Automatic Methods of Analysis

TECHNIQUES AND INSTRUMENTATION IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY - VOLUME 9 AUTOMATIC METHODS OF ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES AND INSTR...

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TECHNIQUES AND INSTRUMENTATION IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY - VOLUME 9

AUTOMATIC METHODS OF ANALYSIS

TECHNIQUES AND INSTRUMENTATION IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY Volume 1 Evaluation and OptiRlization of Laboratory Methods and Analytical Procedures. A Survey of Statistical and Mathemathecal Techniques by D.L. Massart, A. Dijkstra and L. Kaufman Volume 2 Handbook of Laboratory Distillation by E. Krell Volume 3 Pyrolysis Mass Spectrometry of Recent and Fossil Biomaterials. Compendium and Atlas by H.L.C. Meuzelaar, J. Haverkamp and F.D. Hileman Volume 4 Evaluation of Analytical Methods in Biological Systems Part A. Analysis of Biogenic Amines edited by G.B. Baker and R.T. Coutts Part B. Hazardous Metals in Human Toxicology edited by A. Vercruysse Volume 5 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry edited by J.E. Cantle Volume 6 Analysis of Neuropeptides by Liquid Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry by D.M. Desiderio Volume 7 Electroanalysis. Theory and Applications in Aqueous and Non-Aqueous Media and in Automated Chemical Control by E.A.M.F. Dahmen Volume 8 Nuclear Analytical Techniques in Medicine edited by R. Cesareo Volume 9 Automatic Methods of Analysis by M. Valcarcel and M.D. Luque de Castro

TECHNIQUES AND INSTRUMENTATION IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY-VOLUME 9

AUTOMATIC METHODS OF ANALYSIS M. Valcarcel M.D. Luque de Castro Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Cbrdoba, Cbrdoba, Spain

ELSEVlER Amsterdam

- Oxford - New York - Tokyo

1988

ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERSB.V. Sara Burgerhartstraat 25 P.O. Box 2 1 1, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Distributors for the United States and Canada: ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHING COMPANY INC. 52, Vanderbilt Avenue New York, NY 10017, U.S.A.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS

Library o f Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

V a l c i r c e l Cases, M i g u e l . A u t o m a t i c m e t h o d s o f a n a l y s l s I M. V a l c a r c e l . M.D. Luque d e C a s t r o p. cm. -- ( T e c h n i q u e s a n d i n s t r u n e n t a t l o n i n a n a l y t i c a l chemistry , v. 9) Bibliography p. Includes index. ISBN 0 - 4 4 4 - 4 3 0 0 5 - 9 (U.S.) I. L u q u e de C a s t r o . M. D. 1. C h e m i s t r y . A n a l y t i c - - 8 u t o m a t l o n . 1 1 . T i t l e . 111. S e r i e s . PD75.4.A8V35 1988 88-21270 543--dC 1 9

CIP

ISBN 0-444-43005-9 (Vol. 9) ISBN 0-444-4 1744-3 (Series)

0Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1988 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V./ Physical Sciences & Engineering Division, P.O. Box 330, 1000 AH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

Special regulationsfor readers in the USA - This publication has been registered with the Copyright Clearance Center Inc. (CCC), Salem, Massachusetts. Information can be obtained from the CCC about conditions under which photocopies of parts of this publication may be made in the USA. All other copyright questions, including photocopying outside of the USA, should be referred t o the publisher. No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage t o persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, the Publisher recommends that independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made. Although all advertising material is expected t o conform t o ethical (medical) standards, inclusion in this publication does not constitute a guarantee or endorsement of the quality or value of such product or of the claims made of it by its manufacturer. Printed in The Netherlands

Table

of

contents

xi

PREFACE

1 NlDAlENTMS OF LABORATORY AUTWTION 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Objectives o f automation 1.3 Definitions

1.4 Automatic analysers: classification 1.5 Degrees of automation 1.6 Analytical techniques and automation 1.7 Disadvantages o f automation 1.8 Significance and scope of application of automation 2

2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7

References

IN THE LABORATORY Introduction Data acquisition and processing. Result delivery 2.2.1 Data acquisition 2.2.2 Data processing 2.2.2.1 Software 2.2.3 Delivery o f results Control of an instrument or analyser Computerized configurations 2.4.1 Workstations Expert systems Computerized access t o s c i e n t i f i c information Final remarks References

29 29 31 32 37 38 44 45 50 52 53 54 55 51

3 AUTWATION OF SAMPLING 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Fundamentals o f sampling 3.3 Solid sampling 3.4 Liquid sampling 3.4.1 Liquid sampling i n continuous analysers 3.4.2 L i q u i d sampling i n batch analysers 3.5 Gas sampling 3.5.1 Batch gas-sampling systems 3.5.2 Continuous gas-sampling systems 3.6 Sources of error i n automatic sampling 3.6.1 Lack o f precision 3.6.2 Cross-contamination 3.6.3 Mismatching of sample results

References

59 59 60 62 64 65 67 72 72 73 74 76 76 79 81

IN SAlQLE TREATMENT Introduction Dissolution and digestion Volatilization Distillation

a2 a2 a4 a7 90

4 AUTWTIOW

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

a

13 23 25 26 28

CWfJUTERS

2.1 2.2

1 1 2 4

vi

Table o f contents

Off-line d i s t i l l a t i o n systems On-line d i s t i l l a t i o n systems 4.5 F i l t r a t i o n 4.6 Sorption 4.6.1 Off-line sorption systems 4.6.2 On-line sorption systems 4.7 Ion exchange 4.8 Membrane separation 4.9 Solid-liquid extraction 4.10 L i q u i d - l i q u i d extraction 4.10.1 Batch l i q u i d - l i q u i d extraction 4.10.2 Continuous l i q u i d - l i q u i d extraction References

90 91 95 98 99 100 101 104 108 112 112 114 122

A U T W T I C CONTImKxls ANALYSERS. I. AIR-SEGUENTED FLOW ANALYSERS 5 . 1 Introduction 5.2 General scheme of an air-segmented analyser 5.3 General concepts 5.3.1 Foundation 5.3.2 Analytical signal 5.3.3 Sample carry-over 5.3.4 Sampling frequency 5.4 Factors affecting t h e signal quality 5.4.1 Sample dispersion 5.4.2 Sample-reagent mixing 5.4.3 Flow s t a b i l i t y 5.5 Essential components of an air-segmented analyser 5.5.1 Sampling system 5.5.2 Propelling system 5.5.3 Reaction system 5.5.4 Separation u n i t 5.5.5 Debubbler 5.5.6 Detection system 5.6 Multi-channel configurations 5.7 Applications of continuous segmented analysers 5 . 8 Recent advances i n continuous segmented analysers

123 123 126 127 127 128 129 133 133 134 135 135 136 136 137 137 137 138 139 141 143 149 156

4.4.1 4.4.2

5

References 6

AUTOMATIC CONTINUOUS ANALYSERS. 11. FLW-INJECTION ANALYSIS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Foundation of flow-injection analysis 6.3 Basic components o f an FIA system 6.3.1 Propelling system 6.3.2 Injection system 6.3.3 Transport and reaction system 6.3.4 Sensing system 6.4 FIA modes 6.5 Features of flow-injection analysis 6.5.1 Sensitivity 6.5.2 Selectivity 6.5.3 Precision 6.5.4 Rapidity 6.5.5 Simplicity 6.5.6 Economy 6.5.7 Versatility 6.6 Applications o f FIA 6.7 Trends i n FIA

References

158 158 162 166 167 167 169 170 171 182 182 183 183 183 184 185 185 185 191 192

Table o f contents 7

AUTOMATIC CONTI)(wus ANALYSERS. 111. OTHER AUTOMATIC UNSEGMENTED FLOW lmms 7.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 7.1.1 Continuous m i x i n g methods 7.1.2 Stopped-flow continuous m i x i n g methods 7.1.3 Continuous-flow t i t r a t i o n s 7.2 Continuous m i x i n g methods 7.2.1 Continuous i n t r o d u c t i o n o f sample 7.2.1.1 Open systems 7.2.1.2 Closed systems 7.2.2 I n t e r m i t t e n t i n t r o d u c t i o n o f sample 7.3 Stopped-flow continuous m i x i n g methods 7.3.1 Sample i n s e r t i o n w i t h o u t i n j e c t i o n 7.3.2 Methods based on f a s t k i n e t i c s 7.3.2.1 Continuous-flow methods 7.3.2.2 Accelerated-flow methods 7.3.2.3 Stopped-flow methods 7.3.2.4 Pulsed-flow methods 7.3.3 Stopped-flow/unsegmented storage a n a l y s i s 7.4 Continuous-flow t i t r a t i o n s 7.4.1 Without h a l t i n g o f t h e f l o w between samples 7.4.2 With h a l t i n g o f t h e f l o w between samples: k i n e t i c tit r a t i o n s References

vii

196 196 196 196 197 198 198 198 202 205 21 1 21 1 213 214 215 215 217 217 219 219 221 226

8

AUKMATIC BATCHANMYSERS 8.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 8.2 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f batch analysers 8.3 Batch analysers w i t h automatic sampling 8.3.1 Batch analysers w i t h f i n a l t r a n s f e r 8.3.2 Batch analysers w i t h o u t f i n a l t r a n s f e r 8 . 4 Batch analysers w i t h o u t automatic sampling 8.4.1 General designs 8.4.2 S p e c i f i c designs

227 227 229 233 233 237 241 241 243

9

~SIWTtEuBoRATORY 9.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 9.2 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f robots 9.2.1 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f robots 9.2.2 Robot components 9.3 Laboratory r o b o t i z a t i o n 9.4 U n i t o p e r a t i o n s 9.4.1 Weighing 9.4.2 Addition o f l i q u i d s 9.4.3 Transfer o f l i q u i d s 9.4.4 Grasping o f tubes 9.4.5 Stirring 9.4.6 Heating 9.4.7 Centrifugation 9.4.8 Extraction 9.4.9 Placement i n t h e measuring instrument 9.5 Some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c examples 9.5.1 C o l o r i m e t r i c determination o f formaldehyde i n water 9.5.2 Determination o f a t o x i c agent i n feed by gas chromatography 9.5.3 L i q u i d chromatographic d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a c o n t r a c e p t i v e i n pharmaceutical t a b l e t s 9.5.4 An acid-base t i t r a t i o n 9.6 Scope o f a p p l i c a t i o n 9.7 F i n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s References

249 249 250 250 251 256 258 258 258 259 259 259 260 260 26 1 26 1 262 263 264 267 267 269 270 272

Table o f contents

viii

10 AUTOMATION OF ANALYTICAL IWSTRUIENTATION. I. SPECTROMETRIC TEMlIQlES 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Automatic c o n t r o l o f the functioning o f an o p t i c a l instrument 10.2.1 Control o f the l i g h t source 10.2.2 Control o f the monochromator 10.2.3 Control o f the sample compartment 10.2.4 Overall c o n t r o l o f the instrument 10.3 Automation i n the acquisition and treatment o f spectroscopic data 10.3.1 Conventional spectrometric methods 10.3.2 Multiplex spectrometric methods 10.3.2.1 Multiplex methods using a single detector 10.3.2.2 Multiplex methods using m u l t i p l e detectors 10.4 Spectroscopic data banks 10.4.1 Spectral l i b r a r y searching systems 10.4.2 A r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e systems 10.4.2.1 Pattern recognition 10.4.2.2 Expert systems References

11 AUTUUTION OF ANALYTICAL INSTRUIENTATION. 11. ELECTROAWALYTICM TECHlIQUEs 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Automation i n potentiometry 11.2.1 Ccfnmercially available instruments 11.2.2 Home-made i n s t ruments 11.3 Automation i n voltammetry 11.3.1 Working electrodes 11.3.2 Automation i n data acqusition, processing and delivery 11.3.3 Instrumentation 11.4 Automation i n s t r i p p i n g analysis 11.5 Automation i n spectroelectrochemistry References 12 AUTOMATION OF ANALYTICAL IWSTRUIENTATION. 111. ~ T O G M P H I C TECmIQULs 12.1 12.2 12.3

12.4 12.5

Introduction Degrees o f automation o f a chromatograph Modular automation o f a chromatograph System f o r the preparation and c o n t r o l o f the 12.3.1 mobile phase Sample i n j e c t i o n 12.3.2 12.3.3 Sample c o l l e c t i o n and treatment 12.3.4 Column furnace 12.3.5 Post-column d e r i v a t i z a t i o n systems 12.3.6 Continuous detection systems 12.3.7 Data acquisition and treatment Hyphenated methods Automated optimization o f chromatographic separations References

