaluation of the program needs to be planned. This is also discussed in more detail later in the chapter.

Experiential learning approaches Experiential learning has much to offer in facilitating career development and opens the way for activities including group processes, tracking career development using timelines, role plays and genograms. All of these strategies provide opportunities for learners to explore their career narratives. Through this approach, learners are able to make links between past and present, and make plans for the future. This approach focuses on three tasks: helping them to ‘authorise’ their careers by narrating a coherent, continuous and credible story; helping them to invest their career narrative with meaning by identifying themes and tensions in the story line; and learning the skills needed to perform the next episode of the story (Collin & Watts, 1996, p. 394).

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It has been strongly suggested that learners be encouraged to keep records of their achievements and action plans (Collin & Watts, 1996; Law, 1996). The emphasis in experiential learning is on the development towards a lifelong goal and related self-direction as the organising principle for education. This is clearly the emphasis that is needed if an outcome of our education and training is the development of lifelong learners who can drive their own careers. ‘Lifelong learning and careerdevelopment programs can find in experiential learning theory a conceptual rationale and guiding philosophy as well as practical educational tools’ (Kolb, 1984, p. 18). Kolb (1984) presents six propositions that characterise experiential learning. 1 Learning is best conceived as a process, not in terms of outcomes (p. 26). Using this approach, learning is not viewed as the memorising and storing of facts. Rather it is viewed as forming and reforming ideas through experience. Thus knowledge is constructed in this way by the individual and outcomes cannot be predicted. 2 Learning is a continuous process grounded in experience (p. 27). This is possibly one of the most significant concepts about experiential learning. In essence, it acknowledges that learners come into a situation with a prior experience and it is on this prior experience that new learning is grounded. Thus the learning process needs to facilitate processes of tapping into the experiences of the learner on which his or her beliefs and personal theories are founded, examine and test them, and then integrate new ideas into that belief system. ‘Ideas that evolve through integration tend to become highly stable parts of the person’s conception of the world’ (p. 28). 3 The process of learning requires the resolution of conflicts between dialectically opposed modes of adaptation to the world (p. 29). This proposition recognises four modes of experiential learning. Specifically, they are the abilities of concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation. However, these are polar opposites and learners must choose which they will use in a given learning situation. These four modes form the basis of the four-stage experiential learning cycle through which new knowledge, skills or attitudes are achieved. Effective learners need all four modes. In essence, learners must be able to: involve themselves fully, openly and without bias in new experiences … reflect on and observe their experiences from many perspectives … create concepts that integrate their observations into logically sound theories … use these theories to make decisions and solve problems (p. 30). Any one or all of these processes may govern the learning process at a given time. 4 Learning is an holistic process of adaptation to the world (p. 31). Kolb describes learning as ‘the major process of human adaptation’ (p. 32), which involves the integrated functioning of the human system including thinking, feeling, perceiving and behaving. Basically, as an open system, an individual


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continually receives input which, in turn, comes into contact with his or her interpretive framework, an outcome of which is learning and knowledge. This reflects Granvold’s (1996) claim that learning is brought about by ‘perturbations produced by the interactions with the world’ (p. 347). Thus as the individual system receives input it begins a process of ‘evolutionary selforganisation – a dynamic organisation-reorganisation activity’ (Granvold, 1996, p. 347). Knowledge development, specifically self-knowledge, is assumed to follow this pattern. 5 Learning involves transactions between the person and the environment (p. 34). As evidenced in the discussion of proposition four, learning involves a ‘transactional relationship’ between the individual and his or her environment that has dual meaning. First, it has subjective and personal meaning for the individual, for example an experience of joy. Second, it has objective and environmental meaning. These two meanings transact in an active selfdirected process. 6 Learning is the process of creating knowledge (p. 36). Knowledge is created through the interaction of subjective and objective experiences in the process called learning. Thus knowledge is a continuous process of creation and recreation.

Evaluation of career programs Stevens (1995) suggests that a career development program cannot be a static item. Ongoing work environment changes mean a program needs to be constantly monitored to ascertain whether or not it continues to meet employee and employer needs. Similar arguments can be applied to all programs, no matter who the target group. However, the literature is overwhelming in its condemnation of the paucity of programs that have been evaluated (Gutteridge, Leibowitz & Shore, 1993b; Prideaux et al., 2000). It is important that programs are evaluated against the outcomes identified in the planning phase. There are a number of strategies that can be used to evaluate programs. Surveys and interviews (group and individual) can be conducted with program participants, as well as other stakeholders. In schools, this will include students, teachers, other staff, parents and industry network members. In addition, specific surveys may be used if these relate to the focus of the program. For example, schools may use a pre/post test design to assess changes in students’ career maturity, decision readiness and career decision-making self-efficacy. In doing so, specific measures with well-reported reliability and validity may be used (for example Career Maturity Inventory, Crites & Savickas, 1995; Career Decision Scale, Osipow, 1987; Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Scale, Taylor & Betz, 1983). Evaluation studies may also provide data about broader issues. A briefing paper by the National Institute for Careers Education and Counselling (1999) on careers work and school effectiveness cited evaluation studies that have reported modest positive findings in relation to students’ decidedness about educational options, students’ school participation and their educational attainment.

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TABLE 1

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Examples of elements to guide program planning and evaluation

LEADERSHIP AND INNOVATION Careers education is positioned as an important, relevant and integral part of the school community.

Change of school executive does not reduce significance of careers education.

STRATEGY AND PLANNING PROCESSES A comprehensive written plan is followed and is in line with the school direction.

Key aspects of careers education are linked so that students do not encounter gaps or duplication.

DATA, INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE Information and data analysis is used to guide decisions and planning about careers education.

There is exchange of relevant data and information between careers personnel and other school staff.

PEOPLE Careers personnel have, and are encouraged to develop, competencies required to deliver quality careers education.

Careers personnel attend relevant seminars supported by school with time release.

CUSTOMER AND MARKET FOCUS Activities in careers education indicate awareness of diverse student needs.

Programs are designed to meet needs of customers.

PROCESSES, PRODUCTS AND SERVICES Outcome statements across key learning areas and subjects reflect career orientation.

Careers education is a whole-school activity.

RESULTS Measures for judging the success of the program are established and reviewed.

Performance measures are linked to each program objective.

In 1999, the Career Education Quality Framework was published jointly by the Australian Student Traineeship Foundation and the Career Education Association of Victoria (Willett, 1999). This framework is based on quality principles and presents elements under seven key headings, with accompanying examples of evidence for each element to guide the career stakeholders in completing the framework. The seven key categories, with an example of one element and one example of evidence, are presented in Table 1. The approach is in keeping with key aspects of good programs that are discussed in this chapter and would be a very useful checklist for planning as well as for evaluation. The ideal planning process incorporates evaluation criteria.

Conclusion This chapter has outlined relevant considerations in planning and implementing career development learning programs. It has identified best practice principles that may be applied to any setting in which a career program is implemented. It has also explored experiential learning approaches and how they are vital to current practice in career development learning. The final part of the discussion focused on aspects of evaluation.


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3

c h a p t e r

Career development programs for career development facilitators Dave E. Redekopp and J. Barrie Day

This chapter describes the development, implementation and evaluation of a training program in Canada for career development facilitators, or specialists, in practical terms. In Canada, the term ‘career development specialist’ refers to someone who has core career development knowledge, such as labour market information or career development theory, and at least one speciality area in which they are competent, such as career counselling or career program design. In this chapter, career development facilitator is synonymous with career development specialist and the terms are used interchangeably. When the program was conceived, there were thousands of career development facilitators in Canada helping individuals and organisations with career development issues, work search strategies, employability readiness and labour market information. However, Canada had no training program devoted to a comprehensive understanding of the field of career development. There is a great deal of theory available to the reader about how programs should be developed, but the real world places constraints, such as shortage of funds, that simply cannot be ignored. The main program described in this chapter was conceived in the late 1980s and is still evolving today. Therefore this is an historical account that attempts to stay true to the actual workings of creating a program.

Program conceptualisation In the mid-1980s, Barrie Day, one of the authors of this chapter, was working in a provincial government department responsible for employment issues within the province of Alberta, Canada. Although Canada’s federal government had offered various types of employment preparation services to the public for many years, Alberta was the only province to establish and operate career development centres in which the public could receive one-to-one career counselling, group counselling and labour market information. The Alberta government also made a considerable amount of career information available free to the public. Barrie was responsible for managing the career development centres and the production of career information. As a manager he had to think about the recruitment, selection and training of staff, for example career counsellors and career information specialists. At the time, virtually nothing was available in English-speaking Canada. The province of Quebec was ahead of other provinces, at least in terms of counsellor training, but training was exclusively in


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French. Master degree programs in counselling (usually offered through educational psychology departments) offered one or two optional ‘vocational guidance’ courses and the government of Canada offered some internal training courses focused on employment counselling to its own staff. Barrie therefore found himself in a position of recruiting and selecting individuals who typically had no formal career development training. They had social work training, counselling training, teaching training or other backgrounds, but almost none had studied in the field of career development. Barrie also recognised that the field of career development involved much more than career counselling or employment counselling, yet no training programs existed in Canada that addressed career development as a field. He carried out some informal research and discovered that there were many individuals involved in career development functions in some way in the province of Alberta who had completed undergraduate degrees but had little training devoted to career development. Initially, Barrie’s idea was to develop and deliver a postgraduate training program through the government of Alberta. This proved to be impossible given the political environment of the day, so another way had to be found. This involved two key issues. 1 Training programs, especially new ones, need credibility. In Canada, credibility is most easily gained through affiliation with a post-secondary educational institution so a post-secondary institution needed to be found that would host the program. 2 Developing a training program requires money so funds had to be found to develop the program. A partner was found in Concordia College, a private, not-for-profit, degree-granting post-secondary institution. Concordia had an innovative and progressive Continuing Education Division that welcomed the idea of launching a new program. Funds were found within a small branch of the Canadian government’s Employment and Immigration Commission (EIC). The Innovations Branch of EIC saw potential in the idea and provided two years’ worth of funds to get the program up and running. These funds covered Barrie’s salary, an office manager’s salary, a computer, office supplies and some contracted curriculum developers.

Program design and development Given the small amount of funds available, the limited time frame in which they could be used and the desire to produce state-of-the-art curriculum, a method needed to be found whereby current and comprehensive (in terms of theory and practice) curriculum could be developed quickly and affordably. A small team comprising Barrie, Kris Magnusson (a career counsellor in a post-secondary institution) and Faye Wiesenberg (a career information specialist with the Alberta government) came together to design the program. After considerable searching, the team found Meta-Skills Analysis, a competency profiling method developed at the University of Regina by David Little and Bob Priebe. This method profiled expert performers in one-to-one interviews using the following steps.

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1 Clarify the role to be profiled. Although role clarification may appear obvious, this step was pivotal to the direction of the program. At the time, ‘career counsellor’ and ‘career development facilitator’ were virtually synonymous, thereby reducing the field of career development to a counselling practice. The team, however, wanted a program that would develop career information specialists, career educators/trainers, career program specialists and career development researchers as well as career counsellors. The role was therefore clarified as ‘career development facilitator’, meaning one who had a broad knowledge of career development and one or more speciality applications of this knowledge. 2 Poll the field for experts. Expert performance is the focus of Meta-Skills Analysis. Experts were identified by talking to people in the field, asking them ‘Who’s the best there is at [the role in question]?’. This polling process rapidly identified the real experts. 3 Interview the ‘top’ expert. In the Meta-Skills Analysis process, the person named most often in the polling process is contacted and interviewed in an exhaustive session ranging from four to twelve hours. To create the Diploma program, this method was slightly modified. For the Diploma, several of the experts were brought together for a session in which they collectively went through the profiling process. This was done because no single expert was an expert at everything in the field. This group exercise identified the main: • outcomes, for example clients managing their own career development • processes, for example analysing labour market information • structures, for example communication skills, interviewing skills, knowledge of career development theory (of the role). This session created an overview of the entire program. Meta-Skills Analysis was then repeated for each component of the program to identify specific competencies. Each competency in the overall profile, for example analyse labour market information, became a course within the program. The polling process identified the experts for the specific competency, for example ‘Who’s the best person you’ve seen who understands the labour market and helps clients to do so?’, and the ‘top’ expert was then interviewed on the specific role related to the competency, for example the role of analysing and applying labour market information. 4 Validate the profile with the second and third ‘top’ performers. The results of the interview with the ‘top’ expert were collated and validated with the second and third most named individuals in the polling process. These interviews typically took only one or two hours and involved minor revisions to the profile. It turned out that when steps 1 and 2 were done well, true experts who knew why they were doing what they were doing and engaged in their practices very effectively were easily identified. Hence, validators typically validated rather than made significant changes. 5 Convert the profile into curricula. Meta-Skills Analysis mapped out the outcomes, processes and structures of a role in terms of three levels of detail: • general areas of competence, for example evaluate counselling effectiveness

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• competencies, for example determine counselling outcomes • capabilities, for example identify learning outcomes. The resulting profile ordered this information in terms of: • a role overview • generic prerequisite competencies • tools and techniques • processes. This order made the profiles immediately convertible to curricula, including detailed student manuals, facilitator’s outlines and tests/assignments. Although Meta-Skills Analysis is relatively mechanical and sequential, a significant amount of discretion was used to answer questions such as: • Which courses should be ‘core’ or mandatory and which should be optional? • How much delivery time is required for each course? • What assignments will best demonstrate student competence? • What prerequisite competencies/credentials are needed to enter the program? These questions were answered by the program administrators in consultation with the profiled experts. It was quickly discovered that the standard university accreditation process, that is all learning fits into one-semester modules worth three credits, did not fit the results of the profiling process. Some topics needed only ten instructional hours, some needed twenty, while some needed more. To account for this difference a ‘unit’ system was created, in which ten hours of instruction equated one unit of accreditation. Courses such as ‘Career counselling’ and ‘Developing a career information base’ required four units of instruction; courses such as ‘Counselling for employability skills’ and ‘Using and analysing labour market information’ required one unit. The entire program required forty-five units.

Program implementation Delivery began before the entire program was completed. There were three reasons for this. First, the program needed early marketing. It was new and people needed time to become accustomed to it. Second, funds needed to be generated because funding would run out within two years. Third, courses needed to be tested as they became ready so that any problems would be worked out by the time the entire program was to be delivered. The gradual implementation strategy proved very successful, primarily because it showed the method that was needed to market the program, that is from the insideout, not from the outside-in. Several outside-in strategies such as mass advertising were attempted and in virtually all cases it was found that they either did not draw people into the program (and therefore just wasted precious resources) or drew people into the program for the wrong reasons. The program had to be ‘sold’ on a one-to-one basis so that what this ‘new’ field was really about could be effectively communicated. Even though the field was not new, it was found that the vast majority of potential participants


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conceived career development in very traditional ways. They tended to believe that they could be taught traditional ‘test ’em and tell ’em’ one-to-one counselling. The view of the authors, as well as the views of the profiled experts, was that career development practice was much broader and more developmental and fluid. Communicating this view required interpersonal interaction; brochures and advertisements were simply not adequate. The inside-out marketing strategy also enabled a gradual identification of potential participants’ needs very effectively. This proved invaluable because a number of ways of adjusting delivery were discovered before the full program was launched. For example, it became apparent that most of the likely participants were working during the day or wanted to obtain work during the program. Therefore the original plan to offer the program during typical university hours (Monday–Friday during the daytime) was revised and scheduled for weekday evening and weekend (Friday evening and Saturday) delivery. A need for flexibility in assignment deadlines was also found, which resulted in a one-year completion policy for each course.

Course assignments A key implementation issue was the evaluation of student performance. It had been decided at the outset that this was to be a competency-based program. Although there were numerous andragogical reasons for this decision, a key consideration was that many of the students would have been practising in the field for years. These students would already possess many competencies, so a system was needed that would recognise their current competence. The Meta-Skills Analysis process had clearly delineated the competencies of the entire program and each course. This made the process of establishing learning objectives (Robert Gagne’s 1965, 1984, 1985 work was used) relatively simple. Having competency-by-competency learning objectives, assignments were then created that typically addressed a set of competencies. For example, learning objectives would often be put together that related to ‘verbal information’ and ‘intellectual skills’ within a quiz containing multiple-choice and short-answer items. However, competencies requiring ‘cognitive strategies’ would be measured through assignments such as videotaped or transcribed counselling sessions with a complete written analysis. All assignments and tests are graded on a ‘mastery–not-finished’ scale, that is failure is not an option. Course completion requires all assignments/tests within a course to be mastered. ‘Mastery’ levels are set on an assignment by assignment basis, with 80 per cent achievement being the minimum. Participants who do not achieve mastery are informed regarding areas to improve and they work on the assignment until mastery is achieved. Clear competency lists and learning objectives meant that alternative assignments could be developed. Many of the students who were active practitioners wanted to apply their assignments to their workplaces. A system was created whereby students can propose assignments tailored to their situation. These alternate assignments are assessed against the learning objectives on an individual basis and, if they meet the objectives, are approved.

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Course instructors The desire to deliver a program that combined theory and practice resulted in a decision to have no ‘faculty’. It was considered desirable that each course was delivered by an expert practitioner who was currently working in the course area. This meant finding individuals who were expert practitioners, expert instructors, knowledgeable about the theory pertaining to the course, interested in teaching for nominal fees (these have improved since the program’s inception), committed to understanding the whole program (not just their course area) and able to travel (the program or portions of the program have been offered in virtually all parts of Canada over the last decade). Fortunately, the Meta-Skills Analysis process helped identify many expert practitioners, but it was more difficult than anticipated to find instructors who met all the other requirements.

Marketing and expansion The inside-out marketing approach described earlier has served very well. It enabled the program to: • grow at a pace that could be accommodated (the difficulty of finding suitable instructors made slow growth imperative) • focus on client group needs (clients experienced very few surprises – they received what they thought they were going to receive) • spend very little money on advertising (inside-out marketing requires little or no advertising). A concrete example may illustrate the effect of inside-out marketing. In the early 1990s, the authors facilitated a pre-conference workshop at a national career development conference. The workshop was based on one of the one-unit courses and it meant having contact with about forty people who might have further interest in the program. One individual within the workshop made contact a few months later to obtain more details about the program. She was the director of a career office within a federal government department. She asked if a program could be custom-designed for her and five of her staff and delivered in Ottawa (about 3000 kilometres from the program’s base in Edmonton). This was done and the program was well received. This contact spoke to other career practitioners in the federal government and this led to an Ottawa program, which has been delivered almost every year since 1992. This program has never been advertised; all participants have learned about it from someone else who has been in a previous program. Getting to know the clients and adjusting the program to meet their needs has resulted in a host of spin-off deliveries of the original Diploma program. The following examples illustrate this point. • A twenty-three unit Certificate program was created comprising the core of the Diploma program. The Certificate is fully transferable to the Diploma.


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Many individuals simply want the essentials of career development; they do not have the time nor interest to complete the full Diploma. The Certificate program has been custom-designed for government departments and specific audiences, for example Aboriginal practitioners. When an organisation requests the Certificate program for staff, a needs/outcomes analysis is completed and the program adjusted so that it meets both institutional requirements and the contexts of the participants. The program is delivered anywhere the client wants it. So far the authors have taken the program, or portions of it, to virtually all regions of Canada. Specific courses are delivered on an individual basis. Many organisations and individuals want only specific elements of training. This is made available without forcing clients into committing to the entire program. All courses (except our Introductory counselling course) are offered on a selfstudy basis.

Maintaining currency Keeping materials and methods up-to-date is costly. There is little difficulty maintaining currency in the delivery of the courses simply because of the way instructors are selected. However, continuously revising and updating course manuals has often been more than the budget can bear and an effective way around this issue has not been found. There are now many more resources that can be drawn upon than there were when the program started. Students can purchase texts and manuals on topics such as labour market analysis; this was not possible in the late 1980s. The next priority is to ensure that the entire Diploma reflects multicultural competencies and approaches. Canada is becoming one of the most multicultural countries in the world and the program does not yet reflect this adequately.

Financing After the initial seed money ran out, which it did after two years, the program had to be self-sustaining. Initially, tuition fees were not sufficient to cover program costs. Therefore a consulting arm within the Concordia University College was created that developed products, conducted research, consulted organisations, developed policy and operated employment programs on a fee-for-service basis. The revenues from the consulting arm offset the shortage in tuition fees. Within about four years the Diploma and Certificate programs created a sufficient audience so that tuition fees could support the programs. Tuition fees currently range from CDN $US2500–$3500 ($A3400–$4600) for the Certificate program, depending on location and type of delivery.

Accreditation Concordia University College of Alberta issues the program Certificates and Diplomas through its Continuing Education Division. No other body officially recognises the

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program with formal accreditation (Canada currently has no professional body of career development facilitators) and program courses are not directly transferable for university accreditation. In Canada, courses offered by continuing education programs do not have the same status as courses offered within university degree programs. Work continues to try and obtain recognition of the program through transfer arrangements. This is a slow and cumbersome process. Some informal arrangements are in place but currently the only formal transfer credit system is with Concordia’s university programs. A student who completes the full Certificate program will receive credit in three undergraduate career development courses. A minor program of studies has been developed within Concordia University College’s undergraduate programs. Students can choose one-term courses on Theories of Career Development, The Nature of Work, Career Development Resources, Career Development in Organisations, Career Development and Education, Learning and Training, Group Facilitation in Career Development, and Career Counselling.

Program content and resources Below is a list of the current offering of Diploma in Career Development courses. When the course title is not self-explanatory, a brief description follows. An additional fifteen to twenty other courses are available for offer under specific circumstances. Training manuals are available for each course, although some may now be dated. The following core courses must be completed to obtain either the Certificate or Diploma: • Theories of Career Development (40 hours) • Career Development Resources (40 hours) • Introductory Counselling Techniques (40 hours) • Career Counselling Techniques (40 hours) Students can select from the following optional courses: • The Nature of Work (20 hours) • Special Issues in Career Development (20 hours) (this course addresses special needs groups) • Workshop Facilitation (20 hours) • Project Management in Career Development (20 hours) (this course focuses on setting up and managing employment and training programs) • Professional Development Strategies (10 hours) • Employability Skills in Career Counselling (10 hours) • Educational Planning (10 hours) • Work Search Techniques (10 hours) • Creating Self-portraits (10 hours) (this focuses on a specific process for helping clients identify their assets) • Career Development in Organisations (10 hours) • Counselling for Work Options (10 hours) • Maintaining Momentum (10 hours) (this addresses strategies for keeping clients mobilised after they have found suitable work)


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Consulting in Career Development (10 hours) Proposal Writing (10 hours) Job/Work Development (10 hours) Practicum (160 hours)

Program evaluation While ongoing monitoring of the program is important, formal program evaluation strategies have been cut when budgets have been tight. Evaluating student satisfaction and client satisfaction (where a ‘client’ is someone who has purchased the program for a number of participants, such as human resource professionals within an organisation) has been very successful, but the resources have not been available to fully assess how much of the Diploma content is used by participants at their work sites and, when used, how much of the Diploma content helps participants to be more effective at their work sites. These issues have been addressed informally, predominantly by maintaining a personal relationship with as many participants as possible. It is fortunate that the pool of career development facilitators in Canada is relatively small (about 100 000 in total with probably only 10 000 engaged in purely career development). Informally the following statements can be made. • More than 80 per cent of Certificate or Diploma graduates who are not in the field of career development when they begin the program obtain work in the field before or soon after graduation. • Approximately 30–40 per cent of those who start the Certificate program and indicate intentions to take the whole Certificate complete it. This number may appear low, but many students take the Certificate courses to build their skills, not to obtain accreditation. Consequently, many take all the courses but do not complete the assignments. • About half of the participants enrolled in a particular course have no intention of completing the Certificate program. These individuals choose courses on a course-by-course basis to enhance their skills and knowledge. • Approximately 2500 individuals have taken courses within the program to date. • Satisfaction ratings by participants consistently (95 per cent or higher) rate any course within the program as ‘good’ or ‘excellent’ in terms of content and delivery (with the other options being ‘satisfactory’, ‘unsatisfactory’ or ‘very unsatisfactory’).

Future plans Plans for the program have been alluded to previously, but are summarised as follows.

Multicultural infusion Canada is becoming the most multicultural nation on earth and, unlike the United States and other countries, has a policy of multiculturalism rather than integration. The program

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needs to infuse multicultural principles and practices into each course, showing how everything from theories of career development to work search strategies is influenced by cultural issues. The program also needs a stronger course on multicultural issues and counselling practices. Fortunately, the Public Service Commission of the Government of Canada has just completed a very sophisticated course on career development, employment equity and multicultural counselling and this provides a valuable resource.

On-line delivery The advantages and disadvantages of putting all or portions of the program on-line are currently being debated. The program provides on-line support for distance students and full on-line delivery has not been ruled out.

The currency challenge Courses must be current and relevant. A great deal has changed over the last few years and future efforts must centre on reflecting these changes.

Conclusion While many of the features of the development, implementation and evaluation of the program for career development facilitators is specific to the location, most principles are adaptable to other settings. In addition, the issues that need to be overcome are common to this sector worldwide.


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2 s e c t i o n

Career theory in program development


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4

c h a p t e r

Career development, disability and vocational rehabilitation Nicholas Buys, Laurie Buys, Elizabeth Kendall and Deborah Davis

Numerous theories of career development have been proposed to explain the process of occupational choice during a person’s life. These theories emphasise the centrality of work in people’s lives. The attainment of meaningful employment with career advancement opportunities is important to most people, including people with disabilities. However, although they constitute nearly 20 per cent of the population (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1998), people with disabilities have been largely overlooked in the career development literature. This situation is unfortunate. Given their high rate of unemployment and marginalisation in the labour market, people with disabilities require vocational rehabilitation services that are guided by appropriate theories of career development. A service delivery system that emphasises meaningful careers is more likely to achieve sustainable employment outcomes for people with disabilities than the current focus on job placement. This argument forms the basis of the current chapter, which aims to explain the need for a career development approach in vocational rehabilitation, summarise the issues concerning the application of career development theory to disability and review career development theoretical frameworks and practices that may inform rehabilitation practitioners in their work. For the purposes of this chapter, the term career development refers to the developmental process of an individual’s sequence of occupationally relevant choices and behaviours (Szymanski & Hershenson, 1998). In contrast, job placement refers to the process of assisting the individual to obtain a specific job at one point in time.

A career development approach in vocational rehabilitation People with disabilities continue to face significant disadvantage and marginalisation in the labour market with unemployment rates of over 50 per cent (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1998). Furthermore, when compared to their ‘non-disabled’ peers, people with disabilities are more likely to: • be long-term unemployed (Athanasou, 1994) • lack marketable employment skills (Australian Law Reform Commission, 1996; Barnes, Mercer & Shakespeare, 1999; Twenty-Fifth Institute on Rehabilitation Issues, 1999)


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• face accessibility problems to workplaces because of physical barriers, poor job design and a lack of accessible public transport (Australian Law Reform Commission, 1996; Barnes et al., 1999; Baume & Kay, 1995) • face negative attitudes by employers about their employment potential (Australian Law Reform Commission, 1996; Barnes et al., 1999; Patton, 1997) • earn substantially less money on average (Chirikos, 1991; Twenty-Fifth Institute on Rehabilitation Issues, 1999) • disproportionately be laid off from jobs (Yelin, 1991), particularly at times of economic restructuring and rapid labour market change. The economic costs of disability in Australian society are considerable. The last ten years have seen large increases in both commonwealth expenditure on disability income maintenance programs and state government expenditure on compensation payments for injured workers. For example, the number of people on disability support pension has doubled over the last ten years (Newman, 1999) and workers compensation programs in several states have experienced spiralling costs and unfunded liabilities (Grellman, 1997; Kennedy, 1996). One of the primary arguments for the introduction of vocational rehabilitation programs in Australia and overseas is the cost savings that can be achieved by assisting people with disabilities to obtain a job or return to work. However, increases in expenditure on rehabilitation have not been matched by reductions in the costs of disability and injury. For example, expenditure in the United States on vocational rehabilitation in 1991 was over two billion dollars, yet only a third of clients accepted for services were closed in employment (Weaver, 1995). As a result, questions about the effectiveness of vocational rehabilitation programs have been raised (Australian Law Reform Commission, 1996; Ford, 1998; Ford & Swett, 1999; Gilbride, Stensrud & Johnson, 1994; Weaver, 1995). Reasons for poor employment rates among people with disabilities are complex and blame cannot be totally laid at the feet of vocational rehabilitation programs. However, it is our contention that the traditional focus on job placement has significantly decreased the effectiveness of such programs. Further, we suggest that a job placement approach to rehabilitation is insufficient in the current labour market to ensure durable and satisfying employment options for people with disabilities. Instead, we recommend that rehabilitation services adopt a career development approach to service delivery to promote long-term employment outcomes for their client groups and, by doing so, contribute to a reduction in the economic and social costs of disability. The inadequacy of the job placement approach is evident in research findings. Issues of job retention and durability of employment outcomes among people with disabilities is one area of concern (Rubin & Roessler, 1995). For example, in a study of rehabilitation case closures in one state of the United States, Gibbs (1990) found that 25 per cent of people were no longer employed three months after closure and only 50 per cent were employed one year after closure. Similarly, Beck (1989) reported that 40 per cent of injured workers in one state workers’ compensation scheme were unemployed three years post-injury. Problems with job retention rates among people receiving employment services are evident from some Australian studies (for example Anderson, Psychogios

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& Golley, 2000; Personnel Employment, 1999). In 1998–99 over 40 per cent of those people with disabilities placed by open employment services had lost these jobs, or resigned from them during that year (Anderson, Psychogios & Golley, 2000). Gilbride et al. (1994) summarised the situation well when they stated, ‘people may be placed, but they may not be assisted to sustainable or promotable employment’ (p. 217). Traditional job placement approaches also ignore important career maintenance issues that maximise opportunities for job retention and career development. For example, the period between job placement and case closure was found to be one of the least active phases of the rehabilitation process (Rumrill & Koch, 1999) and resulted in poor employment outcomes. Other research revealed that career maintenance concerns were not being adequately addressed as part of individuals’ rehabilitation programs. Such concerns included implementation of work site accommodations, financing of accommodation devices and planning for promotion and advancement beyond the initial job (Roessler & Rumrill, 1995; Rumrill et al., 1998; Scherer, 1990). The types of jobs in which people with disabilities have been placed have also contributed to poor job retention rates. Placements arranged by specialised employment services, in particular, are often entry level disposable jobs in the secondary labour market, making the occupants vulnerable to redundancy (Hagner & Dileo, 1993; Hagner & Salomone, 1989; Parmenter, 1990; Whitehead, 1990). Furthermore, these jobs are usually poorly paid with little opportunity for promotion or career development (Barnes et al., 1999; Ford, 1998; Hagner & Salomone, 1989). The perception that people with developmental disabilities will remain in one job for their career and that they are immune to the boredom of repetitive jobs has been challenged (e.g. Hagner & Dileo, 1993). Such jobs result in high turnover, despite on-the-job support, as occupants lose interest in the work to seek more satisfying employment opportunities. In the workers compensation context, increasing costs have been partly attributed to the number of long duration claims, often known as ‘long tail claims’. Statutory or common law lump sum payouts for workers have often been used to ‘solve’ the problem of increasing numbers of long tail claims. However, the net result of these ‘solutions’ is a huge transfer of costs to commonwealth social security programs (Brenan & Wightman, 1995; Industry Commission, 1994) and the consignment of workers to longterm unemployment (Beck, 1989; Brenan & Wightman, 1995) with all the attendant psycho-social issues that accompany this state (Winefield, 1995). Other solutions focus on early return to work and improved injury management processes. Although these may be effective at preventing some long tail claims, they are not able to adequately assist injured workers who possess few transferable skills and cannot return to their previous jobs. In these situations a job placement approach will not work because it does not address employability issues such as skill deficits, functional restrictions in relation to the original job and poor job maintenance skills. Given the above issues, it is timely for vocational rehabilitation to adopt a career development approach to service delivery. Career development is designed to enhance ongoing employability by providing people with disabilities with long-term career goals and the planning skills required to achieve these goals. It focuses on assisting people to build portfolios of skills and knowledge to enhance their career resilience (Szymanski,

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1999) in the face of a labour market characterised by uncertainty, casualisation, downsizing, delayering, restructuring and outsourcing. It recognises that people with disabilities, like their non-disabled peers, will have multiple jobs within a career and that rehabilitation services should assist them to plan for a succession of jobs within their working lifetimes. There is considerable support for the argument that a rehabilitation service delivery system focused on preparing individuals for a lifelong process of choosing occupations is more likely to result in sustainable employment outcomes. It will also better meet the aspirations of its clients by enhancing both their long-term economic independence and self-esteem through supporting satisfying career choices (Hagner et al., 1996).

Career development theory and disability If the field of vocational rehabilitation is going to adopt a career development approach to service delivery, it is important that it has a sound theoretical basis for practice. However, the area of disability has received scant attention in theories of career development (Patton, 1997). Furthermore, there has been an assumption that these theories have equal relevance to females, people with disabilities and other cultural groups despite the fact that they have been developed by white [non-disabled] males of European descent (Brown & Brooks, 1996). Several reviews have now questioned the applicability of the predominant theories of career development to people with disabilities (Conte, 1983; Curnow, 1989; Goldberg, 1992; Hagner & Salomone, 1989; Navin & Myers, 1983; Szymanski et al., 1996; Szymanski & Hershenson, 1998). The issues raised by these reviews are outlined below.

Trait-factor approaches Trait-factor theory has strongly influenced career guidance practices (McMahon & Patton, 2000) and models of vocational rehabilitation (Szymanski & Hershenson, 1998). The matching of people to jobs has formed the basis of many rehabilitation practices in areas such as job analysis, transferable skills analysis and vocational assessment. The problem with strict adherence to trait-factor approaches is that they exclude people with disabilities from jobs. By focusing solely on worker trait factors in relation to job requirements, these approaches ignore the fact that many jobs can be performed by people with disabilities with the provision of work site modifications, job modifications and other supports (Hagner & Dileo, 1993; Szymanski & Hershenson, 1998). The simplistic nature of trait-factor theory also ignores the many contextual factors that impact on career development for people with disabilities including discrimination, socio-economic status, opportunity structures, socialisation and the complexity of the labour market (McMahon & Patton, 2000; Szymanski & Hershenson, 1998).

Models of work adjustment Although not strictly theories of career choice, models of work adjustment have often been incorporated within the career development literature (e.g. Brown & Brooks, 1996;

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Sharf, 1997; Zunker, 1994). There are two major theories of work adjustment, namely the Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment (Lofquist & Dawis, 1984) and Hershenson’s Model of Work Adjustment (Hershenson, 1981; Hershenson & Szymanski, 1992). Both theories were developed originally for people with disabilities and have heavily influenced vocational rehabilitation practice. The Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment is a person–environment-fit model in the tradition of trait-factor theory (Dawis, 1996). The theory proposes that the worker has needs, for example pay, good working conditions, and values, for example achievement, altruism, that may be met by reinforcers in the work environment, and that the work environment has needs, for example task requirements, that may be met by a worker’s skills. When the person and the work environment are in correspondence, both parties experience satisfaction and the worker remains or is retained in a job, that is given tenure. The second major theory of work adjustment, Hershenson’s model (Hershenson, 1981; Hershenson & Szymanski, 1992), is more developmental in nature and describes work adjustment in terms of the interaction of three domains – work personality, work competencies and work goals. Work adjustment is the product of the interaction of these domains with each other and the environment over time. While theories of work adjustment have been useful in explaining aspects of vocational behaviour of people with disabilities, they have been criticised on two grounds. First, their focus is viewed as too narrow because they do not adequately recognise important environmental and contextual variables that influence career choice and job retention for people with disabilities such as social support networks, accessible transportation and labour market characteristics (Dobren, 1994; Salomone, 1996). Secondly, work adjustment theories do not examine the long-term developmental relationship between a series of jobs and the way these jobs are chosen by an individual. Conte (1983) argues that any theory of career development must take this relationship into account to have utility in predicting occupational choice.