13 ALrrmATIC TITRATORS 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Essential components o f an automatic t i t r a t o r 13.2.1 T i t r a n t delivery system 13.2.2 T i t r a t i o n vessel 13.2.3 T i t r a t i o n monitor 13.2.4 Control section

273 213 273 274 275 277 278 287 289 295 291 298 305 305 306 306 307 309 312 312 314 314 317 324 325 329 333 343 349 351 355 355 356 359 360 363 364 375 377 379 382 386 389 39 1 393 393 396 396 399 399 400

Table o f contents 13.3

14

AUTOMATION IN CLINICAL CHBUSTRY 14.1 14.2

14.3

14.4

15

Degrees o f automation 13.3.1 Hardware-controlled t i t r a t o r s 13.3.2 Microprocessor-controlled t i t r a t o r s 13.3.3 Computer-controlled t i t r a t o r s References Introduction Stages o f c l i n i c a l analysis 14.2.1 Analysis request and sample c o l l e c t i o n 14.2.2 Sample storage, volume and pretreatment 14.2.3 Measurement 14.2.4 Data acquisition 14.2.5 Errors C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f c l i n i c a l analysers 14.3.1 Continuous analysers 14.3.2 Batch analysers 14.3.2.1 Batch analysers w i t h f i n a l transfer Batch analysers without f i n a l transfer 14.3.2.2 I n vivo measurements References

AUTOMATION IN ENVI#mENTM POLLUTION HONITORING 15.1 15.2

15.3

15.4

15.5

Introduction Sampling 15.2.1 General considerations 15.2.2 Sample storage 15.2.3 Sample clean-up 15.2.4 Liquid sampling 15.2.5 A i r sampling Water analysers 15.3.1 O f f - l i n e water analysers 15.3.2 On-line water analysers 15.3.2.1 Single-parameter analysers 15.3.2.2 Multi-parameter analysers A i r analysers 15.4.1 Off-line a i r analysers 15.4.2 On-line a i r analysers 15.4.2.1 Single-parameter analysers 15.4.2.2 Multi-parameter analysers Data acquisition, transmission and processing. Survey networks References

16 PROCESSAUMYSElB 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Features o f process analysers 16.2.1 The optimum analyser 16.2.2 Relationship between process and laboratory analysers 16.2.3 Laboratory analysers adapted t o i n d u s t r i a l processes 16.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages o f process analysers 16.3 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f process analysers 16.3.1 According t o the location w i t h respect t o the process l i n e 16.3.2 According t o purpose 16.3.3 According t o the r e s u l t i n t e r p r e t e r 16.3.4 According t o the type o f parameter determined 16.4 Components o f a process analyser

ix 400 400 405 408 42 5 420 428 43 1 432 432 433 434 434 434 436 445 445 447 46 1 465 467 467 470 470 47 1 472 472 476 48 1 483 488 488 495 50 1 502 503 503 510 517 521 524 524 525 525 528 527 528 529 529 530 531 53 1 532

Table o f contents

X

16.5 16.6

1 6 . 4 . 1 Sampling system 16.4.2 P r o t e c t i o n o f t h e analyser equipment Scope o f a p p l i c a t i o n Microprocessors i n process analysers. Trends References

532 536 538 553 555 557

Preface

Miniaturization and the reduction of human Intervention are two clear trends i n the technologlcal developments which characterize the last years of thls century. Analytical chemistry has not Ignored these trends, as has been reflected In most of the lnnovatlons introduced In thls dlscipllne for some time now. For a variety of reasons, the automatlon of laboratory processes i s an aspect of growlng theoretical and practical interest. Thls was one of the reasons for us t o write a monograph on the subject wlth the aim of presenting a rational overview of the areas most strongly influenced by the advances In automation. It was not our aim t o present an exhaustive revlew of the large variety of alternatives reported and applied I n the field of automatic methods of analysis, which would have been the subject of an encyclopaedla rather than a slngle volume. The dlfferent topics dealt with were chosen according t o various criteria such as the degree of consolidation, scope of application and most promising trends. The monograph consists of four parts. The first, after dealing wlth the basic principles behind the automation of laboratory processes (Chapter 1) and the role of computers In thls context (Chapter 21, descrlbes automatic systems f o r sampling (Chapter 3) and sample treatment (Chwter 4). The second part discusses the prlnclples and commonest components of the principal types of analysers, namely contlnuous (Chapters 5-71, batch (Chapter 8) and robotlc (Chapter 9). The t h l r d part is devoted t o the automation of analytical lnstrumentatlon:

spectroscopic

(Chapter

lo),

electroanaiytical

(Chapter

11 )

and

chromatographlc (Chapter 12) tachnlques, and tltrators (Chapter 13). The last part presents m e examples of the appllcatlon of automation t o three of the most representative areas of chemical analysis:

cllnical chemistry (Chapter

141, environmental pollutlon monitorlng (Chapter

15) and Industrial process

control (Chapter 16). The authors wish t o acknowledge the ald of the many others w h o contrlbuted thelr work to thls book. Thus, Drs Angel R i m and Fernando LBraro wrote Chapters 2 and 18, respectively; Antonio Losada, MSc, translated and typeset the

Preface

xii

manuscript t o i t s final form and Francisco Doctor drew the numerous figures In the book.

Finally, the warm receptlon of the project by Elsevler Sclence

Publishers also deserves due acknowledgement, as does the flnanclal support

Cmisidn Inteninisterial de Ciencia y Tecnologfa us to acqulre the experience In the fleld of laboratory

received from the Spanlsh (CICyT), whlch allowed

process automatlon materialized i n this book. THE AUTHORS Cbrdoba, Aprli 1988

Fundamentals of

laboratory

automation

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The partial or complete replacement of human participation in laboratory processes Is a growing trend that started i n the 1960s and consolidated i n the next decade 11-31. So much so that, In the course of time, the distinction between modern and classical analytical chemistry w i l l predictably be closely related to that between automated and non-automated analytical procedures. This trend is the result of a variety of causes. On the one hand, automation relies on the spectacular advances in micromechanics, microelectronics and microcomputer sclence [4,5]. Microcomputers, whether o r not used as mlcroprocessors, are by now as commonplace as balances i n laboratorles, whether devoted t o routlne control or research and development. On the other hand,

soci-

ety’s needs, frequently turned Into demands, have grown t o the extent of posing problems unimaginable a few years ago [6]. Such demands are not only the need for greater and more rapldly obtained analytical information, but also the laboratory’s need to respond t o new, pressing questions. A l l areas of social Interest (health,

ecology,

Industry, nutrition) are profoundly affected

by the need f o r Increasingly stricter control of a growlng number of samples in whlch a large number of analytes are t o be determined at Increasingly low concentrations. Developing new products and solving problems previously not encountered are other aspects strongly dependent on laboratory work. Cost reduction Is yet another alm of the growing trend towards automation. The progressive ellmlnatlon of human participation In laboratory processes o r stages, wherever feaslble and sensible, improves economic yields and reduces the cost of performance. Surveys carrled out by many prlvate and pubIlc US laboratories show the need for automatlon. It Is interesting that most

of such studles also show that autornatlon does not necessarily result In redundancy as the growing number of problems encountered requlre new sections or even speciallzed laboratorles t o be started by the same organization. This results i n retrainlng or even In the engagement of f u r t h e r empioyeea. Obvlously, automation affects unskilled workers t o a greater extent on account of their

more dlfflcult retralnlng. Unmanned laboratorles are as yet an utopia: there

Automatic methods o f a n a l y s i s

2

is a series of tasks, both intellectual and manual, still reserved f o r humans. Although the number w l l l probably decrease in time, there w i l l always be a l i m i t to complete automation, a l i m i t that w i l l probably have been established

by the end of the century. Automation, as shown later, offers undenlable advantages. Thus, it is hardl y surprising that most analytical instrumentation manufacturers are tending to increase the degree of automation of their commercial ranges; the trend of laboratory managers to invest increasing funds i n these automated instruments Is also not surprising. However, as wlth any technologlcal innovation, automation frequently meets with reluctant attitudes from those who think that adherence to a given change w i l l invarlably give rise t o a variety of complications -a

reactionary attitude in this respect can only result In more serious prob-

lems In the future. The complete opposite of this attltude is that of those who, with the sole worry of not falling behind i n the technological

race,

unthinkingly purchase highly automated instruments (e.g. spect rophotometers or electroanalytical systems featuring

built-in

microprocessors)

and lay aside

conventional instruments which are in good working order and perfectly suited to their actual needs. I t Is also relatively frequent for some laboratories to purchase automatlc analysers with a hlgh throughput and capable of performing simultaneous and sequential determinations and then exploit only 10-20% of the1r potential capabll Itles. Laboratories can be automated in one of two ways, elther by purchasing new Instruments or by adapting those already available with the aid of different unlts (modules). Which way is chosen Is a matter of convenience. Thus, the determination of amino-acids in protein hydrolysates calls f o r a new instrument based on HPLC principles and known as a sequencer. However, in many instances, one or several of the stages of some analytlcal procedures can be automated by use of one of the large number of modular elements available. Thus, an FIA system fltted to a conventlonal photometer considerably reduces human particlpatlon In the prellmlnary stages (sampling, interference removal, transport to the detector,

etc.).

The on-llne

incorporation of electronic

integrators or

microcomputers allows the acquisition of the analytical slgnals provided by the detector, and also their appropriate treatment i n delivering the required results wlth the human involvement only In the computer programming.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF AUTOMATION

The objectives pursued In partly or completely automatlng analytlcal laboratories are varied. Thus, the automation o f non-routine work (e.g.

research)

Is chiefly almed at facilitating a laboratory process that otherwise Is not

Fundamentals o f laboratory automation

3

feasible owing t o the limitations of manual operators. Such is the case with the manipulation of radioactive materials, the need t o carry out a large number of repetitlve experiments i n a continuous fashion or those situations where vast amounts of data are generated at a high speed or over long periods.

TABLE 1.1

Basic objectives o f laboratory process automation

. Processing o f a large number o f samples . Determination o f several components i n the same sample . Reduction o f human participation to: - Avoid errors - cut costs . Increasing sample throughput . Process ( i n d u s t r i a l or otherwise) control . Lowering consumption o f sample and/or reagent(s1 . F a c i l i t a t i n g an anaytical technique or method

The basic objectives of automation of the analytical laboratory, summarlzed i n Table 1.1, tend t o solve a varlety of problems related t o one or several of the following aspects: (a) Samples, occasionally dealt wlth i n large numbers or too scarce or vaiuable t o be handled manually. (b) Analyteq whlch are sometimes present i n very dlssimllar (macro components, traces) o r low (ultra-traces) concentrations i n the sample. (c) Reagents, some of which are scarce o r expensive (e.g.

enzymes), o r

even unstable.

(d) Rapidity, frequently essential i n large laboratories such as those i n hospltals,

urgently

requlring the analytical

results (e.g.

cilnlcal

param-

eters i n acute crlses o r shock treatments), and of Industrial and other taboratories requlring constant avallabillty of data f o r process control.

(el Economy i n personnel and materlai expenditure. ( f ) Precision, closely related t o the eliminatlon of both definite and indefinite errors arising from the so-called 'human factor'

(tlredness, mood,

prejudice, pathologlcal complaints and so forth). (9) Data generatioa Some analytical

techniques are based on the acqulsi-

tlon o f a large number o f data. Even if these are generated at a rate hand-

Automatic methods o f analysis

4

able by a manual operator, the tedious nature of their acquisition and manipulation makes it advisable t o entrust them t o an automated system, obviously Indispensable when data are generated at a high rate (e.g.

i n stopped-flow

methods). (h) Data processing is better performed automatically when a large number of data are generated by the same o r many different samples, or when their subsequent treatment is complex and liable to error If human participation is involved i n the process (e.g. (i) Analytical

In transcriptions, transfers, recordings, etc.).

technique or method, occasionally

volvement of an operator -this

unfeasible wlth the In-

book abounds i n illustrative examples of this

kind. Thus, electrothermal vaporization atomic absorption spectroscopy demands the automation of the sample thermal treatment i n the graphite tube via a microprocessor programming the different heating stages involved (automation of methodology). Likewise, the use of image detectors In spectroscopy calls for computerized data acqulsitlon, impossible with manual operators.

1.3 DEFINITIONS

The definitions given below are aimed at clarifying a series of concepts related both t o the anaiytlcai process and to i t s automation used throughout this book. The analytical ilterature abounds with references t o different concepts, facts or processes by the same name. It is therefore advlsable t o establish a clear, hlerarchicai distinction of such frequently confused terms, based on that reported by Taylor [71 and including: (a) Analytical process, namely the series of analytical operations between samples and results. It usually involves a large varlety of stages which can

be summarized i n three groups: preliminary operations, measurement of the analytical signal and data treatment. (b) Analytical

technique, viz. a scientific

principle adapted t o one or

several instruments t o obtain information about diverse materlai and methodological aspects. Gravimetry, atomic absorption spectroscopy, coulometry, etc. are all representatives of analytical techniques. (c) Analytical method. This Is the actual application o f a given analytlcal technique in the analytical process. Thus, i n gravlmetric analysis,

the

precipitation stage can be carried out traditionally o r by precipitation in a homogeneous solution; the atomlzatlon i n atomlc absorption can be effected by aspiratlon of the sample solution into the flame o r by electrothermal vaporizatlon; coulometry has two bask methodological varieties, namely constant intensity and constant potential. The nature of the method a i m varies wlth the manner i n which the sample i s manipulated o r the data are treated. Thus, the


5

determination of sulphur dioxide based on the photometric monitoring of the product yielded In the reaction between the analyte, formaldehyde and p-rosaniline differs methodologically depending on whether environmental (acid rain water) or wlne samples are concerned. The dlfferent ways in whlch the data provided by the signal-time

kinetic curve can be treated give rise to as many

methodologlcal alternatives t o determinations based on reaction-rate measurements. (d)

Analytical procedure.

This t er m should only be used to refer t o the

set of precise instructions followed i n implementing an analytical method and aimed at the determination of one or several particular analytes i n a given type of sample. I n his original hierarchical distinction, Taylor also includes the t e r m protocol, subsidlary to and even more specific than procedure.

A N A L V 1 I C A L CHEMISTRY I

Fig. 1.1 Major functional processes i n Analytical Chemistry according t o Pardue. (Reproduced from 18'91 with permission o f the American Chemical Society).

'Analysls',

'determination'

and 'measurement' are a triad

of also readily

confused terms which, accordlng t o Pardue [8,91, can also be defined i n a hlerarchlcal way. Thus, chemical

analysis Is Just one of the four chlef components

of Analytlcal Chemistry -the

other three are research, development and teach-

ing. The deteminatlon Is one of the stages

of chemical analysls, which also


6

comprises the investigation of the unknown --one of whose components Is the sample itself-,

selection of the hypothesis t o be applied and data t o be

used, interpretation of the data obtained, etc. The measurement i s a sub-stage of the determination, which also includes sampling, separations, data acquisition and treatment, etc. Pardue's hierarchlcal view of Analytical Chemistry is illustrated in Fig. 1.1.

According t o hlm, samples (unknowns) are analysed,

analytes are determined and parameters qualitatively or quantitatively related t o these are measured. The IUPAC Commission for Analytical Nomenclature laid down a series of definitions which distinguish and specify the essential features of Automatic Methods of Analysis [lo]. Not all the instruments, systems o r methods designed t o reduce human i n t e r v e n t i o n can be regarded as automatic Thus, IUPAC clearly

distinguishes

between

'mechanlzation',

'instrumentation'

and

'automatlon'.

Mechanization Is related to the production of motion and is defined as "the

use of mechanlcal devices (machines) t o replace, refine, extend or supplement human effort". A mechanism is "a combination of parts, of which one at least is moveable, capable of producing an effect."

A machine or apparatus is a

system made up of one or several mechanlsms which perform one or more actions. Instrumentation is related t o information production and transmission.

An

instrument i s a device used to observe, measure or communicate a property

(parameter), which replaces, refines or supplements human action. The terms 'instrument' and 'apparatus' are often used erroneously as synonyms. The essential difference between the two lies i n whether or not they provide information. Thus, a centrifuge is apparatus, whereas a photometer Is an instrument. While a centrifuge can Indeed offer an analogue or digital r e a d d u t of i t s rotation speed (rpm), this Information Is not related t o the analyte concentration. The transmittance o r absorbance provided can be considered t o be information as it i s used t o calculate the aforesald concentration. Automation involves the use of systems (Instruments) In which an element

of non-human decision has been Incorporated. It is defined as "the use of combinations of mechanlcal and Instrumental devices t o replace, reflne, extend or supplement human effort and faculties in the performance of a given process, In which at least one major operatlon Is controlled, without human Intervention, by a feedback system. A feedback system i s defined as "an Instrumental device combining sensing and m m a n d l n g elements which can modify the performance of a given act. Accordlng t o IUPAC's recommendations, a clear dlstinctlon should be made between 'automatic devices' and 'automated devices'. Automatic devices are those which "cause certain required actions t o be

performed at given points in an operatlon, without human Intervention". The

Fundamentals of laboratory automation

7

system makes no decisions and the operation sequence is always the same. They possess no feedback system. Automated devices are defined as those enacting automation. They are con-

ceived t o make decisions with the aid o f a feedback system, without human intervention.

There i s a different operational sequence for each situation

(sample). These systems are self-monitoring and self-adjusting,

have greater

independence than automatic devices and are sometimes called 'completely automatic'. The distinctions established by IUPAC are clear-cut.

Thus, the speed of

t i t r a n t addition is always constant i n an automatic titrator, whereas it is adjusted by a feedback system according t o the nearness o f the equivalence point i n an automated titrator. However, some workers [11,12] acknowledge the accuracy of these definitions but conslder them too stringent. Very often, the

term 'automatic' is used t o refer t o systems with and without feedback indistinctly. I n any case, whenever the concept 'automatic process' Is referred to in this book, it w i l l be meant in Its widest connotation, namely that invoiving partial o r complete elimlnation

of human intervention not related t o

instrumentation.

TECHNIQUE

METHOD

AUTOMATION

Fig. 1.2

Ways t o automate chemical analysis.

According t o the definitions laid down above, both the analytical tech-

nique and the analytical method are liable t o automation, elther individually or jointly

(see Fig. 1.2).


8

1.4 AUTOMATIC ANALYSERS CLASSIFICATION

An analyser can be defined as a series of elements - m o d u l a r o r not-,

of

which at least one i s an instrument, which operate with different degrees of automation and have been designed fo r the qualitative or quantitative determination of one o r several analytes in a single or a series of samples based on changes in i t s physical, chemical o r physico-chemical

properties. It can pro-

vide results i n the required form o r simply offer raw data [13].

TABLE 1.2

Classification o f analysers According t o the

Automatic

degree o f autma ti o n

Semi-automatic

According t o the way

Batch (discrete)

i n which samples and

Continuous

reagents are transported

Segmented Unsegmented

Robotic According t o the number

One-parameter

o f analytes per sample

Multi-parameter

According t o f l e x i b i l i t y

Specific Fl e xibl e

According t o source

Cmrcial Home-made

According t o sta te o f

Gas analysers

aggregation o f sample

Liquid analysers S o l i d analysers

According t o foundation

Based on physical pri nc i pl es Based on physico-chemical p r i n c i p l e s

According t o sampling frequency

One-of f Periodic Continuous


9

Table 1.2 shows several classifications of analysers according t o d l f f e r ent criteria. Thus, a f i r s t classification i s based on whether automation is p a r t i a l or complete. Because of the difficulty involved in correctly applying the terminology in this respect, establishing clear distinctions is underatandably difficult on account of the variety in the degree of automation. A (comp l e t e l y ) automatic analyser is deflned as an analytlcal processor receiving one or a series of untreated, unquantized (welght, volume) samples t o provide the analytical results sought i n the required form without the need f o r the operator’s intervention at any point i n the intermediate stages of the process. I f any of such stages is carried out manually -the analyser i s said t o be semi-automatic.

commoner case-,

the

I t should be noted that, despite i t s

widespread use, the t e r m ’semi-automatic’ is not supported by IUPAC. This differentiation is also somewhat stringent and, in practice, the adjective ’automatic’ i s applied t o analytical processes i n which some major stage is carried out manually: such i s the case with highly computerized centrifugal analysers in which the sample t r a y is transferred manually from the automatic dispensing unit to the reaction-measurement unit (see Chapter 8). Analysers can also be classlfied according t o the way i n which samples are transported and manipulated into: (a) Discrete or batch analysers, where each sample preserves i t s integrity in a vessel (cup) which Is mechanically transported t o various zones of the analyser where the different analytical stages (sample quantitatlon and reception, dilution, reagent dispensing,

mixing,

heating, etc.) are carried out In

a sequential manner. Each sample Is finally led t o the detector (instrument), where signals (one per analyte) are recorded. As can be seen from Fig. 1.3a, the functioning of these anaiysers, described i n greater detail In Chapter 8, resembles the operations carried out by a manual operator. (b) Continuous analysers are characterlzed by the use of a continuous stream of liquid or -much

less often-

gas. The samples, usually Ilquid, are

introduced sequentially at regular Intervals into a channel carrying a liquid that can merge or not wlth other channels carrying reagents, buffers, masklng agents and so on. Upon reaching the detector -generally cell-,

furnished with a flow-

the resultant reactlng mixture yields an analytical signal which

Is

duly recorded. This slgnal Is transient i n nature and i t s helght or area Is used t o calculate the analyte concentration. The baseline between signals represents the time over which no sample zone Is passing through the detector. There are two types of continuous analyser, namely:

-

Segmented-flow analysers (SFA), originally developed by Skeegs [141 and

f i r s t commercialized by Technicon under the name ’AutoAnalyzers’, In which the flow is segmented by air bubbles almed at preservlng the Integrity of samples


to

(3, SAMPLER

**. *.

n

ma.

0

no00

no00

i

conveyor

belt

1

0 i waste

SAMPLER

RECORDER FIA --_

air _-

-l

_~ . _ .-_ __ -_ ____

RI

~

A

v

flow

cell

11 waste

DETECTOR

0

ROBOT

STIRRING UNIT

Scheme o f the d i f f e r e n t types of automatic analysers, class i f i e d according t o the way in which sample transport is effected. The examples i l l u s t r a t e the determination o f a single analyte i n a l i q u i d sample requiring d i l u t i o n (D) and sequential addition o f two reagents ( R i , R 2 ) f o r the a n a l y t i c a l reaction t o develop. (a) Batch analyser. (b) Continuous analysers (SFA, segmented-flow; FIA, flow-injection; CCFA, completely continuous flow). (c) Robot station. Note t h a t agit a t i o n i s carried out by independent u n i t s i n ( a ) , is not required i n (b) and i s effected by a single u n i t i n (c). (Adapted from 1171 w i t h permission o f E l l i s Horwood).

F i g . 1.3


11

and removed prior t o reaching the detector. They are discussed in Chapter 5 C151.

-

Unsegmented-flow analysers (Flg. 1.3b) can be classified accordlng t o

whether

samples are Injected o r contlnuously inserted Into the system, Into

’flow-injection

analysers’

(FIA) [16,17]

and ’completely continuous flow ana-

lysers’ (CCFA) 1181, respectlvely. Both are descrlbed In detall In Chapters 6 and 7, respectlvely. (c) Robotic analysers, whlch should rather be referred t o as ’robot stations’, are based on the use of a high-precision mlnlrobot whose movements mimic the actlons of a human operator (Fig. 1.3~). By means of a hand (grip), the robot takes the sample and the products resultlng from the different stages of i t s processing t o a series of apparatuses (dilutor, liquid dispensing units, extractors, centrifuges, heaters) and Instruments (balance, photometer, chromatograph). A single microprocessor usually controls the robot’s motion and the operation of the different apparatuses and Instruments,

from

which It recelves the corresponding signals t o be treated In order t o obtaln the flnal results [191. Chapter 9 i s devoted to the use of robots i n the analytical process. Dependlng on the number of analytes that can be assayed per sample, analysers can be ciasslfied Into one-parameter (e.g. tion analysers) and multi-parameter.

centrlfugal and flow-injec-

The latter are of special use In cllnlcal

assays, usually requiring the determinatlon of several parameters In blood or urine -the

SMAC, an extremely powerful analyser manufactured by Technlcon al-

lows the determlnatlon of up to 20 parameters (analytes) per sample. Because of reminiscences of former tlmes, some workers stlll use a parallel nomenclature (single-channel

and multl-channel)

t o refer t o these analysers. Thls

Is acceptable as the earllest commercially avallable continuous segmented flow analysers (Technlcon AutoAnalyzers) carrled out one determlnatlon per channel Into whlch the sample was split. Hence the equivalence between ’channel’ and ’parameter’, exclusive t o this type of analyser. A classlflcatlon of great practlcal Interest divides analysers according to their f l e x i b i l i t y f o r adaptation t o different sltuatlons or needs (1.e. different

types of

sample or

analyte)

Into ’speclflc

designs’

and

’flexible

designs’. (a) S p e c i f i c designs are almed at determlnlng a single analyte or a few In the same type of sample. Thelr adaptatlon t o other applications Is normally unfeasible or requires major modlflcatlons. The automated assemblies for the determlnatlon of nitrogen by the Kjeldhal technique are a representatlve example, as are the analysers marketed by Leco f o r a varlety of determlnatlons: carbon and sulphur analyser (CS-2441, nltrogen and oxygen determlnator (TC136) for ferrous and non-ferrous materials, etc.