Personality and developmental theories Career development theories that focus on inherent personality factors or traits as the major determinants of vocational choice (e.g. Holland, 1992) have been useful to explain the matching of individuals with appropriate work. However, they are problematic when used to describe the vocational development of people with disabilities. For example, Holland’s focus on the match between vocational personalities and work environments ignored the impact of other factors on career choice for people with disabilities such as family systems, availability of job modifications, employer attitudes and social attitudes. Conte (1983) contends that these environmental factors are more significant influences on vocational choice for people with disabilities than inherent personality traits. This argument is consistent with social models of disability that view externally imposed barriers as the reason for the limitations on opportunities for people with disabilities, including employment (Barnes et al., 1999). By focusing on intra-psychic variables, personality theories are in danger of perpetuating negative


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stereotypes of people with disabilities through ascribing problems with career development to individual deficit as opposed to disabling environments. Many career development theories (e.g. Super, 1990) assume that developmental experiences over the life span are similar across different populations. As a consequence, these theories have largely ignored the ‘lived’ experiences of people with disabilities, in particular, children with disabilities (Conte, 1983). Limitations imposed on people with disabilities in areas such as education, development of self-efficacy, vocationally related decision making and access to developmental experiences can severely impact their career maturity, career decision making and career choice. Understanding these life experiences is therefore crucial to understanding the development of vocational behaviour for people with disabilities (Szymanski & Hershenson, 1998).

Theory and diversity No single theory can adequately account for the vocational behaviour of people with disabilities, because of the heterogeneous nature of this population (Hanley-Maxwell, Szymanski & Owens-Johnson, 1996; Patton, 1997; Szymanski et al., 1996). People with acquired disabilities often have quite different experiences from people with congenital disabilities in terms of vocational development (Conte, 1983). Even Super distinguished between ‘pre-career’ and ‘mid-career’ disability in relation to self-concept, a key factor in vocational development (Conte, 1983). Furthermore, there is considerable diversity among people with disabilities in terms of abilities, values, interests, cultural background, ethnicity, socio-economic status and so on. (Patton & McMahon, 1997, 1999; Savickas & Lent, 1994; Szymanski & Hershenson, 1998). Finding a single theory of career development to account for the vocational behaviour of all people with disabilities is therefore an impossible task (Szymanski & Hershenson, 1998).

Career development and rehabilitation: theoretical applications The problem of applying career development theories to people with disabilities raises a question. What do we use to inform a career development approach in vocational rehabilitation? One answer rests with attempts to develop frameworks to examine theoretical convergence and application in relation to career development. These frameworks, which may be described as systems or ecological approaches to career development, have focused on the general population (Patton & McMahon, 1997, 1999; Savickas & Lent, 1994) and people with disabilities (Szymanski & Hershenson, 1998).

Systems theory approach The use of systems theory has been proposed to ‘develop a framework to represent the complex interrelationships of the many influences on career development’ (McMahon & Patton, 1995, p. 17). These influences include individual, social and environmental

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influences, as well as chance events (e.g. Patton & McMahon, 1997, 1999). The systems approach has explicitly acknowledged disability as an individual factor that can influence career development (Patton, 1997). It is particularly useful within a rehabilitation context because it enables the rehabilitation counsellor to clearly identify the subsystems that impact on an individual’s career development and the interaction between those subsystems. By identifying the important subsystems and how they interrelate, rehabilitation counsellors can assist individuals to understand issues and barriers to their vocational development and conjointly decide on appropriate interventions. The systems theory approach is also consistent with ecological and systemic models of vocational rehabilitation (Browder, 1991; Cottone, 1986; Dobren, 1994; Hagner & Dileo, 1993; Hanley-Maxwell et al., 1996; Parker & Schaller, 1996). Analysis of the interaction between the individual and elements in the social and environmental/societal context over the life span allows the counsellor to ‘map’ the influences which impact on the person’s career as well as selecting theoretical constructs to inform practice (Patton & McMahon, 1997). In this context, the systems theory approach overcomes Conte’s (1983) criticism that many career development theories are overly focused on psychological variables to the exclusion of environmental factors that influence the lives of people with disabilities. However, the representation of disability within the systems theory framework remains overly individualistic. By representing impairment primarily as an ‘intrapersonal’ variable (Patton, 1997, p. 17) it continues to evoke notions of individualistic explanations of disability as ‘personal tragedy’ (Finkelstein, 1980) or ‘personal trouble’ (Borsay, 1997) rather than focusing on disability as a ‘social construction’ (Barnes, 1997). Structural interpretations of the causes of disability are important for practice because they direct the rehabilitation practitioner to examine and address environmental and social barriers to career development rather than perceived deficiencies arising from impairment. The systems theory framework does provide an opportunity to consider disability in this wider context by acknowledging that change can occur through ‘an intervention in the wider system’ (Patton, 1997, p. 87) in areas such as social attitudes, laws and social policy but it will need to consider its definition of disability if it is to fully achieve this goal.

Ecological approach Szymanski and Hershenson (1998) also provide a framework to relate career development theories and their application to people with disabilities. Their model describes career development as being determined by the interaction of constructs and processes identified from the career development literature. Constructs include: • individual attributes relating to the person, for example gender, race, ability • contextual factors surrounding the person’s life, for example socio-economic status, socialisation pattern • mediating variables that impact on the person’s interaction with their environment, for example negative social attitudes towards disability, cultural and societal beliefs


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• environmental constructs that influence the person’s behaviour, for example globalisation of the labour market, work culture, physical access in work environments • outcome constructs (usually behaviours or states) that result from the interaction of other constructs, for example job satisfaction, occupational attainment. Processes include: • congruence – the match or mismatch of people with their environments • decision making – strategies used by people when making occupational choices • development –processes that occur over time and influence the acquisition of career-related skills and attributes • socialisation – process by which work and other roles in life are acquired • allocation – process by which ‘gatekeepers’ in society, for example teachers, employment consultants, restrict or allow opportunities for people, often according to external criteria • chance – occurrence of uncontrollable events that influence career development. This type of ecological approach to career development is particularly useful as it allows career development practitioners to examine the interaction of the above constructs and processes to inform career development interventions for people with disabilities. These interventions can range from barrier removal and advocacy through to career counselling and planning. The ecological framework also acknowledges that contextual, mediating and environmental constructs are often of greater importance than individual factors in the career development of people with disabilities (Conte, 1983). Although early theories did not take these constructs into account, sociological (e.g. Hotchkiss & Borow, 1996) and socio-cognitive approaches (e.g. Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1996) have done so with their focus on structural constraints to career choice. This emphasis on social constructs as determinants of vocational behaviour is consistent with ecological and social models of disability (Barnes et al., 1999; Hagner & Dileo, 1993; Hanley-Maxwell et al., 1996) that have received considerable support from the disability rights movement. Ecological frameworks of career development are therefore more likely to represent the experiences and aspirations of people with disabilities in terms of vocational rehabilitation service delivery.

Career development and rehabilitation: practical applications The vocational rehabilitation field has used career counselling techniques to assist people with disabilities to identify and obtain work. Traditionally, these intervention strategies have been applied primarily within a job placement, not a career development, framework. However, it is our contention that any future use of such strategies should

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be guided by appropriate career development theoretical frameworks such as the systems or ecological approach and a service delivery mandate that is focused on assisting people to pursue careers, not just obtain a job. In this context, the section below describes some examples of policy changes and program level interventions that can be used to facilitate a career development approach.

Policy level interventions The impact of career development on the rehabilitation field has tended to be in specific areas of intervention rather than on a systemic level. This has meant that examples of system-wide approaches to career development for people with disabilities are scarce. The supported employment movement, which has gained impetus since the mid-1980s, has focused on long-term job support to enable consumers to learn and retain employment. However, many participants in these services have been placed in entry-level positions with little opportunity for career advancement (Hagner & Dileo, 1993). There have been calls for the United States state/federal vocational rehabilitation system to adopt a career development approach to service delivery (Rumrill & Koch, 1999; Rumrill & Roessler, 1999). Rumrill and Roessler suggested two changes to policies relating to case closure to achieve this goal. First, they recommended that qualitative criteria, for example the potential of a placement for training and advancement, be included in performance evaluation of rehabilitation counsellors in addition to the current quantitative criterion, that is numbers of clients successfully placed. Second, they suggested that the time between job placement and case closure be extended to twelve months during which time more assistance is provided to overcome barriers to productivity and develop the person’s career enhancement skills. These recommendations, which are also relevant to the Australian rehabilitation system, would help to overcome the job retention problems that have plagued vocational rehabilitation services. Furthermore, they would provide people with disabilities with the career-planning skills to cope with changes in the labour market.

Program level interventions Vocational assessment Rehabilitation has drawn heavily on the area of career assessment to develop its own approaches in terms of vocational evaluation. Career decision-making instruments have been used extensively to assist people with disabilities with their career planning. Several publications provide an overview of assessment practices in rehabilitation (Bolton, 1987; 1998; Power, 1991; Zunker, 1994). However, it should be noted that these practices have been criticised over the past two decades because of their potential to ‘screen out’ people with severe disabilities from vocational rehabilitation services and employment (Gold, 1980; Hagner & Dileo, 1993; Hagner & Salomone, 1989; Rogan & Hagner, 1990). In response, more situational and community-based assessments have been recommended for use with this population (e.g. Moon et al., 1990; Pancsofar & Steere, 1997).


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It is recommended that the field of vocational rehabilitation now focus assessment practices on career choices for people with disabilities rather than on job placement. In considering the use of vocational assessment tools in this process, it is important that the results of these assessments be discussed with clients in the context of making occupational decisions that are relevant to a long-term career choice, not just a job; more emphasis be given to assessment processes that identify strengths and limitations in areas such as career maturity and career planning; and the systems and ecological theoretical frameworks be used to identify the range of issues that may impact on the rehabilitation program.

Transition from school to work Transition planning, particularly from school to work, is crucial to the career development of people with disabilities (Hanley-Maxwell et al., 1996). Interventions used in transition planning are usually designed to prepare students with disabilities to function independently in post-school social and vocational roles. These interventions include relevant high school employment, functional curricula, ecological assessment, education in regular classrooms, teaching methods that facilitate generalisation of skills into community settings, employability skills training, parent involvement and supported placement (Hanley-Maxwell et al., 1996; Schmitt, Growick & Klein, 1988). It is important that transition planning be viewed as one step in the career development process. As Szymanski (1994) pointed out, transition planning ‘should expand rather than restrict the range of occupational choices available to a student’ (p. 404). As part of a career development planning approach, students should be guided to explore their interests, increase their occupational knowledge and self-awareness, and acquire skills.

Specific career interventions There are a range of career interventions that have been adapted or developed for use with people with disabilities in vocational rehabilitation settings, including individual career counselling, career-planning systems, career classes and workshops and career decision-making approaches (see Szymanski et al., 1996; Wolffe, 1997). The use of these interventions has usually been within the context of job placement. However, examples of interventions have emerged that focus on a career development program approach (Rumrill & Koch, 1999; Szymanski, 1999). For example, Szymanski (1999) recommends the use of career planning to manage the stress resulting from labour market changes such as the growth of short-term contract work, decreased job security and technological change. She argues that career-planning tasks such as goal setting, acquisition of occupational information and continuous learning to avoid skill obsolescence is a means of managing such stress. To support the career-planning approach, Szymanski (1999) suggests that rehabilitation practitioners assist people to develop and maintain ‘career resilience portfolios’ (p. 283). These portfolios include the individual’s current knowledge and skills, future goals, a plan for acquiring the skills and experience needed to achieve these goals and stress analysis and strain prevention. Another career development intervention recommended by Rumrill and Koch (1999) is the employment by vocational rehabilitation agencies of ‘career maintenance specialists’ to provide post-employment services. These services would include technical advice to

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employers on job accommodations, self-advocacy training for consumers, information dissemination about relevant employment laws, for example Disability Discrimination Act, implementation of career maintenance clubs (similar to job clubs) and career advancement counselling. The details of such services would be outlined in an individualised career maintenance plan that outlines short-term and long-term career objectives and the steps, resources and time frames needed to achieve these objectives. Unfortunately, the complexity of career development constructs carries with it the danger that people with severe disabilities may be excluded from career-planning initiatives based on spurious notions that they are incapable of making career choices. Hagner and Salomone (1989) outline a number of strategies that can be used to assist people with developmental disabilities to make career decisions. These strategies include innovative techniques to locate job leads, the provision of on-the-job supports, guided job experiences, decision-making training, career guidance and long-term career services. A life-span approach to career development is viewed as particularly important to ensure that individuals with severe disabilities receive appropriate developmental experiences in childhood and obtain assistance to move beyond the first job to make a series of occupational choices (Conte, 1983; Hagner & Salomone, 1989).

Conclusion The development of theoretical frameworks of career development affords rehabilitation counsellors an opportunity to integrate and apply useful concepts of career theories to their work with people with disabilities. However, changing rehabilitation systems to focus on comprehensive career development programs will not be easy. Assisting people with disabilities to realise career choices over the life span by addressing both individual need and economic and social barriers will be viewed as costly by governments. Mutual obligation in terms of government responsibility has tended to imply assistance to find a job, not pursue a career. Longitudinal research that evaluates the economic and social consequences of a career development approach is required to determine whether such a model is of sufficient value to justify an increase in rehabilitation expenditure in return for long-term cost savings associated with increased job retention. Research will also be required to ‘operationalise’ a career development approach for use in vocational rehabilitation service delivery. At present, there is a scarcity of literature that provides practitioners with guidance in this area. Fortunately, the ecological and systems theory frameworks summarised in this chapter offer an opportunity to develop a rational and coherent set of career development interventions that meet the needs of people with disabilities and which can be empirically examined.


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5

c h a p t e r

Applying Cognitive Information Processing theory Janet G. Lenz, Robert C. Reardon, Gary W. Peterson and James D. Sampson

In the design and delivery of career development services it is not uncommon to find practitioners guided by two different fields of knowledge. One has to do with using career theories to help individuals make career choices and solve career problems. The other has to do with methods for the design and development of effective career programs for meeting the needs of individuals and targeted groups, for example high school students, persons with disabilities and adult career changers. Since the late 1980s, a team of researchers and practitioners at Florida State University has developed a theory called Cognitive Information Processing (CIP; Peterson, Sampson & Reardon, 1991; Peterson et al., 1996; Sampson et al., 1999; Sampson et al., in press) that provides a schema that can be used not only in assisting individuals with career problem solving and decision making, but also as a guide to career program development. This chapter will review the basic elements of the CIP theory as they apply to individual clients and then demonstrate the application of those concepts to program design and development for large groups and organisations.

Cognitive Information Processing Theory Using a pyramid figure (see Figure 1), CIP emphasises four aspects of the career choice and development process in working with clients, the first three of which are very familiar to readers. The first component is labelled self-knowledge. Self-knowledge refers to ‘individuals’ perceptions of their values, interests, skills and so forth’ (Sampson et al., 1996, p. 6). The second component is knowledge about options, occupational knowledge, including educational and occupational alternatives, and knowledge about how the world of work is organised. The third component is the decision-making process. CIP uses a generic problem-solving process referred to as the CASVE cycle. The steps in the CASVE cycle are described in more detail in the following section. The last component is executive processing, or more simply ‘thinking about thinking’, which may be less familiar to readers. The focus here is on how individuals think and feel about their career choices. This process has received increasing attention in the career literature. Individuals’ views of themselves as career problem solvers and the ‘self-talk’ they engage in about their career decisions often have a huge impact on their ability to make good use of knowledge about themselves and knowledge about options in making career decisions. Individual and group career interventions are intended to positively


FIGURE 1

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The pyramid of information processing domains

Executiveprocessing Domain

Decision-making Skills Domain Generic Information Processing Skills (CASVE)

Self-knowledge

Option Knowledge

© From Career Development and Services: A Cognitive Approach, 1st edition, by G.W. Peterson, J.P. Sampson Jr, and R.C. Reardon © 1991. Reprinted with permission of Wadsworth, an imprint of the Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning. Fax: 800 730 2215.

impact all four aspects of the career choice and development process identified in CIP theory.

Decision making: the CASVE cycle Most practitioners have worked with one or more decision-making models to help their clients in the career choice process. The CASVE cycle is one such model. We like to use it because in our experience it represents a process that clients can understand and apply. While it appears to emphasise a logical, rational approach to decision making, it also recognises the role that feelings and intuition play in this process. In addition, the model acknowledges the role that significant others play in some clients’ career problem solving and decision making. The simplest way to think about the CASVE cycle is as the means by which clients recognise and solve a career problem – their need to resolve the ‘gap’ between where they are now and where they would like to be. An example of this is a university student who is undecided about her course of study and would like to select a satisfying major by the start of her third year. Another example is a downsized computer industry worker whose unemployment benefits run out in three months and who wants to make a decision about enrolling in a training program.

Applying Cognitive Information Processing Theory

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This initial phase of the CASVE cycle is labelled communication. In the communication phase, clients may become aware that they need to make a career decision through their own thoughts and feelings (internal cues), as well as through events or communication from other persons in their lives (external cues). The focus of the communication phase is having clients recognise, accept and define the gap between their current career situation and their ideal situation. At this phase of the career intervention process, counsellors may need to assess the readiness level of clients to engage in self- and occupational-assessment activities (Sampson et al., in press). In the analysis phase of the CASVE cycle, clients try to gather and fully understand all the relevant information associated with their choice. They try to understand the causes of the gap identified in the communication phase. This includes examining information about themselves, about options, the way they go about making decisions and how their thoughts are influencing the process. In the synthesis phase of the CASVE cycle, clients engage in activities that help them expand (elaborate) and narrow (crystallise) their options. Synthesis elaboration means encouraging clients to just ‘consider the possibilities’ for a moment, ‘freeing the mind to consider as many potential solutions as possible’ (Sampson et al., 1996, p. 9). Synthesis crystallisation occurs after clients have researched and processed information about options and are ready to narrow their list to a more manageable number. The goal in the crystallisation phase is to learn about options and reduce them to a number that is not overwhelming. The idea is to carry forwards three to five options into the next phase of the CASVE cycle. Once clients have narrowed the list of options, how do they get to a point where they are able to commit to a first choice and execute a plan for implementing that choice? It is at this point that the valuing and execution phases of the CASVE model come into play. In the valuing phase, clients consider the three to five options that have been generated and weigh the pros and cons of each. They may weigh these alternatives in terms of the costs and benefits of each option to ‘themselves, significant others, their cultural group and the community or society in general’ (Sampson et al., 1996, p. 9). Ideally this process results in ranking their options so that the client has a first choice plus a ‘Plan B’ or ‘Plan C’ as back-up. At this stage, choices are still considered tentative because further exploration of them through training programs, short-term experience, for example internships or job hunting, may reveal that a choice is unattainable or inappropriate (Sampson et al., 1996). These activities are accomplished in the next step in the CASVE cycle, execution. In this phase, ‘clients formulate and commit to a plan of action for implementing their tentative choice’ (Sampson et al., 1996, p. 9).

Applying CIP to career program design The components of the CIP pyramid and the CASVE cycle can be used to guide practitioners in designing effective career programs. The CIP approach and CASVE cycle provide a logical, systematic approach to program development. By using this CIP framework, practitioners are more likely to be aware of the key issues involved in

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FIGURE 2

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CASVE process of program development Adapted from Career development and services: A cognitive approach, by G. W. Peterson, J.P. Sampson & R. C. Reardon. COMMUNICATION Study environment to determine performance gaps

EXECUTION

ANALYSIS

Try out solutions and evaluate outcomes

Determine causes of the gap

VALUING

SYNTHESIS

Evaluate alternative solutions/Choice commitment

Expanding and narrowing likely alternative solutions

© From Career Development and Series: A Cognitive Approach, 1st edition by G.W. Peterson, J.P. Sampson Jr, and R.C. Reardon © 1991. Reprinted with permission of Wadsworth, an imprint of the Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning. Fax: 800 730 2215

successful program development. Peterson, Sampson and Reardon (1991) provided an early discussion of CIP theory in relation to program development. Another example of the CIP approach to program development is provided in Reardon and Lenz (1998). In that example, CIP is applied to the development of a middle school career assessment program. The remainder of this chapter provides an update to these earlier descriptions, reflecting advancements in CIP theory and research, and uses the redesign of a university-based career services centre to accommodate adult distance learners as a means of illustrating the application of CIP theory to career program design.

Self and option knowledge As noted, the base of the CIP pyramid focuses on ‘self-knowledge’ and ‘knowledge of options’. These concepts can be applied to organisations and programs because they also have a sense of identity. Self-knowledge for organisations may include their selfperceptions in terms of history and values, what they view as their mission and goals and their sense of their organisational culture. Organisations and programs may reflect their values by what they deem important, what services they emphasise, where they concentrate their staff time and resources. What principles guide the organisation? Organisations or programs may be known for doing certain things well or they may


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have certain strengths, for example as providers of quality instruction. Organisations may get a sense of satisfaction from the services or programs they deliver, for example helping unemployed adults get retrained and return to gainful employment. In addition to self-knowledge, program planning and design require the consideration of knowledge related to options. The programs and services pursued at an earlier time by the organisation may need to be revised in light of internal or external forces that now impact the organisation. Part of the program design and development process may involve reconsidering the organisation’s role and purpose and the options available for carrying out this purpose or for a newly identified purpose. We will elaborate on this more when we review the steps in the CASVE cycle, which require the consideration of ‘self-knowledge’ and ‘option knowledge’ from an organisational or programmatic perspective.

CASVE cycle Each phase of the CASVE cycle raises key issues and topics that program developers must consider. In this section, we discuss each phase of the CASVE cycle with reference to a gap in career service delivery for adult distance learners. The readers of this chapter may wish to reframe the questions and issues to reflect the particular setting and population of interest to them.

Communication The need for an innovation or change in program service delivery derives from several possible situations, each of which involves a need to remove the gap between the present situation and a more ideal situation. The gap may have been identified by a higherlevel administrator in the organisation, by an internal or external task force, by the collective wisdom of the current staff, or the felt need of one individual. The agency or organisation may have also received feedback from the users of its services, either formally or informally. Whatever the source of this feedback, it typically reflects a desire to improve upon the current situation. There is often not only written information or in some cases ‘hard data’, but there may also be a certain level of ‘emotion, energy and motivation to make things better, to reduce the gap between the real and the ideal’ (Reardon & Lenz, 1998, p. 208). How might a program developer seek to close the gap in career services? We offer the following example. A university career service office found itself using a more traditional service delivery model that was not providing an optimum level of service to all constituents. The career office had for many years geared its services to more traditional-age students and the emphasis had been primarily on individual appointments. Many of the services had been provided in a face-to-face mode, for example through career-planning classes, workshops and individual counselling, and had been delivered during traditional work week hours, that is between the hours of 8am and 5pm. However, the university had seen a significant increase in the enrolment of adult distance learners. The average age of students had increased from 20 to 28 years. The career service office had appointed a staff person with experience in a setting where

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she had been a direct recipient of distance learning programs, and she also had held an assistantship as a graduate student in an office that was designed to address the needs of adult learners. In addition, the university’s provost and president had given new resources and placed a new emphasis on the delivery of distance learning. The brief scenario described above highlights some possible key internal and external cues that signify the existence of a gap in the Communication phase related to organisational effectiveness. With the input of the new staff member, the career service office began to raise questions about the extent to which it was meeting the needs of new student populations, particularly adult distance learners. At this point, it is essential that an individual or a group of concerned persons assume a leadership role in the program design and development process. Reardon and Lenz (1998) outlined some questions that may be useful for these leaders to consider in program planning in order to understand the nature of the gap: • Is it reasonable to assume that the gap can be removed? Is this task worth undertaking? • What is the history of the gap in this setting? How long has it existed? • Does this gap exist in other places? What has been done in other places to remove the gap? • Who in the organisation or community is concerned about the gap? • How do various stakeholders feel about the gap? How badly do they want it removed? • What data are available, for example survey results, internal reports, accountability studies, that provide specific information about the nature and extent of the gap? The information gathered in the process of addressing these questions, along with additional external and internal cues, provide the content that is considered in the Analysis phase of this program development model.

Analysis The Analysis phase involves considering all of the causal elements and circumstances that led to the creation of the gap, along with determining the relationships between the gap and possible solutions. Whether in individual career decision making or organisational program planning, there is too often a rush to the Execution phase without careful consideration of all the relevant information and conditions that led to the gap. It is the ‘quick fix’ to the problem that is sought rather than careful reasoning and a deliberate use of a sound program-planning model. These ‘quick fix’ approaches ignore the key aspects of strategic planning that involve both doing the ‘right things’ and ‘doing things right’. As Peterson, Sampson and Reardon (1991) noted, ‘Good problem solvers and decision makers resist the pressure to act impulsively; instead they engage in a period of thoughtful reflection to gain a better understanding of the problem and of their ability to respond’ (p. 34). This occurs in the Analysis phase. Using the six questions above as a guide, let’s examine the types of information that a program developer in our example setting might want to consider. The gap in service delivery identified by this career office is one that can be removed, or at least minimised


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to some degree. In an initial meeting with the staff, the centre’s director heard several ideas about how these concerns regarding distance learning and adult learners might be addressed. The gap in services was of a relatively recent origin, but the pressure to address that gap had increased quickly. Other academic and student services offices were facing similar pressure from various university administrators, policy makers and vocal constituents. A key activity undertaken by the career office at this point involved meeting with other department heads in student services, as well as the chief student services person, to discuss possible solutions. The centre’s director was aware that top university officials considered the provision of services to non-traditional distance learners a high priority. The career services director also wanted to remove the gap in career services to adult learners. There had been a trend in university funding patterns towards the increasing allocation of resources to make services more accessible, both in terms of location and hours, and to move learning resources to a format suitable for distance learners. Legislative reports and student satisfaction surveys from adult learners also provided information on the nature of the gap. The Analysis phase emphasises the gathering of as much information as possible about the nature of the problem. In the next section we discuss the Synthesis phase.

Synthesis In the Synthesis phase the question is asked, ‘What courses of action might solve the problem?’ (Peterson, Sampson & Reardon, 1991). As Reardon and Lenz (1998) noted, the Synthesis phase asks program developers to ‘specify solutions that will remove the gap, synthesising information obtained from communication and analysis to identify old and/or new resources and activities to remove gaps’ (p. 210). Career office staff members may specify doing familiar tasks in similar or new ways, or creating completely new activities. As noted earlier, there are two phases of the Synthesis stage: Synthesis Elaboration and Synthesis Crystallisation. The Synthesis Elaboration phase allows for divergent thinking and no options are rejected out-of-hand; this allows for the widest possible consideration of alternatives. The program leader or task force working on removing a gap may solicit input in various ways, such as open meetings, focus groups, consulting with colleagues individually, brainstorming, gathering information through internal or external listservs, or posting surveys electronically. A key point to keep in mind when engaging the Synthesis phase of program development is to carry forwards what was learned from the previous phases, that is Communication and Analysis. This helps the persons involved in program development to stay focused on the needs of the individuals being served and the needs of the organisation or agency (Reardon & Lenz, 1998). In the Synthesis Crystallisation phase, the program developer begins to develop a written report, planning document, or proposal outlining the nature of the program intervention being contemplated. This is a critical step in the program development process because it begins to formulate a strategy for action that can be read, contemplated, discussed, dissected and criticised by various stakeholders. Quite literally, this written document ‘crystallises’ the thinking that has taken place earlier in the CASVE cycle.

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Perhaps a task force or committee could be given the assignment to develop a specific program proposal for addressing the problem or need. It may involve one or more persons taking leadership in producing documents that move the process forwards in the career office. Ultimately, this will lead to writing a document in the form of a need statement (‘specifying the nature of the gap’) or a program proposal. These need statements or gaps are translated into program goals, which may reflect both intervention process goals and learner outcome goals (Reardon & Lenz, 1998). Process goals could include the following, ‘Provide access to web-based career assessments for adult distance learners’. Learner outcome goals might include, ‘Non-campus based learners will be able to develop effective résumés and cover letters by accessing a web-based format of the content for existing career centre workshops’. Goal statements of this nature outline how things will be different as a result of the introduction of a proposed career services program, how the gap identified in the communication phase and elaborated in the Analysis phase of the CASVE cycle will be removed or reduced (Reardon & Lenz, 1998). While the Analysis and Synthesis Elaboration phases allow for fairly wide-ranging discussion of information and options, the Synthesis Crystallisation phase of the CASVE cycle begins to focus in a more concrete manner on specific options or alternatives that may be used to address the needs and goals identified in the Analysis phase. Reardon and Lenz (1998) identified key questions to consider during this Synthesis Crystallisation phase of program planning. Raising these questions and focusing on possible answers in relation to our example problem of career services to adult distance learners may help in the evaluation and elimination of potential options for the program intervention being contemplated to remove the gap. The ultimate question is whether or not the program development proposal addresses the causes of the gap identified in the Analysis phase. 1 How might staff roles change as services to adult distance learners are increased? Will an existing job description be rewritten to staff this new program effort or will no changes be needed? 2 Are procedures explained regarding staff selection and training? Does everyone need to be trained? Do different types of staff receive different types of training? Can some staff opt out of the program? What do staff need to understand about the needs of the population being served, for example adult learners? What information will be communicated by staff to these individuals when they call the career centre requesting specific services or information? 3 What space and equipment will be needed for the program, if any? Will other service delivery locations, for example university library or student union, be created on campus? Will there be extended phone hours or in-person service hours to meet the needs of those being served? 4 What resources, for example technology, funds and staff, are available to remove the gap? Are these resources readily available on site or do they have to be obtained from elsewhere?


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5 How will the program be introduced to staff and clients? Will descriptions of these services be included in current publications? Will there be a special section of the career office’s web site devoted to these adult learners? 6 How will the proposed program be supervised and managed on a daily basis? Is there one designated contact person who will be responsible, or are some or all staff cross-trained in order to provides services to new populations being served? 7 What are the daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly time frames for program operation? Will it operate during breaks and holidays? In the evenings or weekends? 8 Will there be costs associated with the program? What consultation, technical assistance and human resources support does the proposed program need? How will these costs be paid for or how will these resources be acquired? Will additional staff be paid to work in the evenings and on weekends? Will funds be provided to hire technical personnel to redesign the centre’s web site with new populations in mind? 9 How will the proposed program change the current procedures and related programs in the career office? Will some other program be eliminated or curtailed if this new program is added? 10 How will the program be evaluated? What special forms and materials, if any, will be needed to evaluate the program? Who will do this? When will they do it? How will clients and staff provide feedback regarding their experiences with the changes in service delivery resulting from implementation of the program? 11 Will the information collected by the program and in the evaluation process enable the staff to determine if the original gaps identified in the Communication phase have been removed or reduced? 12 How and when will information about the success of the program be shared with others in the organisation, for example potential future clients, staff, top administrators? In the larger community? In the profession, for example journal articles, conference presentations? This list of questions specifies the kinds of information that a program developer might review during the Synthesis Crystallisation phase of the CASVE cycle. Work in this phase of program development requires staff to become quite specific regarding who will be involved in the program, when they will be involved, how they will be operating, what they will be doing and why they will be doing it. Addressing these questions in the program proposal means that the program will more likely operate smoothly when introduced and more likely be effective. If these questions are not addressed in the proposal before actual program operations begin, it is likely that staff confusion and resistance will cause the program to fail. This latter point cannot be overemphasised. Our experience as career services practitioners includes ‘painful’ memories of numerous examples where programs failed because of a lack of careful planning.

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Valuing In the Valuing phase, basic questions about the worth and merit of the proposed program are raised and answered. Issues related to questions 8 and 9 in the Synthesis Crystallisation phase are especially relevant in the Valuing phase. The basic issue in this phase boils down to this question, ‘Is this proposed program worth doing given the costs?’. A positive response from key persons affected by the proposed program, including supervisory and support staff in career services, the individuals being served and higher level administrators, means that the organisation wishes to make a commitment to establishing the program as has been proposed, either by the program planning task force or the agency head. In the case of our career services example, we would hope that the decision to implement the proposed program of new services for adult learners involved in the distance education program was right for the career centre, the university, all students and the broader community. A positive response might mean any or all of the following: • The philosophy of the proposed program is the right one. • It is more important to do this proposed program than some other one. • The costs are reasonable. • The likely outcomes of the program are desirable. • Most stakeholders favour the proposed program. • The career centre and university will be more effective in meeting overall goals as a result of implementation of the proposed program. After considering all of the questions and information gathered in the Synthesis phase and reflecting on the information obtained in the Communication and Analysis phases, the program planners and administrators in charge commit to a specific course of action that reflects a consensus about how to proceed and what option or options are likely to produce the desired results to remove the gap in career services to adult learners. However, any plan about how to proceed is only as effective as the means used to execute the program plan. The next section describes how the Execution phase is applied in program development.

Execution In the Execution phase, the organisation or agency staff take action steps to implement the program plan or option specified in the Valuing phase. ‘It is time to try the program in a real-life setting, to see how it works with real individuals’ (Reardon & Lenz, p. 213). Issues related to questions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 in the Synthesis Crystallisation phase are especially important to address in the Execution phase. This phase is often governed by a specific set of steps and timelines so that all individuals know what is likely to happen and when. Key tasks are assigned to the individuals involved in program implementation. If a program development task force was formed, it may be dissolved at this point, unless it was given specific roles associated with the implementation process. For example, if the new services to adult distance learners are to be marketed, this task may revert back to the centre’s promotions and publicity committee or information specialist. If one person provided leadership throughout the program development process, that person might continue to provide leadership in


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directing the implementation of the program in the Execution phase, as reflected by his or her revised position description. Another key element of the Execution phase may be a limited trial with a select group of clients to determine whether or not the procedures and resources actually work as expected (Reardon & Lenz, 1998). Going back to our example, one important group of distance learners at the university were persons completing degrees in information studies. The activities and services that came out of the program proposal could be pilot-tested with this group. Their experiences and feedback would allow staff to collect information about program procedures and possibly return to an earlier phase of the CASVE cycle to potentially rethink and redesign some of the program activities (Reardon & Lenz, 1998). In some program development and evaluation models, these kinds of activities are described as formative evaluation or process evaluation, for example ‘Are we doing things right?’.

Communication Finally, the CIP approach to program development specifies returning to the Communication phase to determine if the gap specified earlier in career services to adult distance learners had been removed following the introduction of the new program. Issues related to questions 10, 11 and 12 noted earlier in the Synthesis Crystallisation phase are important to review now in this Communication phase. Program evaluators are familiar with this general area of product evaluation or outcome evaluation, for example ‘Are we doing the right things?’. The list of original needs and goals specified in the Communication and Analysis phases are re-examined in light of data collected in the Execution phase to determine if the program is achieving worthwhile goals in a cost-effective way. If it is, then the program would likely be described as a successful career services intervention and our adult distance learners would be receiving services deemed desirable by the persons being served, the career office staff, the university administration, policy makers and other constituents.

Executive processing In the previous sections we examined how the base of the pyramid and the CASVE cycle could be applied to the process of program design and development. We noted in the introduction of this chapter that the Executive Processing component of CIP theory, with respect to individual career problem solving and decision making, is concerned with how individuals think and feel about career choices or ‘thinking about thinking’. This concept can also be applied to how individuals in organisations approach program design and development, especially when it involves a significant change in how things get done. When approaching the design and delivery of new programs and services, the collective and individual thinking of staff can play a key role in how successful that process will be. Most readers are aware of how positive thinking contributes to the success of an individual or an organisation. This might be reflected in statements such as, ‘We can do this’, ‘We know what it takes to accomplish this task’ and ‘We’re excited

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about this new challenge we’re facing’. In contrast, most of us have also experienced the impact of negative thinking within an organisation, reflected in statements like, ‘We’ve always done it this way’, ‘What if we try this, spend all this money and it doesn’t work?’, ‘Things are working well the way they are, why change?’ and ‘That’s not in my job description’. Negative thinking in individuals tends to shut down the problem-solving and decision-making process. The same can be said of negative thinking in organisations. A key aspect of program design and development from a CIP perspective is to be aware of the potential for negative thinking and to help minimise its impact on the organisation’s ability to change and develop in order to meet new program needs. Organisations can use a variety of methods to provide a detached, objective view of their functioning. Several examples relevant to our university career services office example are noted below. • Use an advisory board consisting of members of various stakeholder and constituent groups, for example career centre staff, students, employers, faculty, distance learning staff. • Focus on the formative or process evaluation results of career services related to adult learners involved in distance education. • Use external consultants with expertise in career services for adult learners and distance guidance programs. • Conduct staff retreats and workshops using innovative staff development techniques to ‘unfreeze’ the career centre staff in thinking about new ways for removing the gap in career services to adult learners.

Conclusion In this chapter, we have used Cognitive Information Processing theory (Peterson et al., 1991; Peterson et al., 1996) as a model for guiding the program development process. CIP theory, including the CASVE cycle, can be used to guide both individual and group interventions, as well as the development of career services program proposals. To illustrate the program development process, we used the example of a career services office seeking to improve outreach to adult distance learners in a university setting. For additional information on the CIP approach see http://www.career.fsu.edu/techcenter/


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6

c h a p t e r

The Career Choice Cycle Course Lee-Ann Prideaux

Career education originally emerged during the early 1970s as a means to integrate formal education with career development (Baker & Taylor, 1998). It began as a system of interventions targeting children and adolescents to help them acquire ‘knowledge, skills and attitudes for making work meaningful and satisfying’ (p. 376). Hansen (1999) observed, however, that while career education enhanced career activities in American schools, it was predominantly atheoretical. A similar observation had been made about Australia by McMahon (1997), who stated that career education ‘has largely occurred on an ad hoc basis at a school level’ (p. 137). As career development theorists and career counselling practitioners face the 21st century, it is hoped that the wealth of theoretical knowledge and field experience gained during the previous century can be applied in a more synchronistic manner. Indeed, Herr (1999) argues that: Theories offer a vantage point from which to understand and facilitate the schoolto-work transition and have the potential to bring a coherent conceptual base to the evolution of school-to-work programming efforts (p. 359). In contrast, Savickas (1994) suggests that, ‘situated activity, particularly the practice of career intervention, constructs the true meaning of career theories’ (p. 240). This author, who developed the Career Choice Cycle Course, (CCCC), maintains that career development theorists and career education practitioners must work in unison to enable the insights of theory and practice to inform each other. Too often in the past researchers have made potentially valuable discoveries that are yet to be applied in the practical sense. Likewise, career counsellors and teachers who work at the coalface have extensive hands-on knowledge but tend to be oblivious to theoretical findings that could bring elucidation and a high level of coherence and organisation to their work. Unsystematic and makeshift efforts formulated to address immediate needs ought to be abandoned. This type of career education programming tends to exaggerate divergence and disorder within the field. Rather than ‘putting on bandaids’, it is probably more cogent to take advantage of the wellspring of knowledge that has been generated by career development research. Programs embedded in a theoretical framework that ‘can account for the complex interplay between developmental, contextual, learning and cognitive influences in the career development process’ (Lent & Worthington, 1999, p. 294) hold much more potential.


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The CCCC was developed using a sound theoretical framework. Contextual information about the nature of the particular cohort of students for whom it was designed was carefully incorporated into that framework. Thus, the program was devised within a dual perspective. Practitioners, parents, teachers and, indeed, the students themselves were involved in fleshing out the theoretical model for the course to ensure it was tailored synchronously to the needs of those it was designed to serve. This chapter aims to provide an account of the career education course that was developed out of this theory–practice approach. Some of the background issues that shaped the project are outlined initially. As the major thrust behind the development of the course was an intention to apply well-founded theoretical reasoning to a realworld situation, a portion of the chapter is devoted to a description of theory. Following this, the CCCC itself is described in terms of its implementation, content and evaluation.

Underpinning principles and rationale The design and development of the CCCC was undertaken from a contextualist perspective. This world view considers events independent of the individual are interpreted from the unique perspective of each person within a specific domain at a specific time. The interrelationship of cause and effect, continuity and discontinuity of development and subjective experience epitomise contextualism (Collin & Young, 1986). The contextual viewpoint is related to constructivist epistemology with its conception of humans as active agents or, as Ford (1987) put it, self-constructing living systems. This basic modification of approach, ‘seeing people as active rather than passive agents’ (Borgen, 1992, p. 281), underpins the cognitive revolution that many contemporary theorists are embracing. In accordance with this movement, the developers of the CCCC used a constructivist platform. In addition, the course was based on the assumption that identity formation is a crucial developmental task for adolescents and that deciding upon a career is an important milestone within that process (Heaven, 1994). By the very nature of their struggle for autonomy and identity, adolescents are particularly vulnerable to the stressors around them. Therefore, another driving force in the development of the CCCC was a concern for the plight of today’s adolescents who are facing exceptional pressures associated with gaining employment within a volatile world of work. The school-to-work transition process is typically characterised by complex and multiple pathways that have produced a potentially intimidating context of uncertainty and confusion. Practitioners cannot hope to deal with the myriad of career-related problems that people may face today and in the future. On the contrary, the developers of the CCCC believe that efforts need to be channelled towards equipping students with process skills so that they can apply them throughout their lives and manage their own career development within a future that promises to be characterised by perpetual transformation. For this reason a central aim of the CCCC is to empower students to be more adaptable, persistent and resilient to career setbacks. Furthermore, a sense of purpose and commitment towards one’s own career development is a key objective of the course.

The Career Choice Cycle Course

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Several requisites of the theoretical base for the CCCC predetermined its selection. First, it had to be a contemporary career development theory with a constructivist foundation. Cognition was to be the central psychological process together with the premise that people construct their own experiences of reality as a key component. The theory also was required to be one that viewed career development as an ongoing and cyclic process of skill acquisition and modification, which took into consideration the unique context of every individual at various times throughout their lives. It needed to be able to accommodate the current and prospective future pressures that adolescents may be confronted with. The author of the CCCC was also keen to employ a theoretical foundation that would incorporate her ideas about the importance of dealing with students’ confidence levels as well as their acquisition of knowledge and skills. Clearly, the theory also had to be endorsed by sound research support.

Social Cognitive Career Theory Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) was chosen as the theoretical foundation for the career education course. This theory has well-defined constructs, which have undergone rigorous consolidation through a prolonged history of research and testing in a variety of psycho-social domains. Indeed, social cognitive theory has gained an heuristic reputation in the fields of health behaviours, organisational management and educational achievement (Bandura, 1986). It was derived from the social learning theory of behaviour proposed by Albert Bandura (1977) around thirty years ago. Bandura refined social learning theory as it became apparent that learning and conditioning were only part of the complex array of psychological phenomena that influenced people. He began to place more emphasis on cognitive, self-regulatory and motivational processes as his work evolved. Social Learning Theory was subsequently renamed Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986) to reflect this more synthesised understanding of the interplay between self-referent thought and social processes in guiding human behaviour (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1996, p. 376). It was this refined version of Bandura’s work upon which SCCT was founded. In fact, Lent and Hackett (1994) have referred to SCCT as their ‘career-specific elaboration of Bandura’s theory’ (p. 83). There is an emphasis on the importance of contextual variables within SCCT. Lent, Brown and Hackett, (1994, 1996, 1999) stressed that career choices are made within unique conditions that have diverse effects on personal agency. They contended that contextual factors ranging from financial, educational and physical characteristics to political and social conditions ‘help shape the learning experiences that fuel personal interests and choices and comprise the real and perceived opportunity structure within which career plans are devised and implemented’ (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994, p. 107). SCCT also ascribes to the commonly held belief that a shift to contextualism is required to amend theoretical inadequacies in both content and method. It embraces the cognitive revolution with its inclusion of internal cognitive factors as influential components in the lives of people who actively shape their world.

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Social Cognitive Career Theory: key constructs Social cognitive career theorists have adopted Bandura’s (1997) conception of interaction called triadic reciprocal causation to explain how human agency operates. Internal personal factors, behaviour and the external environment are the three determinants posited to influence each other bidirectionally. The personal sector of the triadic reciprocal causation model represents the cognitive, affective and biological factors that operate as co-determinants of behaviour. SCCT specifies three principal social cognitive mechanisms that are used to conceptualise these personal elements, namely self-efficacy, outcome expectations and personal goals. These key variables are considered to be the most relevant factors to explain how people assert personal agency in relation to career development. They are referred to as the ‘building blocks of career development’ (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1996, p. 380). Bandura (1995) defined perceived self-efficacy (SE) as ‘beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations’ (p. 2). SE has been investigated in a plethora of studies resulting in the establishment of clear links between efficacy beliefs and a variety of spheres of performance (Sadri & Robertson, 1993). For example, SE has been found to be associated with work-related performance (Frayne & Latham, 1987), academic performance (Felson, 1990; Schunk, 1989) and task performance (Locke et al., 1984). Social cognitive theorists stress the dynamic nature of SE, stating that it is not a static or passive trait, but rather one that varies according to specific performance domains. The second personal causal mechanism within the triadic reciprocal model is outcome expectations (OE). This variable relates to the perceived consequences that people believe will result from the performance of certain behaviours (Lent & Hackett, 1994). In comparison to self-efficacy beliefs that pertain to perceived capabilities, OE are to do with the imagined repercussions of a particular course of action. Self-efficacy and OE are usually highly related due to the situation that ‘the types of outcomes people anticipate are determined primarily by their expected performance proficiency’ (Maddux, 1995, p. 15). However, OE become an important unique predictor of behaviour when environmental constraints inhibit the influence of efficacy beliefs (Maddux). Goals are characterised by a resolve to engage in a particular activity or to achieve a particular future outcome (Bandura, 1986). According to Social Cognitive Career Theory, it is through the setting of goals that individuals coordinate, guide and sustain their own behaviour (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1996). Therefore, behaviour is not predetermined by a combination of past reinforcement, genes or other intervening personal factors. Actions are also motivated by the self-imposed goals that people set. Social Cognitive Theory assumes that goals affect the development of efficacy beliefs and, in turn, SE and OE influence the goals that people choose, along with the effort expended in their pursuit (Bandura).


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Social Cognitive Career Theory: models Social cognitive career theorists present their conceptualisation of career development using three interlocking models depicting the directional paths of the intervening variables deemed most pertinent to career-related behaviour. These models are designed to represent the social cognitive framework in terms of three crucial career-related processes: how career and academic interests develop, how choices are made (see Figure 1) and how performance outcomes are achieved (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994).

FIGURE 1

Person, contextual and experiential factors affecting careerrelated choice behaviour. From Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994.

PERSON INPUTS • • • •

Predispositions Gender Race/Ethnicity Disability/Health Status

Contextual influences proximal to choice behaviour

Self-efficacy

Interests

Learning experiences

Background contextual affordances

Choice goals

Outcome expectations

© Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994. Reproduced with kind permission of the authors.

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Choice actions

Performance domains and attainments


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Precursor to the Career Choice Cycle Course What follows is a brief description of one particular study (Chartrand & Rose, 1996) based on SCCT that inspired the basic format of the CCCC. Chartrand and Rose applied social cognitive influences to a population deemed ‘at-risk’ for experiencing employment and career barriers. These authors postulated that SCCT was particularly suitable for those who held lower career expectations and experienced ‘a lack of opportunities in employment and career development … tied to a cycle of poverty’ (p. 342). Indeed, Chartrand and Rose expressed the opinion that the majority of career development theories have relevance for only a small proportion of the population, referring to those who can reasonably count on gaining employment and who are at liberty to choose their preferred occupation. Chartrand and Rose commended SCCT for its use of ‘constructs that account for differences in environmental opportunities as well as for individuals’ beliefs about the environment’ (p. 343). They stressed the importance of taking into consideration the environmental realities that at-risk clients have to face and highlighted the value of SCCT’s concepts in this regard. In particular, contextual affordances were endorsed as useful, identifiable factors that influence beliefs, learning experiences and the formation of interests, goals and performance attainments. A group of sixty female offenders due for release within six months from an American correctional facility took part in a twelve-week career development program (Chartrand & Rose, 1996) entitled PROVE (Preventing Recidivism through Opportunities in Vocational Education). The program aimed to improve occupational knowledge and career self-efficacy while also enhancing decision-making skills, career-planning and search skills, as well as work adjustment. The SCCT concept of reciprocal determinism was emphasised. Thus, considerable stress was placed on the influence people have on their own overt behaviours over and above the interactive causal influences of personal attributes and environmental factors. The participants were encouraged to raise awareness of the impact of their behaviour and to channel this positively by developing a sense of personal agency and individual responsibility for change. The career choice model (see Figure 1) within the SCCT framework was adopted to illustrate various components of the program. For instance, the women began to describe their identity by building a picture of their person inputs, such as African–American selfhood, and background factors, such as rural or city upbringing. This formed the first cycle of the model and was followed by cycles denoting ‘Things you learned’, ‘Who you are’, ‘What you want to do’ and ‘What you accomplish’ (Chartrand & Rose, 1996, p. 347). Thus, the theory was translated into lay terms and was used as a reference throughout the program. Chartrand and Rose expressed the conviction that performance accomplishments, the most powerful means by which expectations of career self-efficacy can be increased (Betz, 1992), ‘can serve as a source of positive identity and as a stepping stone to future career opportunities’ (p. 350). This signifies an example of the literature calling for the upgrading of skills as well as self-knowledge to equip students for the changing world of work rather than the traditional practice of matching individuals with a particularly suitable job.


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Design and development of the Career Choice Cycle Course The design, development and evaluation of the CCCC took place within a Queensland government high school where the project was jointly conceived and funded in cooperation with its university partner. This school was committed to developing strong links with university researchers to provide empirical support for its curriculum development. It listed ‘refinement and expansion of work education’ as one of its main objectives. The school was located in a community where, in the main, families come from lower socio-economic groupings. Students in this district have not historically made smooth transitions from school to work. A selection of staff, parents and students were interviewed to discover their perceptions of the career education needs of the Year 10 students for whom the course would be formulated. They were asked about any career education programs that were currently running and what they thought were the barriers to making sound career decisions for these students. In addition, interviewees were asked to speculate about students’ confidence levels when approaching career-related decisions and the aspirations of the young people at the school. All members of the school community were invited to provide input that they thought would be important in regard to the development of the course. Once this information was gathered and grouped into recurrent themes, the course was devised. The SCCT career choice model provided the basic structure with some adaptations from the Chartrand and Rose (1996) lay version of the model utilised to make it user-friendly. While the theoretical framework guided the formulation of the course, close attention was also given to the main themes of concern generated by the interviews. For instance, a lack of understanding of the realities of the world of work was repeatedly identified as an area to target within the course. Thus, each lesson incorporated a component to try to alleviate this situation. For example, projections about the changing nature of the world of work in the future were discussed. Students were also continually encouraged to generate a variety of career options to avoid ‘putting all their eggs in one basket’ and risk being in an unemployed limbo once they failed to reach their one dream job within a very competitive job market. Moreover, a deficiency of certain personal characteristics was a common catch-cry. Positive features such as realistic confidence levels, persistence in the face of adversity, optimism, commitment and work ethic were all personal skills that were often cited as lacking in these students. This augured well for the application of SCCT with its emphasis on self-efficacy building strategies and personal responsibility for change.

Implementation of the Career Choice Cycle Course The principal of the school acted as the primary gatekeeper. This person chaired joint meetings with the university stakeholders and relevant school staff members throughout the research project. The entire school staff was addressed by the principal and the author initially and meetings with the pertinent department in which the course was

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taught were also held periodically. One of the deputy principals took on administrative tasks such as scheduling for interviews and organising testing of all Year 10 classes at the same time on each of four occasions to evaluate the course. In addition, this deputy coordinated the timetable for the delivery of the course. The author of the CCCC was the facilitator in the first delivery of the course to half of the Year 10 students. Four teachers undertook to facilitate the subsequent delivery of the course with the wait-list group. Two of these teachers volunteered for the venture. The others were less enthusiastic, mainly due to their concerns about completing the regular curriculum. It was through a process of negotiation and compromise that ‘teacher’ (as opposed to career development ‘expert’) delivery of the course to the control group was achieved. The teachers were trained via observation of the delivery of the intervention by the career development ‘expert’ during the first delivery of the course. Furthermore, teachers took part in weekly consultation sessions with the author in order to give them the opportunity to ask questions and to gain an understanding of the rationale for all aspects of the course. Detailed lesson plans and all overhead transparencies were provided to ensure consistency of delivery. A teacher’s guide with information sheets, lists of the materials required, aims and evaluative strategies for each of the lessons was also supplied. In addition, booklets with activities and weekly homework assignments were supplied for each student. Experiential learning theory (Kolb, 1984) was utilised to drive the composition and pedagogical process of the intervention. As such, each lesson was designed to allow students to continually pass through an experiential learning cycle with the aim to facilitate the construction of knowledge by each individual via their own processes. In the main, students worked in groups engaging in structured experiences, reflecting upon them, to abstract and share insights. This experiential learning process was utilised to give students the opportunity to think about, learn about and perhaps modify their own cognitive and affective career-related behaviour. Specifically, the experiential exercises were used to encourage the students to discover, interpret and appraise their interests, beliefs, values, confidence levels, decision-making habits and personal qualities.

Program content The Career Choice Cycle Course runs for six weeks with one seventy-minute lesson per week. Three supplementary lessons are also available if time permits. The basic components of the course correspond with SCCT’s model of career-related choice behaviour (see Figures 1 and 2). The first lesson, entitled ‘Career Development Influences’, corresponds with the ‘Person inputs’ and ‘Contextual affordances’ part of the SCCT choice model (see Figure 1). This lesson begins by setting the scene for the course. Students are assigned to groups for activities and discussion. The CCCC model (see Figure 2) is used to orient participants to course content and the student booklets are distributed to clarify expectations regarding the necessary criteria to gain a course certificate. The remainder of the lesson focuses upon activities to bring possible career aspirations to students’ conscious


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FIGURE 2

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Lesson framework for the Career Choice Cycle Course Note: Each box represents one lesson or component of the course and the numbers indicate the order of delivery.

2 Things you’ve learned

1 Career development influences

3 Who you are

6 Grow, review and recycle

4 What you want to do

5 Decide and go for it

© L.Prideaux

awareness and develop their understanding of the context in which career development takes place. By utilising Patton and McMahon’s (1999) Systems Theory Framework of career development, students are guided to assimilate past experiences with the prevailing influences on the interests they have developed and the careers they may be considering. Lesson two, ‘Things You’ve Learned’, is aligned with the ‘Learning experiences’, ‘Selfefficacy’ and ‘Outcome expectations’ part of the model (see Figure 1). During this lesson students are encouraged to think about how confidence levels and outcome expectations affect their approach to, and success in, a variety of career-related endeavours. They discover that task-specific confidence (self-efficacy) affects the goals people set for themselves, how much effort they will give to a task, how long they will persist with a task, how they will respond to setbacks and how they will cope with failure. The importance of having confidence in one’s ability when approaching career–related decisions is highlighted by using an example that the students are faced with in Year 10, that is subject selection. Tactics for increasing confidence levels are also generated in this lesson. In addition, students are made aware of their self-statements when approaching difficult situations and are induced to reformulate derisive or pessimistic thoughts to more ‘helpful’ or optimistic ones.

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Personal interests provide the focus of the third lesson entitled ‘Who You Are’. Once again, this relates directly to the SCCT model (see Figure 1) where interests are depicted as an important intervening variable within the career choice cycle. Students learn about how their interests, abilities and talents develop. The link between what they’re interested in, or believe they’re good at, and how this affects career-related decisions is highlighted. Students complete an interest inventory during this lesson and they are encouraged to use their resultant interest profile to broaden their occupational perspective, identify foreclosed occupational options and reassess the type and variety of careers they are considering. The fourth lesson aims to help students recognise the need for control over their own destiny and emphasises that one’s individual approach to career search/choice activity determines outcome. Labelled ‘What You Want To Do’, and in association with the ‘Choice goals and choice actions’ part of the model (see Figure 1), the activities in this lesson call attention to the characteristics of effective goal setting. Additionally, the notion of satellite careers is introduced whereby students discover the advantages of having multiple pathways to their ultimate career goals. Having learned what influences career development, how confidence levels affect career-related behaviour, how interests develop, and how to set realistic and achievable goals, this next lesson is about how to make a career-related decision and act upon it. It is called ‘Decide and Go For It!’. This represents the ‘Performance domains and attainments’ part of the SCCT model (see Figure 1). Mann, Harmoni and Power’s (1988) GOFER course is introduced to the students to provide them with a five-step plan for sound decision making: ‘Goals clarification, Options generation, Fact-finding, consideration of Effects, Review and implementation’ (p. 161). The activities include helping students gain an awareness of different decision-making styles to assess their strengths and weaknesses, bringing to conscious awareness the decision-making style that each student typically employs, discussion of decision-making strategies and observation of these applied to simple decision-making tasks. As a homework task, students are instructed to apply the GOFER decision-making strategies to a personal decision-making exercise. Finally, students are made aware of the cyclic nature of career development. They learn that when they finish school they are not ‘finished products’. This lesson aims to prepare students for the possibility of barriers and setbacks during their careers. It stresses the skills they have learnt and how these will help them to keep cycling through career development processes in the future. It is entitled ‘Grow, Review and Recycle’ and is theoretically related to the notion of recursiveness within the Systems Theory Framework (Patton & McMahon, 1999). Recursiveness expands upon SCCT’s (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1996) contextualist concept of triadic reciprocity (p. 4), going beyond dynamic, bidirectional interaction between internal personal factors, behaviour and the external environment. Systems theorists, while endorsing the mutuality of reciprocal interactions, consider this model ‘bound by linear and causal principles’ preferring a view of career development that occurs via ‘multidirectional non-linear feedback’ (Patton & McMahon, p. 152). Accordingly, students are asked to revisit the factors influencing their career development discovered during the first lesson and think


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about how these may change over time. This lesson also provides an opportunity for revision and consolidation of the material covered throughout.

Pedagogical features of the Career Choice Cycle Course As discussed previously, the format of the lessons was drawn from experiential learning theory. Hence, activities generally proceeded using inductive means. In other words, students learnt by ‘doing it’ rather than ‘hearing it’ wherever possible. In addition, research in the field of cognitive psychology (e.g. Best, 1995) informs us that students benefit from a ‘priming’ of stored information to facilitate the retention, recovery and elaboration of knowledge. Consequently, all lessons began with an introductory discussion for previous learning to be examined and summarised. The CCCC model was also used as a prompt. It was displayed on an OHP to provide a visual cue to the content of each lesson. Likewise, lessons concluded with a recapitulation of the information and insights gained during that particular session. In order to initiate experiential learning, students engage in structured experiences whereby they discover meaning for themselves and corroborate their own learning through open discussion with their peers. Following this, they need time and further structured activities to reflect upon and grasp new concepts as well as integrate them to achieve behaviour change. Obviously, this is a tall order for a mere six lessons. However, if students are accustomed to such a process and are also comfortable and willing to talk about their internal cognitive and affective experiences, the CCCC is likely to be more effective. It is also expected that students will participate more and gain full advantage from the course if it is conducted in a congenial learning environment with a teacher they know and trust. Moreover, individual ideas and opinions must be valued and not submitted to prejudice or harsh judgment, otherwise students may withdraw. Self-evaluation is also promoted during the course. At the back of the student booklets there is a place for personal and teacher ratings and comments to be made following each lesson. It is advisable for teachers to monitor this independent activity on a weekly basis to check on individual progress and see how the students are comprehending the course content in general. Specific written activities to be completed in class as well as homework tasks are also recorded on this page.

Career Choice Cycle Course evaluation A pre-test (T1) was completed by all Year 10 students to gather data with particular emphasis on career decision-making self-efficacy, career maturity, career indecision and decision coping patterns. Examination of these surveys, in conjunction with the contextual information gained from interviews with staff, parents and students, informed the design of the course. The CCCC was then delivered to half of the Year 10 students at the school with the chief investigator as ‘expert’ facilitator. Following this, all students were given the post-test (T2) to compare those who took part in the CCCC with the half who were wait-listed. Subsequently, this latter group did the course with regular teachers as facilitators and all students were again post-tested (T3) to determine

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the outcomes of the course using different facilitators. Finally, all students completed the fourth survey (T4) after a twelve-week interval. This was undertaken to test Bandura’s (1986) speculation about a possible temporal lag effect. In addition to the survey data, two reflexive accounts were produced. First, the career development ‘expert’ kept a journal of her responses to each lesson. Second, all meetings with the four teachers who conducted the second course delivery were taped and transcribed. The resultant accounts served to outline perceived strengths and weaknesses of the course as well as document suggested modifications. The guidance officers and the secretary of the Jobs Pathway office at the school were also involved in evaluating the course. They were provided with brief pro-formas to complete when a Year 10 student approached them about career-related information to gauge students’ career exploratory behaviour while they were doing the course. Finally, all Year 10 students completed a course evaluation questionnaire providing ratings on interest level, degree of usefulness and effect on career decision-making ability. Students also made written comments about the particular aspects of the lessons they liked and disliked.

Conclusion The CCCC possesses some clear strong points over and above the ad hoc style of course development and implementation that currently typifies career education. First and foremost, it encompasses the sound theoretical basis of Social Cognitive Career Theory. This feature alone gives it some distinct advantages – most notably, the wellestablished, contemporary constructs and processes utilised. Second, the CCCC was developed from a theory–practice perspective. As such, the people who were to be the recipients of the course, along with their parents and the school community, were consulted so that the empirical reality of their particular career education needs was ascertained and given close consideration. Third, the CCCC was developed within an atmosphere of cooperative collaboration between educators1 and researchers2. Consequently, the Career Choice Cycle Course is the product of what many in the field of career development have been calling for, that is a careful process of stakeholders informing theory and theory informing the practice of career education. Indeed, according to Collin and Young (1986), this contextualist approach is the means by which we can ‘open up new ways of thinking regarding career and generate the level of understanding of careers needed in a changing world’ (p. 850).

1

The author acknowledges the contribution of the principal, staff, parents and students.

2

Input from the following people is acknowledged: Professors Peter Creed, Wendy Patton and Juanita Muller.


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3 s e c t i o n

Career programs throughout the lifespan


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7

c h a p t e r

K–12 career education programs: from rhetoric to practice Mary McMahon and John Carroll

At no time in history has the world of work facing young people in schools been more challenging and their futures more uncertain. Corresponding with the significant world of work changes discussed elsewhere in this book, recognition of the value of career guidance, including career education for young people, has been heightened. Indeed, it is viewed as essential for their successful transition to further education, training and employment (MCEETYA, 2000). The relevance and importance of career education in the curriculum has been repeatedly affirmed by its inclusion as one of the agreed national goals of schooling (Australian Education Council, 1989; MCEETYA, 1999). Despite the positive rhetoric espoused in relation to career guidance, many young people are still leaving school with little, if any, career education. This chapter will present a rationale for the inclusion of career education in K–12 school curricula. It will then outline significant national documents that can guide career education practice and describe their application by the authors in the development and implementation of a K–12 career education program.

A rationale for including career education in school curricula Schools are strategically positioned to provide a foundation of understanding about career development to all young people. In an increasingly decentralised labour market where career services are also decentralised, career guidance is not always available or accessible to individuals beyond their schooling years. Schools remain the constant where a foundation in career guidance can be provided through systematic programs of career education to all. Three fundamental issues provide a rationale for conducting comprehensive career education programs in schools. First, career development is a lifelong process and as such may be effectively addressed with all age groups. Second, with or without career education, schools are influential in the lives of young people and it is preferable that the influence is intentional through the provision of career programs. Third, schools are the stepping-off point for all young people to further education, training and employment.


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Lifelong career development It has long been accepted that career development is a lifelong process subject to a myriad of factors (Patton & McMahon, 1999; Super, 1990; Vondracek, Lerner & Schulenberg, 1986). However, career development programs have not traditionally been targeted at people of all ages. For example, in schools, career programs are generally provided for students of school leaving age or those encountering system-imposed decision points such as subject and course selection (McMahon, 1992). Thus, career development programs in schools have traditionally been the domain of secondary schools and little, if any, attention has focused on the career development of children even though career development is an integral part of their personal development (Gottfredson, 1981; McMahon, Gillies & Carroll, 1999). By not introducing career programs until adolescence, valuable opportunities for teachers and schools to influence the naturally occurring process of career development are being missed.

School as an influence on career development School is one of the major social groups to which adolescents belong (Jepsen, 1989) and, as such, is an important influence on their career development. In addition, school is an influence on the career development of primary and preschool-age children who spend a significant amount of their time in school settings. Indeed, an Australian study found that with or without the intervention of school staff, school is an influence on the career development of children and adolescents (McMahon & Patton, 1994; 1997b). Betz (1993) claims that the importance of education to career development cannot be underestimated. For example, career education programs can have a positive effect on young people’s job knowledge, including their understanding of the personal attributes required for job success (Gillies, McMahon & Carroll, 1998). Career development is a naturally occurring and ongoing process and the medium of career education is an ideal vehicle for schools to influence it. Interestingly, the Australian Education Council (1989) describes career education as ‘a deliberate effort to intervene in the developmental process’ (p. 7). The use of appropriate interventions in structured career education programs helps to normalise the developmental process experienced by all students, an outcome that would redress McCowan’s (1996) perception that career education in Queensland ‘is alive and well but is delivered in bursts of disjointed activity at major crisis points rather than developmentally’ (p. 6).

School as preparation for transition to further education, training and employment Increasingly people are being challenged to manage their own careers throughout life. Watts (1997) claims that it is critical that ‘all young people are helped to forge careers, in the broader sense of lifelong progression of learning and work’ (p. 2). Young people

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who have not developed self-management skills are at risk of being left behind in a rapidly evolving world of work. At an international level, several countries have recognised the importance of career activities such as career education and the economic and social benefits that accrue as a result (Krumboltz, 1996; McCowan & Hyndman, 1998). Australia, too, has recognised the importance of career education and, since 1989, career education has been acknowledged as one of the agreed national goals of schooling. It has been recommended that career education be embedded in the learning process throughout the curriculum from kindergarten, through compulsory and post-compulsory schooling into post-school education and training (Australian Education Council Review Committee, 1991). However, the reality in Australia is that, ‘In real terms, and despite intense interest in it, career education has received scant attention in the major curriculum reforms across Australia’ (McCowan & McKenzie, 1997, p. vi). While much has been written in the last decade on career education and its inclusion in the school curriculum (Australian Education Council Review Committee, 1991; McCowan & McKenzie, 1997; McMahon & Patton, 1994; National Board of Employment, Education and Training, 1991), in practical terms few changes have occurred in career education as it is taught in Australian schools. Thus the practice of career education varies from intentional whole-school approaches, to intentional programs for selected groups of students, to unintentional programs where an aspect of career education is taught as part of a key learning area and not recognised as or called career education. Consequently, rather than all students being effectively prepared for their careers beyond school (Hughey & Hughey, 1999), for some, leaving school still means a ‘drop … into this complex world to sink or swim as the case may be’ (Parsons, 1909, p. 4), a sad reflection on almost 100 years of career guidance practice.

Policy guiding practice While little has changed in practice, intense interest over a number of years in preparing students for life beyond school has resulted in the publication of several significant national documents that can guide the development of, and provide coherence to, career education programs (Australian Education Council, 1992; Australian Education Council Review Committee, 1991; Mayer, 1992; National Board of Employment, Education and Training, 1991). Two of these documents, specifically the career education curriculum framework and outcomes developed by the Australian Education Council (1992) and the key competency recommendations of the Mayer Report (Mayer, 1992) have guided the work of the present authors in developing a K–12 career education program (McMahon & Carroll, 1999a, b). Since the work of the present authors began, the same documents have been used to guide the Curriculum Council of Western Australia in integrating career education across the K–12 curriculum (Barrett & Jeffrey, 2000). Following are brief descriptions of both these documents.

K–12 Career Education Programs

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Australian K–12 career education curriculum framework The framework proposed by the Australian Education Council (1992) proposes four key elements, specifically: • learning about self in relation to work • learning about the world of work • learning to make career plans and decisions • implementing career decisions and managing work transitions (Australian Education Council, 1992). In line with career development theory, each element has a different emphasis for students of different age groups, with the latter two elements assuming greater importance and relevance in the last three or four years of secondary schooling. All elements are addressed at each of the year levels K–12, but the outcomes at each year level reflect increasing degrees of maturity and the developmental nature of career education. Different student outcomes are outlined for each element for each age group. This document also includes pointers – performance indicators – that help determine when students have achieved an outcome.

Employment-related key competencies The eight employment-related key competencies identified by the Mayer Report (Mayer, 1992) also informed the development of the present program. They are: • collecting, analysing and organising information • communicating ideas and information • planning and organising activities • working with others and in teams • using mathematical ideas and techniques • solving problems • using technology • cultural understandings. For each of the key competencies there are three performance levels that describe the level of competence developed. These can be used as a basis for assessment and reporting. At a given performance level, applications (activities or tasks) are used to demonstrate that the competency has been successfully achieved. Thus the key competencies of the Mayer Report (Mayer, 1992) are also developmental in nature.

Development of a K–12 career education framework Using the two documents discussed above, the authors developed a framework on which to map the content of their career education program in addition to the competencies addressed by them (see Figure 1). The eight key competencies form the vertical axis of the framework and the four key elements form the horizontal axis. Teachers can readily accept the philosophy behind the framework and can easily incorporate it into their normal teaching program.

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FIGURE 1

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Framework for the development of career education programs

KEY COMPETENCY

ELEMENT Learning about self in relation to work

Learning about the world of work

Learning to make career plans and decisions

Implementing career decisions and managing work transitions

APPLICATIONS Collecting, analysing and organising information Communicating ideas and information Planning and organising activities Working with others and in teams Using mathematical ideas and techniques Solving problems Using technology Cultural understanding

The development of career education programs according to this framework does not have to mean starting over again. In most schools, whether intentionally or unintentionally, some form of career education is occurring. For example, Robinson (1997) found through mapping the school curriculum that career education was occurring in many ways, even though it was not formally included in school documents. In addition, she suggested that mapping a school fostered a collaborative approach by school staff. The framework illustrated in Figure 1 can be used to map what already exists in the school, both in existing career education programs and key learning areas. Once what exists is mapped, it can be used as a base on which to build. Such a framework can map existing programs and identify gaps and overlaps, or can be used to guide the development of new programs. The framework proposed by the authors can also be used to overview the whole school career education program and to guide the preparation of individual lessons as illustrated in Figure 2. Significantly, lessons also indicate key learning areas in which the career lessons may be integrated, as there is evidence in the literature that integration of career education into the curriculum is preferable (McCowan & McKenzie, 1997; Topougis, 1973).


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FIGURE 2

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Lesson two – sample lesson from Year 6 and 7 career education program ELEMENT: LEARNING TO MAKE CAREER PLANS AND DECISIONS

LESSON TITLE

Career decisions – What we found out

OBJECTIVES

• To identify some of the reasons for which people make career decisions • To identify the types of career decisions made by people • To identify the influences and feelings associated with career decisions

TEACHER INFORMATION

Prior to this lesson, maybe at the end of Lesson 1, students will need to be prepared for interviewing their parents or others about career decisions. Each student will need at least two interview sheets – Activity Sheet 1. Students will also need to be reminded to bring their interview sheets to this lesson.

MATERIAL/RESOURCES

Activity Sheet 1 – Career decision interviews

OUTCOMES

Describe post-school work situations that require an individual to make decisions. Describe the key influences on decisions made in work situations in the home and at school.

COMPETENCIES

Collecting, analysing and organising information Performance level 1 Application: collect information using a prepared interview technique Planning and organising activities Performance level 1 Application: arrange a suitable time to conduct an interview Woking with others and in teams Performance level 1 Application: participate in the group production of a chart

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KEY LEARNING AREAS

Society and environment

PROCEDURE

1 Students form small groups and take turns to share the information they have found out in their interviews. 2 In their groups they identify similarities and differences in their research. 3 They then look at their information under the headings influences, feelings, significant times and transfer this to a prepared chart. 4 Each group then posts their chart on the wall. All groups walk around to compare the charts with the one they helped prepare. 5 Debrief. As a whole class discuss the exercise. The following questions could guide the discussion: • What have you noticed about the influences on career decisions? • How many influences have you noticed? • Was this what you would have expected or is it different from what you would have expected? • What influences were you aware of? • What influences are you not aware of? • What did you notice about the range of feelings that people experience when making career decisions? • What feelings have you experienced in previous decisions that you have made? • Which feelings have you not experienced in your decision making? • Are there any times in people’s lives that you have identified when they are more likely to have to make career decisions? • What times are these?