12

( b ) Flexible designs are characterized by their ready adaptation t o dlfferent needs (types of sample or analyte) by merely changing one o r several modular elements. They generally allow for changes i n the reagents, configuration, detector, methodology and even the sub-stages of the process. Obviously, the flexibility of these designs w i l l vary from one t o another. Semi-automatlc analysers can also be classlfled according t o other less relevant concepts such as the state of aggregation of the sample, the way i n which the signal Is measured and the sampllng frequency. (a) Depending on the state of aggregation of the sample, analysers can be classed as gas, l i q u i d and solid. Obviously, the analyser design strongly depends on the type of sample t o be handled. A solid analyser i s usually much more complex than a llquid o r gas analyser unless it is based on direct physical measurements; i n fact,

weighing i s difficult t o automate i n all b u t ro-

botic analysers, as are preliminary operations such as dissolution, disaggregation, extraction and so forth. The collection and treatment of liquid samples i s much more affordable by most analysers. On the other hand, gas anaiysers are more frequently employed i n industrial continuous process control and pollution monitoring. (b) Depending on the way in which the signal is measured, one can

distin-

guish between analysers based on physical, chemical and physico-chemical principles. Those based on physical properties of the sample or the analyte (e.g. density, refractive index, thermal conductlvity,

magnetic susceptibility) are

characterized by their slmpliclty and by their notorious lack of selectivity; in addition, they are sensitive t o pressure and temperature changes. Analysers based on chemical and physico-chemical principles are commoner and offer clear advantages over those mentloned above. The use of optlcal (photometric, fluorimetrlc) or

electroanalytlcal

(potentlometric,

voltammetric)

detectors among

others, and also the occurrence of one or several chemical reactions, conslderably Increase the selectlvity and sensitivity of measurements. (c) Depending on the sampling frequency achieved, analysers can be classified as 'one-off',

-

'periodic' and 'continuous'.

One-off analysers are concelved f o r sporadic determinations. They are

used when the number of samples t o be analysed i s not too large and delivery of results Is not too urgent.

-

Periodic analysers are aimed at analyslng a series of samples received

at glven intervals. Such i s the typical case wlth cllnlcal samples. They are

also employed i n Industrial control of mass production lines involving a reiatlvely consistent process.

-

Continuous analysers, typically represented by 'process analysers' [20,

211 use the continuously generated results t o adjust an industrlal process i n


13

situ. Environmental monitors, exposed i n strategic places t o send data continu-

ously to a surveillance station, are another representative example. These analysers are described in greater detail in Chapter 16. Finally, analysers can be classified according to thelr source or construction into hme-made and commercial. Although there is a vast range of commercial analysers available t o the potential user, some workers develop their own ’home-made’ systems, which occasionally exceed the former i n performance. While FIA configurations can be readily assembled from available parts, batch or SFA configurations are difficult t o customize and are best purchased as

supplied by the manufacturers.

1.5 DEGREES OF AUTOMATION

As can be seen in Fig. 1.4, every analytical process consists of three essential stages, namely: (a) Preliminary operations, the most complex and varied of the three stages. They include sample collection and treatment,

which w i l l vary with

the state of aggregation (dissolution or disaggregation,

centrifugation, fil-

tration, gas entrapment) and the potential interference from the matrix (dlfferent separation technlques); the development o f the analytical reaction and the transport of the reacting mixture t o the detection system. (b)Measurement and transduction o f the a n a l y t i c a l signal by means of the

detector used (optical, electrochemlcal, thermal) and on which calculation of the concentration of the analyte(s) is based. (c) Data a c q u i s i t i o n and treatment. This final stage can be implemented with a straightforward y-t

recorder o r with a microcomputer which can not

only treat the acquired data and process them, but also pass them on t o a central computer governing the analytical operations of a large industrial or hospital laboratory. The main levels of automation i n the analytical laboratory were defined recently [22].

As stated above, the concept of automation is stlll confusedly

applled to analytical processes, techniques and methods. Therefore, agalnst IUPAC’s recommendations, it Is worth establishing different degrees of automation i n order t o refer more accurately t o the extent of replacement of human intervention In the laboratory. Accordlng t o this criterion,

analyticai pro-

cesses can be classlfled into (Fig. 1.4):

(a) Semi-automatic (I), namely five

types

of

analyser

used

those with on& automated stage. There are to

Implement

thls

type

of

process.

(b) S8mi-automatic (11). Processes with two stages requiring no human Intervention. They are carried out by three types of analyser.


14

(c) Completely automatic, where the analyser --commonly given the name ’analytlcai black box’ “231-

totally replaces the human operator.

The differences between the nine types of analyser referred t o above are i n fact, the scheme in Fig. 1.4 is not exhaustive and could be

not clear-cut; expanded -yet,

I t i s representative of automation In Analytical Chemistry.

Below are described the nine alternatives t o automation foiiowlng the scheme

in Fig. 1.4.

SAMPLING

SAMPLE ATR N L YA T TM I CEAN LT REACTION

SIGNAL MEASUREMENT A N D TRANSDUCING

-

ACQUISITION

SEMI AUTOMATIC (1)

SEMI AUTOMATIC (11)

AUTOMAT 1C

Fig. 1.4 Degrees o f automation o f the analytical process, assumed t o consist o f three analytical stages. Numbers 1 t o 9 denote the d i f f e r ent levels a t which human intervention i s replaced.

Type 1. Thls Involves automation o f the developent o f the analytical reac-

tion and the transport of the reacting plug t o the detector (generally continu-

ous In nature and furnished with an optical or electroanalytlcal flow-cell. representative example of thls alternative is presented In Fig. 1.5. the flow-injection

A

namely

determination of aluminium in sllicate rocks based on the

formation of a coioured chelate between the metal and Xylenol Orange (A-

=

560 nm) [241. The sample collection and dissolution (dlsaggregation) stages,

which are tedious, are done manually, as i s the injection of an accurately measured volume of treated sample. However, the main analytical reaction and removal of Interferences (addition of ascorbic acid t o reduce Few t o FeH and EDTA t o form soluble chelates wlth a large number of potentially Interfering

metal ions) w e carried out i n a contlnuous fashion, 86 i s the transport t o the photometric detector used. An ordinary recorder acqulres the transient signals yielded upon passage of the reacting plug through the flow-cell. treatment is also performed manually.

Data

15

Fundamentals o f 1abora tot-y automation

A NA LY T I C A L r

SAYCLC 1REAIYENT A U LT 1I C A L

y ~ , y I

+

~

.

-

SIGNAL YC A S U I KYL Y I

RLACTIW

-

CI H

P R OC E SS ACOUISI llON AND PROCtSSlNC

lL0OC

Ascorbic Acid

X I lenol Orange

EOTA P hot ome t Q r L

Automation o f the f i r s t few stages (preliminary operations) o f the a n l y t i c a l process i n a Type 1 analyser, an F I A assembly f o r the determination o f aluminium i n rocks. (Reproduced from [241 with permission o f Pergamon Press).

Fig. 1.5

rype 2 This Involves partial automatlon of the first stage of the analytical process: the accurate measurement of a sample volume (sampling) and Its transport t o the detector without human intervention. However, sample treatment (e.g. quired-

dlssolutlon)

and

the analytical

reaction development -if

re-

are carrled out manually. Flgure 1.6 shows a representative example:

the Incorporation of an automatlc sampler i n a thermal-vaporization atomlc absorption spectrometer.

This instrumental configuration Is representative of

those where the automatlon of one stage Is highly recommendable -in

this

Instance t o ensure reproducible results. Type 3. The lmplementatlon of all the preliminary operations In the analyt-

ical process without human intervention represents a remarkable degree of automation. By Incorporating a sampler I n ordlnary FIA assemblles or the classical AutoAnalyzers, the f i r s t stage of the analytical process could be regarded as automated. However, it should be noted that the sampler holds pre-treated samples,

so that the automatlon o f the flrst stage is only apparently complete.


16

ANALYTlCAL sA,ypLIwG

SAMPLE IREATYENT ANALYTICAL REACIION

PROCESS

SIGNAL Y E A SIRANSDUCING UREYENI AND

t -I] ACOU151~1DN AND PROCESSING

__ GRAPHITE CHAMBER SAMPLER

A A S

RECORDER

Fig. 1.6 Automation o f the f i r s t few stages (preliminary operations) o f the analytical process (Type 2 analyser). Automatic system f o r introduction o f samples I n electrothermal-vaporization atomic absorpt i o n spectroscopy.

Type 4 The automatic control of an instrumental analytical technique whether optlcal, electroanalytlcal, magnetic o r thermal-

-

by means of a micro-

processor has become commonplace in commercial instruments i n the last few years. Thus, the control of the parameters governing the functioning of a conventional molecular absorption spectrometer (lamp selection, monochromator movement, change of slit width, movement of the cells In the measuring compartment, etc.)

is carried out via the keyboard of a microcomputer linked t o

the system through an active interface. Figure 1.7 depicts an example o f automation of the second stage of the analytical process. However, this situation

Is currently uncommon as the microcomputer used can also deal automatically with data acqulsition and treatment as in Type 7 analysers. Type 5. This Involves the automation of data acquisitlon and treatment i n

a traditional analytical instrument - e v e n a balance can be the subject of automation. As shown In Fig. 1.8, a microcomputer connected on-line

with the

analogue output of the instrument ensures the automation of t h l s stage of the

17


t

IAYPLL

YYPLlyG

-*

L

:":;:;

5IGMM C

RE A C 1 ION

YEASUIEYENI u(D I I A N S D U I f f i

*COUISIlKN AND C R X C S S I N G

2

L

= = = 5 x z 1=

1 i1 :

714

SEMI AUTOMATIC

is

5 SOURCE

\

--- MONOCHROMATOR

DETECTOR TRANSDUCER

AMPLIFIER f

I

Fig. 1.7 Automation o f the second stage o f the a n a l y t i c a l process (Type 4 analyser). Use o f a microprocessor incorporated I n a molecular absorption spectrometer t o control i t s functioning through an active interface and an analogue-to-digital converter.

analytical process. An A/D converter allows data t o be entered into the comput e r and read on a digital display. The computer can be programmed t o dellver the results via a printer or plotter, as required. Note the difference between the data provided by a y-t recorder (non-programmable) and those offered by a computer-programmed

plotter. This alternative t o automation is essentlal when

data are generated at a high rate (e.g. tectors or In stopped-flow

by spectrophotometers with image de-

methods applied t o ultra-fast kinetics) or t o avoid

sample-result mismatching when deallng wlth a very large number of samples. It is also recommendable when the data are to be subjected t o a complex mathematical treatment (measurement of areas and resolution of overlapping peaks In chromatography,

different181 kinetic methods, etc.).

In short, the aim is to

relate the acquired data t o the analyte concentration by means o f a previously r u n Cali bratlon graph or straightforward statistical computations. Type 6. The previous alternatives involved the automation of a single

stage of the analytical process. Type 6 analysers elimlnate human intervention


18

ANALYTICAL

PROCESS

SEMI AUTOMATIC

INSTRUMENT

1-

n

IAnaloguc

PRINTER I

r----1

;RECORDER L

y.

-----J

I

MICROCOMPUTER

y

PLOTTER

I

Fig. 1.8 Automation o f the t h i r d stage o f the analytical process (Type 5 analyser). On-line incorporation o f a microcomputer f o r data acauisition and treatment.

i n two stages: preliminary operations and data acquisition and treatment. This type of analyser uses a conventional sensing system whose functioning is governed manually. However, this stage Is also -apparently-

automated as, once

the working parameters have been selected, the samples are introduced into the analyser and the results are delivered without the operator’s intervention, which is required only whenever the sample or analyte to be determlned or the detector settings are t o be changed. A typical example of this level of automation i s an automatic analyser for the determination of pollution levels i n waste water, based on reversed FIA principles [25], the scheme of which is shown i n Fig 1.9. The waste water is continuously introduced via a peristaltlc pump which also fills the loops of the injection valves with the reagents. A microprocessor controls the functioning of the pump and the injection-reaction unit via an active Interface, and acquires data from the photometric detector, which are processed and delivered through a printer. Type 7. This type of analyser is employed In the automation of the second

(functioning of the detection system) and t h i r d (data acquisition and treat-


19

ment) stages of the analytical process. A s stated above, this alternative is currently available in most of the recently Introduced commercial analytical instruments. Figure 1.10 shows the essential elements of an analyser of this type, namely a microprocessor furnished wlth active and passive interfaces via

which the aforesaid stages are controlled and a printer or plotter whereby the results are delivered. Samples are introduced manually into the analyser.

A N A L Y T I C A L PROCESS

Automation o f the f i r s t and t h i r d stages o f the a n a l y t i c a l process (Type 5 analyser). Scheme o f automatic continuous analyser f o r determination o f pollutants i n waste water, based on a -reversed F I A configuration. (Reproduced with permission o f the copyright holders). Fig. 1.9

Type 8. Gas and liquid chromatographs, the most representative examples of

thls type of analyser,

occupy a prominent place i n current anatytlcal instru-

mentation. Their sampling operation (injection) is generally manual and column separation can be considered t o be the only sample treatment. They carry out detection i n a continuous fashion and usually employ an electronic integrator or a microprocessor t o acquire and process data Their automation, therefore, involves the complete second and t h i r d stages, i n addition to part of the first.

The instrument's microprocessor can control: (a) the chromatographic

furnace, which works at a fixed temperature i n liquid chromatography and over


20

a given temperature gradient in gas chromatography; (b) the mobile phase gradient system in liquid chromatography;

and (c) the detection system -less

often. The incorporation of a sampler synchronized with an automatic injection system results i n a system close to Type 9. Chapter 11

Is largely devoted t o

the automation of chromatographlc processes.

A NA LY T 1 C A L

PROC E S S

1

I

1

1

1 t

L

:1 ‘I

,

,‘ ‘ I

SEMI AUTOMATIC

I

MICROPROCESSOR

PASSIVE I N T E R FACE

I

I ..

F-r -‘-Tp1I.l;;”) ” Fig. 1.10 Automation o f the second and t h i r d stages o f the analytical process (Type 7 analyser). Scheme o f instrument with b u i l t - i n m i c r o processor.

Microprocessor-controlled

t h i rd-generatlon automatic tltrators are also a

representative example of Type 8 analysers (Fig. 1.11). Their sensing system (a potentiornetrlc o r photometric probe) is manually controlled, as Is sample changeover

i n the tltratlon

zone.

Tltrant addltion (analytlcal

reaction)

is

governed by the microprocessor: the flow-rate changes wlth time as a functlon of the position on the titration curve ( i t Is lower i n the vlclnlty of the equivalence point). The rnlcroprocessor collects data from the burette and the measuring System and delivers results In the requlred form (a titration curve, the analyte concentration). Systems uslng a y-t sentative of a lower degree of

recorder instead are repre-

automatlon and fall

outslde this

general

scheme. Conversely, the Incorporation of an automatic sampling system (e.9. a


21

Mettier or Metrohm sampler) results In a Type 9 configuration with some limltations (see Chapter 13).

ANALYTICAL

PROCE S S

-

I

T-

BURETTE I-

STIRRER

PROBE MEASURING SYSTFY

I 1: T A ATION VCSSCL

P H rn.tCC

ph ho o tt o om me e tt e e rr p

1

e l

L--T----J PRINTER

Automation o f the f i r s t and t h i r d stages o f he analytica . process (Type 8 analyser). Scheme o f microprocessor-controlled automatic p o t e n t i m e t r i c or photometric t i t r a t o r .

Fig. 1.11

Type 9. This i s represented by the above-mentioned COmpletely automatic

anaiyser, where untreated samples are introduced without quantltatlon Into the instrument, whlch provides results I n the requested form wlth no human intervention other than programming the analyser (Fig. 1.12).

The few commercial

and custom-made analysers that fall into t h i s category are used t o meet very specific needs. The concept ’completely automatlc’ is not strlctly accurate. In fact, some of the analysers labelled as such require human lnterventlon In or control of one su b-stage. Undoubtedly, preliminary operations make up the stage that Is most difficult t o automate on account of the variety and complexlty of the different sub-stages Involved. In addltlon, the concept of ’sample’ Is applied t o dlfferent sltuatlons. Strictly, it should be used t o refer t o the raw material with whlch the operator or analyser Is inltially confronted, namely urlne or whole


22

blood from a patient,

water collected at a given depth i n a lake, coal i n

lumps of different sizes and so forth. Sample collection and treatment (e.g. transfer of urine t o a sampler vial, blood deproteination, collection and storage of a water sample, coal homogenizatlon, etc.) are dlfflcult to automate wlth the exception of a few cases such as in

vivo clinical controls or the

continuous collection of water samples introduced directly into the anaiyser. From all this it foilows that complete automation, as presented i n Fig. 1.12, i s an elusive goal. Robot stations, described i n Chapter 9, probably represent the closest situatlon i n this respect.

.

-

SAYPL E

SIGNAL

T R € ATMEW

ML A W R L Y E U 1 AUO TRAI(SDUCIU6

AYAIviiCAL-R L AClIOU

t

ACWISITIOY

9-AUTOMA7IC

L

CONTROL

It

1

UNMEASURED UNTREATED

ANALYSER

Fig. 1.12

UNIT

RESULTS EXPRESSED AS REOUIRED

Complete automation of the a n a l y t i c a l process (Type 9 ma-

lyser). The automated F I A system classed as a Type 6 analyser can be regarded as completely automatic i n spite of the fact that the detector Parameters are manually controlled, which does not really involve human Intervention in the analytical process provided that the same type of sample and analyte(s1 i s dealt

w It h throughout. Centrlfugal analysers, discussed i n Chapter 4, are dlscrrte i n nature. Sample collection and reagent dispensation take place In an automated dosing module. However, the transfer disc contalnlng the radially arranged samples and reagents i s transferred manually t o the analyser module, where reactlon, signal measurement and data acquisition and treatment, all completely automated,


23

take place. As can be seen from Flg. 1.13, t h i s type of analyser

16

not com-

pletely automatic as claimed by manufacturers, insofar as one of the intermediate stages has to be performed manually. This situatlon Is different from that described above as the analytlcal process would be unfeasible without the operator’s continuous interventlon.

ANALYTICAL f

YYPLL

1

SIGNAL

I

DOSING

PROCESS

1

O

,

MANUAL

_ _T R-A -NS PORT

MODULE

- AUTOMAT IC

A N ALY S E R MODULE

-

Fig. 1.13 Seemingly complete automation o f the analytical process (Type 9 analyser). Centrifugal analysers feature an intermediate stage involving the manual transport o f the transfer disc.

1.6 ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES AND AUTOMATION

From the point of view with which the automatlon of analytical lnstrumentation has been approached above and taking Into account the distinction between analytical technique and method established in this chapter, analytlcal determinatlve techniques and automation can be related in two ways. (a) A glven analytical instrumental technique can be inherent In an autc-

matlc analyser. Such Is the case wlth optical (photometry,

fluorlmetry) o r

electroanalytical (potentlometry, amperometry) techniques, whlch can be implemented by means o f self-contained

modules on dlfferent analysers which are

thus endowed wlth different degrees of automatlon -in

the second stage of the

analytical process I n t h i s Instance. On the other hand, an analytlcal technique can be use t o automate an analyser functlonlng In addltlon t o sample


24

acquisition and tretament,

as wlth instruments featurlng bullt-In

mlcropro-

cessors (Type 3 analysers, Fig. 1.7). I n Table 1.3 are listed the instrumental techniques most frequently used for detection with automatic analysers of any kind. Molecular absorption spectrometry (colorimetry) Is by far the commonest of such techniques, followed b y potentlometry (pH measurements and use of selective electrodes).

TABLE 1.3

Analytical determinative techniques most frequently used i n automatic

methods

o f analysis Spectroscopic

Molecular

Absorption

UV-visible

Colorimetry Photometry

IR

Emission

Flu0r i m e t r y Chemiluminescence

Atomic

Ref ractmetry Absorption

AAS

Emission

Normal ICP

Electrochemical

Potentimetry Conductimetry Voltammetry Amperometry Coulomet ry D i e l e c t r i c constant measurement

A given instrumental technlque can be consldered to bear different rela-

tionships t o different laboratory processes. Thus, spectrofluorlmetry can be automated by use of a microprocomputer: either by setting the deslred instrumental parameters (excitation and emission wavelength,

slit wldth,

Instru-

mental sensitivity, etc.) or by choosing the methodology (conventional, synchronous, synchronous-derlvatlve,

tlme-resolved,

etc.) t o be used. Automated

data acqulsltlon allows the implementation of these alternatlves (see Chapter 9). On the other hand, a fluorlmeter equlpped wlth a flow-cell can be used as

25

Fundamentals o f 1abora tory automa tion

a modular add-on to a continuous analyser. Thermal techniques, in contrast, are seldom used with automatic analysers; yet, there is a variety of commercially available instruments such as thermobalances, dlfferential calorimeters and differential thermal analysers affording thermal analysis with a greater or lesser degree of automation. As far as separation techniques are concerned, they can be implemented on

automatic continuous analysers o r robot stations as ancillary modules (dialysers, ion exchangers, liquid-liquid chromatographic processes -particularly

extractors).

A s stated i n Chapter

12,

column (HPLC and GC). but occasion-

ally also planar chromatographic purposes-

are commonly the subject of auto-

mation. A conventlonal chromatograph furnished with a system for sequential introduction of samples -which fashion

before of after

techniques)-

can even be partially treated i n a continuous

column separation

(derivatlzation

and post-column

markedly resembles continuous flow analysers. Gas and liquid

chromatographs are often used as separative-determinative modules in robotstalons.

1.7 DISADVANTAGES OF AUTOMATION The outstanding advantages offered by the automation of laboratory processes were clearly illustrated in Section 1.2 i n dealing with i t s objectives. Despite i t s advantages, the partial or complete elimination of human intervention in such processes may result in a series of major and minor disadvantages which should be taken into account in deciding whether a give process is to be automated or not. The f i r s t shortcoming of automation is that the more automated the process

is, the less i s the contact of the chemist o r worker with it. Thls, i n turn, results i n a lack of continuous control over each situation (sample) and of discrete observations Increasing the knowledge of the experimental events -this

prevents the operator from obtaining a certain type of information

which i n some cases might be even more interesting than t h a t arranged t o be obtained. I n addition t o this separation, the analyser requires more frequent check-ups and there i s a greater risk of sample-result mismatching. The popularity -or

even maglc-

of replacing human effort and faculties

i n the realization of any task negatively affects the attitude of laboratory principals, who can overestlmate the real potential of automation, falllng i n overconfidence that may adversely influence the planning of some analytical operations carrled out i n the laboratory. A s a rule, Potential purchasers do not have a good knowledge of the characterlstlcs and possibilitles of the vast range of commercially available analysers and Instruments. Nor do they seem t o


26

take the trouble t o study either of these aspects with the required calm and in the expected depth. To make matters worse, manufacturers tend t o overpraise their products and usually make no mention of their llmltatlons, the knowledge of which is as Important as that of their potential. The ease with which results can be generated and the above-mentioned overconfidence can also result In non-critical evaluation of the results, the sole responsibility of the chemist according t o Pardue (see Fig. 1.1). The chemical ’sense’ should prevail over the data delivered by the computer. I f this gives a pH of 22.3 after the pertinent measurements and data treatment, one can readily spot the deviatlon from fact. However, if the result falls within the accepted sensible range, it is the human who must check whether such a result is consistent with predictions or further experiments.