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Figure 3 demonstrates how lessons can be mapped onto the framework. This mapping can clearly show where gaps in the program occur, for example elements of the curriculum or competencies that have not been addressed adequately, or where there are overlaps, for example areas where there is more emphasis than others.

FIGURE 3

Lesson two mapped onto the framework

KEY COMPETENCY

ELEMENT Learning about self in relation to work

Learning about the world of work

Learning to make career plans and decisions

Implementing career decisions and managing work transitions

APPLICATIONS Collecting, analysing and organising information

Year 6 & 7 Lesson 2 Performance level 1 Application: collect information using a prepared interview technique

Communicating ideas and information Planning and organising activities

Year 6 & 7 Lesson 2 Performance level 1 Application: arrange a suitable time to conduct an interview

Working with others and in teams

Year 6 & 7 Lesson 2 Performance level 1 Application: participate in the group production of a chart

Using mathematical ideas and techniques Solving problems Using technology Cultural understandings


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As a result of the learning experiences which occur in career education programs, students are able to demonstrate outcomes related to each of the elements. While the elements recur throughout the year levels, the learning experiences and outcomes are developmental in nature and therefore age appropriate.

Implementing a K–12 career education program Developing the program was only the beginning of a lengthy implementation process conducted over a number of years. While such a protracted time frame may seem tedious, it ensured that a solid foundation was built and that the longevity of the program was assured.

Beginning implementation Essentially two issues were considered in determining where to begin implementation of the program. First, while career education is readily accepted in secondary schools, its integration into the curriculum has been less accepted. Second, career education has not been seen as essential or even desirable in primary school education. As the secondary school curriculum areas are traditionally seen as having defined boundaries, the authors chose to begin in the primary school with the implementation of a K–7 career education program. At the time of writing, the developmental K–12 career education program was operating throughout the school. However, the Years 8–12 program was not yet fully integrated into the curriculum. Responsibility for promoting and supporting the implementation of the career education program was the task of the second author in his role as Director of Career Education at the school. In this capacity, he undertook a multi-faceted role including responsibility for public relations within the school, teacher training and support, and practicalities such as funding and resourcing. It is necessary that career professionals have a sound background in teaching, career development theory, career education, curriculum development and international, national and state trends in education policy.

Public relations The official forum for communication with staff regarding curriculum matters, the monthly staff meeting, was used as a venue to explain the K–12 career education program to ensure all staff within the college were aware of the structure of the program and the process of implementation. In some cases, yearly programs were selfexplanatory, for example Year 10 subject selection program or Year 12 school leavers program, but others were less obvious. In addition, information sessions at senior administration meetings by the second author ensured that other senior staff were aware of the program and understood the rationale. Similarly, presentations at conferences, workshops and citings in a parliamentary report (House of Representatives Standing Committee on Employment, Education and Training, 1997) meant that the program was given widespread credibility.

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Rationale Development of a well-founded rationale made it easier to promote career education to teachers. The three main thrusts of the rationale presented were the school’s philosophy of developmental teaching, the provision of a holistic educational experience for all students and the results of previous research conducted by the first author in the school (McMahon & Patton, 1994, 1997a,b), which indicated that even preschoolers had definite views on career development. As teachers became accepting of the fact that young people do actually consider and talk about career-related topics and events, they more keenly opened their minds to the realities of incorporating career education lessons into their curriculum.

Commitment of the school The total support of the principal and the practical assistance from the primary school head ensured that staff clearly understood that the program was to be an integral part of the primary school curriculum, not an add-on incursion into their teaching time. This top-level support also ensured time was made available for training and planning sessions for all staff and constituted a very strong reason for the success of the program.

Method of integration into the curriculum Before the career education program was begun, a mapping exercise was conducted to establish what the curriculum already covered, what areas of commonality between the academic curriculum and the desired career education curriculum existed, and what skills, competencies and outcomes were expected in subject areas. These findings were compared with the framework being used for the career education program to establish areas of best fit. Some syllabus topics suggested a closer relationship with careers than others, for example a Year 6 social studies unit on ‘Changing times’ and a Year 7 unit on ‘Being Australian’ (with a section on ‘Stereotypes’) lent themselves very naturally to an investigation of career development concepts. In the younger year levels, the surface evidence for the relevance of career education to the syllabus topics was not always as evident, but an investigation of the content covered in each of the syllabus topics presented a different picture. For instance, a unit on space in Year 3 can easily include a study of the types of careers required to put together a space launch and could investigate the skills and personal characteristics of people who might be good at those jobs and the effect of those jobs on their lifestyles. A unit on food in Year 4 can incorporate a visit to a local fast-food outlet and lead to investigations of the range of jobs demonstrated, the requirements for them and how the young people could relate to doing those jobs. The exercise of mapping the curriculum in this way made the teachers more conscious of how their regular lessons could be linked with careers in a realistic way so that students could have their horizons broadened while not losing out on the normal demands of their learning needs. This is an important point as, initially,


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teachers were concerned that they would be doing additional work that would cut into the time available to meet the demands of their work programs. It was fairly quickly and easily established that the career lessons were pursuing the same outcomes as their ‘normal’ lessons, simply using different stimulus material. This was seen as a ‘win-win’ situation for both the teachers and the students and the informal feedback from students indicated there was much interest in the careers lessons.

The place of career education in the curriculum Introducing career education into the school curriculum can be approached in several ways, including discrete units of career education taught by either a career education specialist or a classroom teacher, inclusion of career education in existing programs such as pastoral care, or integration across the curriculum. The approach chosen has implications for teacher inservice and the assessment and reporting of career education. Integration into the curriculum is the preferred approach and the approach adopted by these authors.

Teacher training and support As career education was perceived as something new for which teachers were not trained, they lacked confidence to teach it. One of the key aims of the training was to assure staff that they did not have to become ‘career experts’ to teach the program, as the processes used and the attitudes developed by the students are far more important than any facts obtained about the world of work. In addition to initial training sessions, ongoing sessions for continuing training, ongoing development of lessons and resources, feedback and evaluation sessions were all necessary to ensure the success of the program. Initially, lesson materials developed by the authors were integrated into the curriculum until the teachers had the confidence, time and training to develop their own materials. Figure 4 provides an example of the support materials provided for teachers.

FIGURE 4

Activity sheet to accompany lesson two

ACTIVITY SHEET 1 – CAREER DECISION INTERVIEW Your task in conducting this interview is to interview a parent or other person that you know who has made a decision in relation to their career. The following questions will guide your interview. 1 2 3 4 5 6

In relation to work, what decisions have you had to make? How long did the decision take to make? What influenced you towards the decision you finally made? What influenced you away from other options? Who did you discuss your decision with? What feelings did you experience: • when you first knew that you had to make a decision • during the decision-making process • after you had made your decision? 7 My own question (write down a question that you would like to ask). 8 My own question (write down a question that you would like to ask).

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The level of training and support is a critical element for the continuing success of the program and is one of the strengths of the school’s approach to career education. One professional development afternoon per term in the primary school was allocated to planning, writing and evaluating the career lessons and this time was spent very productively in a positive, collaborative environment. The full support of the careers director was available to all staff members, but was rarely required due to the self-support networks the teachers already had in place.

Practicalities As outlined earlier, the career lessons in the primary school are included in the regular classroom lessons and therefore cost-neutral. No additional staffing was required as training and support was carried out by the careers director as part of his normal duties. Any required funding was met from the careers director’s budget, but, as explained above, this was negligible due to the resourcefulness, ingenuity and professionalism of the teaching staff. The teachers had full access to all career resources available within the school. As the school is technologically very advanced, with every student from Year 5 to 12 having their own notebook computer, use of computers, in the form of the OZJAC program and the Internet, was encouraged. No special budget allocation was needed as teachers developed resources in the same way as they would for any other topics, for example making models, preparing charts, excursions, conducting Internet searches, guest speakers and ‘dress ups’. Some of the familiar resources that have been successfully used in the lessons include the OZJAC program, the DETYA ‘Bullseye’ charts and general posters providing careers stimuli (such as industry/occupation charts).

Monitoring, review and evaluation Ongoing monitoring and review of career education programs is essential to ensure that the program is developmental, teachers’ training needs are identified and met, and that the goals of the program are met. This aspect of implementation is usually the most problematic for a variety of reasons, with the processes of monitoring and reviewing usually easier to achieve than that of evaluation. The overall process of evaluation of the program has been conducted informally and formally within the school at regular intervals. Early in the implementation of the program, a short-term career education program in the upper primary school was conducted as a trial. This was evaluated and reported elsewhere (Gillies, McMahon & Carroll, 1998). The term meetings involving all primary staff provided the opportunity for the monitoring and review of the program, as teachers planned the forthcoming term’s lessons in light of the syllabus, what transpired in the previous term’s lessons and any discussions with the careers director about suitability of topics and outcomes to work towards. These sessions helped to broaden the teachers’ understanding of the wider aims of the careers program and helped to expand the careers content beyond the investigation of what a particular job entails, which is a natural initial approach for non-careers personnel to adopt.


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The implementation in the primary school was successful due to a combination of factors: the support of the senior administration of the school, the relevance of the program to the philosophy of the school, the support for the training and ongoing needs of the teachers, the enthusiasm of the students for the topics and the professionalism and commitment of the teachers. The developmental nature of the career program represents a real strength in that the school espouses and insists on a developmental focus in all aspects of the curriculum from K–12. The fact that the teachers write their own lessons within a prescribed framework and within their ‘normal’ syllabus topics ensures that the language, the nature of the experiences and the ways in which the topics are covered are all appropriate for the particular year level. This has the effect of helping the students to experience careers lessons as a natural part of their learning and allowing their career development to progress in step with their general academic development. It would be unrealistic to claim that the program is as good as it could be, but the consideration of whether the additional time and effort expended would be beneficial to the students needs to be kept in mind. Areas where extra effort could be expended include: • involving parents more intrinsically • developing more formal relationships with employers • extending the mapping exercise to investigate more critically the ways in which the components of the theoretical framework used (the competencies and the elements of the model) can be systematically covered so that students ‘graduate’ from the primary school program with a full complement of ageappropriate career competencies. More effort could also be expended on the ‘level’ of competencies attained – at present it is more a case of ‘attendance’ rather than ‘attainment’ being measured. However, the major purpose is development of positive and ‘natural’ attitudes towards career education and career development so that more focused programs in secondary school become more ‘acceptable’ and meaningful to the students.

Conclusion The program described by the authors in this chapter represents an attempt to move beyond the rhetoric surrounding career education to an intentional program of career education firmly grounded in career development theory and informed by significant national documents developed to guide young people’s paths to employment, education and training beyond school. Constructing a developmental career education program based on a framework that incorporates nationally accepted educational and industry frameworks lends credibility and relevance to meeting the needs of young people moving towards school-leaving age. However, implementation of successful, longlasting, developmental career education programs is clearly a time-consuming process. It involves extensive preliminary work, ongoing maintenance, refinement and development, and comprehensive follow-up work. An essential ingredient of implementing career education programs is the commitment of an appropriately trained career professional.

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8

c h a p t e r

Career development in the postsecondary curriculum Sharon Crozier

Career and employment assistance has been offered to post-secondary students in a variety of forms. Career services in colleges and universities are broad, multi-level, often developmental and therefore not limited to the career counsellor’s office (Dean & Meadows, 1995; Herr & Cramer, 1992). In Canada, as in Australia, career counselling has been offered within counselling units as a specialty of personal counselling as well as within career and employment services offices in conjunction with placement assistance in securing work experience or employment (Crozier, et al., 1999; C. McCowan, personal communication, 22 February 2000). Modes of delivery have included counselling and advising individuals, facilitating a variety of workshops on a wide range of career and employment topics, offering guest lectures in academic programs and writing self-help materials. The Internet provides a variety of career information and offers more interactive career-planning assistance (Sampson, Kolodinsky & Greeno, 1997; Wallace, 1999). Many career counselling and career services offices have moved from a model of individual one-on-one appointments to offering group counselling or psycho-educational career seminars and workshops. Watts et al. (1996) see this as ‘in part theory-driven and in part resource-driven’ (p.130). As Watts and his associates note, this fits with a new mandate for the role of career services as part of the educational framework of a post-secondary institution as well as recognising the limitation of resources available to service the whole student population. Working with students in groups offers the dual benefit of increasing services by multiplying the ratio of counsellor to client contact as well as the benefit of interaction and shared experiences between students. Students often find it difficult to fit in optional career development workshops, seminars, or even individual counselling, due to increased demands from tertiary courses, fulfilling part-time or even full-time employment and, for some, the responsibilities of relationships, parenting and home maintenance. Pena (1997) notes that this is also true for Australian university students stating, ‘If such programs (referring to career development/job preparation programs) are to assist in the transition from university to the workplace, they will need to be acknowledged and encouraged by the university and appropriate credit points allotted’ (p. 34). Course credit is how students have learned to measure and value their education. If a unit is given credit it is given credibility in the eyes of the college or university, the student and employers.


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An alternative method of facilitating career development in post-secondary students is by offering a curriculum-based program for academic credit. The University of Calgary has been offering a credit course, General Studies 305 – Career Management: Optimizing Educational and Occupational Transitions, since 1995. This is a secondyear course open to students from all faculties who have completed at least three fullyear courses. This is a unique course in Canada and one of the longest-running credit courses. Only three other Canadian universities offer credit courses in career planning. Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia offers a similar course, mainly to first-year students, with a co-leading component offered to senior students. The career-planning courses offered at the University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario and Sir Wilfried Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario are offered exclusively within specialised programs. In Australia, the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University has been offering a credit course since 1997 and has expanded from 120 students enrolled in 1997 to 1200 students completing the course in 1999 (Floudiotis, Brooks & Hastings, 1999). The purpose of this chapter is to describe the conceptualisation and conduct of the course at the University of Calgary, with a view to passing on the nature of our experience to assist others planning a similar undertaking.

Conceptualisation of General Studies 305 The profile of post-secondary students changed markedly in the past century. No longer are lecture halls in post-secondary institutions filled with students in their late teens and early twenties coming directly from high school. Increasingly these institutions are accommodating returning adults, for example women who have been raising children, workers needing and wanting to upgrade skills and learning, adults changing career directions and individuals finding themselves unemployed or underemployed (Haskell & Wiener, 1992). Students of all ages and backgrounds generally place a high value on the ‘job preparation’ dimension of post-secondary education (Alexitch, 1994; Haskell & Wiener, 1992; Keierleber & Hansen, 1992). Keierleber and Hansen indicate that ‘adults seek further education primarily for career reasons’ (p. 315). This is not to say that other goals are not also critical, such as learning about life and work, developing a sense of personal satisfaction, solving personal and world problems, sharing knowledge and developing new relationships (Donaldson et al., 1998; Schlossberg, Lynch & Chickering, 1989). Students with clearly defined career goals often are more motivated with their studies and have a higher rate of retention (Shertzer, 1985). One way to understand the career development needs of post-secondary students is to utilise Donald Super’s well-established theory of career development (Super, 1957, 1980; Super, Savickas & Super, 1996). Individuals are seen as progressing through a series of stages with each stage having specific goals and tasks associated with it. In 1980, Super added the concept of recycling. This eliminated rigid age parameters being associated with each of the stages and allowed for adults to return to earlier stages of development when making occupational changes, albeit at a higher level of development than their younger counterparts. As individuals progress through the stages, they increase in their ability to plan, exploratory attitudes, self-understanding, decision-

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making skills, knowledge about the world of work and various other life roles (Super et al., 1996). Most post-secondary students would be in Super’s stage of Exploration, with the younger students entering that stage for the first time while more mature students are recycling into this stage to explore new career directions. A few mature students who are returning to tertiary studies may be in the Establishment phase where they are adding skills and knowledge to expand their options within their current occupational area. The tasks that students in these phases need to accomplish include understanding of self, learning about various educational and occupational options, making decisions and choices, taking action to implement career plans, securing suitable employment or advancement within their career, performing to standard in their studies, volunteer work and employment, and taking personal responsibility for continued professional/career development. Post-secondary students need to learn about their stage of career development, accomplish successfully the tasks of that stage and understand that career management is a process that they will be actively engaged in throughout their life. The Blueprint for Life/Work Designs (Hache, Redekopp & Jarvis, 2000) is a document developed in Canada, adapted from the National Career Development Guidelines. The document outlines the career competencies recommended for school-aged individuals, from early childhood through to grade twelve and a level of career competencies for adults. This document is the result of extensive consultation with career practitioners and stakeholders in the area of career development, including provincial educational departments. This model for understanding the career development needs of individuals throughout their lifetime highlights that adults, including post-secondary students, need to develop the following competencies: • personal management (improve on one’s positive self-image, improve on building positive relationships, develop strategies for responding to change) • learning and work exploration (continue learning that is supportive of life and work goals; locate, interpret, evaluate and use life and work information; understand that societal and economic needs influence the nature and structure of work) • life/work building (improve the ability to seek, obtain, create and maintain work; incorporate reality into life/work decision making; incorporate the ‘balanced life/work’ issue in life/work building; understand and overcome stereotypes; manage one’s life/work building process (Hache, Redekopp & Jarvis, 2000). Career practitioners are faced with the complex task of facilitating students’ career development during their time in post-secondary education. Zunker (1994) noted that this ‘points out the importance of and need for an effective career guidance program’ in post-secondary institutions (p. 243). The rationale, presented by Cammaert, Crozier and Lalande (1994) for offering a credit course to the Dean’s Council at the University of Calgary was as follows:

Career Development in the Post-secondary Curriculum

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The knowledge and application of principles of career development and transition are essential for university students in planning their careers and in charting their possible future employment. Career planning is complex and it is unclear to many students how academic majors and occupations relate. Feedback from University of Calgary students in the ‘Faculty of General Studies Survey of Graduates’ and the ‘University of Calgary Student Exit Survey’ indicates a strong need and desire for better academic and career information to assist them in their planning and making the transition into the workplace.

Design and development The outline for the content for General Studies 305 was initially developed by a committee of three university professionals – the Career Development Coordinator from Counselling who would be the future instructor of the course, another content expert from the academic staff and the Associate Dean of General Studies in charge of student affairs. Although counsellors at the University of Calgary do hold academic rank they are not considered part of the teaching staff of the university, therefore it was deemed important to include another teaching professional and the Associate Dean to make sure that academic rigour was upheld during the course development phase. Also in recognition of the multi-disciplinary nature of career development, and the faculty that sponsors this course, it was important to have input from various perspectives. The design of the course involves students exploring both the theoretical and practical aspects of career development, higher education and transitions, from a multi-disciplinary perspective. An understanding of major career development theories provides a basis for self-analysis, educational/occupational assessment and decision making. Students develop an understanding of the process of critical thinking and are able to apply such skills to their career decision making. The role and philosophy of higher education is reviewed in the context of career decision making. Transition theory is examined and applied to the transitions that students face in coming to university and going out to work. Including theory was a critical component in having the course recognised for academic credit and presenting it as more than just an expanded careerplanning or job search workshop. The overall purpose of the course is to provide students with both a theoretical understanding of, and the skills necessary for, managing career transitions throughout their lifetime. The target group for the course was initially students who had completed their first year of university. A major group that was to be served by the course were students planning on entering a work experience program that admitted only students in at least their second year of studies. Interestingly, a large number of students taking the course have been in their final year of education (39 per cent) with even a few post-degree students (10 per cent) and the remainder in second or third year (51 per cent). The course is accepted as an elective by all faculties within the university. The majority of students who have taken the course over the past six years have been from the Faculty of General Studies (41 per cent) with a number from the Liberal Arts faculties such as

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Social Sciences and Humanities (28 per cent). In addition, a variety of students from other faculties such as Management, Science, Kinesiology, Education, Engineering, Nursing and Fine Arts (31 per cent) have also participated in the course. The course is offered once each year, with a maximum of forty students accepted in the class. This number of students was set to encourage extensive class participation and interaction with the instructor and to keep the assessment load on the instructor reasonable. The course is offered two hours twice each week over a thirteen-week semester with approximately one hour allotted to lecture and one hour for tutorial exercises, although this is dealt with very flexibly. A senior counsellor instructs the course through a secondment from the counselling service and a special financing arrangement. The course has been listed in the university calendar since its successful pilot year, in 1995. Students learn of the course through reviewing the calendar, advice from student and academic course advisers in each faculty, counsellors and other student affairs staff members, or from fellow students who have taken the course previously. The latter is probably the strongest source of students entering the course.

Implementing a career-planning course for academic credit Although General Studies 305 is now accepted as a routine offering at the university, it was not a smooth or direct path to having this course accepted for academic credit. Many attempts were made, in various forms, to have a career development course offered for credit. These included courses developed in conjunction with the library, quarter courses on problem solving and career development and a course offered as part of a first-year experience program that included various components on university life and academic success and involved a career-planning element. Proposals to have academic credit for each of these courses were unsuccessful. David (1988) and Levitz (1989) give the following suggestions for obtaining academic credit for student services courses. The University of Calgary’s experience is offered as an example. 1 Seek grassroots support, involve people from various disciplines both from administration and academics, volunteer to organise a task force, work with critics early in the process and include people who can move the process forwards. In 1993–94 the Associate Vice-President of Student Affairs formed a committee to review the feasibility of offering such a course for academic credit. Committee members were chosen strategically to include academics who offer components of career development in psychology or educational psychology programs, the Associate Dean of General Studies (the faculty where it was hoped to base the course) and strong supporters from counselling and cooperative education. This committee involved both people who might be critics of the course as well as strong individuals who could move the course through the necessary channels to receive academic credit. 2 Become the resident expert in the area in which you are seeking academic credit.


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The Counselling Service had an excellent and long-standing reputation for offering both the Career/Life Planning module series and outreach programs in career planning and job search to numerous faculties across campus. The author was known on campus as well as nationally as a career development expert. In addition, she had an academic appointment that assisted in establishing the credibility of the instructor. 3 Write a purpose statement and refer to it often in communication about the course. One of the first tasks of the University of Calgary committee was to write a course description, a rationale and strategies for success. These then were used frequently in further presentations regarding the offering of this course. 4 First offer the course as a pilot. This is often more acceptable than requesting full support of a program that is untested. After a successful pilot, as experienced at the University of Calgary, it was subsequently quite easy to present the course for full academic credit. Two other factors added to the success of the course. These included a very supportive university president for the whole area of career development, both for students and staff, and a very successful program offered to unemployed alumni in the same year as the pilot of the course.

Program content and key resources Specifically, three major topics are focused on in the course.

Career development Students develop an understanding of major career theories and apply the concepts of these theories to their own career development process, completing a thorough selfanalysis, researching educational/occupational alternatives, applying decision-making theory to their career decisions and developing communication skills specifically in the area of résumé construction and effective interviewing. Components on using the Internet as a resource and as a tool for job search have been included.

Higher education Students review the historical and philosophical bases of higher education, understand the role of a university and consider various methods of inquiry and study. This background assists students in choosing appropriate educational programs and designing programs that will meet their career objectives.

Transition Students develop an understanding of theories and models of transition and are able to apply these to their own life transitions, specifically focusing on transitions in and out of university. The University of Calgary course is an interdisciplinary course drawing from psychology, sociology, economics, management, education and history. Presenters include lecturers from various faculties, representatives from the alumni presenting their career paths both as employees and entrepreneurs, and human resources

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professionals discussing recruitment from the employers’ perspective. Theory is embedded throughout the course and supplemented by a book of readings composed of chapters from major career-planning texts and up-to-date articles. In the practical component of the course, students participate in experiential exercises and classroom discussions, complete standardised career inventories, visit an on-campus career resource centre and computer laboratory to explore the Internet and complete assignments. A series of workbooks developed specifically for the career-planning process of post-secondary students is utilised throughout the course. Students are evaluated on class participation (10 per cent), three major assignments (80 per cent) and a take-home final exam (10 per cent). A self-assessment paper (30 per cent) is the first assignment and includes a synthesis of career theory and personal self-examination, illustrating the student’s sense of self as it relates to his or her educational or occupational goals. The second major assignment is a career choice paper (30 per cent) which has two main components: a thorough research report on an educational program or occupation that the student is considering entering, followed by an analysis of the suitability of the program or occupation according to his or her personal profile that was developed in the first paper. The final assignment is a twopage résumé with covering letter (20 per cent) targeted to a potential position the student would apply for, which could be either summer, full-time or contract employment. The take-home final exam generally involves answering approximately three questions that focus on the content covered near the end of the course such as interviewing and job search, or on an integration of the course content.

Course evaluation and future development When the course was first piloted it received extensive evaluation by an external evaluator. Students not only completed the customary faculty course evaluation but also a specialised, more comprehensive evaluation form. Two small in-depth focus groups were conducted with a qualitative analysis completed on that data. The course received an excellent evaluation during the pilot that greatly assisted in its subsequent acceptance as a continued offering for credit. The course evaluations have been consistently very positive for both the course and the instructor. On a new university-wide course evaluation system, overall instruction was rated as 6.33 on a 7-point scale. On eleven other measures, including items on course content, instruction and student evaluation, ratings were consistently above 6 on a 7point scale with only support materials being rated at 5.9. Overall students have tended to enjoy the practical component of the course more than the theory component. In written comments, students continue to give high praise to the Career/Life Planning module series but unfortunately find the book of readings, focusing on theory, somewhat dry and difficult to process. Finally, some students have found the assignments challenging, commenting on the amount of writing required and finding the marking strict. This has not been viewed as a negative by the faculty but rather an indication of the maintenance of high academic standards. Some standard comments on student evaluations are, ‘This rates as one of the top three courses I have ever taken’, ‘I strongly


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recommend this course to anyone who is at the university’, ‘Overall, an excellent course that is needed’ and ‘This course should be mandatory for all university students’. For the instructor the course offers both positive and challenging dimensions. Instruction is a different way of offering services to students and provides variety to the activities of a career counsellor. Students are seen over a full semester, which facilitates the development of relationships and connections not found in shorter workshops. Possibly because of the grading component, students are very concerned with the course material and generally strive to do their best. There is a commitment to their own career development sometimes not found when students are attending a non-credit workshop. Teaching invites and challenges the instructor to keep up with new developments in the field of career development as well as with ongoing review of course material and teaching methods to keep students engaged in the learning process. One of the most challenging aspects involves evaluating students. Coming from a student affairs/ counselling perspective, one does not often need to deal with the thorny issue of evaluation, at least not as the assessor. Marking is time-consuming and it takes ongoing effort to be clear with students about expectations and requirements for achieving high grades. Students are very aware of the need for high grade point averages to be successful for admission into faculties, post-graduate studies and for employment positions. The pressure is sometimes great to adjust marks to satisfy other needs of students and the instructor must be clear on his or her role as evaluator in comparison with the role of counsellor. Grammar and writing level in written assessments always affects the grading decision but instructors must strive to maintain standards that the student will need to meet in the world of work. The instructor has determined that written assessments are the best way to assess higher level skills of integration of theory with the practical component, research and covering letter and résumé writing. However, this type of assignment is time-consuming for both the students and the instructor and probably is a limitation on the number of students who can access the course. Other methods of assessment such as multiple choice tests would allow easier marking but not the depth of understanding or development in students. This course has been offered successfully now for six years and it is sometimes difficult to tamper with success. Plans are being considered to develop this course for first year students. There is often an interest expressed by first year students, particularly those who are undecided about a major, in having a credit course available to assist with this decision. Given that the overall Career Development program at the University of Calgary has a developmental underpinning, viewing student career planning as a stepwise process, this would be an appropriate next step. In addition, a module focusing on choosing a major is already developed and has been used very successfully in noncredit workshops for this target group. An intriguing future development may include offering part of the course on-line as a precursor to presenting the full course on-line. An interactive web site has been developed at the University of Calgary focusing on résumé writing, interviewing and job search for work experience students (see chapter nine). It would be interesting to test out the use of part of this web site as an alternative method of teaching this

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material. The links that it offers to the Internet, as well as numerous audio and video clips, offer an extension to regular classroom instruction.

Conclusion Achieving academic credit for a career-planning course at the post-secondary level is not a simple task but a very worthwhile one. It offers the instructor both challenges and bonuses as many students express the value of this course, during and many years after having taken the class. It is most rewarding to hear about the exciting careers and contributions that students are making and feel that one has played a small part in their success. In addition, offering a credit course gives both career development and a counselling or careers service the credibility and visibility it deserves within a post-secondary institution. Offering a career development credit course contributes to the higher purpose of education, as expressed by Krishnamurti (an Indian philosopher): And should not education help you find out what you really love to do so that from the beginning to the end of your life you are working at something which feels worthwhile and which for you has deep significance (1989, p.16).


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9

c h a p t e r

An on-line job search workshop for post-secondary students Vivian Lalande and Sharon Crozier

Many young people have difficulty finding employment in their chosen field after graduation from post-secondary institutions. Acquiring industry training and experience during educational programs facilitates the transition from student to worker. Work experience programs, such as cooperative education, internship programs and practicum placements allow students to alternate work placements and academic terms, thereby increasing their employability. Students also acquire self-knowledge and knowledge of the world of work and these insights facilitate lifelong career decisions. Association with industry in these kinds of programs provides updated information from industry to post-secondary institutions, so the learning curriculum can be continually adapted to meet current labour market needs. The application process for work experience positions is a highly competitive process for post-secondary students. Students require new career development initiatives that support and enhance their ability to acquire these positions, as well as provide the knowledge and skills to find meaningful work upon graduation. This chapter describes the development of an on-line workshop designed to assist students in this process. At the University of Calgary, second and third year students can apply to enter cooperative education or internship programs. In cooperative education programs academic terms alternate with four-month paid work terms, while internship programs involve an academic term before and after a twelve- or sixteen-month paid work term. The University of Calgary Counselling and Student Development Centre developed an innovative career development program, titled ‘Career development workshop for prospective co-op and intern students’ (Crozier & Lalande, 1995). This twelve-hour workshop was designed to prepare students to acquire work experience positions through the acquisition of skills and knowledge in self-assessment, occupational research, résumé preparation, interview strategies and job search techniques. Students were required to participate in this workshop prior to applying for admission to the co-op and intern program. The workshop was offered at various times in the year with one facilitator to fifty students in each session. Approximately 600 students attended this workshop each year. Although the workshop received positive evaluations, various indicators pointed to the need to offer it differently. The co-op and intern program continued to grow and the number of students required to attend this workshop increased. It was anticipated that the increasing demand for classroom space and counsellor time would be difficult to meet. Students found scheduling twelve hours into their very busy timetables during


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terms difficult. Students who transferred to the University of Calgary from other postsecondary institutions did not have the opportunity to participate in this required workshop until they were enrolled at the university. With funding from Alberta Advanced Education, the program was revised into a course-based format to be delivered via the Internet. This new program, ‘Ex-Scape: experience student and placement education’ is the product of a collaborative project involving a total of four post-secondary institutions. Redevelopment of this program for on-line delivery was undertaken to achieve the following goals. Provision of the workshop on-line increases students’ accessibility to the program to include access at any time during the day and from locations both on- and off-campus. It also reduces the demand for classroom space. Collaborative program development provides a broader range of resources relevant to students. The web site provides information to students to help them make realistic decisions about whether or not to apply for workbased experiential learning programs and co-op and intern programs. Students can acquire knowledge about available educational programs that assist them in future decisions about preferred fields and places of study. The web site is one step towards improved support services for learners, facilitating a more integrated and easily accessible system of adult learning.

Development of an on-line career workshop Development of any psycho-educational course generally involves the choice of relevant, high-quality information as well as designing a positive learning environment. The development of ‘Ex-Scape’ involved both of these processes, that is curriculum development and a learner-centred on-line environment.

Curriculum development The basis of the content of the web site course is the curriculum of the original twelvehour, in-person ‘Career development workshop for prospective co-op and intern students’. This in-person workshop was developed out of the series of Career/Life Planning modules utilised at the University of Calgary Counselling and Student Development Centre (Crozier, 1994). These modules are based on career development theory relevant to the needs and tasks typical of post-secondary students. Predominantly, Super’s theory (1957, 1980, 1990) was utilised because it allows for the provision of a comprehensive, integrated and innovative program that can serve the diverse needs of an adult student population. Career development is conceptualised by Super as developing one’s self-concept through a process of synthesis and compromise. In the workshop, students develop a better self-awareness and apply this self-knowledge to career decision making and the job search process. A variety of materials and exercises are completed by students for assessment of their skills, values and analysing past experiences. Super’s theory also identifies a number of career stages, each of which has particular goals and tasks to achieve. Many post-secondary students are in the exploration stage in which the goals are to choose a satisfactory occupational field and make a successful transition to the

An On-line Job Search Workshop

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workplace. Participation in the workshop helps students achieve the tasks of the exploration stage: increasing self-knowledge and labour market knowledge and making career decisions, and developing effective résumés, interview skills and job search strategies. Completion of these tasks contributes to their successful participation in education and work experiences that prepare them to enter future occupations. Other theories that were used in the development of the Career/Life Planning modules include Holland’s (1973) personality typology theory and the theories of cognitive development of Perry (1970) and Belenky et al. (1986). Holland’s theory links personality characteristics with occupations. Students consider their Holland themes so they can increase their self-knowledge to determine short- and long-term career goals and better describe themselves to potential employers. Cognitive development theory is applied as students are encouraged to take responsibility for their own decisions. Guidelines are provided for résumé writing, interviewing and job search strategies. Various samples of résumés, cover letters and answers to interview questions are highlighted along with the advantages and disadvantages for each option. Students are then encouraged to use this information to make their decisions about the appropriate strategies to use as they prepare for the job search. The curriculum of the original ‘Career development workshop for prospective co-op and intern students’ was revised and updated as the basis for ‘Ex-Scape’. Content experts at each of the four post-secondary institutions who participated in the project critiqued and offered suggestions for content revisions to develop the final design of the web site. The content of the web-based course allows students to complete forms for self-assessment of values, skills, working conditions, past experiences and interests. A ‘personal profile’ is provided that automatically summarises each student’s self-assessment information along with examples of how each quality has been demonstrated previously by the student in his or her life. The career research section includes opportunities for researching printed material, accessing on-line resources and conducting experiential research. There are guidelines on how to write an excellent résumé and cover letter with relevant examples for various post-secondary programs. Information on developing résumés suitable for scanning and submitting to employers on-line is also included. The web-based course deals with how to develop and utilise a portfolio. Strategies for effective interviewing are outlined along with sample interview questions. Video segments model students dealing successfully with various interview situations and questions. Strategies for conducting a successful job search are reviewed with an emphasis on networking.

Building an effective learning environment on-line Career development resources on the Internet are becoming increasingly popular. The Internet is currently providing career information, career assessment and testing, career decision-making models and job and résumé postings. However, there have been no reports of career workshops offered on-line. Although there is no evidence that the provision of psycho-educational or self-help services on the Internet is effective. Such a provision has been identified as one of many options for service delivery that some clients may prefer (Rabasca, 2000).

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Technology, including computer-mediated instruction, has long been utilised in the delivery of credit courses and instructors have access to a variety of resources to guide the development and implementation of this type of instruction (Rutherford & Grana, 1995). Psycho-educational workshops are task-oriented groups designed to promote the development of human potential (Authier, 1977). Although psycho-educational workshops utilise instructional methods similar to those utilised in a credit course, participants use more self-assessment and reflection methods to increase self-awareness. Because there are no reports available from other on-line workshops to draw on, the experiences and recommendations from experts who had developed computer-based instruction was utilised in the development of ‘Ex-Scape’ (Szabo, 1995). In collaboration with the technical experts at the Department of Advanced Media for Learning at the University of Calgary, a profile of the target audience was developed. It was determined that the final program would be used by students at computers in computer laboratories on campus, at home or at the workplace. The student population is very heterogeneous, including young and older adults from many different cultural backgrounds, a variety of motivation levels and learning styles and differing levels of comfort with technology. For this diverse audience, the web-based course needed to be compatible with a number of hardware and software configurations. It also needed to provide access to technological training and timely assistance. In addition, a variety of motivational tools combined with instruction suited to a number of learning styles were important. A number of features are included in the site to meet these needs and facilitate the learning and skill development goals of the curriculum. The site has an engaging storyline or metaphor to increase the students’ motivation. A graphic artist provided five mock-ups for possible themes and these were presented to focus groups of students at each of the four post-secondary institutions. These students chose the theme utilised in animations and the appearance of the site that is based on the popular Canadian game ‘You don’t know Jack’. As a result the site has been described as the ‘site with an attitude’. Two animated guides named ‘Spider’ and ‘Ruby’, who introduce the major topics with humour and sarcasm, develop into more respectable job candidates as the course progresses. There are also over 200 audio clips presenting tips from job recruiters and students who have had work experience placements. Nine video segments were produced with the use of student actors and a student scriptwriter. These videos demonstrate parts of job interviews. The use of multimedia heightens the students’ interest in the program and also meets the different learning styles by appealing to those who prefer audio or visual access to information, rather than just reading text. The audio components are transcribed to facilitate access to the information if sound is not available on some computers or if the students are hearing impaired. The site is highly interactive, promoting active involvement of the students. Students are able to complete self-assessments on-line. Sample job advertisements are provided and utilised in developing a résumé and cover letter. Students construct each segment of their résumé after they finish a section of instruction and review relevant examples. Once they have completed the résumé sections, this material can be recalled, formatted in their word-processing package and forwarded to the course leader for critiquing.


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Marked assessments and critiqued résumés or cover letters can be returned to the students on-line. There is an internal email system and bulletin board available for questions and discussion with the course leader and other students. Real-time discussions are possible with a chat-room feature. Specialised offerings, such as inviting employers to participate in the discussions in the chat-room, can be organised. The program offers accessibility and flexibility to students in that they can work on it any time of the day or night. They can move around in the program according to their interest and many links are provided between topics within the site and between the site and other external web sites. Students are provided with instant access to the many high-quality career information resources that are currently available on-line. WebCT, an on-line course development and delivery tool, was chosen as the infrastructure used to build these features and meet the needs of the target group (available at http://www.webct.com/). The development team constructed a detailed storyboard representing a flowchart of the web site. This was utilised to determine the location of each topic and content, as well as the desired links between these topics. The site was then constructed with an excellent team of web site developers and media consultants. Each component was produced, tested and revised as the components were integrated into a functional learning environment in cyberspace.

Implementing ‘Ex-Scape’ The utilisation of computer-mediated learning to offer a career development workshop involves different roles, practices and attitudes for both the learner and the facilitator (Burge, 1998; Rutherford & Grana, 1995). The five main components of a course identified by Burge were considered in terms of the implementation of this program. These are administration, delivery, interactivity, resources and assessment. Issues regarding staff acceptance of this innovative program and training were also considered.

Administration Although ‘Ex-Scape’ has value as a self-help resource, it has primarily been offered as a workshop or credit course that is a prerequisite for a work experience placement. Students are required to register and complete the course as part of a class with a course leader. The size of the class depends on the availability of computer equipment, the expected level of interactivity and the nature of any in-person sessions required as part of the program. The length of the program can vary depending on the availability of the course leader, the time students have to work on the course and the level of background and work experience students bring. We have offered the course to classes of up to sixty students with the time for completion ranging from four weeks to a full four-month semester. Once students have registered and have been assigned log-in names and passwords, a class list is available on-line. Berge (1998) notes the importance of putting a syllabus, class list (with email addresses), the schedule of assignments and upcoming events on-line. The ‘Ex-Scape’ home page includes buttons and links for these materials and also has information

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regarding accessing technical assistance or training. The success of technology-assisted learning depends on the technological skills of the students. Fortunately, post-secondary institutions provide easily accessible training, assistance and trouble shooting to students.

Delivery Effective technology-assisted learning involves a combination of delivery methods, including in-person sessions (Berge, 1998; Eastmond & Ziegahn, 1995). ‘Ex-Scape’ has been offered in a number of ways including: • students meeting regularly to work on the program in a computer lab with an instructor who facilitates discussions in class • students working on the program primarily on their own, but meeting regularly with the instructor for structured discussion • the availability of an in-person, orientation session at the beginning of the course and another three-hour in-person session at the end of the course, after the students have completed the on-line program. The inclusion of in-person sessions provides the opportunity for a number of activities. An initial orientation involves students quickly, allows students to meet each other and ensures everyone can get on-line. Additional in-person sessions allow the course leader to increase learning and skill development through activities such as experiential exercises, panels of employers, résumé critiquing and mock interviews.

Interactivity Effective learning requires the student to participate in the learning process and interact with the instructional interventions (Wagner, 1994). Interaction occurs with the course content, the course leader, other students and other resources. As described earlier, a variety of interactive forms, links and multimedia allow students to interact with the course content and self-manage their learning. The challenge for the course leader in a computer-mediated environment is to produce productive interaction between all the participants. Technological innovations have eliminated issues of time and access to on-line discussions. Real-time chat-rooms and bulletin boards offer a means to conduct structured group discussions, project work and informal conversations. Questions to the course leader can be directed and responded to through email. The challenge that remains is using text rather than voice as the mode of communication (Eastmond, 1992). Effective utilisation of text-based interaction in ‘Ex-Scape’ involved practice and the development of a new instructor role. Fortunately, there are many resources that course leaders can turn to for suggestions in working in this different medium. For example Eastmond (1995) considers how to effectively utilise computer conferencing in distance education. Strategies and instructional procedures that facilitate computermediated communication are also discussed by Romiszowski and de Haas (1989) and Nalley (1995). Through experience, information and assistance, course leaders become more confident and effective in communicating and facilitating student growth and learning in the on-line environment.


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Resources Some of the resources identified by Berge (1998) as important to the delivery of a computer-assisted program include hard copies of materials, computer laboratories, links to discipline-specific web sites, library materials and on-line examples/written products. A printed copy of ‘Ex-Scape’ is not provided as an option for students, as the developers thought this would detract from students directly accessing and interacting with the web site. If students choose, they can print parts of the program for their use. Students also have access to the site and their previous work on the site until they leave the post-secondary institution. This gives students the opportunity to continually access the information, their self-assessments and written products. They can revise and utilise this material in preparation for future job search activities. ‘Ex-Scape’ includes information about the libraries, computer laboratories, volunteer centres and career resource centres available in the students’ geographic location. Links are also provided to on-line career information sites as well as sites providing specific information about particular fields, occupations and companies. Each post-secondary institution has examples of résumé sections, complete résumés and cover letters. Samples and relevant skills are also provided for specific fields of study.

Assessment Included in the curriculum are a number of competency-based assessments. There are knowledge-based assessments for each of the following topics: résumé writing, cover letter and interviews. These tests are at the end of the relevant sections of the site and consist of multiple choice, true/false and open-ended questions. There are also corresponding skill-based evaluations of the quality of résumés and cover letters, as well as the assessment of a mock interview, via students’ submission of a videotape. These assessments can be completed by students if they want to determine whether they have acquired the skills and knowledge taught in the program. The assessments can also be utilised by an instructor as formal tests if the program is offered as a credit course. With the exception of the mock interview videotape, the assessments are completed on-line and emailed to the marker who can mark and return the corrected assessment to the student by email. In addition to the on-line assessment tools, the course leader can also track each student’s progress through ‘Ex-Scape’. A record can be kept of which web pages are accessed, the number of times each web page is visited and the level of activity on the bulletin board. If a student is inactive, the course leader can identify the issue and communicate with the student to determine if there are any problems. There is also an on-line class record on which the instructor can record the assignments or tests that are completed and marked for each student, along with the grades.

Promotion and staffing of ‘Ex-Scape’ Acceptance of this new and innovative program by staff was facilitated by the general agreement that a change was needed in the old program and by the involvement of staff in the development process. Staff were recognising the need for redevelopment of the program with the impending lack of space and counsellors to offer the résumé, interview and job search preparation in a traditional classroom environment. Staff

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recognised the importance of high-quality information and preparation for their students to acquire work experience positions. As a result of budget cuts, there was less time and fewer resources to include this in their curriculum. The need to consider innovative redevelopment of the existing programs was great and set a context for the acceptance of ‘Ex-Scape’ by staff. From the beginning, many staff were involved in the development of this program and this also contributed to their sense of enthusiasm for it. Instructors, administrators, career advisers and career counsellors at each of the post-secondary institutions were consulted. The field-specific information and résumé examples were provided by content area specialists. Development updates were offered regularly. Although this meant a large amount of time was devoted to meetings, the staff have a greater sense of ownership and acceptance of the final product, which is of a higher quality because of their involvement. Training sessions for staff who teach or facilitate the site involve instruction methods and administrative procedures. Once the staff have been introduced to the program and the many features, it is beneficial to provide time to use and become more familiar with ‘Ex-Scape’. Resource files have been developed for instruction and intervention methods for particular aspects of the program such as in-person sessions, organising and running chat-rooms and administrative functions.

The effectiveness of a job search workshop on-line Evaluation of career development programs has been identified as a critical component of program design and delivery (Flynn, 1994; Hutchinson, 1994). Burge and Roberts (1993) discuss the difficulties and procedures involved in designing a course that effectively integrates multimedia technologies. Once a course has been designed using technologies, a means to acquire informal and formal feedback is critical to ensure learning is occurring and to direct redevelopment of the program, particularly in the formative stages. Collins and Berge (1995) encourage the use of summative evaluations to provide student feedback on the effectiveness of computer-mediated learning. At the end of the web site, students are asked to complete two evaluation forms online. One evaluation form asks students to rate the degree to which they believe that each of the learning objectives was achieved. The other form asks students to rate their satisfaction with various aspects of the course delivery method. This feedback on both the content and the process of the workshop is continually collected to inform decisions about future revisions to improve the program. A formal evaluation is currently underway to determine the answers to the following questions. • Have the students who complete ‘Ex-Scape’ improved their understanding of and skills for writing résumés, writing a cover letter and participating in a job interview? • Do the students who complete ‘Ex-Scape’ do as well or better in the skill and knowledge outcomes as those students who complete the program offered in the original twelve-hour in-person career development workshop for prospective co-op and intern students?


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• Is the computer-based component of ‘Ex-Scape’ an effective learning medium? • Is ‘Ex-Scape’ meeting the needs of the course leaders and the administrators of the programs who place students in work-based experiential learning opportunities? Students who participated in the original in-person workshop and students who participated in the ‘Ex-Scape’ program at the University of Calgary will be compared on a number of measures: • knowledge assessments completed before and after the program • quality of their résumés before and after the program • quality of performance in mock interviews conducted after the program • themes and issues discussed in focus groups. Students at each of the three other post-secondary institutions who participate in ‘Ex-Scape’ will also be compared on the same measures. All of the ‘Ex-Scape’ participants will complete two questionnaires presented at the end of the web site. The administrators and instructors also will be invited to participate in focus groups once the programs have been completed. Informal evaluation occurs continually as students and instructors provide feedback about their experiences with ‘Ex-Scape’. This provides information about issues or problems requiring minor revisions to the web site or changes in instructional procedures. Overall, the informal feedback is positive. Student reports indicate the program is relevant and entertaining.

Future developments The results of the formal program evaluation along with informal feedback will direct future revisions of ‘Ex-Scape’ in terms of both the content and the delivery methods. As much of the program material is relevant for students who seek summer or fulltime work, the program will be adapted for these purposes. There is also discussion about the desirability of the program operating in modules so students and course leaders can choose to complete relevant components. As other post-secondary institutions utilise ‘Ex-Scape’ with their students, the program will need revisions to include additional field-specific samples and information. The delivery and administration of ‘Ex-Scape’ will need continual refinement. The balance and timing of in-person sessions with computer-mediated learning needs to be better understood in terms of learner characteristics such as learning style, motivation and prior learning. This evaluation and redevelopment process will continue to ensure the program is of high quality, providing a satisfying learning experience for students and the attainment of the specified learning objectives. With experience and additional information from evaluation of this program, combined with research results from other similar programs, the offering of future computer-mediated workshops will become a valued and effective option for both clients and practitioners.

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10 c h a p t e r

Career development within organisational programs Sandy Santic

Literature on organisational career development and career development programs has increasingly focused on career development frameworks and key issues relevant to career development programs in organisations. These issues include the following: • Clarifying separate individual, management and organisational responsibilities. Career development responsibility is frequently described as a partnership between employees and the organisation. Although the shift in the last decade has been towards greater employee responsibility, Armstrong (1992), Griffith (1998) and Monk (1996) clearly outline the separate responsibilities of organisations and employees. Due to these changing career responsibilities and to eliminate unrealistic employee expectations of the organisation, it is imperative that employees and the organisation share the same understanding of career development responsibility. • Integration of career development with human resource initiatives and the importance of executive management involvement. There is an overwhelming view that career development systems need to be integrated with other human resource processes if employee participation in career development programs is to be meaningful (Armstrong, 1992; Kaye & Leibowitz, 1994; Overman, 1993; Young, 1996). Similarly, executive management support and involvement is seen as a critical element in the success of the program. • Evaluation of the career development program. Although the value of evaluating career development programs has received some attention in the literature (e.g. Gutteridge, Leibowitz & Shore, 1993a; Kaye & Leibowitz, 1994; Russell, 1991), research evaluating the effectiveness of career systems or interventions has been sparse. The evaluations that are reported draw on informal verbal feedback methodology. Career development programs can benefit the organisation as well as the individual in different ways (Hutton, 1996; Simonsen, 1997). The suggested benefits range from financial, productivity and performance, to motivated employees and creating a better ‘fit’ between employee and the organisation by ensuring there is goal alignment. With the social, economic, technological and ongoing organisational changes, and in light of the benefits that can be obtained through career development programs, there has been increased attention given to organisational career development programs.


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Despite the abundance of literature outlining the value of such programs (Armstrong, 1992; Gutteridge, Leibowitz & Shore 1993a; Gutteridge, Leibowitz & Shore 1993b; Kaye & Leibowitz, 1994; Monk, 1996; O’Herron & Simonsen, 1995; Tucker & Moravec, 1992), there is a scarcity of documented comprehensive career development programs in organisations, particularly in Australia. This chapter outlines the development and implementation of a career development program within a large public sector department.

Background When the concept of career development was first introduced in the organisation, the challenge was to deliver a program that considered the needs of employees and of the organisation. Following an extensive consultation process, recommendations were presented to and endorsed by the executive board. Progress to date has included the distribution of the Career Development Brochure, the development of the career development process, workbook and workshops, the development and implementation of additional career development resources and commencement of the evaluation strategy. In September 1997, the organisation, through its Enterprise Bargaining Agreement and Strategic Plan 1998–2002, committed to providing its employees with a career development program. This was seen as a strategy to achieve a ‘better organisation’ by supporting and encouraging employees to develop and pursue a learning culture. In order to provide recommendations on an appropriate career development program for the Department, a comprehensive research and consultation strategy was implemented. This involved group and individual interviews with a wide range of internal staff and consultations with external private and public sector organisations. A literature review was also conducted on the current trends in organisations regarding career development. The findings were compiled in a report, which was distributed to the senior and executive management for the final stage of consultation. Minor changes were made and the report was submitted for endorsement of the recommendations to an executive board. Seventeen recommendations were endorsed in principle. The key relevant recommendations follow. First, executive and senior management would actively promote and endorse a career development program. Second, current and future human resources, for example performance management systems, workforce planning, recruitment and selection processes, the induction program, corporate capabilities, equal employment opportunity initiatives and learning organisation framework, would be integrated or linked to the career development program. Third, a workbook would be developed that included: • self-assessment tools for employees • tools that guide employees through a goal-setting process • explanations of the different options for learning • job-searching approaches

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• information on the systems available to support employees, for example the public service study and research assistance scheme • how to build particular skills, for example marketing, application writing, interview skills • clarification of the different roles of all the players in career development • information on what activities can contribute towards career development. Fourth, a mentoring program would be developed and implemented across the organisation. Fifth, feedback processes would be introduced enabling employees to receive and provide feedback on issues such as development and performance.

Career development program Brochure One of the first activities undertaken was the development of the Career Development Brochure. It was designed as a marketing tool to communicate to employees the organisation’s commitment to career development by undertaking the development of the program. The second aim of the brochure was to provide some introductory information regarding the changing world of work and career development responsibility and to encourage employees to participate in their own career development. Copies of the brochure were distributed throughout the organisation via Executive Management in December 1998. The brochure was also electronically redistributed with the electronic launch of the Career Development Workbook in June 2000.

Workbook The Career Development Workbook was developed to address one of the major findings in the internal consultation phase – that employees felt they received little information on various issues and this was seen as a barrier to their career development. The workbook is based on the career development process outlined in Figure 1. The workbook contains six modules based on each step of the process. It is designed to provide employees with a career development process as well as tools and resources to enable individuals to actively participate in their own career development. It is also designed to be a flexible workbook with regard to when and where it can be used, the time frames within which to complete the career development process and where to begin the process. For example, if an employee is facing a redundancy and is keen to find alternative employment as quickly as possible then the best place to start their career development activities may be the ‘Make it Happen!’ module. More specifically, the Career Development Workbook is based on a process that is continuous, given the changing nature of the workplace, and can be used anywhere, anytime. It also stresses caution to employees about expecting a well-developed career following the completion of the workbook and strongly emphasises the need for a

Career Development Within Organisational Programs

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FIGURE 1

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The career development process

Changing world of work Self-awareness

Evaluating outcomes

Examining options

Make it happen! Decision making and goal setting

continuous career journey through use of the career development process. In addition, each module in the workbook outlines learning objectives that the module assists employees in meeting through the provision of information and activities for them to complete. Each of the modules will now be discussed.

Changing world of work The ‘Changing world of work’ module is based on the assumption that an awareness of the changing world of work is necessary before engaging in realistic and worthwhile career development activity. Therefore the module commences with the individual exploring changes at the global, industrial/labour market, organisational and individual levels. Following exposure to the impact of some of the external factors on an individual’s life, the module introduces the issues of personal career development responsibility and what is meant by career and career development. It is designed with the view that individuals whose career development is cognisant of the changes occurring in the world of work, such as changes in technology, are more likely to reap greater benefits for their efforts.

Self-awareness The ‘Self–awareness’ module focuses on the individual’s past. It provides a series of exercises, checklists and questionnaires to guide individuals to increase their awareness about themselves. Self-awareness is about individuals exploring and identifying different aspects of their life: their values, interests, abilities and skills, personal style, experience, accomplishments, knowledge, strengths and weaknesses. Clarifying these areas crystallises where it is employees are heading in both their personal and work life. It

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also focuses on the possible constraints that may have prevented individuals from achieving their goals. Although this self-awareness module is primarily for individuals to complete independently, employees are encouraged to discuss their discoveries with family and friends. They are also encouraged to revisit this module as their values, interests, skills, experiences and attitudes are flexible and may change over time, depending on their circumstances. The module is based on the assumption that an individual will be prepared to examine options for the future and make informed and appropriate career choices following an understanding of self.

Examining options ‘Examining options’ refers to the use of various research strategies to explore the opportunities and options available in the future. This step in the career development process creates the link from the past to the future. This module explains the research strategies available and how to access them. It requires investigating current employment trends, obtaining career information, information on work environments, support systems available, further study opportunities, future skill requirements and options for learning. The employees are encouraged to use these strategies and document the findings of their research. The intent of the ‘Examining options’ module is to provide employees with ideas and contacts for conducting their own research rather than doing the research for them. This is primarily because the research undertaken at the time of development of the workbook will often be outdated by the time the employee requires the information. More specifically, the module aims to make employees aware of possible future skill requirements, available support systems, where to obtain information, for example professional associations and tertiary institutions, how to utilise research strategies and to be able to link their interests to exploration of options.

Decision making and goal setting The fourth module is ‘Decision making and goal setting’. It is believed that the more attention an individual gives to determining priorities and learning the decisionmaking process, the more likely he or she is to recognise opportunities when they occur and have the confidence to take them. Similarly, the goal-setting process increases an individual’s skill in nominating for these opportunities. Following a summarising exercise that highlights the key findings from the self-awareness activity and from the research previously undertaken in the ‘Examining options’ module, individuals are provided with a step-by-step process enabling decision making and goal setting. Prior to making a decision, the process includes identifying the strengths and weaknesses of each of the most favourable options. The outcome of this module is an action plan containing an individual’s core values, goals, relevant current skills, development required, next steps to goal achievement, apparent barriers, opportunities and possible solutions, resources required and date to be achieved.


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Make it happen! ‘Make it happen!’ concerns the actions that are most commonly associated with career development. In addition to the well-researched areas of résumé and application writing, networking or marketing and interview skills, areas such as time management, mentoring, development planning and professional portfolio are also covered. Due to the enormous amount of literature available on these topics this module provides an overview of factors to consider and directs employees to more comprehensive resources that would be more suitable for their circumstances. Employees are asked to transfer their action plan dates to their diary to remind them of the next step in the plan. They are also strongly encouraged to involve others, such as family, friends and work colleagues, to assist them in sticking to their action plan. Generic information relating to ‘Making it happen’ within the Department, the public service or elsewhere is also provided.

Evaluating outcomes The final step in the career development process is ‘Evaluating outcomes’. Evaluation or reflection is the critical step that enables the career development process to be ongoing. Determining what worked, what did not work, how things could be done differently or more effectively, what the individual has learned and the value of the learning provides a stimulus for continuing on the career development journey. This step in the process includes reality checks and evaluation of outcomes achieved and identifying possible areas of improvement or change at each of the previous stages in the career development process. The key to successfully continuing on the career development journey and employees gaining valuable insight into themselves, their work and the world of work is both by being honest with themselves and keen to develop their careers.

Workshops To supplement the workbook, which is designed for individuals to work through independently, short workshops are being designed for each step of the career development process. These are particularly beneficial in business areas that are undergoing organisational change or impacted by changing business priorities. However, it would also be useful to run workshops throughout the year for individuals in the Department who have expressed interest in personal career development and nominated to participate in the workshops. The expectation is that through interaction and a trusting environment, individuals will openly share their experiences and learn from the experiences of others. Several career awareness workshops have been run for various branches across the organisation. Due to the impact of organisational change process on employees, business areas sought this service to assist their employees. Initial workshops have been held on the ‘Changing world of work’ module of the career development process. Evaluation responses suggest that the workshops were timely and useful for employees to objectively and pro-actively deal with the process. The

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workshop concludes with very strong messages of encouragement to employees to continue on the career development journey by revisiting the respective modules in the workbook and using the career development process.

Other resources Other supporting resources enabling employees to work through the career development process include comprehensive material on various options for learning, a capability dictionary, an index for searching the direction of the organisation and a departmental professional area contact list. The ‘Option for learning’ material is designed to assist an employee in examining his or her career options and in career decision making and goal setting. It shows how fourteen different learning or development options can be accessed, highlights some issues to consider when deciding upon these options and provides a learning contract for each option that can be used by an employee with his or her manager to maximise commitment by all parties concerned. The learning options include reading, coaching, short courses, group reflection/staff meetings, training manuals/self-administered training packages, job rotation, relieving positions, guest speakers, extra curricular positions, special projects, shadowing, mentoring, university and other tertiary courses and release to industry. The ‘Capability dictionary’ provides information about the suite of abilities that are essential for top performance in the organisation. It is a valuable tool for employees interested in conducting a skills audit with reference to development for current or future roles. The ‘Index for searching the direction of the Department’ is a list of places, people or documents where employees can obtain current information about the changes occurring in the Department. Finally, a ‘Professional area contact list’ is a list of professional areas in the organisation and relevant contact details. Employees are able to access this list to explore areas in which they may be interested. All these additional career resources are located on the departmental human resource web site in the careers and employee development section. A maintenance function is required to keep these resources up-to-date.

Program development challenges Numerous challenges have been faced within the project, many of which are ongoing and remain part of the program development and implementation agenda. In particular, these have included time frames, executive management support, staffing and workloads, integrating HR initiatives, fee-for-service arrangements and implementation.

Time frames While it was tempting to offer a product quickly, it was realised that a development and consultation phase was necessary. Consultation in a large public sector organisation


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requires flexible time frames to account for the inclusion of the many different customer groups and management. However, the range of consultation and preparatory research has enhanced the eventual product. It has now been over three years since a commitment was made to provide employees with a career development program. Despite the need to be flexible with time frames, significant progress has been made. The initiatives to date include a career development Brochure, a Career Development Workbook, career development workshops and an evaluation survey (pre- and post-program). The following timeline illustrates the sequence of events and provides an overview of the range of activities undertaken: • September 1997: Career Development program written into enterprise bargaining agreement • March 1998: Research and consultation • October 1998: Recommendations endorsed by executive and senior management • December 1998: Career Development Brochure distributed • March 1999: Career Development survey (Time 1) distributed • December 1999: Integrate into People First initiatives • February 2000: Career Development Workbook completed • June 2000: On-line launch of Career Development Workbook • 2001: Proposed distribution of Career Development survey (Time 2) • Ongoing: Proposed career development workshops.

Executive management support Executive management support was initially received through the endorsement of the recommendations outlined in the career development report. This achievement was communicated to all staff as the commitment of the Department’s executive management to the career development of its employees. Ongoing demands of the Human Resource branch to deliver additional training programs, however, has meant that programs competed for staff time. With employees’ expectations raised through initial communication of the development of the career development program, it was important to follow it through. As successful distribution of the initial brochure throughout the business units of the Department was variable, another strategy that would more effectively market the program and have reading material reach all employees at minimal cost was devised. This strategy included redistributing the brochure direct to business areas and simultaneously conducting an electronic distribution to all employees. As a final implementation mechanism, the brochure was also distributed to career workshop participants.

Staffing Heavy workloads extended time frames by several weeks. Seeking feedback from a broad range of stakeholders led to a number of revisions. In addition, staff movement reduced the time available to work on the program, again extending completion dates.

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Integrating HR initiatives The Human Resources branch included performance management, career development and corporate core capabilities project teams. The integration of each of these teams and their work is critical to the marketability of these programs and their benefits to the organisation. The project leaders met regularly to discuss the language used between projects and how to integrate them most effectively. Beyond ensuring the use of consistent language, the integration of these human resource systems is difficult. The Career Development Workbook refers to the use of the performance management system and corporate capabilities as a tool to assist in the career development process. The team members anticipate that the implementation of these programs will enable more effective integration, both from an on-line perspective where appropriate links are made and from using these programs together in the workplace to achieve effective employee development.

Implementation The Human Resources branch has previously experienced difficulty in effectively implementing its programs to a workforce greater than 2000 employees and geographically dispersed throughout a large region. Adopting more innovative implementation strategies for the Career Development Workbook was essential in ensuring that employees have access to the program and that both the employee and the organisation ultimately benefit from it. Our current challenge is to determine an implementation strategy that will be most effective in ensuring that initially the Career Development Workbook not only reaches each employee but is also used by employees within the Department. Issues under consideration include: • the value of either piloting the career workbook and workshops, having a staged implementation or simply launching the resources and services across the organisation at once • the demands of regional and divisional implementation • accessibility of workshops and the workbook and the benefits of electronic or paper versions • the type of communication and marketing necessary and the associated costs • the level of support required to ensure that the workshops are ongoing and the workbook and supporting resources are maintained and reap maximum benefits. In the latter stages of the three-year project there were several Human Resource colleagues and management who were advocates of the program and frequently requested copies of the workbook, prior to its launch on-line, to distribute to their staff or regional and divisional customers. There is certainly potential to obtain greater value from these contacts, for example by keeping a register of people who received the program and contacting them directly for feedback. In a large organisation, a powerful marketing


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strategy is word-of-mouth. However, the challenge has been to continually support colleagues and management who advocate the program to promote word-of-mouth marketing. To formalise this process a feedback form may be usefully employed. These issues have had significant impact on the development of the organisation’s career development program. Other events have also had varying impact on the progress of the career development program, such as the review, restructure and appointment of a new Director of the Human Resources branch. Despite all these issues, the career development program continues to be on the agenda.

Evaluation For the purpose of continuous improvement of the career development program and to ensure its future existence, a survey was designed to collect baseline data prior to the implementation of the program. Implementation issues such as sample size, response rate, response deadlines, literacy levels of employees, confidentiality and location of employees significantly impacted on the design of the survey. The final product was a one-page survey with fifteen questions that was distributed via mail with a return self-addressed envelope to increase response rate and maintain confidentiality. The survey measured both organisational and individual concerns. A second survey is proposed for 2001. In addition to the survey, evaluation or feedback forms are collected after each workshop. The aim is to continue to improve the products and services on an ongoing basis rather than wait for the second survey findings. This feedback mechanism has been a valuable exercise.

Future challenges Several of the issues faced will continue to exist to some degree. However, there are additional challenges for the future. The first challenge is to ensure that the career development program is not a oneoff training program but one that is ongoing and continually improving. Different strategies are being used to ensure the program continues to exist. These strategies include integration of the career development program with many other organisational systems, particularly those that are bound by existing legislation, collecting baseline data early in the process to enable effective evaluation following the implementation of the program and communicating widely and frequently to all employees what the Department has promised to deliver on the program. Gaining greater executive management support will continue to be a challenge in the future. With competing employee development priorities and changing business needs, individual career development may be considered as optional. Therefore, the importance of evaluations of the program is reinforced. Mayo (1992) argues it takes several years before the success of career development systems can be assessed. If this argument is true, the challenges appear even greater. Executive management

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commitment, through resourcing the program, may prove to be a critical element to the success of the organisation’s career development program. Another challenge will be the impact of the introduction of new reporting and financial systems. Under review is the process of how to deliver initiatives and who pays for the service. The review will have the greatest impact on the recommendations designed to support the Career Development Workbook and workshops, for example a formal mentoring program, which have not yet commenced. The proposed introduction of fee-for-service in the Department raises a challenge to increase organisational awareness and prove the benefits of the program. Suggestions that our internal clients may have budget challenges highlight potential difficulties in selling the career development program to these clients. Ensuring the ongoing vision of the human resource practitioners driving the departmental career development program can be a difficult ask due to the obstacles and continual changes experienced by any large government organisation. Pivotal to the existence of the vision is maintaining external support networks for not only receiving valuable ideas, feedback and support, but also for strengthening the internal marketing strategy for credibility. Valuable external networks include academics, private consultants and other public and private sector human resource practitioners specialising in career development.

Conclusion Despite the many challenges, the organisation’s Career Development program has made significant progress with the Career Development Brochure, the Career Development Workbook and workshops and several supporting resources. The existence of very few career development programs in organisations makes the achievements of this organisation thus far even more extraordinary.


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11 c h a p t e r

Lifelong career development Elizabeth Ozanne

There has been something of a revolution in ‘planning for retirement’ programs in the last couple of decades in Australia in response to the ageing of the Australian population, major industry restructuring related to globalisation and privatisation and a strong push by government to create a leaner, more efficient and flexible labour force. This revolution has also occurred at a time of succession to power of a more conservative government in Australia that puts much greater emphasis on self versus collective responsibility in labour market policy (Reference Group on Welfare Reform, 2000). Older workers (particularly males) have not fared well in these transitions and were the predominant group experiencing early exit from the workforce in the late 1980s and 1990s (Kohli et al., 1991). In response to ageing of their workforces, governments around the world have responded initially by introducing incentives for early retirement but latterly have begun to put in place more supportive policies for displaced older workers, to either retrain or make transition to retirement a more staggered employment withdrawal. These initiatives have also been accompanied by new legislation on age discrimination and societal-wide programs addressing the need for ongoing and lifelong learning and career development in new ‘knowledge-based’ societies. The early planning for retirement industry that initially saw its role in facilitating the psycho-social and economic transition for the individual worker from a lifetime job to a leisured retirement has been replaced by a multifaceted industry of government agencies, educational institutions, corporate organisations and advocacy bodies for the aged. The focus is on confronting the implications of an ageing workforce in terms of the need for active retraining policies and lifelong learning and career development initiatives that can both facilitate transition to new jobs as well as alternatives to full labour force participation. This chapter explores what will be referred to as first, second and third generation retirement programs (Bengtson, Burgess & Parrott, 1997) in terms of their key differentiating characteristics and examines some contemporary innovative exemplars of third generation programs. It will argue that Australia is still in transition from ‘first’ to ‘second’ and ‘third’ generation programming in the way in which it is approaching the retirement transition and that major educational and attitudinal shifts are required.


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The challenge of an ageing workforce Governments around the world are beginning to recognise the need for better management of their ageing workforce both in terms of maintaining an effective age balance and retraining displaced and/or deskilled workers as well as facilitating appropriate transition to part-time work or other alternatives (Patrickson & Hartman, 1998). This is based on the following recognitions. • The age structure of the workforce is changing rapidly in all countries. The ageing of the workforce implies a radical change in human resource strategies and a new approach to managing age at the workplace. It is now believed that future competitiveness will rest partly on the performance and productivity of ageing workforces and therefore on the efficient utilisation of older workers. • Employers around the world are beginning to reassess the consequences of what had become the established pattern of early exit for middle-aged males. Early exit is increasingly being viewed as a waste of experience and human resource investment as skill shortages begin to hit and older workers are retained to train younger recruits. • There is a growing awareness among employers and trade unions that artificially limiting the field of applicants to younger candidates will prevent an organisation from maximising its recruitment potential. • Some enterprises are recognising that the organisation with a diverse age base – a mixture of youth and maturity – is likely to be able to respond better to rapidly changing circumstances. In the service sector in particular, employers are seeing the benefits of adjusting the age range of their employees to better reflect the age composition of their customers. • There is widespread government concern about employment rates and the financing of pensions. While the workforce is ageing, the age at which people leave employment has been falling continuously in most developed countries. This creates financing problems for national pension systems and is a key reason why governments have been taking action to close off early exit routes. • Policy makers at all levels have been turning their attention to the issue of age discrimination. • Broadening notions of career development and alternate career options are also evident in the ‘productive’, ‘positive’ and ‘successful’ ageing movements currently sweeping western countries (Baltes & Baltes, 1990; Bass, Caro & Chen, 1993). With extended longevity, the contribution of an increasingly aged segment of the population both within and outside of formal work in a range of both new and old roles is being hotly debated (AARP American Association of Retired Persons, 1990; Dychtwald, 1990; Laslett, 1991; Riley, Kahn & Foner, 1994). A publication by the European Foundation titled Managing an Ageing Workforce addressed major dimensions that need consideration in order for government and firms to develop more effective policies in managing an ageing workforce. These are: • job recruitment

Lifelong Career Development

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• • • •

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training, development and promotion flexible working practices ergonomics/job design changing attitudes within organisations (Walker, 1999).

Good practice was characterised as follows. Job recruitment: Ensuring that older workers have either equal or special access to the available jobs and that potential applicants are not discriminated against either directly or indirectly. For example, the absence of age limits and other discriminatory mechanisms in advertisements or other methods of recruitment. Training, development and promotion: Ensuring that older workers are not neglected in training and career development, that opportunities for learning are offered throughout working life, that training methods are appropriate to older workers and that positive action is taken where necessary to compensate for discrimination in the past. Flexible working practices: Giving older workers greater flexibility in their hours of work or in the timing and nature of their retirement. Ergonomics/job design: Preventive measures or ones intended to compensate for physical decline, for example elimination of heavy lifting or violent twisting movements, the provision of beneficial lighting and seating, and other workplace modifications to maintain productivity.