Analytical Chemistry

does not end i n the printer or plotter. The automation of an analytical techniques occasionally results i n

a nar-

rowing of i t s scope, particularly i n relation t o research work, about which manufacturers do seem t o worry too much. Later automated instruments, despite their changed face -a and dials-

keyboard and screen have replaced a series of buttons

are almost always exclusively designed f o r routine determinations,

so some of the usual performance of earlier models has been lost i n the takeover. In additlon, the quality of some of the elements of the instruments is sometimes sacrificed i n order not t o raise costs too much by the incorporation of microprocessors. This, i n turn, may result i n decreased lifetimes and performance (e.g. poorer spectral resolution), and i n increased maintenance.

1.8 SIGNIFICANCE AND SCOPE OF APPLICATION OF AUTOMATION

The growing trend towards automation has brought about a substantial change i n laboratory work, not only because of the purchase of new analysers, instruments or modules, but also because of the profound alterations undergone by the operator’s mlssion. Thus, the computer is now an Indispensable tool -it

can be sald t o have become the main link between the analyst and his en-

vironment. Laboratory staff have had t o be retralned t o face the new situation. This transformation results i n doubtless advantages (economy, rapidity, reliability, increased potential), commented on above. Automation Is of particular sigfilficance with respect t o three aspects, namely: (a) Analytical instrumentation. The

automated control of various instru-

mental parameters and of data acquisitlon and treatment considerably improve the performance of non-automated Instruments. Such Is the case with the automatic sampler used i n electrothermal-vaporization atomic absorption spectroscopy (Fig. 1.6),

which results i n substantlally improved reproducibility, or


27

computerized data acquisition and processing systems, which endow some methodologies and technlques with outstanding reliability and rapidity.

Moreover,

automation has facilitated the development of new instrumental modes (e.g. spectroscopic techniques using image detectors,

Fourier transform spectro-

scopy, timed-resolved fluorlmetry, etc. 1. (b) Non-routine work i n research and development laboratories, t o which

automation is extremely useful. On the one hand, it increases the analytical potential i n allowing the development of new, more powerful instrumental alternatives (e.g. ultra-fast

kinetics), as stated above. Spectral pattern recogni-

tion systems based on comprehensive programs running on large computers have remarkably

improved

the

reliability of the structural elucidation of

both

organic (IR, mass spectrometry, NMR) and inorganic (X-ray techniques) species. It is also worth emphasizing the great aid of computers i n dealing with large

sets of

data requiring complex mathematical calculations.

optimization

of

laboratory

processes

is an

The computerized

invaluable tool

in

developing

methodologies requiring f e w e r experiments, of great interest when these are slow or involve valuable samples. (c) Control laboratories. Automation i s of relevance t o control laboratories aimed at ensuring the quality demanded by areas of great social interest. One such area i s Clinlcal Chemistry. Present-day medlcine bases i t s diagnoses on the results of a battery of tests on biological samples (urine, blood, tissues) and places less reliance on clinical experience and Judgement. Since health is one o f the major concerns of our society -as cial security budget of any developed country-

reflected i n the so-

it is easy t o understand the

imperative need for hospitals to obtain a large number of analytical data as quickly and cheaply as posslble. Automation is an essential contrlbution i n this context. The situation is much the same i n most of industry, where quality control laboratories have become much more important than they used t o be a few years ago. The demands in this area are dictated by the large number of samples t o be analysed, the need to automate manufacturing processes requiring one-off determinations at some point along the production line and the quality now required of manufactured goods. It i s therefore necessary t o control not only the raw materials, but also the intermediate and end products. Biotechnology is one of the most influential sciences at the end of this century and the analytical control of biotechnological

processes in labor-

atories and pilot and industrial plants Is therefore essential. Automation is a boon t o the flve analytical techniques most frequently employed In this field, namely electrophoresis,

Immunoassay, chromatography,

sequencing, and molecular structure elucidation.

protein and DNA


28

Society’s increasing awareness of ecological problems has spurred the development of automated analytical methods f o r monitoring pollution levels i n a i r and in all types of water, in urban, Industrial and natural environments. A consciencious study of alterations t o the ecosystem b y man demands the

strict control of a large variety o f parameters at a high rate, which i s completely impossible without a high degree of automation.

REFERENCES [l] P. B. [2] F. L. [a] H. H. [4] S. A.

[5] [6] [7] 181 [9] [ 103 [ll] [12] [13] [14] [ 151

[16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25]

Stockwell, Talanta, 27 (1980) 835. M i t c h e l l , J. Autom. Chem., 6 (1984) 1. Rosenbrock, TrAC, 3 (1984) 1. Borman, Anal. Chem., 54 (1982) 567A. C. G. Enke, S. R. Crouch, H. V. Malmstadt, F. J. H o l l e r and J. P. Avery, Anal. Chem., 54 (1982) 367A. R. Stanley, J. Autom. Chem., 6 (1984) 6. J. K. Taylor, Anal. Chem., 55 (1983) 600A. H. L. Pardue, Chem. and Eng. News, Sep 12, 1983. H. L. Pardue and J. Woo, J. Chem. Educ., 61 (1984) 409. IUPAC Compendium o f A n a l y t i c a l L i t e r a t u r e ( ’Orange Book’). Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1978, pp. 22-23. J. K. Foreman and P. B. Stockwell (Eds), Automatic chemical analysis, E l l i s Horwood, Chichester, 1975. J. K. Foreman and P. B. Stockwell (Eds), Topics i n automatic chemical analysis, E l l i s Horwood, Chichester, 1979. J. Vafia, Gas and l i q u i d analysers, i n Wilson’s and Wilson’s Comprehensive A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, vol. X V I I , G. Svehla (Ed.), Elsevier Sci. Pu., Amsterdam, 1982. L. T. Skeegs, Am. J. Pathol., 28 (1957) 311. W. B. Furman (Ed. 1, Continuous flow analysis. Theory and p r a c t i c e , Marcel Dekker, New York, 1976. J. Ruzicka and E. H. Hansen, Flow i n j e c t i o n analysis, J. Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981. M. Valchrcel and M. D. Luque de Castro, Flow-injection analysis: p r i n c i ples and applications, E l l i s Horwood, Chichester, 1987. M. Goto, Anal. Chem., 2 (1983) 92. C. L. Hawk and J. S t r i m a i t i s (Eds), Advances i n laboratory automation. Robotics-1984, and Ibid-1985. Zymark, Hopkinton, MA, USA, 1985 and 1986. P. E. Mix, The design and a p p l i c a t i o n o f process analyzer systems, WileyInterscience, New York, 1984. D. J. Huskins, General handbook o f on-line process analyzers, E l l i s Horwood, Chichester, 1981. H. A. Mottola, Anal. Sci. (Japan), 2 (1986) 317. G. E. Bailescu, C. Patrocescu and R. A. Chalmers, Education and t r a i n i n g i n a n a l y t i c a l chemistry, E l l i s Horwood, Chichester, 1982, T. Mochizuki and R. Kuropa, ralanta, 29 (1982) 659. A. Rios, H. D. Luque de Castro and H. Valchrcel, Spanish patent no. 535.

820, 1984.

Computers

3-17

the

laboratory

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The already massive use of computers in household and corporate environments is still and w i l l predictably be on the increase In years to come as an obvious

result of

thelr

progressively

falling

cost.

Laboratories have not

failed to recognize their vast potential and have exploited them in a number of fields, particularly in the automation of a variety of processes. Strictly, the role of (micro)computers

in process automation involves the action of

electronics or hardware on the mechanical parts of an instrument wlth the aim of fully or partly replacing human intervention.

Despite the posslbility of controlllng some instruments or processes without the aid of computers, these usually result i n a higher degree of automation and become a sort of 'braln' governing the system concerned. Put simply, a computer is a system capable of capturing, acquiring or accepting information from the outslde world, converting it into intelligible information to be handled on i t s inside, making decislons on the basis of the processed input data, storing the acqulred information or processing it on I t s own or alongside other stored information, and actuating the instruments or machines involved i n a given process. Each of these stages Is carried out by a different part of the computer (Fig. 2.1).

The central processing u n i t (CPU) or micro-

processor is the key part of the computer as it functions t o make the required decisions and excute them -information

processing. Every computer features

two other essential elements, namely the memory and the input/output (I/O) unit. The memory, expandable by means of addltlonal modules, is In charge of the storage and preservation of the acquired Information (commands, addresses or data) and Is characterlzed by i t s capaclty, measured in kllobytes ( 1 kb 1024 bytes),

=

and accordlng to Its nature, ROM ( r e a d only memory) or RAM

(random access memory). The 1/0 unlt(s) llnk(s) the computer wlth the outside

world and allow data acqulsltion and process or Instrument control -key aspects to laboratory automatlon-

through approprlate Interfaces.

Computers can be Incorporated Into the laboratory i n either of two chlef ways (Flg. 2.2):


30

EXTERNAL WAYS OF I N FOR MATI-

I

1 INPUT / OUTPUT

1-31

I- -

I

E X T ER N A L >WAYS OF /INFORMATION

-- - - - - - - - - - - - I COMPUTER

Fig. 2.1 Scheme o f a computer shoking formed by each o f i t s parts.

(a) O f f - l i n e .

the essential

function per-

The operator writes the software, carries out the experl-

ment, tabulates the results obtalned and inputs them into the computer's memory as the program requests them. The computer thus only executes the software and delivers the processed results to a display or printer. The operator is the active part and centre of the process, and no direct link Is established between the experiment and the computer. (b) On-line. The experiment and the computer are closely linked t o each other through an electronlc interface. I n thls case, the computer not only processes and displays data, but also acquires it from the experiment o r measuring instrument and controls I t via interfaced electronic or electromechanical elements actuated by voltage or current changes. On-ilne configurations are the more Interesting from the point of view of laboratory automation, to the point of becoming the only viable alternative In some cases (e.g.

when data

must be acquired very rapidly or the experiment generates a vast amount of Information).

I n addition, they feature a number of advantages over their

off-line counterparts, namely: the operator i s relieved from the key role i n the process and i t s functlon is undertaken by an electronic Interface, thereby

Computers in the laboratory

31

avoiding human errors; the computer acquires information dlrectly from the experiment and hence at a much higher frequency; the computer controls the experiment i n a faster and safer way than the operator does; the overall process i s therefore faster and more precise. On the other hand, on-line configurations require checking of the functioning of the interface, which should be suitable for the purpose and as regards serial o r parallel data transfer, conversion frequency and so forth.

al.0ff-line COMPUTER

b ) . On-line COMPUTER EL EC TRON 1C

Fig. 2.2

Ways o f incorporating computers i n t o the laboratory.

Hence, computers allow the ready automation o f laboratory processes such as data acquisition and treatment, result delivery and process control. This great potential is further increased by the possibility of llnklng computers t o one another (intelligent instruments) and by the use of workstations, expert systems and data banks, all of which are commented on i n some detail below.

2.2 DATA ACQUISITION AND PROCESSINO. RESULT DELIVERY

These three operations can only be automated with the aid of a (mlcro)computer.

Flgure 2.3

Illustrates schematically

the

participation

of the chief

elements of the computer In the automation o f these operations. The measuring instrument o r device obtains analogue lnformatlon from the experiment and the measured parameters are acquired by the computer via a sultable interface consisting of an analogue-to-digital

converter (ADC) which transform6 the ana-

logue experimental signal Into dlgltal information -the

only type the compu-


32

t e r can store and handle. Interfaces used f o r data acquisition only are known as passive i n t e r f a c e s insofar as they merely transduce and transfer information from the measuring instrument t o the computer. The digitized information generated can be processed or stored in memory -usually

expanded memory-

for

future use. Results can be displayed i n a variety of ways by f i t t i n g different peripherals (CRTs, printers, plotters) t o the computer output. MEASURING

EXPERIMENT

DATA ACOUISITION

f DATA

C OMP U TE R

PROCESSING

p,] PERIPHERALS

Scheme o f result delivery.