The Australian situation Although not yet experiencing the skill shortages evident in the United States and Europe, Australia has nevertheless begun to confront the need to more actively manage its ageing workforce. This is indicated by the publication resulting from the House of Representatives inquiry into specific issues related to mature-age workers, Age Counts (Commonwealth of Australia, 2000) and the Human Rights Commission report on age discrimination, Age Matters? (Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission, 1999). The Commonwealth National Strategy for an Older Australia has also brought out a series of papers on Employment for Mature Age Workers and Independence and Self Provision (Commonwealth of Australia 1999a,b) that address the need for firms, government and individuals to more pro-actively manage income security and employment in the later years and across the lifespan. The Council on the Ageing (Australia) and the Committee for the Economic Development of Australia have also jointly published Older Australians: A Working Future? The Ageing Population and Work in the 21st Century (Sheen, 2000). Another stream of related inquiry has to do with the recognition of the importance of lifelong learning following the release of the Senate Employment, Education and Training Reference Committee Report, Beyond Cinderella: Towards a Learning Society (Commonwealth of Australia, 1997). These series of reports and publications suggest that Australia is on the cusp of recognising and implementing major changes in relation to workforce management and career planning in the later years.

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Linear vs cyclical lifecourse planning A number of writers (Best, 1977; Dychtwald, 1990; Riley & Riley, 1994) have written extensively about the need to move away from the traditional understanding of education, work and leisure as discrete segments rigidly associated with youth, maturity and old age to a more cyclical notion of the lifecourse, where education, work and leisure intersect at a range of transition points for both sexes. For example, individuals may take sabbaticals at various points in their careers to retool or reorient, leisure can be spread across the lifecourse rather than being one extensive unbroken period in the later years and periods of work can be interspersed with education and leisure across all age ranges. Best refers to this as ‘flexible life scheduling’, Riley and Riley refer to moving from an ‘age segregated’ to an ‘age integrated society’. The key focus is that career development and planning is a lifelong activity with many entries and exits during the lifespan.

Shifts in retirement planning Major shifts have occurred in retirement planning. Retirement was perceived primarily as an individual psycho-social transition following a lifetime of employment and the responsibility primarily of the individual and perhaps his or her firm. A societal-wide transition in many western societies means that retirement can occur at a much earlier age than it did previously and now involves a broad range of players, including government employment agencies, educational institutions, private consultants, the superannuation industry and a whole bevy of financial planners. As the workforce has aged, so the lifecourse of the typical employee has shifted and also his or her requirements in relation to retirement planning. This is conceptualised below in terms of first, second and third generation programs. First generation programs focus on what Manning (1990) referred to as the 19thcentury lifecourse experience, mainly of men who remained probably with one employer and in the workforce until their mid-sixties when they retired with relatively generous benefits. They were usually the sole income earner in the household with wives predominantly involved in domestic tasks. When the male retired it was a major transition from a structured work environment to a life of recreation and leisure, usually punctuated in later years by a variety of health issues. Second generation programs are more characteristic of an economy in a major phase of restructure. Both men and women participate in the workforce but men work predominantly full-time and women more often part-time. In the 1980s men began to exit the workforce ten or even fifteen years earlier than men in first generation programs. These earlier retirements were often followed by a pattern of intermittent employment in transition to longer-term unemployment. Women’s part-time and sometimes full-time work was increasingly required to supplement household income. Third generation programs are more cognisant of the deregulated labour market and the virtual non-existence of lifetime employment, which has been replaced by a series of project jobs managed by an individual across his or her career. Both men and


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women are on a similar trajectory in this regard, their access to available jobs depending on education and skill levels that require regular upgrading. In first generation programs, planning for retirement is an individual psycho-social transition to a leisured state after a lifetime of work, whereas in second generation programs it involves a transition to possibly involuntary long-term unemployment in restructuring economies. Third generation programs focus on both exit, transition and re-entry to a continually changing labour market in an environment of active labourmarket programming. (See Table 1.)

TABLE 1

First, second and third generation retirement programs

FIRST GENERATION 1960–80

SECOND GENERATION 1980–90

THIRD GENERATION 1990–2000

Involuntary retrenchment in situation of economic restructuring

One of a number of job transitions across the lifecourse

Facilitating exit following involuntary retrenchment

Facilitating transition to new employment or alternative

Middle-aged men in 50s

Men and women in 40s, 50s and 60s

Focused on dealing with/adjusting to sudden crisis of retrenchment and aftermath

Focused on more active labour market approaches to honeymoon, displacement/ re-entry retirement transition

Psycho-social adjustment to early retrenchment: financial planning, health planning, leisure and interests, accommodation/housing, legal issues, changes/losses/gains

Facilitating transition via skill acquisition, lifelong learning, antidiscrimination/human rights focus, lifetime financial planning, successful/productive ageing orientation

Firm, small voluntary organisation, private consultancy, government agency

Firm, small voluntary organisation, private consultancy, government agency, public/private employment agency, educational institution, financial planners

Job exit

Job exit, re-entry and transition

VIEW OF RETIREMENT An individual psycho-social transition

ORIENTATION OF PROGRAM Planned work exit at end of long work career

TARGET OF PROGRAMS Men in mid-60s at formal retirement age

FOCUS OF PROGRAM Follows Atchley’s psycho-social stage model of adjustment to retirement, for example pre-retirement, disenchantment, reorientation, stability (1976)

CONTENT AREAS COVERED Psycho-social adjustment to on-time retirement: finances, health, leisure and interests, alternative hobbies, accommodation, legal issues, changes/losses/gains, religion and review, personal action plan

AGENCIES INVOLVED Firm, small voluntary organisation, retirement counselling service

OUTCOME OF PROGRAM Job exit

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Some examples of third generation programs Though many programs have been slow to change or broaden their focus from the purely individual psycho-social transition model of first generation programs to the more skill acquisition and transition-focused third generation programs, a shift is beginning to become evident. The Early Planning for Retirement Association, for instance, changed its name to the Life Planning Association to reflect this shift in focus. Third generation programs are increasingly in evidence, both in firms beginning to respond pro-actively in the management of their ageing workforce (Jobseast, 2000) and in job skill/employment and placement agencies transitioning older workers from one industry or job area to another. They can also be found in smaller community advocacy agencies like JOFFA (Jobs for Over Forties) (Commonwealth of Australia, 2000). These programs focus on both skill acquisition and education for individuals as well as encouraging firms to adopt more appropriate practices in relation to their older workforce. Jobseast, a metropolitan regional employment agency in Victoria, initiated the Employers Convention on Age (based on a similar British organisation) to educate employers and human relations personnel in maintaining quality and developing expertise, ensuring currency and relevance of skills in the workplace, responding appropriately to health and safety issues and minimising absenteeism and turnover costs. To assist firms to achieve an age-balanced workforce Jobseast recommends the following: • regular review of human resource management information systems to ensure that accurate data is collected by age in relation to recruitment, position tenure, training, absenteeism, injury, retirement • review of the profile of the workforce to highlight patterns and risks associated with age , skill specialisation, training uptake, career progressions, absenteeism and injury expected and actual retirement age • assessment of the perceptions of older and younger workers by formal surveying and less formal discussions with staff • valuation of participation in training programs and longer-term outcomes • examination of viable retention strategies so organisations can capitalise on knowledge of older workers • assessment of the different occupational health and safety risks of younger and older workers and instituting policies to respond to these. Coles Myer, Australia Post and DM Glass are three companies currently participating in pilot studies in better management of their ageing workforces. Coles Myer has been exploring ways to assist older workers in their logistics division to adapt to new technologies and to continue to acquire skills so they can take on new roles in the changing work environment. They have also been successful in minimising absenteeism and turnover costs by valuing and rewarding effective performance at the individual and team level. DM Glass has actively utilised mentoring with new staff who work alongside experienced operators to maintain quality and safety in the manufacturing process. Job rotation and


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utilisation of external training is also encouraged to assist workers to continually update their skills. Younger and older workers work together on tasks requiring heavy lifting, ensuring appropriate attention to both strength and safety concerns. A number of agencies have been working with older people at or near the retirement transition to facilitate more pro-active planning. Two programs of the Council on the Ageing (Victoria) are exemplars here. The first program, Challenging Ageing, focuses on encouraging middle-aged and retired people to take more pro-active roles in challenging existing ageist stereotypes. This program has a strong educational component in relation to the individual and societal impacts of population ageing and a train-thetrainer approach focused on empowering recruits themselves to act as spokespersons and advocates with their peers. The second program, Creative Transitions Through Retirement, was an initiative under International Year of the Older Persons to assist those in or near retirement to explore the range of options open to them both within and outside work in their later years. It focused on financial planning, communication, time management and negotiation skills, relationship shifts, volunteer opportunities and community activities, personal health and fitness, the specific impacts of ageing and managing transition and change. Most of those who participated in this program believed it facilitated their better planning for both retirement and post-work involvement (Evaluation Report Creative Transitions, 1999). An examination of existing retirement programs suggests that they are not generationspecific but a mix of all three generational models, variously focused on individual, firm and government policy and practice. Third generation models tend to have the following characteristics: • at the level of the individual – a lifelong learning orientation, ongoing skill acquisition and upgrading, a successful/productive ageing orientation, effective personal management of transition and change • at the level of the firm – job retention vs job exit, retraining vs skill redundancy, job redesign and restructuring vs sticking with outmoded/dangerous practices, retooling vs downtooling, active mentoring of younger workers, developing a plan for an age-balanced workforce, opportunities for structured and gradual transition to full retirement • at the level of government – putting in place the incentives for active workforce planning, eradicating financial disincentives to gradual retirement, reinforcement of a policy of lifelong skill development.

Shifts needed in retirement planning While there has been considerable review in Australia of the radical impact of population ageing on life and work roles, individuals and institutions have been slow to respond with changed practices and appropriate program innovation. Riley and Riley (1994) suggest that ‘maturing’ societies are in a major phase of ‘structural lag’, with their institutions still responsive to the relatively youthful population profile of earlier eras, rather than orienting appropriately to the demands of their now more mature and ageing populations.

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In relation to retirement planning, four major areas of needed shift are identified. 1 The individual’s own planning for retirement. All the evidence indicates that individuals do not currently plan adequately for the retirement transition either in terms of its psycho-social aspects or financial, health and lifestyle impact. This, in part, relates to lack of adequate information/education on these issues and, in part, to the actual difficulty of knowing how to plan for uncertain contingent events. 2 More informed human resource management. There is considerable evidence that human resource managers have not so far been particularly well informed or educated in relation to late-life career planning with older employees and more often than not they are perceived to actively discriminate against older workers. 3 More pro-active firm policy in relation to an ageing workforce. A number of larger firms are beginning to take seriously the implications of their ageing workforce and look to instituting policies in relation to retraining and retooling older workers in new areas, reallocating or redesigning work tasks so that they are more age appropriate, addressing the particular health and safety issues of older workers and drawing more specifically on the skills of these workers in training and mentoring new recruits (Jobseast, 2000). 4 The role of government in providing incentives for more efficient and effective retirement planning. What should be the role of government as workforces age is a subject of much current debate, particularly in a period of major structural adjustment in the economy when whole industries might move interstate or offshore. Government needs to provide appropriate incentives for individuals and firms in bridging such transitions so that individuals are not personally devastated and companies are able to appropriately restructure and retrain their personnel.

Conclusion The retirement-planning industry in Australia is currently in a situation of enormous flux and change in response to broader population shifts and socio-economic restructuring at both macro and micro level. The deregulation of superannuation and shifts in tax and income security policy make corporation workforce planning, much less individual career and retirement planning, an extremely hazardous exercise (Borowski, 1990). There is, however, increasing recognition by both governments, unions, firms and individuals that a more tripartite approach is needed that moves beyond preoccupation with retirement as an individual end of worklife transition to recognition that career planning is a lifelong activity and that retirement transition is a populationwide phenomena responsive to a range of policy levers, and may be as much about exit as re-entry depending on when in the lifespan it occurs. As the Australian population ages, it is likely that we will see a move to a more flexible or deregulated scheduling of education, work and leisure with retirement a temporary rather than permanent transition in the individual’s career trajectory.


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4 s e c t i o n

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12 c h a p t e r

Career development programs for athletes David Lavallee, Trish Gorley, Ruth Lavallee and Paul Wylleman

There has been a growing interest in the career development of athletes. In 1980, McPherson reported that an extensive literature search generated twenty references pertaining to this issue. In 1998, over 270 references were identified on the topic of career transitions in sport (Lavallee, Sinclair & Wylleman, 1998; Lavallee, Wylleman & Sinclair, 1998). An international special interest group was organised to exchange information on applied and investigative work in the area (Wylleman, Lavallee & Aflermann, 1999). A number of career development programs have also been developed by governing bodies and sport institutes around the world to assist individuals in developing a professional career outside sport, as well as achieving their sport-related goals. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of career development programs for athletes. An outline of the existing programs is initially presented, followed by a review of research conducted on the perception of potential users of the Australian Athlete Career and Education program. The chapter concludes with practical considerations in the provision of career development programs for athletes.

Sports career transition programs The growth of career development programs for athletes has, to some extent, coincided with the growth in size and popularity of high-level competitive sports. As presented in Table 1, numerous programs have been developed in countries around the world to help resolve the conflict that many individuals face when having to choose between pursuing their sport and post-sport career goals. The existing programs vary in format and often include workshops, seminars, educational modules and individual counselling. As described in Wylleman, Lavallee and Aflermann (1999), the majority of programs focus on lifestyle management and the development of transferable skills that can assist individuals in making the transition from life in sport into a post-sport career. As such, these programs provide athletes with an introduction to career planning and development by focusing on values and interest exploration, career awareness and decision making, CV preparation, interview techniques and job search strategies. Career development programs for athletes are primarily managed by national sports governing bodies, national Olympic committees, specific sport federations, for example the National Basketball Players Association, academic institutions, for example Springfield College, and independent organisations linked to sport settings, for example


TABLE 1

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Career development programs for athletes

PROGRAM

COUNTRY

ORGANISATION

Athlete Career and Education Program

Australia/United Kingdom

Australian Institute of Sport/UK Sports Institute

Olympic Job Opportunities Program

Australia/United States/South Africa

Ernst & Young

Olympic Athlete Career Centre

Canada

Canadian Olympic Association

Career Assistance Program for Athletes

United States

United States Olympic Committee

Making the Jump Program

United States

Advisory Resource Center for Athletes

Women’s Sports Foundation Athlete Service

United States

Women’s Sports Foundation

Career Transition Program

United States

National Football League

CHAMPS/Life Skills

United States

National Collegiate Athletics Association

Making the Jump Program

United States

Springfield College

Study and Talent Education Program

Belgium

Free University of Brussels

The Retiring Athlete

Netherlands

Dutch Olympic Committee

the Women’s Sports Foundation. While some programs address the needs of professional athletes, for example the United States National Football Leagues Career Transition program, the majority have been developed for elite amateur sports participants (Gordon, 1995). In the following section, a brief overview is given of some of the most advanced career development programs for athletes . These programs include the international Olympic Job Opportunities Program, the United States Career Assistance Program for athletes, Canadian Olympic Athlete Career Centre and the Athlete Career and Education Program that operates in both Australia and the Britain.

Olympic Job Opportunities Program The Olympic Job Opportunities Program (OJOP) is an international program that has been initiated in Australia, South Africa and the United States (Olympic Job Opportunities Program, 1996). Sponsored by the company Ernst &Young, the principal goal of OJOP is to develop and source career opportunities for Olympians and potential Olympians. Eligible athletes are either current or Olympic-calibre athletes who need to be certified as such by their respective national federations. In addition to providing direct employer contacts and identifying job positions, OJOP provides career analysis services, personality aptitude testing and interview skills training (Gordon, 1995).

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In the United States, a grant from the United States Olympic Foundation was awarded to OJOP in 1988 to create a program to assist elite athletes in coping with the transition from active sport competition. Following a survey with approximately 1800 Olympic and other elite-level athletes, the Career Assistance Program for Athletes (CAPA) was established to introduce individuals to the career development process while they were competing. This program was based on the lifespan development model of Danish and D’Augelli (1983) and focused on increasing athletes’ sense of personal competence through understanding and identifying transferable skills. A number of one-day workshops were organised around three main themes: • managing the emotional and social impact of transitions • increasing understanding and awareness of personal qualities relevant to coping with transitions and career development • introducing information about the world of work. Although these workshops were well received by the athletes (Petitpas et al., 1992), funding for the CAPA Program was terminated in 1993.

Olympic Athlete Career Centre One of the first career development programs to be developed for athletes was the Canadian Olympic Athlete Career Centre (OACC). The OACC was launched in 1985 as part of the Canadian Olympic Association (COA) following a series of needs-based surveys conducted in 1983–84. The original centre, which was based in Toronto, had a mandate to assist athletes through the transition process to a second career, primarily through career and education planning (Sinclair & Hackfort, 2000). Athletes who had achieved approved rankings by way of their performances at Olympic, Commonwealth and Pan Pacific Games had access to the OACC (Anderson & Morris, 2000). Sinclair and Hackfort (2000) outlined the following career development services that were initially offered through the OACC: • clarification of career-planning needs, self-assessment, aptitude/interest assessment to assist in identification of specific occupations of interest, decision-making and action-planning skills • booklets for all eligible athletes on the topics of CV preparation, interview preparation, job search techniques and information interviewing • retirement planning focusing on what athletes should expect during the adjustment period • transition workshops and peer support groups to help athletes deal effectively with the career transition process • reference letters of support, as well as personalised business cards bearing the COA logo, for networking purposes • a shadow program, developed in 1990, to provide athletes with the opportunity to explore career options by ‘shadowing’ a professional in the field of their choice.

Career Development Programs for Athletes

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The COA has initiated a re-organisation process that has resulted in an increase in the number of centres operating within Canada, as well as additions to the career development services provided. Currently there are Olympic Athlete Career Centres operating in Calgary, Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto and Vancouver, with each employing consultants to work with athletes living in or around these locations (Anderson & Morris, 2000). The standardisation of service provision across centres is ongoing and is influenced by the need and utility of the services for the athlete population in each region.

Athlete Career and Education Program The Athlete Career and Education (ACE) Program was developed in Australia by the Victorian Institute of Sport in 1990 and was later amalgamated with the Lifeskills for Elite Athletes Program (SportsLEAP) in 1995. SportsLEAP was originally established in 1989 by the Australian Institute of Sport based on the results of a needs-based survey following the 1988 Seoul Olympics (Fortunato et al., 1995). This program was highly successful, but the scope and content of each program varied according to athlete demand in each state institute/academy of sport. Thus, a decision was made to integrate SportsLEAP and the ACE Program (under the ACE name) to form a national program. The overall objective of the ACE Program is to assist athletes to meet the demands of their sporting careers while enhancing their opportunities to also develop educational and vocational skills (Anderson & Morris, 2000). A major component of the program is the development of a career plan that integrates both sporting and non-sporting components. The philosophy is to create an environment where athletes are encouraged to be independent, self-reliant and meet the demands associated with elite sport. As outlined in Anderson and Morris (2000), the following services are provided through the Australian ACE Program: • individual athlete assessment to provide a structured process in which to assess individual athletes’ educational, vocational, financial and personal development needs • over thirty personal development training courses, many of which are nationally accredited competency-based education programs, to assist athletes in meeting their sporting, educational and career aspirations • a nationally consistent career and education-planning process to enable athletes to manage their own vocational requirements • direct athlete needs-based assessments to provide a structured process to assess athletes’ eligibility for support • a transition program for elite athletes undergoing a transition to a postsporting career. Career development is provided in the form of direct assistance in finding employment through career advice, training paths and vocational training. Secondary and tertiary education support is provided through networking with individuals in secondary schools, TAFE and universities who can offer unit or course selection advice, as well as assistance in negotiating appropriate academic and residential arrangements for

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athletes, for example quiet halls of residence, appropriate and sufficient dietary provisions at appropriate times, distance and on-line learning opportunities. Computerised programs of information on all tertiary, TAFE and community courses in Australia, Austudy information and Courscan, which assists Year 11 and 12 students to match secondary school subjects to tertiary and TAFE courses, are also available (Gordon, 1995). At the present time, ACE services are available to over 3000 elite-level athletes throughout Australia. To be eligible for assistance in Australia, athletes must hold a scholarship with the Australian Institute of Sport or state institutes and academies of sport, or be a participant in the Olympic Athlete Program. ACE managers and advisers are employed in each state institute and academy of sport in Australia and a national manager coordinates the program. Training opportunities and supervised practice for ACE staff are provided through a Graduate Certificate in Athlete Career and Education Management that has been developed by Victoria University in Australia. The United Kingdom Sports Institute has also initiated the ACE UK Program across England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

An evaluation of the Australian ACE Program Gorely et al. (in press) have reported the results of a study conducted on the perceptions of potential users of the Australian ACE Program. The specific aim of this research was to determine levels of usage of the program, identify athletes’ perceived needs, determine overall satisfaction with the program and identify athletes’ suggestions for the future. Focus groups with athletes, coaches and administrators were initially conducted to develop an understanding of the key issues. A survey instrument was then developed and distributed to every athlete (more than 3000 across forty-eight sports) eligible to receive ACE services in Australia. Results revealed that the majority of athletes (70.7 per cent) reported contact with the ACE Program during the twelve-month period prior to data collection. The most used services were identified as career guidance/planning, help with school or university and professional development workshops in finding/establishing a job, time management and goal setting. The career transition service was the least used, with less than one per cent of the athletes indicating that they accessed this service. The most frequently cited reason for using ACE services is that ‘they may help my life outside sport’. Other reasons included ‘they may help my sporting career’, ‘they may help my sporting performance’ and ‘a coach/administrator suggested it’. Athletes also indicated that suitable program mechanics such as low costs and the availability of ACE representatives influenced their use of ACE services. The main reasons for athletes not using the program were classified as aspects of the program, lack of perceived need and personal factors. ‘Aspects of the program’ inhibiting usage included lack of awareness of the services offered and unsuitable venues or timing of services. ‘Lack of perceived need’ encompassed the perception by some athletes that they do not need the ACE Program. Reasons for this included having ‘other priorities’, using alternative resources, or simply having no need for the services ACE


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provides. ‘Personal factors’ such as ‘nothing’, ‘not getting around to it’ and ‘laziness’ indicated a lack of motivation on behalf of the individual to utilise the ACE Program. The three categories of reasons for non-use of the program suggest a number of strategies to overcome them. To a degree, issues with ‘aspects of the program’ can be overcome by ensuring that services are available at times (including after hours and weekends) and locations (preferably close to training sites) convenient to the athletes. Increasing athletes’ awareness of the program could also be undertaken (Petitpas & Champagne, 2000). The athletes surveyed indicated that their preferred method for receiving information about ACE was by personal contact with an ACE representative or by mailouts. However, some athletes mentioned that a system to make sure athletes were receiving the mailouts would be useful. ‘Lack of perceived need’ can be addressed by targeting existing services to specific groups of athletes more closely, ensuring that the benefits of services are clearly explained and adding services to meet the specific needs of different athlete groups. ‘Personal issues’ may be overcome to a large extent by the above two strategies. Greater perceived benefits and easier access may reduce inertia. However, the challenge to a program such as ACE may be to find ways of enhancing athletes’ personal motivation before having the opportunity to teach them relevant skills, such as goal setting and time management. Successfully addressing this challenge may rest on creating an environment, in conjunction with coaches and parents, which promotes a balanced personal and social development. Overall, 61.2 per cent of the athletes reported that their perceived needs were being well met by the ACE Program (4 or 5 on a 5-point scale). However, 12.2 per cent felt their needs were not being satisfactorily met (1 or 2 on a 5-point scale), suggesting that career development programs such as ACE would benefit from regular reviews with athletes with respect to their perceived needs and preferred methods for meeting these needs. The Australian athletes were generally satisfied with the actual services and courses they had attended (mean satisfaction = 3.9 on a 5-point scale). The satisfaction with specific ACE courses such as goal setting and public speaking was enhanced when athletes felt the information was practical and relevant, that it was individualised and directed to an appropriate level and that the course was facilitated by a good presenter. Dissatisfaction occurred when these things did not happen and when the courses were perceived as consisting of ‘what to’ rather than ‘how to’ information. Satisfaction with individual career guidance was increased with the perception of developing applied skills, identifying options rather than dictating paths and providing support for work-related issues, for example letters to employers thanking them for opportunities. Not surprisingly, satisfaction with this service was also enhanced where job applications were successful. The athletes identified a range of issues that created a sense of dissatisfaction with career guidance: • slow responses • being sent to interviews that had nothing to do with what the athlete wanted • getting jobs that were of no value for the future • jobs being unsuitable in terms of time commitments required

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• contact with established employers not requested by the athlete and subsequent jeopardising of current positions • being unprepared for referrals • lack of care with what the athlete did • being forced into jobs that they did not want. Where support was sought with education and university issues, the services athletes appreciated included assistance with: • organising exams and assessment • applications • identifying options and subject selection • liaison with schools and teachers • organising special consideration with institutions. A lack of specific information and having only ad hoc liaisons with institutions were considered limiting factors in the program’s role in providing support with education and university. Several issues were identified that related to dissatisfaction with the program in general. A perceived lack of pro-activity or follow-up from advisers led some athletes to suggest that the program was ‘simply going through the motions’. Some athletes felt that the program did not do enough to keep them informed of what ACE could do for them. What emerged in both phases of the evaluation was the delicate balance between developing an athlete’s sense of self-responsibility and actually providing help that career development programs for athletes like ACE must tread. There appears to be a group of athletes who would like ACE to simply give them everything they need, and while this may enhance short-term outcomes, this approach may not be optimal for the athlete’s longer-term personal development (Danish, Petitpas & Hale, 1993). However, forcing athletes to play too large a role in actually implementing the assistance they receive from career development programs could alienate some from taking advantage of the available services at all. In terms of athletes’ recommendations for the future, several valuable suggestions on improving and expanding the current service were provided. Of particular note, and an issue for all centralised programs, was that athletes in regional/remote areas of Australia felt left out and unable to make use of the career development services. Possible solutions suggested by athletes included the establishment of regional stations that would be visited on a regular basis by ACE advisers, taking some of the courses outside large cities and towns and using a wider range of delivery modes, for example reading material and the Internet. Some athletes felt that there was a need for the advisers to be credible, that is competent and qualified to do the job. Furthermore, the athletes suggested that more empathy could be shown towards their specific needs and desires, for example not being sent for a job they did not want to do. There was a strong request for ACE advisers to be more pro-active in initiating individualised contact with athletes. It was also suggested that ACE look at providing progressive courses, that is courses that build on previously completed courses. Finally, the need for a balance between


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ensuring everyone has access to the service but not constraining people to use the service was stressed. It is self-evident that for this and other programs to be successful, athletes must make use of the service and be satisfied with the service they receive. Career development programs for athletes could perhaps benefit from clarifying the distinction between helping and facilitating, and ensuring that athletes understand the difference. If the models for these programs are based on developing independent self-reliant athletes, then it would be beneficial to take a facilitating approach where athletes are expected to exhibit some level of self-responsibility for the outcomes. A number of groups exist within the athlete population, based largely on age and sport. Examining the needs of these different groups, and then targeting and promoting the program services to specific groups, may be more effective than providing an ‘all-comers’ service. For example, athletes in amateur sports have clear needs to develop skills that assist them to survive financially during their sporting careers and that act as a basis for self-sufficiency after their sporting careers. Those athletes going into professional sports may have less salient needs for these skills, as their expectation may be that they will be financially secure through sport. This may make them more vulnerable to career-ending injuries, or simply not making it to the elite level (Petitpas et al., 1997). Consequently, there may be considerable value in developing strategies to take ACE services to these different groups of athletes in different ways. In addition, athletes heading into professional or elite amateur sporting careers are tending to do so from a younger age than has previously been the case, thereby reducing the opportunity for developing other academic and vocational skills. This has the potential to exacerbate their vulnerability to career-ending events and ensuring that young athletes have opportunities to develop some of these skills is critical (Taylor & Ogilvie, 1998).

Conclusion Based on a review of the existing career development programs for athletes, as well as the results obtained by Gorely et al. (in press), a number of practical considerations in the provision of career development programs for athletes can be suggested. One general aim could be to assist and guide athletes via multi-formats, for example ‘one-on-one’ or group counselling, written information, skills enhancement programs, to manage their career development in such a way that they are able to achieve optimal well-being, as well as maximise their potential in their different spheres of daily life (Wylleman, Lavallee & Aflermann, 1999). Career development programs for athletes, therefore, need to be multidimensional and include enhancement, support and counselling components (Petitpas, Brewer & Van Raalte, 1996). Career development programs should also not be solely focused on post-retirement interventions for athletes. Although Grove et al. (1998) have suggested that 20 per cent of elite-level athletes experience distress reactions to retirement from sport, Gorely et al. (in press) found that athletes often do not consider retirement to be an issue until its proximity draws near. Programs, therefore, should focus on functional adjustments

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in the pre-retirement phase, while the emphasis in the post-retirement period should be on the provision of support with regard to emotional adjustment (Baillie, 1993). If the career transition process of athletes is to be enhanced, it also appears critical to educate athletes in the need for long-term career development planning. The organisational context of these programs should also be considered. Petitpas and Champagne (2000) underline the need to consider the idiosyncrasies of the targeted sport or sports group, for example type of sport and the nature of the competitive events in which the athletes participate, and the structural aspects of the program, for example group size, program format and scheduling and required or voluntary participation. The financial aspects of developing and running the number and nature of career development programs necessary to cater to varying needs may require the backing of the major sport federations or the national Olympic committee.


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13 c h a p t e r

Career transition programs for dancers Susan Ryan

The principle of minimum investment for maximum return does not hold for a dancer’s career. Dancers may commit to dance classes to the exclusion of other activities at an early age, continue training through adolescence – usually for ten years or more (Kerr, Krasnow & Mainwaring, 1994), to embark on a career that may be merely of the same duration. Most dancers are faced with an inevitable and often involuntary career change due to injury or reduced employment opportunities related to chronological age (Beall, 1989; Wallach, 1988). Dancers are not the only individuals to experience mid-life career change, with workers in other fields increasingly likely to experience shortened tenure, higher frequency of movement among positions and career change to maximise fit within a shifting and expanding work society. Unlike other workers, however, dancers as a professional group (like elite athletes and sports people) share the cultural experience of a probable transition at the end of their performing career. This chapter details dancers’ career patterns and the experiences of transition, although this is a nascent area of research with few comprehensive studies. Dancer transition programs are described in terms of their formulation and models of service delivery. In particular a model devised to assist Australian dancers that has sought government support and arts funding policy inclusion is described. Finally, areas in which current dancer career transition programs could be expanded, to provide lifespan career development assistance to dancers, are discussed in terms of meeting the diverse needs of this group.

Rationale for dancer career transition programs Performance career length Many dancers face a transition from their performing career before the age of 40 years. Australian dancers who make a career transition are likely to be between 25 and 30 years of age (Beall, 1989). Similarly, North American dancers’ career duration is truncated. Survey responses of nearly 300 ex-professional dancers in the United States indicated that contemporary dancers and female ballet dancers pursue a performance career for an average of ten years, while male ballet dancers’ performance careers may be slightly longer, spanning approximately fourteen years (Wallach, 1988). Female ballet


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dancers tend to experience career transition earlier, with a median age of 26 to 30 years in this study. The median age of career transition for the remaining groups was between 31 and 35 years, perhaps reflecting the earlier age at which female ballet dancers embark on their performance career compared with their contemporary counterparts and with male dancers. There are high costs associated with the choice of dance as a career therefore, with dance training and preparation for the career encompassing a similar length of time to the career itself. Dancers may overestimate the length of time that they have to invest in their performance career. Former Australian dancers reported that they did not expect to leave performing until at least ten to fifteen years later than the actual age at which their performance career ceased (Beall, 1989). Likewise, dancers in the Wallach (1988) study exhibited this difference between predicted and actual age of career transition. Although male dancers left their performing careers in their early thirties, they expected to cease performing, on average, in their late thirties. In addition, female ballet dancers tended to overestimate the duration of their performance careers by approximately five years, and female contemporary dancers, although leaving dance generally before 30 years of age, anticipated this transition occurring from 40 years and onwards.

Performing career cessation The major causes of dancers’ career transition are similar to athletic career termination. Athletes may cease their athletic careers due to four factors: age, injury, deselection and free choice (Taylor & Ogilvie, 1994). Australian dancers identify injury, attenuated employment opportunities for mature dancers, a need for lifestyle stability, financial difficulties and family priorities as causes of career change (Beall, 1989). According to Wallach (1988), female dancers tend to be ‘pushed’ out of their performance career because of family considerations, injury and lack of stimulation and challenge. Males may be ‘pushed’ out of performing due to age or injury, but also may be ‘pulled’ out of performing with a positive anticipation of the future, a new occupational interest or an offer of employment.

Responses to career transition Although some dancers may perceive a degree of inevitability about the end of their performance career, some performers experience transition as a traumatic event. Emotional or physical difficulties can be related to cessation of a performing career, with a small proportion of dancers reporting suicidal tendencies (Wallach, 1988). Of the two hundred and ninety-eight former dancers in Wallach’s study, 44 per cent sought professional assistance in the form of personal or career counselling to assist with the transition process. Other responses to transition from a dance performance career include feelings of loneliness and isolation, reduced self-esteem and identity and career development confusion. Stress during transition has been related to both loss of the dancer’s identity (Paritzky, 1995) and strong investment in the dancer’s identity to the exclusion of

Career Transition Programs for Dancers

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other career or life roles (Mason, 1993). In addition, dancers’ degree of perceived control over the decision to end a performing career may influence the experience of the transition. Limited perceived control has been associated with problematic transition experiences and emotions such as anger, alienation, fatigue and depression (Saposnek, 1995). Lack of transition preparation has been related to negative experiences of dancers’ career change (Paritzky, 1995). If dancers overestimate the length of their performance career, then it is likely that their career transition may come at a time that is unexpected, leaving some dancers inadequately prepared. Furthermore, some dancers may not experience dance company environments that encourage and actively foster their career development. Instead, if dancers perceive that they must assert their loyalty to a company by complete involvement in their present position, dancers may not have the opportunity to plan for activity beyond their role and hence may be ill-prepared for a career beyond dance performance.

Promoting positive transitions Although negative emotions and experiences have been associated with the process of dancers’ transition, some dancers may negotiate transition more successfully even while citing reasons such as injury and reduced career opportunities for their performing career ending. The experience of transition may proceed more smoothly for dancers if they are satisfied with their dance career achievements (Paritzky, 1995), which mirrors reports of successful athletic career transition related to athletes’ perceptions of having attained their sporting goals (Sinclair & Orlick, 1993). Perceived control of the transition decision may enhance transition adjustment (Mason, 1993). Also, consistent family approbation and identity development beyond that of a dance performer may characterise dancers who have positive career transition experiences due to the buffering effect of a positive self-concept incorporating identities beyond dance (Paritzky, 1995).

Development of dancer career transition programs and services As some dancers experience difficulties due to the transition process at the end of their performance career, and a number of factors may be associated with more successful negotiation of the transition process, career transition programs have developed over the past twenty years to facilitate dancers during this time. In addition, the International Organization for the Transition of Professional Dancers has been established with a number of member countries, including Australia, to provide an international forum for research and debate on dancers’ transition issues, promote recognition of dancers’ societal contributions and identify effective transition processes. Dancer transition programs operate in a number of countries around the world including Canada, the United States, Britain and the Netherlands. Programs provide

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a range of specialist services such as financial planning, legal advice, small business training and career and personal counselling. Other support may include mentorships with former dancers in new careers, loans, scholarships, grants, retraining opportunities and career information. Transition programs tend to be established and operated by the dance community and vary in the types of financial support provided across private endowment sources, dance company contributions and government and union funding (Avery, 1994; Jacka, 1995; Van Ulzen & Meehan, 1999). Profiles of a selection of the major transition programs for dancers are presented below.

Canada: the Dancer Transition Resource Centre Eligibility Dancers with a minimum age of 25 years, at least six years’ experience as a professional dancer and who pay a small percentage of their salary, are able to become members of the centre.

Implementation The resource centre is funded through a combination of government, corporate, private and membership sources. Dancers’ contributions are matched by their companies. A public awareness program operates that includes newspaper articles, conferences and other means aimed at increasing public awareness of dancer transition issues.

Program content A range of services includes personal, academic, career, financial and legal counselling. Educational seminars, designed to increase dancers’ awareness of the need for preparation for mid-life career transition, are conducted. Dancers can apply to obtain grants for retraining in addition to subsistence support.

The United States: Career Transition for Dancers Eligibility Dancers who are at least 27 years old and have worked professionally for a minimum of seven years are able to access services.

Implementation Career Transition for Dancers (CTFD) was initially a one-year pilot program established in 1985 and administered by the Actors’ Fund of America. It became an independent, non-profit organisation in 1989. CTFD is funded by performing arts unions, corporate and foundation contributions, individual donations and an annual gala.

Program content A dance company educational awareness program operates to increase awareness of dancers’ career transition issues at the company level. Individual service provision for dancers covers vocational assessment, career counselling, financial planning, career development workshops on employment seeking and résumé preparation, psychological


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counselling and support groups. A telephone career advisory service can assist dancers remotely. An internship program and an employment referral service also operate. Dancers can apply for financial assistance towards retraining costs.

The United Kingdom: the Dancers’ Resettlement Fund Eligibility Dancers who have been employed by a contributing company for a minimum of eight years are able to benefit from the fund. Independent dancers may benefit from a similar fund administered by the resettlement fund.

Implementation The service operates as a discretionary trust fund through dancers’ salary contributions matched by companies. Dancers’ funds are invested and earn interest for each dancer that can be utilised for retraining or in the form of a benefit at 65 years of age.

Program content The fund provides grants for higher education and other types of retraining, such as small business operation. Living expenses may be supported during the transition process.

The Netherlands: Dutch Dancers’ Resettlement Fund Eligibility Dancers who have worked professionally for ten years, and have made a specified number of monthly contributions to the scheme, are able to benefit from the fund.

Implementation Initially created through a government grant, the fund continues to receive governmental support as well as contributions from dance companies and dancers. Independent dancers need to cover both their own and the company’s portion. Dancers obtain unemployment benefits supplemented by an amount from the fund to provide nearly 70 per cent of their previous salary for approximately two or three years. In addition, dancers may be reimbursed for education and retraining costs.

Program content Dancers can obtain both financial and career assistance. A career counsellor administers the fund.

Australian programs A unified, comprehensive transition program, accessible to both independent performers and company dancers, is not in operation in Australia. At a company level, however, a transition scheme operates in The Australian Ballet and this program is profiled in the next section. While no program exists at a national level, a model for a national career transition program for dancers (Media Entertainment and Arts Alliance, 1996)

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has been formulated during the past five years and has been presented to major political parties in Australia for policy inclusion. This is also discussed in the following section.

Australia: The Australian Ballet Retraining Scheme Eligibility Employees of The Australian Ballet can request assistance from the scheme, although dancers must have eight years’ service with the company, with at least five years’ continuous employment. Application for assistance is made while dancers are current employees or within one year of leaving the company.

Implementation An initial contribution of $10 000 from the Australian Ballet Foundation was supplemented by income from other sources, including the proceeds of a gala performance. The fund is managed by an advisory committee comprising two company Board members, a former employee of The Australian Ballet, a full-time company dancer elected by the dancers and an independent convenor (with expertise in education or career guidance).

Program content Dancers can apply for financial assistance of up to $4000, but it must be no more than 60 per cent of the total fee of a formal course of study. The grant covers tuition, accommodation, texts and other materials and may be provided over the duration of a course. Continued payment of fees is contingent upon appropriate performance in the course. The committee may facilitate the process of career choice and course selection through provision of career information and referral to career counselling (The Australian Ballet, 1994).

Australia: Dancers’ Transition Program Model A committee, with representatives from the Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance, Ausdance (the national body representing dancers in the community) and the dance profession, has formulated a model (Media Entertainment and Arts Alliance, 1996) for an Australian career transition program for dancers. The model has been submitted to the Australian federal government and although it has not been supported thus far, it is presented here, given that Ausdance continues to seek federal government support.

Eligibility Dancers need to be financial members of the scheme to be eligible for assistance. All dancers would have access to an information service. Dancers with a minimum of five years’ professional experience, or who have been forced to relinquish their career due to injury, could be involved in the mentor program and the careers advice program. To access tuition assistance, travel and maintenance grants, and small business loans, dancers need at least eight years’ professional experience or to be retiring due to injury.


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Implementation The program would be funded by one-off grants from the federal government and state governments, tax-deductable donations, dance companies and dancer membership fees. The aim to be self-financing would be achieved through investments to build a capital base. It is proposed that the program would be established as a limited liability company, seeking charitable status on a state-by-state basis. There would be a board of directors comprising dancers, former dancers, representatives from dance companies, Ausdance, Media Entertainment and Arts Alliance and other individuals appointed with financial and investment expertise. Based in a national office, the program would have regional offices located in either Media Entertainment and Arts Alliance or Ausdance offices and these offices would serve as access points to the community. An administrative officer would be employed at the national office, initially on a part-time basis, with possible extension of hours based on demand. The administrative officer would offer career counselling to dancers. Accountancy and legal services would be contracted when required. Referral to and financial support of career and personal counselling services would be available to dancers on a case-by-case system.

Program content The purpose of the program is twofold – to provide both service provision and financial assistance to dancers in transition. Service provision would include: • an information service with access to information about training and scholarship opportunities, further study options, attachments and internships, funding guidelines of various arts organisations, small business establishment, sources of financial support available through social security and a quarterly newsletter which gives access to the Executive Officer and provides guidance with career exploration and decision making, • a mentor program available to eligible dancers only • a career advice program to eligible dancers only, assistance with résumé preparation, interview techniques, financial planning and identification of sources of scholarships, tuition fee assistance and other sources of financial aid. Dancers would be referred to specialised careers or personal counselling services within a limit specified by the Board. Financial assistance would include: • tuition assistance in the form of small grants to cover costs of further education and retraining for eligible members (Funds would not be provided for costs which could be covered by HECS or other sources.) • small travel grants and income maintenance grants accessible to eligible dancers (Grants would support retraining or relocation costs, both within Australia and overseas, associated with commencing tuition, employment or professional development opportunities.) • low interest loans, to assist small business establishment, available to eligible dancers who are unable to secure loans from other sources

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• small loans to dancers in exceptional circumstances who are experiencing financial difficulty.

Australian dancers’ career development in the 21st century Developments in career counselling provision to Australian dancers are imminent (Van Ulzen & Meehan, 1999). The Australian Ballet is revising their Retraining Assistance Fund to encompass the ongoing career development needs of all dancers employed by the company, irrespective of career stage (I. McRae, personal communication, August 2000). A new scheme, the Career Development Program, is being formulated and will provide career development assistance to dancers from commencement of employment and not merely during transition from performing. Also, discussions between Ausdance and the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) have begun, with exploration of possible options regarding career service provision to dancers in transition through the use of existing AIS career development and transition infrastructure (J. Dyson, personal communication, July 2000). These discussions are in their infancy but promise hope for suitable assistance to dancers, given the similarities between dancers’ and athletes’ career transition experiences.

Career development vs career transition programs Career development programs not only assist individuals in transition, but facilitate decision making, planning and management throughout a career. As an example, the National Athlete Career and Education (ACE) Program operated by the AIS in conjunction with the state institutes and academies, supports athletes to develop and pursue career plans that incorporate both sport and non-sport aspects. The program encourages athletes to consider their career after their sporting career ends, but also to utilise the career services while striving to achieve their sporting goals. Dancers, too, may benefit from services which foster lifespan career management and where there is not an emphasis on assistance only at the point of transition. While some dancers’ career transition programs do provide assistance throughout dancers’ careers, highlighting the ‘development’ component in contrast to ‘transition’ may increase the impact dancers’ programs make in facilitating this population’s career development. Refocusing dancers’ career needs beyond the transition experience also lends itself to increased career advice accessibility for more dancers in the community. Program content may not need to be altered significantly but changing eligibility requirements could allow dancers at any stage of their career to utilise services. Not all dancers are employed within a company and therefore not all dancers experience post-performance transition from an ongoing employment situation. Some dancers, mainly contemporary performers, are project-based and, as such, obtain employment depending on funding availability for specific performance projects, either as dance collectives or with smaller companies that cannot afford to operate


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continuously. Other dancers may blend careers in dance performance with work such as dance teaching, choreography, cross-discipline arts performance or employment in areas distinct from dance. Alternatively, some dancers may pursue careers in musical theatre or commercial areas, but may experience intermittent dance-performing periods, which they interpolate with casual employment in non-dance fields. The dancers profiled here may not face a temporary discrete separation from dance performance, but instead may balance a number of work activities in their aim to maintain dance performance participation. They may benefit, therefore, from services that exist in some transition programs, but to which they may not have access unless they are in the process of transition. Mentor schemes, guidance with small-business operation, job search assistance, financial planning, marketing advice and increased opportunity to form dance networks, may enhance these individuals’ dance careers by allowing them to construct and manage their careers more strategically, with greater awareness of lifespan career development. Similarly, company dancers may benefit from dance career development programs that make explicit the importance of career planning contemporaneous with a performing career. Some dancers may focus on immediate work demands related to a high quality of performance to secure or maintain a company position and so give little attention to their career development or transition planning. They may be more encouraged to participate in a career development program, however, if programs focus on continuous career management and not only career concerns at the end of the performance career. Indeed, it may be easier for dance company management to implement career development programs (even in the workplace) if programs are seen to service the career needs of all dancers, at all stages of their careers. Anecdotal reports from dance community members suggest that in some dance companies, dancers are wary of expressing their career concerns or impending career transition plans. It seems likely that dancers would be less reluctant to overtly participate in career programs that are accepted as an integral part of dancers’ professional development activities throughout their working lives and seen by dance companies as such. A reduction in dancers’ anxiety related to career transition may even result in a commensurate increase in their work practice and performance. Company dancers may benefit from career development programs in other ways. Some dancers may have reduced opportunities for acting independently in their work – taking directions from choreographers and artistic directors with resultant limited control and minimal decision-making power over their artistic work. These dancers may experience difficulty when required to make independent career development decisions, but this could be offset by continued involvement in a career development program. Moreover, the dance company environment may provide little exposure for some dancers to the broader world of work, including business and other industries and associated personnel networks. These gaps may be filled, to an extent, by career awareness courses, mentor schemes, voluntary work experience, cooperative programs and networking groups operating within a career program. Finally, the career development of dancers does not begin at the commencement of their performing career, but should be promoted within any dance education course.

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Young dance students should be encouraged to consider the time-limit on a performance career in dance when making career decisions and then be guided to actively manage their careers. Following the lead of many North American and Canadian higher education institutions, Australian universities (especially those offering courses in dance or sport) could provide compulsory course units on career development, where students actively develop skills in career planning, employment preparation and job search techniques and begin to strategise their professional career development.

Conclusion This chapter described the rationale behind career transition programs for dancers and presented a number of models that operate in different countries. Although a comprehensive dance career program is yet to be adopted and implemented in Australia, two models were detailed – one operating at a company level, the other still in the process of refinement and seeking political support. The outlook for Australian dancers’ career service provision becomes more promising, however, in the light of initial discussions between the AIS and Ausdance, which may lead to a positive outcome for the dance community (Dyson, personal communication, July 2000). There is a move towards emphasising the lifespan career development of dancers (an approach being adopted by The Australian Ballet), rather than the discrete stage of transition at a time when career services should be availed. It was proposed that this change would benefit more dancers in the community in terms of accessibility to possible programs and that dance companies could endorse programs facilitating continuous career development with associated benefits for the company. As the Australian dance community continues to lobby for government support, it can only be hoped that there comes a time when the operation of dance career services supports all Australian dancers in managing their careers with ease, redolent of the mastery and grace displayed in their art.


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14 c h a p t e r

Facilitating career guidance for unemployed workers Wendy Patton

It is against the backdrop of dynamic change presented in chapter one that the role of career guidance within the lives of individuals is undergoing considerable change. Traditionally, career guidance was provided predominantly at crucial exit points of school and university, with clients predominantly being those who were experiencing difficulty in choosing an occupation. However, the changing nature of career and the context of career development means that the ‘potential consumers of career counselling are more comprehensive than has historically been typical and they occupy all stages of life and all settings’ (Herr, 1992, p. 269). Therefore, the role of career development practitioners needs to be broadened, away from the traditional role of counselling for workforce entry into a job-for-life world, to the provision of a variety of career-related interventions for a broad range of individuals throughout the lifespan. Chapter one stressed the important individual and societal function of career guidance services. In this changing climate of work and career, it is important that these services, whether in information, counselling or program form are available to all individuals throughout their lives. However, much of the available career guidance has traditionally been restricted to a single event at school exit points; such a restricted service provision is no longer adequate. A number of writers around the world comment on the urgent need for career guidance services for adults, noting the dearth of resources, personnel and material available to this age group (Gothard, 1993; Herr, 1992; Jackson et al., 1996; McCrossin, 1994; Splete & Hutton, 1995). A particular group with a high need and yet who have received minimal attention are those who are unemployed. Jackson et al. (1996) noted that any guidance available to this group is often related to punitive government restrictions with only a relatively small published literature about the use and efficacy of career guidance provided for them. The following chapter briefly reviews both policies in relation to this group and a sample of programs.

Policy As could be expected, policy documents reveal that the issue of career guidance for those who are unemployed is seen as important, although difficult and costly to implement in terms of training, personnel and infrastructure. In reviewing provisions for long-term unemployed people in European countries, Geers, Soren and Darling


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(1992) noted that despite an emerging need, there is little systematic provision for guidance and counselling services which determine an individual’s personal directions prior to referral for training and employment. Despite this overall limitation, a number of valuable initiatives are in place. In Denmark and Belgium, initiatives include guidance services focusing on intensive individual personal and career counselling (Geers, Soren & Darling, 1992). Early intervention is also deemed to be an important strategy and guidance and counselling is offered after three months and nine months of unemployment in an attempt to prevent long-term unemployment. While these models are very positive in terms of policy, Plant (2000) highlights shortcomings in relation to adequacy of counsellor training and overall coordination between the many different organisations that provide the career services. Models of individual service provision have also been introduced in Britain (Geers, Soren & Darling, 1992; Gothard, 1993), where individual programs are developed under the umbrella of the New Deal policy. This policy is designed to provide unemployed individuals between the ages of 18 and 24 with an array of guidance services called the Gateway. It includes access to independent career guidance and specialised assistance to overcome barriers to unemployment. Key elements of the Gateway include early intensive assistance, additional training opportunities or full-time education, an emphasis on placing clients in long-term employment, local community delivery of services and follow-up support. However, the perception of recipients and providers that the programs emphasise employment and not employability remains (Sharpe, 2000). Sharpe suggests that the role of career guidance is underexplored within the Gateway set of initiatives and that clients must be assessed for career guidance needs earlier in the process. Splete and Hutton (1995) described policy reforms in the United States, including the proposed Workforce Security Act (or Re-employment Act), which is ‘geared to transform an unemployment system into a re-employment system to help workers find new careers and jobs’ (p. 44). The focus of the proposed legislation is for intensive intervention, including ‘aid in preparing employment plans, diagnostic testing, individualised counselling and planning and assistance in evaluation and selection of appropriate education and training’ (p. 44). Amundson, Borgen and Westwood (1990) reviewed the Canadian approach to unemployment policy and noted that group employment counselling training has been conducted in every region in Canada. While still being cautious about its impact on all Canadian Employment Centres, the authors were confident that, within this scenario, ‘the potential for group employment counselling is being recognised’ (p. 189). The Australian picture was described in chapter one. Essentially there is a national lack of career services available for adults and more particularly for those who are unemployed (McCrossin, 1994; Patton, 1999). Career development practitioners or guidance and counselling personnel are still mostly found in schools and other educational institutions. Here their tasks often involve other activities that reduce available time for career work. Services for adults who are not attached to education or training institutions, or labour market programs, or who live outside major cities, are virtually

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non-existent. There is a range of private providers, however as yet there is no national accreditation system for career guidance and counselling practitioners. The government in Australia (Commonwealth of Australia, 1994) has been moving closer towards full privatisation of the employment services market, thereby continuing to restrict the potential for career counselling for unemployed people. Job Network organisations, a mix of contracted private providers and a government authority operating in competition, represent the primary model of client service. While case management is undertaken with those who are long-term unemployed, a review by Patton (1996) showed that very few providers directly include career guidance processes in their practice.

Practice: sample programs While policy attempts to develop principles for and refine practice, repeated research findings emphasise the need expressed by unemployed individuals for specialised assistance in identifying career options in order to facilitate their re-entry into the workforce (Amundson & Borgen, 1987; Patton, 1995; Sharpe, 2000). Respondents in the Amundson and Borgen study commented that career counselling was a factor which helped in coping with unemployment. Further, this career guidance was seen as being necessary prior to job search skill training. Respondents in the Patton study referred to the dearth of guidance services available outside the school system and expressed a desire for greater service provision and information about their existence and accessibility. Lack of information about career guidance services was also noted as a reason why a significant number of employed and unemployed job seekers did not access professional assistance (Moracco, Butcke & Collins, 1991). This finding was even more noteworthy as the total sample in this study held a tertiary degree and presumably had been exposed to university-based career services. Very few reports of programs that included career guidance to enhance services for unemployed people are evident in the literature. Pearson (1988) reported that participants in job-searching skills courses were not benefiting from the course because ‘they had no clear idea what sort of job to apply for’ (p. 252). A particular program conducted with migrants in Canada (Amundson et al., 1991) combined individual and groupcounselling methods and specifically included vocational testing and individual counselling to help clients further their career exploration and planning. The program, based on four phases of employment counselling, includes: • establishing rapport and client readiness • using group counselling • employing vocational testing • follow-up individual counselling sessions. The steps developed by Amundson et al. (1991) were as follows: recruitment, initial group orientation, setting a career direction (expectations, barriers, coping methods, personal responsibility, self-assessment, realistic short- and long-term goals and job search strategies), application and interview preparation, vocational testing, career focus

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interviews, résumé preparation, marketing, placement and follow-up. Borgen (1995) refined the program further. Identified as the Starting Points Program, it is a groupbased needs-assessment program that helps unemployed clients to identify their barriers to employment and to focus on their assets and personal strengths. It culminates in an action plan or plans designed to connect the clients with the help they need to address the identified barriers. Another program example is evident in the work of Magnussen (1992) who presented a model of self-directed adaptation based on the value of counselling, and career counselling in particular, to help individuals cope with and move on from the experience of unemployment. The model is guided by three key principles: • accounting for the contextual and developmental needs of the individual • provision of ongoing support (monitoring progress, providing performance feedback and development of social support systems) • fostering personal adaptability for change in each individual. The model presents a hierarchical process of self-directed adaptation with seven hierarchical levels of support (intensive support, advising/guiding, coaching, formal instruction, consulting, self-help and personal innovation) and four primary processes to facilitate the support (counselling, advocacy, instructional activities and peer support). Each of these processes decreases in intensity as the need for levels of support decreases. The hierarchical nature of the model provides a broad framework that allows individual entry points according to needs. For example, an individual with clear career goals and well-developed skills may require some coaching, formal instruction and consulting. An individual without this base may require intensive support and the attendant processes of counselling, advocacy and instructional activities. Salveson, Ward and Zukas (1994) reported on the Gateway to Learning Project, as the initiative based on the British scheme of providing new guidance opportunities for adults is known. The project was targeted towards the following groups: • long-term unemployed people • short-term unemployed people • people facing retrenchment • Asian communities. The scheme was based on the voucher system whereby individuals cash in a voucher for a guidance session of a predetermined length of time. A number of private providers were approved and individuals with vouchers were free to choose the service they deemed to be most appropriate to them. Sharpe (2000) reported that, in many cases, the individuals and the providers were confused about what constituted career guidance. Reflecting the experience in many countries, the constraints of paperwork and time were an impediment to the quality of the service that could be provided. Another career guidance intervention was conducted in Australia by Donohue and Patton (1998). The intervention was provided as an adjunctive component of a number of job training programs being offered at a community-based unemployment support centre. Eighty-three per cent of participants had never experienced career


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guidance and nearly half had no clear conception of future career paths. The program was based on the work of Amundson and his colleagues in Canada outlined on p. 148. Initially, participants were provided with a brief introductory session. Based on clientexpressed needs, testing was conducted (in a group setting) in relation to interests and abilities. Respondents were then provided with an individual career counselling session with a vocational psychologist. Essentially, these sessions consisted of a process where information concerning work experience, education, interests and abilities was processed. Information provided by the career tests was synthesised and career options explored. Finally, participants learned about relevant sources of career information and guidance for ongoing support. Advice about accessing job search skills programs was also provided. This model has been adopted by the Queensland Department of Employment, Training and Industrial Relations as a pilot model (Quinn, 2000). A program of group guidance and individual career counselling was begun for young unemployed people as part of a federal government initiative in Australia (Patton, 1999). The initiative was designed to assist young people to revisit or develop career research and decision-making skills within the context of a structured set of experiences to facilitate knowledge of self and the world of work and associated education and training pathways. The program is available only to young people who, under government mutual obligation agreements with those who are unemployed, have chosen education or training in their attempt to become more competitive in the labour market. The mutual obligation requirement aims to encourage young people to participate in education and training. Career counselling is provided for young people who may be unsure about short- and long-term career goals. Similar to the provision of counselling for unemployed people within the framework of a trade union reported from Germany (Kieselbach & Lunger, 1990), a program for workers in the construction industry in one state in Australia was described by Furness (1999). In addition to functions normally conducted by the building and construction redundancy payment central fund, INCOLINK offers a wide range of other services to benefit members and the construction industry at large. These services centre around a Training, Employment and Careers (TEC) unit that aims to provide all members, employees and employers, both employed and unemployed, with a range of training, employment and careers services (Furness, 1999). Maintaining employment services is the core business of the TEC and it works closely with the training and careers sections to facilitate the provision of industry-recognised skills to assist members in getting and keeping jobs. The employment section maintains worker profiles, a register of available jobs, a register of unemployed apprentices and school leavers. It has also operated as a contracted case manager for long-term unemployed construction industry workers. The training section does not actually conduct training programs, but funds employed and unemployed workers to attend relevant training programs to improve skills and upgrade qualifications. Careers services centre around the provision of career counselling for both unemployed workers and employed workers who need to change their work because of capacity or choice. In addition, this service provides information in the form of a careers guide and assists with résumé preparation.

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Evaluations of effectiveness In addition to the dearth of literature on career guidance programs for those who are unemployed, there is a paucity of work evaluating their effectiveness. Amundson and Borgen (1988) followed up their investigation cited previously (Amundson & Borgen, 1987) and conducted interviews with members of job search groups. Their findings illustrated the benefit of the group experience, the practical job search skills learned and the availability and use of counselling support services. Another finding of this research is that the participants’ preferred timing for the job search group experience was within the first three months of unemployment, thereby potentially preventing longer periods of unemployment. Follow-up research with participants by Amundson et al. (1991) was conducted through analysis of statistical data on job placement or education enrolment and through in-depth interviews. These methods confirmed the value of the testing and counselling, not only in terms of the participants’ experiences but also in terms of successful job placement. Again, these researchers emphasised that greater success in job or school placement was with those who had been unemployed for a shorter time. Borgen (1999) evaluated the Starting Points Program and reported that it was effective for a wide range of long-term unemployed clients. The evaluation identified the need for a greater infrastructure, including a variety of resources. Borgen noted that clients were frustrated over the lack of community resources and that this had decreased their motivation to pursue career-related activities. A feature of evaluations that have been conducted is their reliance on labour market outcomes. Maaloe (1994) reviewed a number of studies in Denmark, particularly with young people, and noted that it was difficult to assess direct employment effect. However, it was clear that guidance programs linked with labour market schemes had a number of positive long-term effects, including increased self-confidence and increased motivation for training or continued job searching. Echoing other findings, Maaloe also noted that young people at most risk, for example early school leavers and longterm unemployed people, benefit least from the schemes. Evaluations of effectiveness of the Gateway to Learning Project were conducted via interviews with 154 respondents (Salveson et al., 1994). Approximately half of the respondents requested general educational and career counselling. While many others wanted specific course or job information, they also required considerable support from guidance workers. A significant proportion of the sample believed that they now had new directions in relation to their career, had an increased awareness of their skills and abilities and their educational and employment potential. The value of the experience was such that 75 per cent of respondents believed that they would again access guidance in the future. Donohue and Patton (1998) conducted an evaluation of their program through a series of pre- and post-intervention interviews. Sixty-seven per cent of participants indicated that, overall, they found the intervention to be very effective (strongest endorsement on a 5-point Likert scale), providing strong support for the efficacy of professional career guidance. The program of assessment of interests and abilities coupled


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with face-to-face feedback of test results and facilitated career options exploration was supported. While there is the possibility of a Hawthorne effect occurring (particularly considering the lack of previous career guidance and direction initially within the sample), these positive responses have also been reported by others (Amundson et al., 1991; Maaloe, 1994; Salveson, 1994). Participants also reported benefits relating to issues such as increased knowledge of self, improved direction in terms of career goals, confirmation of their own perception of their skills and abilities and improved self-confidence and self-efficacy. Again, these outcomes have been reported by others (Maaloe, 1994; Salveson, Ward & Zukas, 1994). Ninety-one per cent of the sample in the Donohue and Patton (1998) study believed that they had formed more realistic expectations regarding the types of employment options they would like to pursue following completion of the career guidance process. The majority of participants were only able to generate one or two options when completing the pre-intervention questionnaire, however most were able to comment on four or more areas that they would like to pursue after the intervention. Additionally, it is worth noting that the labels or categories used to describe areas of interest in the post-intervention questionnaire became far more generalist and broad, for example ‘the construction industry’ rather than ‘a bricklayer’, compared to those used in the pre-intervention questionnaire. An apparent contradiction in these findings is the large number of respondents who believed that the career guidance process both helped them to expand work options and to focus on a particular field. Ostensibly, these findings seem difficult to reconcile as they appear to be indicating two incongruent outcomes – that the career guidance process helped to expand, as well as circumscribe and focus, career direction. However, when one considers that nearly half of the sample had no idea of future career interests prior to the intervention, it is plausible to assume that focusing upon a future career (essentially a refining process) can also represent an expansion of options when none existed previously.

Conclusion The need for career guidance programs for adults, and in particular for unemployed people, remains a vital concern in the 21st century. These programs need to include, where appropriate, group-based and individual-based interventions, incorporating needs assessment, group and individual counselling and assessment. Unemployed clients need access to these services before training in job search skills. It would seem that there is often an implicit assumption that the unemployed should search for any job (Sharpe, 2000) and, as a consequence, they do not require career guidance. However, where data on effectiveness of career guidance programs has been sought, positive outcomes for participants have been illustrated. Career guidance programs have provided long-term unemployed participants with greater focus, personal insight and self-confidence, factors that are clearly beneficial in terms of finding employment. Moreover, it also logically follows that people who are long-term unemployed are more likely to secure and maintain employment in work which is congruent with their

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interests and abilities. Clearly, when such programs are implemented, they need to be delivered by practitioners who are appropriately qualified. Unemployed people who have received career guidance need to be provided with additional information, support and resources required to effectively act upon the data obtained by this type of intervention. This chapter has highlighted the need and demand for career development programs for unemployed people. It has emphasised that it is not sufficient to focus on job search skills; programs must focus on needs assessment and career assessment, information provision and career counselling.


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15 c h a p t e r

Career programs for people with disabilities Robyn M. Gillies and Karen Knight

Obtaining and maintaining work for people with disabilities is becoming increasingly difficult due to the ever-changing nature of work brought about by globalisation, changes in technology and the associated changes for workers in their skills and knowledge base. Despite a concerted effort by both the federal and state governments in Australia to promote employment opportunities for people with disabilities, current data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2000) shows that people in the 15–64 age group with a disability spent over 30 per cent less time on education and employment activities than people without a disability. Further, the majority of people with disabilities are either unemployed or in low-paid employment when compared with their non-disabled peers. Given that individuals often define their perceptions of themselves through their ability to work and make a positive contribution to society, many individuals with disabilities are at risk of never being able to have these needs met. In fact, ‘there is evidence that the vast majority of students with disabilities never attain a satisfactory level of career development consistent with their capabilities’ (Brolin & Gysbers, 1989, p. 155). In essence, it has been argued that disability is a risk factor that needs to be carefully considered when providing career development and counselling services to individuals with disabilities (Kosciulek, 1998). Research shows that students with disabilities frequently leave school without relevant work skills or the ability to function independently (Curnow, 1989). This is further exacerbated by the tendency of job placement organisations and agencies to determine eligibility for services, to prescribe interventions and to impose limitations on the services they provide. In short, many people with disabilities report experiencing prejudicial attitudes by others about their potential for work that often leaves them with feelings of disillusionment and disempowerment.

Recognising the difficulties The lack of opportunities to participate in work, to test one’s competencies and to form a perception of one’s self as a worker can impede career development (Kosciulek, 1998). In fact, gaining and maintaining employment has been an uphill battle for many people with disabilities (Gillies, Knight & Baglioni, 1998). Recognition of the difficulties many people with disabilities encounter in obtaining and maintaining employment resulted in the enactment of the Disability Discrimination Act in federal parliament in


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1992. This Act is based on the Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990 and was intended to provide protection against disability discrimination in employment practices and in public access to facilities such as transport, communications, education and other government services. The common purpose of the Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990 is to provide a clear and comprehensive national mandate for the elimination of discrimination against individuals with disabilities (Anderson, Kazmierski & Cronin, 1995). In Australia, the Disability Discrimination Act, like the Americans with Disabilities Act, makes discrimination on the grounds of disability unlawful and protects the rights of people with disabilities. It covers discrimination in all areas of public life, applies to public and private service providers and complements various state legislation on anti-discrimination practices. The Disability Discrimination Act provided the impetus for the development of the Commonwealth Disability Strategy (Commonwealth Department of Human Services and Health, 1995), which is a ten-year plan of action for federal departments and agencies to remove barriers in their policies, programs and services for people with disabilities. Under this legislation, departments are required to report to Government every two years on progress and the Minister for Human Services and Health is required to table a report in federal parliament on the overall progress in implementing the strategy. This public reporting of progress by all government departments and agencies has helped to create momentum for change in the community at both national and state level. As a consequence, all government departments and agencies have policies and plans designed to erase discriminatory practices against people with a disability. It can often be very difficult to overcome entrenched discrimination in the workforce and to do it successfully often requires extensive consultations by relevant government authorities with key stakeholders such as disability organisations, training providers and employing organisations.

The Australian National Training Authority Disability forum In 1999, the Australian National Training Authority (ANTA ) Disability forum published Bridging Pathways: A National Plan of Action for Increasing Opportunities for People with a Disability in Vocational Education and Training. Bridging Pathways, which was developed through extensive consultation with different organisations representing people with disabilities, training providers, advisory bodies and government agencies, recognises the importance of empowering people with disabilities to access and pursue vocational education and training opportunities and acknowledges the negative effect on individuals, industry and the wider community that results from under-representation of people with a disability in these programs. Bridging Pathways has four goals, designed to: • open the door and increase access to vocational education and training for people with a disability • improve successful participation and attainment in all areas of vocational education and training

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• achieve outcomes in employment and lifelong learning to allow people with a disability to make a greater contribution to the economic and social life of the community • create an accountable system that ensures equitable outcomes for people with a disability. While Bridging Pathways is still in draft form (at the time of publication), it describes a vocational education and training system that recognises diversity of individuals’ support needs and the importance of the system identifying these people and facilitating their inclusion. It proposes to do this by: • developing new approaches to increase the scope and opportunity to work • placing a stronger focus on prevention and early intervention for students with a disability to allow them to access vocational education and training (VET) programs in school • developing a new funding model to support more individual assistance in training • improving incentives for economic and social participation • liaising more closely with other services to ensure appropriately resourced services for people with a disability. It embeds these actions in the ANTA National Work priorities and various state VET plans. These strategies are designed to enhance ANTA’s capacity to be more successful at meeting the needs of all disability groups by facilitating collaboration between training providers and disability support programs in other government departments. This approach to building strategic alliances and partnerships has been successful in the United States in facilitating access to community programs and resources, including a range of supported-employment initiatives for people with a disability (Neubert, 1997). Building key community partnerships to facilitate access to education and training for people with disabilities is now widely recognised (Halpern, 1992) and consumer lobby groups have been successful in promoting the position that people with disabilities need to have more input into the decisions that affect their lives (Kosciulek, 1998). Just as students without disabilities are expected to plan their secondary and post-secondary programs, students with disabilities need to engage in a similar process of self-determination. Moreover, it is argued that community access programs need to identify and teach self-determination skills so students with disabilities can be involved in successfully planning for their futures (Neubert, 1997). However, while many community agencies advocate for self-determination, there are very few programs or initiatives for people with disabilities that exemplify this approach. One program that we have been able to identify is the New Apprenticeships Partnership for Students with Disabilities – a project designed to develop clearly defined pathways for students with disabilities into apprenticeships and traineeships (G. Clarke, personal communication, 29 August 2000).

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Building a partnership for students with disabilities The New Apprenticeships Partnership for Students with Disabilities Project is a collaborative initiative between a number of Queensland state schools on the Gold Coast and employment service providers. The project recognises that students with disabilities encounter many barriers to participating in apprenticeships and traineeships often because of the lack of understanding of how the scheme works, a focus on the disability rather than the student’s potential and a lack of information about the supports available. Each of the partners in the project has made a specific commitment to help participating students obtain an apprenticeship or a traineeship. The project targets students with a range of impairments, for example vision, hearing, multiple, physical, speech, intellectual impairments and autistic spectrum disorder, with low to high levels of support needs and identifies potential pathways to future employment. Students with moderate-to-high levels of support needs access apprenticeships and traineeships via the Employment Support Services, New Apprenticeship Centres and Centrelink, while students with low-to-moderate support needs access employment opportunities via Centrelink and the Jobs Pathway Program administered by the South Coast Industry Schools Coordinating Organisation. The New Apprenticeships Partnership for Students with Disabilities Project is designed to ensure that all key stakeholders are actively involved, including the participating students. Involvement is important in understanding the processes in obtaining apprenticeships and traineeships and the part that schools and each of the service providers play. In this project, students are provided with help in determining if an apprenticeship or traineeship is appropriate or desirable. Information is also provided on the steps involved in acquiring an apprenticeship or traineeship, who can help in the process, for example schools and Centrelink, and what help they are likely to provide. Schools and their staff work with students to help them develop personal future action plans in which goals are identified along with the steps involved in the process. The role of the service providers and their commitment to the partnership is also fully explained. For service providers, information is provided on understanding the transition process for students with disabilities and the role each service provider can play in the process. In essence, the project aims to ensure that the transition process is empowering for the student, the role and responsibilities of stakeholders is clear and the services provided are responsive to students’ needs. Preliminary research on 1999 data indicates that 70 per cent of the total students exiting the program achieved an employment-related goal. However, if partial goal achievement is included, this figure increases to 81 per cent (G. Clarke, personal communication, 29 August 2000). These outcomes are truly impressive given that most students with significant disabilities often fail to obtain any work-related training once they leave school. This program is an exemplar of what can be achieved when students’ career development needs are identified and appropriate education and support programs are provided to ensure a smooth transition to post-school options.