Fig. 2.3

RESULTS PRE SE N TAT I ON

computerized data acquisition

and processing and

From the elementary scheme in Fig. 2.3 it is apparent that data acquisition is the stage lendlng itself most readily t o automation as it establishes an on-line link between the Instrument and the computer. I t Is indeed an important, delicate operation. The automation of data processing and result delivery is ensured by the sole presence of the computer and the use of appropriate software. 2.2.1 Data acqulsltlon

According t o Barker

[ll, every measuring Instrument liable t o automation

features three essential components, namely the detector proper, the detector electronics and the display system. The signals generated by the measuring


33

instrument can be sampled on output at any of these three elements, although those emerging from the detector electronics are the easiest to handle. Many laboratory instruments currently available are supplied ready for interfacing at all three levels. I t is therefore the user who decides which of the meter outputs is to be used. Although interfacing is normally effected at the second level, signals are occasionally read from the display system and stored for future use. Data acquisition at this level i s of great importance when the measuring instrument generates data at a high speed (e.g. study of transient phenomena or reactions with fast kinetics) or the variation of the signal over time rather slow. Data storage is not an end i n itself, but rather an intermediate step i n the process of data processing. Once the level at which signals are t o be sampled i s reached, they are digitized and transferred t o the computer. The passive Interfaces performing such a task consist of an analogue-to-digital the analogue signal -usually

a voltage-

converter (ADC) which transduces to the digital Information acquired,

processed and/or stored by the computer. There is a large variety of ADCs available [2,3]; yet, successive-approximation converters [4], with conversion times of the order of 10 ps and -unlike

in counter converters-

independent

of the magnitude of the analogue input voltage, possess the most desirable features. As a rule, the digital ouput of these converters is 8 o r 12 bits (256 or 4096 possible binary states overall) and yield good resolution,

provided

that a sultable sampling frequency is chosen. It should be noted, however, that analogue t o digital conversion always results i n the loss of some information which is only outweighed by the advantages offered by the computerized treatment of such signals. As the computer receives digital data corresponding exactly or approximately

to an analogue (experimental)

signal at

given -discrete-

times,

a

sampling frequency consistent with that of the experimental signal must be

established i n order t o avoid errors arising from a lack of information. Too high a frequency should also be avoided, however,

as it would result i n a

data acquisition speed beyond the converter’s capacity and hence requlre the incorporatlon of analogue multiplexers into the interface. There Is the added risk of rapidly saturating all the avallable memory -particularly ware-controlled

data acqulsition-

with

soft-

even before the experlment or Its chief

phase i s concluded. A rough knowledge of the magnitude of the frequency wfth which the experlrnental signal w i l l be generated is therefore mandatory In order that the sampling frequency can be matched t o It. Accurate signal sampling reportedly requires using a data acquisition speed at least double -although,

( v i z . the

preferably ten times-

Nyqulst’s frequency

minimum sampilng frequency). Flgure 2.4 Illustrates how a given sam-


34

COMPUTER - ACQUIRED

E X P ERIME N TA L ANALOGUE SIGNALS SIGNAL

DIGITAL

SIGNALS

DIGITAL STATES 00 0% 00

0

%" oooo

00

>o

TIME

TIME

(C) SIGNAL

I I I / I / l I / I l l I I I / I / I I I I /I / / ! l I I I 1 I I I I I / I I I T I ME

TIME

Result o f using a t o o high ( a ) , adequate (b) or t o o low ( c ) sampling frequency i n the computerized monitoring o f three transient signals. (The dashes below t h e x-axis i n d i c a t e the sampling points).

Fig. 2.4

Computers i n the laboratory

35

pling frequency can be adequate or low or high depending on the frequency at which the experimental signal is generated. Occasionally a given experiment provides signals of very different frequencies [l].

Such a process should be

sampled by using two memory buffers and auxliary memory to store the whole data set. The digitized data from the f l r s t signal are temporarily stored i n the f i r s t buffer and transferred t o the auxlliary memory once converted; meanwhile, the dlgitlzed data from a second signal are stored -also

temporarily-

In the second buffer as the f i r s t Is cleared and made ready for receiving new data. The use of adequate sampling frequencies suited t o the nature of the signal concerned has been studied by a number of workers [3,5,6]. Some proceses such as the control o f chromatographic peaks or translent signals with baselines stable over long time intervals do not strictly call for the storage of the sampled data, but simply for a computation program ensuring that only those signal values exceeding a given magnitude representative of the baseline are stored In memory. On the other hand, Leyden e t sl. [7] used a controlledvoltage oscillator determining the appropriate sampling frequency t o be used. Unlike i n the previous case, I t is the computer’s hardware rather than the software which controls data acqulsitlon here. So f a r only sequential data acquisition has been dealt with. However, it

is deed possible to receive two or more experimental data at the same tlme and thus perform simultaneous data acqulsltion.

The signals to be simultaneously

controlled can be obtained from various Instruments of the same (e.9.

gas

chromatographs) or different nature (e.g. spectroelectrochemistry), or from a single instrument such as an image detector, consisting of a large number of sensing elements (e.g. diode arrays) supplying Information simultaneously. Simultaneous data acqulsltion, of lncreaslng importance t o iaboratorles, requires the use of various interfacial elements (Fig. 5). The analogue signals from the sensing instruments or their elements are transferred to sample-and-hold

(S/H) amplifiers whlch retain the signal (voltage) from each Instrument at time t. An analogue multiplexer (MPX) sequentially transfers the amplifled

signal (AMP) from each S/H amplifier t o the ADC where it is converted to dlgltal form and read i n parallel by the computer. Note that, although the signals held i n the S/H ampliflers are read sequentially,

the information they

provide corresponds t o the same instant (1.e. it is generated simultaneously). It is therefore obvious that computerized data acquisltion Involves a

number of essential factors such as the length of the experiment, the magnitude and frequency of the generated signals, the speed of data acquisitlon and the nature of the measurlng Instrument, all o f whlch have been glven due consideration In the literature [3,8-111 and In reports on the use of dlgital


36

multimeters [12] and voltmeters

[131, osciiioscopes [141,

various logic ele-

ments [ i l l , 1/0 boards [15] and different commercial and homemade modules.

INSTRUMENTS

OR

\,

DETECTION ELEMENTS

V

/

I N T E R F A C E

Fig. 2.5 Simultaneous computerized data acquisition. The S/H amplif i e r s i n the interface allow the simultaneous acquisition o f data from instruments I, 11, I11 and IV (see t e x t ) .

Data storage is often an intermediate step between acquisition and processIng. The so-called ’primary’ storage devices used for such a purpose include the computer’s built-in memory and any add-on memory expansions, while ’secondary’ storage devices usually refer t o auxlllary memory modules also known as ’mass memory units’ such as magnetic tape or disk drives. Primary devices feat u r e the advantage of being directly addressable by the computer’s CPU. A s they are made of semlconductors and their functioning Involves no moving parts, they have very short access t i m e s (of the order of a few nanoseconds) and are ideal for fast data acquisition. Their capacity varies from computer t o computer and is usually between 8 and 256 kb i n the smaller configurations -the

commoner in the laboratory. These storage devices are implemented as RAM

(responsible f o r the direct storage of data), ROM (read-only memory or firmware, and thus inaccessible by the user), PROM (programmable ROM) and EPROM (erasable, programabie ROM). The communication between the CPU and secondary storage devices, although permanent, is never direct, so that access times are much longer. The scheme i n Fig. 2.6,

reproduced from Barber6 [161,

is illustrative of

a data acquisition system. The measured variable generates an electrical signal at the transducer whose nature and oscillation range is matched t o the ADC vla a slgnal conditioner -usually

consisting of one o r several operational


37

amplifiers. Once sampled and digitized, the signal i s stored i n the computer's memory. Figure 2.7 shows the scheme of a configuration f o r computerized acquisition of data from electroanalytical systems reported b y Price e t al. [17]. It is of special interest as, although many electroanalytidai instruments al-

ready have buift-in microprocessors, these are meant for instrumental control rather than f o r data acquisition and treatment. On t h e other hand, personal computers are rarely f i t t e d t o eiectroanalyticai instruments i n laboratories. As can be seen, the potentiostat generates a given potential function and

applies i t t o the electrochemical cell, while the microcomputer functions t o collect i-V

data, t r e a t them and, i f required, r u n typical voltammograms o r

p r i n t the results. The microcomputer used by Price e t a l . is a TRS-80 Model I o r 111, featuring the 8-bit 2-80 microprocessor and 64 kb of R A M and interfaced t o different peripherals. The interface's memory buffer l i n k s the comput e r with the interface bus and controls the acquisition process t h r o u g h dedicated software.

The potentiostat o u t p u t contains two types of information,

namely the potential difference between both electrodes and the c u r r e n t intensity generated. The latter is transduced t o an intensity-proportional voltage by an i-V converter.

Finally, the two signals are digitized by t h e AD

converter and transferred v i a t h e bus t o t h e Interface buffer, accessed by t h e computer, which i s governed by a BASIC program consisting of a mere six sentences, namely: BASIC sentence

Function performed

10 FOR 1=1 TO 1024

S t a r t s loop and states 1024 p a i r s

20 OUT 236,16

Actuates the I / O u n i t

30 OUT 96,l 40 A(I)=INP(96)*16+INP(97)/16

Marks s t a r t o f conversion by ADCs

o f data are t o be taken

50 B(I)=INP(98)*16+INP(99)/16 60 NEXT I

Input and storage o f p o t e n t i a l s 0,

I 6

"

intensities

Closes loop

The collected data can be subsequently manipulated t o provide the most sig-

nlf icant results from t h e voltammogram. 2.2.2 Data procssslng The data collected or stored b y t h e computer are generally processed o r treated prlor t o dellvery. Thls operation is controlled by means o f software, t h e term used t o described the set o f mathematical o r logic Instructions (sentences) Input by the user and executed b y t h e computer'.

It Is interesting


38

that the hardware used in data processing Is not and should not be the same in every case. Indeed, there are various categories of computers (micro and minicomputers, mainframes, array processors, etc.) whose features -particularly the prlce/performance ratio-,

are best suited t o the task i n question ( v i z .

the automation of a given technique or instrument).

1-1

L1-1 PROCESS

TRANSDUCER

Fig. 2.6

t CONDITIONER

AID CONVERTER

Block diagram o f a data acquisition system.

2.2.2.1 softwan,

Computer software Is the twl that actually effects the automation of the data acquisition process. There Is a variety of commercial software devoted to this end. Very often, the Instruments themselves are furnished wlth a simple microprocessor aided by a ROM containing the software required for treatment of the data collected by the detector and offer a relatively narrow choice of

options illustrated in the instrument catalogue. Other,

more sophisticated,

instruments are coupled to a more powerful computer and various peripherals (e.g. auxiliary storage devices) intended t o r u n software packages for a variety of purposes (e.9. HPLC experiments) and normally supplied by the same mmercial firm.

The chief advantage offered by the use of such commercially

available software Is the need for no programming skills from the operator, who can l w k up in the catalogue what Instructions t o key i n t o obtain the desired results and needs t o know no more than the potentlal and llmitatlons of the measuring instrument and the software controlling It. Commerclal software packages, however, llmlt I n many cases the Instrument’s scope and flexlbllity. This is sometimes the result of the software w r i t e r following basic guldellnes and not having enough chemical knowledge t o recognlze the subtleties behind the problems being addressed. In addition,


39

standard software takes no account of the possible changes i n the analytical method or technique that the experimenter is sometimes compelled to introduce. I n such cases, the operator’s knowledge of programming languages (BASIC, FORTRAN) i s a great asset as it allows him t o adapt available software or

w r i t e it from scratch for a particular purpose.

I 1Iw POTENTIOSTAT

RECORDER

-

I

_ _I I

i I

I

I I

I I

I

I

I 1-

_ _i

I

PRINTER

MICROCOMPUTER

GRAPHICS

Fig. 2.7 Scheme o f computerized data acquisition from electroanalytic a l instruments. (Reproduced with permission o f the American Chemical Society from ref. 1171).

A piece of software generally consists of two parts. I n the f i r s t part,

data section, are defined the variables, data and comments handled by the

program. I n the second, algorithm section, are contained the executable instructions. Prior t o wrltlng a program it pays t o construct a rough sketch or, even better, a flow diagram clearly describing Its structure and the ways along which information (data, instructions, addresses) is t o flow before the final stage, delivery of results, is reached. The program can be prepared t o process data during the real worklng time of the instrument (acqutsition-processing) or, alternatively, data can be treated only when thelr acquisition has been completed (acqulsltlon-storage-processing).