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Career development programs Recognising the importance of empowering students in the career development process has helped to focus attention on the need to provide career planning and education in a systematic and purposeful way in schools. In fact, Brolin and Gysbers (1989) argue that if employment and living successfully in the community are major educational goals for students with disabilities, then curriculum offerings need to reflect these goals. School curriculum may need to be more broadly based with a more functional approach so that students with disabilities can be helped to acquire the competencies they will need to survive in today’s society (Levinson, 1994). While we were unable to uncover an example of the systematic implementation of such a curriculum in Australian schools for students with disabilities, the Life-Centered Career Education curriculum (Brolin, 1976; 1982; Brolin & Kokaska, 1979) in the United States is presented as an example of such a curriculum. Although this curriculum has been primarily designed for students who are intellectually impaired, it provides a curriculum model that can be readily adapted to students with diverse learning and adjustment needs. The Life-Centered Career Education (LCCE) curriculum focuses on developing twenty-two major competencies that students with disabilities need if they are to be prepared for community living and working. These learner competencies have been organised into three primary categories: daily living skills, personal–social skills and occupational guidance and preparation skills. These competencies are learned in and across school, family and community settings and must be acquired if children with disabilities are to be assured of successful career outcomes. A curriculum model has been adopted for organising these competencies, which are acquired through the stages of career awareness, exploration, preparation and workplace experiences. The following discussion briefly describes the major competencies within the three curriculum areas and the four stages of career development as they relate to successful competency attainment. The daily living competencies include managing personal needs and home and family finances, participating in family living, acquiring personal mobility skills and utilising leisure time. For example, students become aware that money, a house and personal needs must be managed appropriately. As children mature, they begin to explore different ways in which these needs can be managed. In essence, through their exposure to different situations and life experiences, children learn that there are different ways in which these needs can be met. As students move from one situation to another, very specific career preparation activities are undertaken to ensure that they develop the competencies needed to function effectively in their new environment. In the daily living area, students with disabilities may be expected to demonstrate those competencies associated with travelling independently on public transport as preparation for workplace experiences. Work experience opportunities may include both paid and unpaid work where students are able to assume responsible, adult roles. The advantage of work experience is that it identifies any competency deficiencies and where further training is needed.

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Personal–social competencies include those skills needed for personal achievement and satisfactory interpersonal relationships. The seven personal–social competencies that have been identified include developing self-awareness, acquiring self-confidence, demonstrating socially responsible behaviour, maintaining appropriate interpersonal skills, achieving independence, developing problem-solving skills and communicating adequately with others. In the early years of school, emphasis is attached to developing an awareness of self and a positive body image. The positive body image is important because it contributes to an individual’s sense of self and worth. Interests and abilities are identified through experiences with different manipulative materials such as play dough, playtime activities and pre-academic learning such as rhyming games. In these early years, emphasis is attached to developing and using language to be able to communicate needs and enjoy the social company of others. As children mature, these personal–social competencies are refined so that children learn age-appropriate behaviours for communicating needs, acting responsibly towards others and developing personal independence. The occupational guidance and preparation competencies include those skills identified as important to the career development process of students with disabilities. These skills include knowing and exploring occupational possibilities; selecting and planning occupational choices; developing and exhibiting appropriate work habits and behaviours; seeking, securing and maintaining employment; exhibiting sufficient physical–manual skills; and obtaining a specific occupational skill. While preparation begins in the early primary school years and continues throughout life, special attention is given to developing these competencies during high school when children are often provided with the opportunity to participate in work experience programs. It is at this stage that the resources of the school, family and the community agencies need to be synchronised to assure the career development needs of the student. When occupational guidance and preparation is combined with developing general academic abilities and daily living and personal–social skills, a total life-careerneeds approach for students with disabilities is established (Brolin, 1982). Students who have the opportunity to participate in such a program are more likely to be able to successfully negotiate the transition from school to post-school placements (Levinson, 1994).

School-to-work transition programs In order to facilitate the transition process, school-to-work programs must include schoolbased and work-based learning integrated with appropriate activities designed to link the learning that occurs in one setting with that in another in order to facilitate generalisation of information and skills (Levinson, 1994; Neubert, 1997). This section outlines the relevant learning that must occur in each of these settings: school, work and school-to-work. These have been developed from Neubert. School-based learning includes: • developing an understanding of self and others and the world of work


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• exploring possible career pathways and opportunities • identifying current interests, skills, attitudes and support required to implement one’s future plan • developing academic skills required to facilitate community access, for example reading a train timetable, managing money • embedding the development of academic and occupational skills in the curriculum. Work-based learning includes: • work experience across industry areas • job training • work shadowing • mentoring programs. Activities which may link school- and work-based learning include: • identifying appropriate educational options such as TAFE and communitybased training initiatives • identifying programs and employment opportunities • participating in part-time and supported employment • participating in leisure and recreational activities. In summary, career development programs need to be implemented in a systematic and purposeful way in schools if students with disabilities are to acquire the skills and competencies needed for employment and successful living in the community. Such programs need to begin in the early school years and be more broadly based with a focus on developing daily living competencies, personal–social competencies and occupational training and preparation competencies. These competencies need to be embedded in a total life-career-needs approach with a focus on facilitating the transition from school-based to work-based learning. By actively promoting community partnerships in school-to-work transition programs, it is not only possible to optimise on the support available to students with disabilities, but also helps to ensure that they are involved in the career-planning process.

Future directions Although there have been a number of initiatives at both the state and national level in Australia, there are still many changes that need to be undertaken before people with disabilities can be guaranteed the same career development and employment opportunities extended to their non-disabled peers. Some of these changes need to include clarification of legislation dealing with discrimination and the explication of government policy, including services and funding arrangements, for people with disabilities. Clarification of anti-discrimination legislation is necessary because there is still confusion among employer groups, training institutions, unions and the legal profession on the development of specific standards in employment and education for people with disabilities. For example, to what extent should an employer be expected to make

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structural changes to the workplace for an employee with a disability and to what extent can the employee require these changes to be made? If neither party can agree on an outcome, then what are their options if specific anti-discrimination standards do not exist. Another example may involve students with physical disabilities seeking to participate in an educational training program run in a mainstream school, primarily with the purpose of preparing students for a field of work in which they will need to be very physically active. While these examples may seem quite straightforward and easily resolved there are, in fact, a number of complexities associated with each issue that raise a myriad of potential legal concerns. The concern of many of the disability interest groups is that there are few clear-cut guidelines and issues often have to be painstakingly resolved either through mediation or litigation. In the latter instance, the costs involved are usually prohibitively expensive and often beyond the financial resources of people with disabilities, thus further contributing to feelings of frustration and disempowerment (Gillies & Knight, in preparation). Government policy, including services and funding arrangements, can also be a source of ongoing frustration and conflict for people with disabilities. For example, employment and other career development programs are frequently funded on an outcomes basis, for example the number of successful placements obtained by an employment agency for their client, rather than the length of time the person with the disability was able to maintain the position. Furthermore, these agencies often fail to consider the type of support the person with a disability will require while on the job, the support and training needed to prepare for work and the individual’s future career development needs. People with disabilities are frequently denied key experiences that shape work readiness, so they come to the labour market at an increased disadvantage, often not having acquired the requisite work-based skills and experiences needed for future employment. In schools, students are often excluded by parents or teachers from work experience opportunities and sent to agencies for people with disabilities where their chances of participating in community work-based experience programs are tightly proscribed or limited. In fact, there is anecdotal evidence to suggest that students with disabilities are less likely to access satisfying work experience opportunities than their non-disabled peers (Gillies & Knight, in preparation). Given the limitations and restrictions that apply to accessing appropriate work preparation and experience opportunities, the focus needs to be on the implementation of and access to career development programs that would address the specific needs of this group. This would ensure that people with disabilities have the same opportunities as their non-disabled peers to acquire the skills and experiences needed for employment.

Conclusion Strong anti-discrimination legislation and supportive government policy is needed to assist people with disabilities in their struggle to gain an equitable place in the world of work (Anderson, Kazmierski & Cronin, 1995; Neath & Schriner, 1998). Bridging Pathways, with an emphasis on community consultation, is an example of how


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government policy on increasing opportunities for people with a disability in vocational education and training can be implemented. However, although building community partnerships to facilitate access to education and training is crucial to the success of these programs, the focus is also on what schools can do to prepare students with disabilities for participation in these programs. Schools play an important role in preparing students for the world of work and programs such as the New Apprenticeships Partnership for Students with Disabilities are important not only because they link students with service providers but also because they ensure that schools and service providers understand the crucial role each plays in the school-to-work transition process. Furthermore, students’ needs for selfdetermination are acknowledged and encouraged as they are provided with the opportunity to participate in identifying appropriate apprenticeships or traineeships. School-to-work programs that include both school-based and work-based learning are needed to facilitate the transition process (Neubert, 1997). The LCCE (Brolin, 1976, 1982) is an example of an integrated school-to-work curriculum that focuses on developing competencies in the areas of daily living, personal–social and occupational guidance and preparation that students will need for community living and working. Through a program of appropriately structured learning experiences designed to consider the total life-career needs of students with disabilities, the LCCE curriculum aims to develop those competencies that will enable students to negotiate the transition from school to post-school options. This process is more likely to succeed when schoolbased and work-based learning is integrated with activities designed to link the learning that has occurred in both settings with that in another to ensure generalisation of information and skills. Successful participation in part-time and supported employment activities and leisure and recreation activities empowers people with disabilities to live independently, enjoy self-determination, make choices, contribute to the community and pursue meaningful career options (Kosciulek, 1998).

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16 c h a p t e r

Outplacement programs in Australia: A consultant’s perspective Anita Cyngler

When I got to the eleventh floor I found Justine Case, the EC organisation’s HR Director, hovering near the lift. Justine quietly asked me if I was Anita, being careful not to mention the name of the company I represent. She then ushered me into an empty office asking, ‘Will this do?’. As usual, the room was far from ideal, but this was not my main concern. I made sure that we both understood that I was not to be disturbed during my meeting, under any circumstances. Justine inquired whether I needed anything else. I asked for a jug of water, glasses and a large box of tissues. I wasn’t looking forward to my meeting with Stephen Rigby, the General Manager of EC Australia. The sole reason for my visit was that, as of this morning, Stephen no longer had a position with EC. Although I wouldn’t be the person to break the news to him, I was there to offer support when he found out.

In the beginning Outplacement services were first offered to Australian executives about twenty years ago. Pickman (1994) defines outplacement counselling as ‘a process of assisting employees who have lost their jobs to develop effective career plans and to find new employment’ (p. ix). I would add to this that transition is not just about finding jobs. Some retrenched workers are not looking for employment. Transition is usually difficult and outplacement programs help people through the transition and give them the opportunity to assess their preferred direction and to align that with their passions and values. From small beginnings, the size of the industry increased dramatically in the late 1980s and early 1990s when utility, finance and public sector companies underwent large-scale restructuring. Numerous clerical and middle-management jobs were no longer needed. The impact of free trade and globalisation created many job losses in the manufacturing sector. Consequently outplacement was offered to middle managers, then to more junior staff.


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The main players The main providers of outplacement in Australia are Morgan & Banks, Right D&A, DBM and Lee Hecht Harrison. They all operate from well-appointed offices in and around the central business district in Melbourne, Sydney, Perth and Brisbane. Morgan & Banks, DBM and Right D&A also have offices in Adelaide. DBM and Morgan & Banks have offices in Canberra, while DBM have an office in Hobart. In preparing this chapter, I interviewed the principals of each of these organisations, as well as a new player, Workshift (with offices in Sydney and Melbourne), that has been in existence for three years. All these companies offer outplacement services based on United States models with some adjustment for Australian conditions and culture. There is one major difference that has been introduced by Morgan & Banks. Their programs are delivered on-line via the Internet instead of via traditional manuals. This is a significant innovation in outplacement and has advantages for candidates in remote areas. An added benefit of this method is that it improves candidates’ Internet skills. To their credit, Morgan & Banks have not diminished consultant contact, which is a vital ingredient in any outplacement program. Throughout the chapter, I refer to these companies as outplacement, or service providers, the companies that are offered the service are referred to as clients and the retrenched workers are referred to as candidates.

Why outplacement? Charles Handy (1991) noted that in the new core organisation there will be ‘half the people, paid twice as much, working three times as effectively’ (p. 119). He and other authors talk about the de-jobbed society. While not everyone has heard of, or accepted, the demise of the job, it is difficult to meet a person who does not know someone who has been affected by retrenchment. The old job for life has gone. We need to understand the new ways of working in order to succeed. Handy refers to ‘discontinuity’ (p. 5), that is there are no predictable patterns. The reasons for these significant and widespread changes are many, but there are two salient causes – globalisation and rapid advances in technology. While retrenchment continues to increase, employers need to be mindful of their reputation. Offering an outplacement program signals to current, and prospective employees, that the company looks after its staff. Originally only large organisations offered such programs. In the last three to five years, small- and medium-sized organisations have also started to provide this service to their retrenched workers. Outplacement providers help employers approach the difficult process of redundancy in a dignified and professional way. This help may include developing a downsizing strategy, coaching managers in conducting exit interviews and helping them to deal with employees who have survived retrenchment. Terminations are dealt with in ways that reduce the risk of litigation.

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What is an outplacement program? Although an outplacement program often has structure, it is fluid and by no means predictable. There is no such thing as a generic program. Each program is tailored to the needs of the individual candidate, making it difficult to describe a typical process with great accuracy. However, in order to inform, I will give an outline of what a typical program may look like. An outplacement program usually has four components: • Information and exercises, either hard copy or on-line, which involve the candidate in self-exploration and help him or her understand and cope with transition. These are important prerequisites to career decision-making and also help develop the candidate’s résumé and job search skills. • Regular meetings, during which the outplacement consultant acts as a sounding board and helps the candidate build motivation and skills and maintain focus. • Workshops, which deal with career decision-making, résumé writing, interview skills, networking skills, job applications, dealing with recruitment agencies, contract and temporary employment, motivation, stress management and the effect of retrenchment on families. The number of participants in workshops varies, but is usually between five and fifteen people. • Use of office facilities, including access to computer, Internet, fax, photocopier, message and typing services. Candidates access the above four components of the program on the premises of the outplacement provider. Senior executives can expect to be offered a more select service in a secluded environment. This would also normally involve a longer time frame (with built-in flexibility to fulfil the candidate’s needs) and extra benefits such as their own office, unlimited access to a senior outplacement consultant, car parking, secretarial services, health benefits, full psychological assessment and financial advice. Programs vary in length depending on the amount the employer is willing to spend. Most are for six to eight weeks, but four-, twelve- or even sixteen-week programs are not unusual. The costs start from $1500–$6000 and may extend to $8500–$25 000 at the senior executive end of the market. Some outplacement providers appear to give a lot more time to candidates than the program allows, even incurring some financial loss in the process. When a large organisation undergoes across-the-board restructuring, the outplacement provider may set up a job centre for blue-collar, administration and middlemanagement employees, specifically for that project. Typically, this would involve a number of outplacement consultants, dedicated to the group, to provide individual support along with workshops on job skills, typing support and some facilities to research the job market. Outplacement programs typically go through a number of steps. As each situation is unique, content and timing of the program largely depends on the candidate. However, the following provides an outline of the steps within outplacement programs.

Outplacement Programs in Australia

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Step 1 The most important part in the beginning is to establish rapport. The outplacement consultant needs to ascertain the candidate’s career context, passions, hopes and dreams and, especially, to clarify his or her needs. This should include finding out about the reaction of the candidate’s family to the redundancy. Then it’s time to start transition and self-exploration exercises in conjunction with regular meetings with the consultant. Some candidates need to have a résumé as soon as possible. It is important for the consultant not to get caught in the candidate’s anxiety to get the résumé done; the consultant needs to use his or her own judgement as to the appropriate timing for exercises. There is a danger that the candidate who has rushed through the process may still be grieving and as a result will not present well at interviews. Most retrenched employees leave the organisation within a couple of days. This is probably ideal. In some extreme, and totally undesirable, circumstances people are told to leave immediately and escorted off the premises. They have no time to say goodbye and their belongings are sent to them. Understandably, this method creates a lot of resentment and anger. When this extreme course of action is taken it may be due to the fear that the retrenched worker will cause havoc with computer systems and other confidential material. Sometimes the candidate is not due to leave for weeks, even months. An even worse situation is where they don’t have any end date at all. This is not only unsettling, but encourages the candidate to stay in denial, a normal stage of the grieving process. Frequently, this results in an inability to make the transition and address looking for another job. Often managers are uncomfortable communicating the exact termination date to the retrenched worker. When this happens, they need to be reminded that it’s most important to do so clearly, and as soon as possible, to enable the person to accept the finality of the retrenchment decision and move on emotionally. Some redundancies are voluntary, but even in these cases, people may experience the grieving process. It’s just as important to work with these candidates to help them manage the negative aspects of the transition. The grief reaction can be just as strong as in those whose redundancy is not voluntary. There are many reasons for this, such as fear of the unknown, self-doubt, sadness about losing the company of colleagues, sentimentality about the organisation and misgivings that their confidence is misplaced. These reactions can be fuelled by colleagues who do not have the courage to make the move and ask questions that highlight to the employee that there are many unknowns.

Step 2 This is a very busy time. There are many tangible things to do. Candidates complete self-exploration exercises dealing with skills, values, motivation and goals in order to identify their employment direction. These exercises may be available on-line (Morgan & Banks), or in paper questionnaire form. The work is augmented with workshops and meetings with the consultant.

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It is important, at this time, to take the candidate’s whole life situation into account. It may be useful to bring in other members of the family to help them understand the process so they can help the retrenched worker. An example that illustrates this is the case of Jim, a 60-year-old blue-collar worker from a manufacturing company. Jim’s main problem was that he was not in touch with reality and kept inventing strange and wonderful ideas for businesses that he intended to start in the small country town where he lived. From his description of his wife, I knew that she had more common sense. I suggested that Jim bring her along. She attended a number of our appointments and was successful in helping to ‘ground’ Jim and keep him on track. Next, we focus on job skill development – writing résumé, application letters, responding to job advertisements, developing the candidate’s networking and interview skills. Jan, a middle-aged woman who was keen and diligent turned up for an appointment during which we were going to review her résumé. She admitted that she had not even started working on it. I thought this was out-of-character. When I asked how she was feeling Jan told me things were very hard at the moment because her father was terminally ill and she could not concentrate. I was able to reassure her and tell her that had I known, I would not have expected to see her résumé. We spent the next few weeks helping her deal with her emotions. When she re-started her job search we were able to identify the type of work she wanted. She quickly secured employment. Had my intervention not been successful, I would have referred her to an appropriate therapist.

Step 3 This is one of the hardest steps. The candidate tries to combine everything he or she has learned in the course of self-exploration and skill development and puts it into practice. At this time, motivation and confidence often flag in the face of multiple rejections. The consultant helps the candidate to maintain self-esteem and focus and encourages lateral thinking to fully utilise his or her networks. The candidate applies for advertised positions and practices networking, sometimes referred to as accessing the ‘hidden job market’ as a large percentage of job vacancies are not advertised.

Step 4 Usually when a candidate gets a job, there is a celebration. The candidate is asked to talk about how she or he got the job as inspiration to others. For some candidates, the goal is not to get a job, but to start one’s own business. Others may decide to semiretire, and divide their time between part-time paid work and voluntary work, or to increase their involvement in a hobby or sport. Frank, a 62-year-old widower who was retrenched from a large organisation was a typical example of a candidate in this situation. His work had been to administer company payroll and he was familiar with the software. Frank secured contract work with a former customer to set up their payroll system.


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Skills of a good outplacement consultant Outplacement consultants can be categorised into two groups according to their role: marketing of the provider’s services and service delivery. In most outplacement provider organisations, consultants do both the marketing and the delivery. Some organisations employ consultants who do only service delivery with no marketing. However, consultants engaged in marketing invariably do a small amount of service delivery. Senior managers in all the major outplacement companies were asked to describe the qualities of an ideal outplacement consultant. The qualities emphasised included a passion to help people, detachment, wisdom, credibility, honesty, a cheerful positive disposition and an absence of ‘their own baggage’. Experience of career changes in their own lives, having their own networks, a sound knowledge of job search skills and the job market and corporate experience appropriate to the level of the candidate were also suggested as necessary requirements. Consultants who are also involved in marketing need to have good relationship-building and maintenance skills and an ability to maintain compassion while keeping an eye on the bottom line. In addition, these consultants need to have an understanding of their client’s organisation, as they often advise on restructuring and the best ways to deal with ‘people issues’.

The ‘pick-up’ Sometimes a consultant’s first contact with a candidate is at a ‘pick-up’. This refers to the practice of being present at the candidate’s workplace when they are told of their redundancy. The consultant’s function is to help the candidate cope with the news and help with practical short-term decisions. News of retrenchment can elicit reactions from relief and happiness to despair, anger, bewilderment and resentment. Another important task at a ‘pick-up’ is supporting the manager who delivers the news. They often need advice on how to make the announcement sensitively yet clearly, while avoiding the temptation to sweeten it beyond recognition. I have been in situations where employees have not understood that their job had been made redundant. Often managers misjudge which candidates will be upset. One manager predicted that a particular woman would be very upset. When I saw her she confided that she was thrilled with the news, had been actively looking for another job and now would be able to leave with a payout. She asked if I would help her polish her résumé. We advise employers that Friday is not a good day on which to break the news. It means the retrenched worker will have two whole days feeling confused and unsupported, while they are unable to do anything constructive about their situation. If there is a rule regarding pick-ups, it is to expect the unexpected.

Outcomes and benefits Outplacement counselling assists candidates in making decisions about the next step after job loss. These decisions take into account the whole of the person’s life circumstances, passions, skills, interests and values. The goal is usually getting a job,

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but in some situations it may be semi-retirement or starting their own business. A properly planned semi- or full retirement is a vital step in managing this important and often highly emotional transition. If candidates are seeking a job, outplacement aims to help them source the right job, not just any job. Outplacement support reduces the risk that the candidate makes a knee-jerk reaction and accepts the first job that comes along. They are more likely to look for and find a job that will align with their career direction and be satisfying. Candidates learn career and self-management skills while exploring their choices in the context of total lifestyle needs. An additional benefit is that a person who is clear on what they want will be far more convincing in an interview and more likely to get the job. Apart from gaining an understanding of the employment market, candidates learn to understand themselves better. This in turn enhances their self-esteem. These are skills for life. Career self-management is more important today than it has ever been. We have always had change, but the rapidity of change today is faster than ever. No one can afford to stop learning in any part of life. Handy (1991, p. 71) quotes a forecast which predicts that brain skills will be required in 70 per cent of future jobs and that up to half of those brain jobs will require professional or university qualifications. When employees learn to take responsibility for their own careers, it lessens the expectation that someone else will look after them. We make a dramatic difference to people’s lives, we help them discover new directions and release new energies. We also equip individuals to keep doing that for the rest of their lives. We give them self-focus and self-direction (R. Foxcroft, personal communication, November 2000). Another benefit of outplacement programs is that retrenched workers take less time to become re-employed. A study compiled by Morgan & Banks in 1998–99 shows that the average time to get a job while on an outplacement program is 10.7 weeks. For workers over 45, it is 12.3 weeks and for workers under 45, 8.6 weeks. More importantly, candidates learn how to deal with change, loss and grief as well picking up job search skills, which produce results. In the over-45 age group, outplacement is especially important in keeping morale and motivation high. Unions also generally see the value of outplacement and support its provision for their members. The flow-on effect is a reduced incidence of strikes. Outplacement programs also reduce the incidence of wrongful dismissal litigation. Finally, the existence of an outplacement program in an organisation improves morale. Correspondingly, productivity in the remaining workforce remains at an acceptable level.

Future developments Organisations in Australia cannot afford to ignore the impact of ongoing restructuring on the morale and career satisfaction of their remaining employees. An effective outplacement program is essential to a company’s well-being. This has to be more than just being seen to be doing the right thing. It means treating the individual with respect


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and dignity. It has long been recognised that most people work for reasons other than money. Employers who offer their employees opportunities to learn, and look after their retrenched employees, are more successful in retaining their staff. The 1999 European Human Resources Conference chose as its theme, ‘Winning the battle for the best people – the key to success in the global marketplace’. Others have identified retention and attraction of the right people as the biggest challenges of post2000. ‘Organisations will always need quality staff – who will always be in short supply – and a strategy for securing quality staff will be a strategy for an organisation’s success’ (Woodruff, 1999, p. 12). The Harvard Business Review and the McKinsey Quarterly highlight retention as an important issue facing organisations. A 1999 Morgan & Banks survey reported that when looking at the reasons people leave their jobs voluntarily, career issues accounted for 53 per cent. The costs to the organisation of staff losses are significant: between $100 000 and $150 000 per employee (based on an estimated $75 000 for a mid-level employee). This has direct impact on the growth of an organisation, customer relations and competitive advantage. Another future issue is related to the employees who retain their jobs, often referred to as ‘survivors’. Survivors also need help. Their reactions to their co-workers’ retrenchment are usually confusion, reduced motivation and looking for work outside the organisation. Survivors are less distressed if their former colleagues get jobs. They should be helped to deal with guilt, insecurity and fear, as well as shown how to develop a viable career path. Coaching and mentoring is sometimes provided as a retention strategy by organisations that see the commercial imperative of such a strategy. While some companies in Australia are starting to address this need, it is felt unanimously throughout the industry that survivor management is not being adequately addressed in this country. This can result in a significant loss of productivity and loss of organisational knowledge when large numbers of employees leave.

Conclusion The conclusion is best made by comments from a principal of a major outplacement company: Outplacement remains the vital support to the employee in transition. We, in Australia, have turned outplacement into ‘a must-have’ for most medium to large organisations. The outplacement industry has convinced employers of the necessity and benefits of outplacement support. Now, it is totally accepted as part of the employee contract (A. Simpson, personal communication, November 2000).

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Index Athlete Career and Education (ACE) Program 128–9 Australian 129–32 athletes and career development programs 125–33 Australia ACE program 129–32 career athletes 125–33 career dancers 135, 138–43 career information 16 unemployed workers 145–6, 147–8 Australian Athlete Career and Education program 125 Australian Ballet Retraining Scheme 138, 139, 141 Australian Education Council 75 Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) 141 Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) Disability forum 153–4 Canada career athletes 126, 127–8 career counselling 85 career dancers 136, 137, 143 career development 11, 85–7, 90 career development facilitators 22–31, 87 career guidance 9 Olympic athletes 127–8 unemployed workers 145, 146, 148 Canadian Olympic Association (COA) 127

Career Assistance Program for Athletes (CAPA) 127 Career Choice Cycle Course (CCCC) 58–69 design and development 64 evaluation 68–9 implementation 64–5 lesson framework 66 pedagogical features 68 precursor to 63 principles and rationale 59–60 program content 65–8 career classes 44 career counselling 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 42, 44, 85 career decision-making 13–14, 43, 44, 46, 47–8, 67, 107 Career Development Brochure 104, 105, 110, 113 career development approach in vocational rehabilitation 35–8 vs career transition programs 141–3 and changing world of work 106 facilitators 16, 22–31, 42, 87 and learning 5 learning programs 10–21 lifelong 4, 5, 6, 16, 74 literature 11, 14, 35, 38, 41, 103 within organisational programs 16, 103–13 personnel 16, 22–31, 42


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post-secondary curriculum 85–93 practice 1–9 and rehabilitation 40–5 school as an influence 10–11, 74 theory and disability 38–40 and unemployed 37–8 workshops 44, 85, 108–9 career development programs accreditation 28–9 for athletes 125–33 best practice 14–17 and broader community 15–16 brochure 105 challenges 109–13 and changing world of work 106 and client group 14–15 conceptualisation 22–3 content and process 12–14 content and resources 29–30 course assignments 26 course instructors 27 current status 11 decision making 17, 107 defined 1–3 design and development 23–5 development and maintenance 15 evaluation 20–1, 30, 101, 103, 108, 112 examining options 107 executive management support 110 financing 28 future plans 30–1 goal setting 17, 37, 61, 107 HR initiatives 11, 111 implementing 10–21, 25–6, 111–12 Internet 9, 85 and lifelong learning 19 maintaining currency 28 marketing and expansion 27–8 and people with disabilities 156–7 professional issues 16–17, 22–31, 42 rationale 10–11, 17

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and self-awareness 106–7 staffing 110 steps 17–18 workbook 105–6 see also career programs Career Development Workbook 105–6, 110, 111, 113 career education in Australia 6–7, 10, 11, 14, 75 definition 2 K–12 6, 18 curriculum 82–3 curriculum framework 75, 76 framework 76–80 programs 73, 75, 77, 80–2 role of 5 and school curricula 7, 10, 11, 16–17, 73, 81–3 and teachers 82–3 Career Education Quality Framework 21 Career Education Taskforce of the Ministerial Council for Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) 2, 6–7 career guidance around the world 7–9, 11 in Australia 6–7, 10, 11 and the changing world of work 1, 3–6 definition 1–2 and unemployed workers 144–50 career information 2–3, 7, 10, 15, 16, 85 career interventions 44–5 career planning 5, 21, 42, 43, 86 career-planning course for academic credit 89–90 career-planning systems 44 career portfolio 3 career programs and broader community 15–16 design 48–57 development and maintenance 15


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and experiential learning 18–20, 65 implementation, steps in 17–18 information 16 for people with disabilities 152–60 see also career development programs career services 5, 6, 7–9, 11, 43 career transition programs athletes 125–6 vs career development 141–3 dancers 134–43 school-to-work 157–8 CASVE cycle analysis 51–2 communication 50–1, 56 decision making 46, 47–8 execution 55–6 synthesis 52–4 valuing 55 Challenging Ageing 120 Chile 9 cognitive information processing (CIP) and career programs design 48–57 executive processing 56–7 theory 46–7, 57 Comprehensive Guidance Program Model 8 Council on the Ageing 120 counselling, career 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 42, 44, 85 Creative Transitions Through Retirement 120 curriculum and career education 82–3 development 95–6 Curriculum Council of Western Australia 75

promoting positive transitions 136 transition, responses to 135–6 transition programs 134–43 United Kingdom 137, 138 United States 134, 136, 137–8, 143 Dancers’ Transition Program Model 139–41 decision making, career 13–14, 43, 44, 46, 47–8, 67, 107 Denmark 8, 149 disabilities, people with career development programs 156–7 career development theory 35, 38–40 career programs 152–60 future directions 158–9 school-to-work transition programs 44, 157–8 students 155 vocational rehabilitation 35–8 Disability Discrimination Act 45, 153

dancers, career Australia 135, 138–43 Canada 136, 137, 143 cessation, performing 135 length, performance 134–5 Netherlands 136, 138

facilitators, career development 22–31, 42, 87 France 8

Early Planning for Retirement Association 119 ecological approach to career development 42 employment and changing world of work 3–6, 106 traditional system 3 employment-related key competencies 76 executive management support 110 experiential learning 18–20, 65 ‘Ex-Scape’ 95 implementing 98–101

Gateway to Learning Project General Studies 305 86–93

16,

149

Index

193


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Germany 8–9, 148 goal setting 17, 37, 61, 107 Hershenson’s Model of Work Adjustment 39 human resources 11, 111 information, career 2–3, 7, 10, 15, 16, 85 International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance 1 International Organization for the Transition of Professional Dancers 136 Internet career development programs 9 and career information 85 see also on-line career workshop job search workshop, on-line 94–103 Jobs for Over Forties (JOFFA) 119 K–12 career education 6, 18 career education in the curriculum 82–3 curriculum framework 76 framework 75, 76–80 programs 73–84 learning, experiential 18–20, 65 Life-Centred Career Education (LCCE) 156, 160 Life Planning Association 119 lifelong career changes 4 lifelong career development 4, 5, 6, 14, 74, 114–21 ageing workforce 115–16 Australian situation 116 linear vs cyclical planning 117 retirement planning 117–18, 120–1 third generation programs 119–20 lifelong learning 5–6, 15, 19

194

Index

Lifeskills for Elite Athletes Program (SportsLEAP) 128 literature, career development 11, 14, 35, 38, 41, 103 Mayer Report 75, 76 Meta-Skills Analysis 23, 24–5, 26, 27 Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment 39 National Athlete Career and Education (ACE) Program 141 National Career Development Association (NCDA) 5 National Career Developments Guidelines 87 National Institute for Careers Education and Counselling 20 Netherlands career dancers 136, 138 career guidance 8 New Apprenticeship Partnership for Students with Disabilities Project 155, 160 New Zealand 16 Olympic Athlete Career Centre (OACC) 127–8 Olympic Job Opportunities Program (OJOP) 126–7 on-line career workshop 95–101 curriculum development 95–6 effective learning environment 96–8 on-line job search workshop 94–5 effectiveness of 101–2 organisations and career development 16, 103–13 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 6 outplacement programs in Australia 161–8


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personnel, career development 16, 22–31, 42, 87 personality theories 39–40 policy guiding practice 75–6 policy level interventions 43 post-secondary curriculum and career development 85–93 students and on-line job search workshop 94–102 professional issues and career development 16–17, 22–31, 42 program level interventions 43–5 rehabilitation, vocational 35–8, 42, 43 rehabilitation and career development practical applications 42–5 theoretical applications 40–2 retirement planning 114, 117–21 Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology 86 self-awareness 106–7 self-evaluation 68 self-knowledge 46, 49–50, 94 self-management skills 12, 167 school curricula and career education 7, 10, 11, 16–17, 73, 81–3 school-to-work transition programs and people with disabilities 44, 157–8, 160 schools influence on career development 10–11, 74 K–12 6, 18 career education in the curriculum 82–3 curriculum framework 75, 76 framework 76–80 programs 73, 75, 77, 80–2 preparation for education, training and employment 74–5 Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) 60–2

key constructs 61 models 62, 63, 64, 67 Social Learning Theory 60 sports career transition programs 125–6 SportsLEAP 128 students with disabilities 155 Super, Donald 86, 95 Synthesis Crystallisation 52–4 Synthesis Elaboration 52 systems theory 40–1 teachers and career education 82–3 third generation programs 119–20 time frames 109–10 trait-factor theory 38 transition planning 44 transition programs, career athletes 125– 6 vs career development 141–3 dancers 134–43 school-to-work 157–8 unemployed workers career guidance 144–50 vocational rehabilitation 35 United Kingdom and career dancers 137, 138 unemployed workers 145, 147 United States career athletes 126–7 career dancers 134, 136, 137–8, 143 career guidance 7–8 people with disabilities 153 PROVE program 63 unemployed workers 145 vocational rehabilitation 43 University of Calgary 86, 87–93, 94–5, 97 vocational assessment 43–4 guidance 6, 7–9

Index

195


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personalities 39–40 rehabilitation 35–8, 42, 43 work adjustment, models of 38–9 changing world of 1, 3–6, 106

196

Index

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experience 85 see also school-to-work transition programs workforce, ageing 115–16 workshops, career development 44, 85, 108–9


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Careers Cover PRINT

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Page 1

Career Development Programs includes a history of career development programs in Australia and presents a chapter on how to implement such programs across a range of settings. Contributors to the book are drawn from Australia and overseas. With its emphasis on lifelong career development, the book provides examples of programs operating across the lifespan from school age to retirement. In addition, it provides chapters on topics seldom addressed and groups rarely catered for such as athletes, dancers and people with disabilities. This book is an invaluable resource for career teachers and counsellors working in schools and private practice, university counselling departments, rehabilitation counsellors, and human resource departments and personnel consultants. It is also an ideal reference for tertiary students pursuing this field of study.

About the editors Wendy Patton, PhD, is Associate Professor and Acting Head of the School of Learning and Development at the Queensland University of Technology. She edited the Australian Journal of Career Development from 1997 to 1999 and is currently international advisor for the British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, and the International Journal of Educational and Vocational Guidance. Mary McMahon, PhD, is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Queensland University of Technology. Wendy and Mary both teach in the Career Guidance Area of Interest in the Master of Education course at QUT. This collaboration on Career Development Programs reflects the editors’ understanding of the needs of career professionals and their desire to communicate best practice to them.


Changes in the world of work and the evolving nature and structure of careers have placed considerable demands on the provision of systematic developmental career programs through the lifespan. Career development programs provide individuals with planned learning experiences that develop knowledge, skills and attitudes to assist them in making informed decisions throughout their working lives.

Career Development Programs

Edited by Wendy Patton and Mary McMahon

Preparation for lifelong career decision making

Edited

by

Wendy

Patton

and

Mary

McMahon

Career Development Programs: Preparation for Lifelong Career Decision Making

Career Choice and Development

Encyclopedia of Career Development

Career Development for Teachers: The TES Handbook

The Career Survival Guide: Making Your Next Career Move

Cosmetology Career Starter (Career Starters)

Education and Career Choice: A New Model of Decision Making

CAREER RENEGADE

Career Girls

Career Counselling

Career Day

Military Career

Career Empowerment

Real Estate Career Starter (Career Starters)

Expert Resumes For Career Changers

Career Choices

Career GPS

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