The former alternative i s

obviously the more complicated as the time taken t o process each piece of data must be shorter than that elapsed between the acquisition of two successive pieces of data. Essentially, a computer program performs a serles of basic functions: (a) Commanding data Input and output of results: (b) Assigning variables thelr values; (c) Carrying out mathematlcal operations or computations;


40

(d) Repeating the operatlons included i n a loop; and ( e l Maklng decisions on the basis of comparisons between data o r results. These operations called 'high-level

are enacted by means of Instructions written i n the so-

languages' (BASIC, FORTRAN and PASCAL, principally) and

aimed t o achleve the desired results. The different nature of the programs gives rise t o numerical and non-

numerical data processing.

Table 2.1

Applications

of

numerical

processing software

i n analytical

chemistry -~ ~~~~

~

- Optimization

o f variables

Slmplex method

-

Calculation o f parameters Equilibrium constants

Thermodynamic

Stoichiometries Reaction rates

Kinetic

Rate constants P a r t i a l reaction orders Activation energies

- Quantitation o f

analytes

Equation f i t t i n g Characterization o f c a l i b r a t i o n graphs Resolution o f systems o f equations

Numerical data processlng Involves the manlpulatlon of scalars, vectors or matrices that can be related t o curves, surfaces o r different equations In general. I t Is probably the commoner alternative f o r the treatment of experlmental data, which are transformed mathematically by the program. The mathematical transformations Involved can be

as simple as the characterization of a

callbratlon graph by the least-squares method o r as sophisticated as Fourler

[la1 or Hadamard [191 transforms.

Behind these two extremes lie different

mathematical models accounting f o r some physico-chemical phenomena (e.g. the solution t o the dlffuslonal-convectional transport equation as descrlptlve of dlsperslon

In

FIA [20]). Insofar as many experimental procedures, partlcuiarly


41

in the field of analytival chemistry, involve quantities and measurements subject to inherent uncertainty, another major application of numerical processing software is the statistical treatment of data, of great interest i n the detection of errors, their magnitude and contribution to the results. The few commercially available packages prepared for this purpose should be used with some caution [21].

In Table 2.1 are compiled the most significant applications

of numerical processing software i n analytical laboratories. EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF

BINARY COMBINATIONS

OF THESE VALUES

CONCENTR A T X O ~ S

OF NH, AND N ~ H ~ I N THE MIXTURE 4

Fig. 2.8 Flow diagram o f the program for the resolution o f ammoniahydrazine mixtures by the i t e r a t i v e proportional-equation method. Computerized numerical data Processing usually involves two types of error, namely:


42

(a) Rounding errors, arising from the instrument’s limitations in with fractional (3.1415926

...).

numbers such as 1/3 (0.33333

...)

dealing

or quantities such as n

Only a number of digits, n, dependent on the number of bits

used f o r data storage, can be retained i n such cases. Occasionally, the errors involved can be significant f o r the final results, although they can be estimated by probability calculations o r approximations. ( b ) Truncation e r r o r s are the result of replacing an indefinite fnathematicat expression with a definite expression. Such is the case with some expressions containing SIN, COS, LGT, SQR or EXP functions. Figure 2.8 depicts the flow diagram of an off-line numerical data processing program for the resolution of ammonia-hydrazine mixtures by the proportional-equation method, proposed by RjDs e t a l . [221 and of great use in those instances where the two equations arrived at are very similar (one is a linear combinatlon of the other). This makes extremely smali variations i n the measured experlmental parameters (inital reaction rates) result i n large errors in the results. Once the experimental data (reaction rates V i and Vz) have been input, the BASIC program establishes two sets of rates, vi[VikIxd and vp[V@frxiJ by increasing the initial VI

and Vz values at intervals (2x3 from

V-nxi t o V+nxi The program tries every possible combination between the two sets and solves the system of equations for each pair. I t discards those solutions which fail outside the concentration range where the method is applicable and establishes two new sets of ammonia and hydrazine concentrations. After averaging out both sets of data, the program dellvers the final results.

The kinetic method, which is not viable i n the conventional manner, offers satisfactory results when implemented by this iterative program. Figure 2.9 illustrates the application of an off-ilne numerical data processing method, of greater practical interest than that described above on account of the direct acquisition of data from the experimental system by the computer. The method was conceived by Ruz e t a l . f o r the automation of an FIA system used i n the speciation of chromium i n water 1231. The configuration is depicted in Fig. 2.9a, and the flow diagram of the program controlling its operatlon appears in Fig. 2.9b. The FIA system has two detectors, a potentlometric detector providing the pH of the water sample and a photometric detector giving the Cr(1II) and Cr(V1) contents sought. From these data and the constants of the equilibria involved, the BASIC program calculates the concentration of the different chromium species (up t o nine). The program inputs the data from the detectors, characterizes the calibration graphs run f o r Cr(1II) and Cr(V1) and stores them, indicates whether it i s ready t o analyse the following sample and does it if requested or stops the operation if told t o do

so. The microcomputer used is a Hewlett-Packard Model 85, furnished wlth an HP-IB 82937 interface and an HP 3478A multimeter.

B

P

C r+

al

a INJECTION MEAUSUREMENT MAXIMUM ABSORBANC

a

I

METER

Y INPUT P

MICROPROCESSOR

(al

Fig. 2.9

program.

Speciation of chromium i n water. ( a ) Scheme o f the configuration; ( b ) flow diagram of the


44

As stated above, non-numerical data processing software deals with data that cannot be in terms of numbers (e.g. chemical names and formulae, properties or characteristics of substances).

The commonest application of these

programs is perhaps the search through the libraries with which some laboratory instruments are provided f o r spectrum Identification (e.g. the characterization of organic compounds by MS, NMR, I R or UV spectroscopy). The operational principle behind the technique is simple: the spectrum of the unknown is compared with those of a series of standard spectra from well-known compounds stored i n the computer's memory, which must be large enough t o hold a reasonable number of standards. Because of the simliarity of same spectra,

the

computer frequently offers a list of candidates (with their percentage likelihood) rather than making an unequivocal assignment. Other applications call for more complex data structures capable of storing and handling vast amounts of information such as the properties of a group of similar substances and compiling literature data available

on a given tech-

nique. I n these instances, languages such as PL/1 [241 or PASCAL [25] are to be preferred t o BASIC or FORTRAN. The computer i s an ideal tool for the creation (simulation) of different models describing the physim-chemical facts underlying a number of processes. Once the model has been constructed from characteristic parameters and its consistency

with

experimental

facts

checked,

it allows

the

realization of

countless simulated experiments in a short time. This, i n turn, allows one t o formulate predictions about the real system or even t o estimate quantities that cannot be measured experimentally. Finally, some supercomputers and multiprocessors aiiow f o r the so-called array processing, namely the simultaneous, parallel handling of various types of information.

2.2.3 Delivery of results This Is the last phase of the analytical process and simply provides the user with processed data presented In a comprehensible manner suited to the demands or nature of the analysis concerned. The term 'results' is somewhat ambiguous. Thus, Barker [l] categorized results as: (a) Basic results or values obtained directly from analytical instruments. They correspond t o the situation of an instrument's LEDs and readlngs from analogue or digital instruments.

(b) Derived results are obtained upon transformation or processing of basic results and can be numbers, text, graphs or sound slgnals. (c) High-level

results, obtained after ordering,

structuring and/or

ex-

presslng derived results. They are passed on t o other users I n the form of


45

aural or written decisions, written paragraphs, papers, publications and theories, and books and theses. Computers are of particular relevance to the obtainment of derived r e sults, although they can also be used to obtain high-level

results (e.g. i n

word processing). Results can be delivered b y means of a large variety of peripherals f i t t e d to the computer output. The commonest of such peripherals Is no doubt the visual display unit (VDU), usually a cathode ray tube (CRT) similar to a T V set, indirectly linked t o the keyboard to receive the information typed in. Printers and plotters are probably the most important result display devices with a view to automation as the results, whether numbers, t e x t or graphs, are permanently printed on paper and are recorded after each analysis without the need for the operator’s presence. Appropriate result detivery depends much on the software used for the purpose. The results can be presented as lines, tables and/or graphs. The different programming languages have their corresponding instructions for choosing each type of display. Even graphical presentations, the most complicated from a programming point of view, are currently implemented by various commercially available software packages.

2.3 CONTROL OF AN INSTRUMENT OR ANALYSER The computerized control of instruments and analysers has been common practice in analytical laboratories for several years. Thus, as described in subsequent chapters, the different functions o r elements of optlcal o r electrical instruments and analysers can be governed by a rnlcrocomputer, which

also

usually controls the sampling, data processing and result delivery operations. Such control Is enacted through active interfaces consisting of digital-to-analogue converters (DACs) which actuate mechanical elements by transforming the digital signals from the computer into analogue slgnals (generally voltages). The simplest computerized configuration f o r data acquisition and process control consists of the following elements [26]: the central processing unit (CPU), an EPROM holdlng the program to be executed, RAM t o store data and intermediate variables, and a series of auxiliary components such as a clock and several address decoders. The DACs In the interface play a key role I n transforming the signal from the computer output into one transferable to a mechanical element. This requires DACs to preserve the signal with tlme and t o convert it t o a proportional voltage level. The circuitry Involved i n the transformatlon Is composed of a latch ensuring preservation of the computer slgnal 1nd the converter proper which, aided by an operatlonal amplifier,

transforms


46

it into a voltage whose maximum and minimum can be regulated by means of gain

and zero-setting potentiometers (Fig. 2.10).

DIGITAL INPUTS

ENABLE

POTENTIOMETER

INPUT

Fig. 2.10

Scheme o f an active interface furnished with a DAC.

Figure 2.11 illustrates the computerized control of a thermobaiance for integral and differential thermal gravimetric analyses [27]. The configuration includes a Nova 2 computer that can be programmed t o (a) control the furnace temperature continuously, (b) measure the furnace and sample temperatures continuously, (c) measure the sample weight continuously and (d) command x-y recordings by the plotter. The furnace i s taken t o the required temperature by a program whose digital information is converted t o an analogue voltage actuating a thyristor that controls the furnace power. Microcomputers can also control one, several o r ail preliminary analytical stages (sampling, physico-chemical treatment and analytical reaction). I n Fig. 2.12 is depicted an F I A autoanaiyser for the determination of water pollutants

allowing the automation of the sampllng and analytical reaction Involved by means of the microcomputer used. The water sample t o be analysed Is circulated as a carrler along the system (Fig. 2.12a) and each pollutant -three gether-

alto-

Is determined by injection of a selectlve photometric reagent. Prior

t o each injection, the water stream is merged with a buffer suited t o the analyte t o be determined. I n addltlon t o the mandatory CPU, the mlcrocomputer used hab both RAM and EPROM, and an I/O Interface. It usually controls the stop and start of pumps Pi and Pz, the switching of selecting valves SR and SB i n choosing the required reagent and buffer, and the injectlon of the selected reagent through valve IV.


47

Balance control unit

X -Y plotter

Fig. 2.11 Computerized control o f a thermobalance. (Reproduced from [ 2 7 1 with permission of the Royal Society o f Chemistry).

The computer i s programmed according t o the timing diagram i n Flg. 2.12b. Once a calibration graph has been r u n for each analyte, the determination of the respective concentrations requires programming: (a)Operation

of the pumps:

PI

controls the automatic

introduction of

sample into the system, whlle P2, aided by valve I V , allows the automation of the analytical reaction. (b)The time over which each reagent and buffer i s Injected through valves

SR and SB, respectively. (c) The time during which the Injection valve (IV) remains i n the evacuation (reagent injection) position. Pumps P1 and P2 are started at the beginning of each new analysis (logical state 1). Simultaneously, valves SR and SB select the f i r s t reagent and buffer lines (analysis for pollutant 1). A f t e r a moderate time the injection takes place (IV Is switched from loglcal state 0 t o 1). Once this has been completed,

IV

is switched

back t o the filling

position (logical state 0) and,

simultaneously, SR and Sa select the second reagent and buffer lines (determination of pollutant 2) -SR~ and S B ~are switched t o logical state 0, while


48

a)

n n n

IV 0

Fig. 2.12

1

2

3

L

5

6

7

8 9

1011 12 1 3 1 L 1 5 1 6

FIA Autoanalyser f o r determination o f water pollutants. ( a ) Scheme o f the configuration; (b) timing o f the automatic operation.

Computers

in the l a b o r a t o r y

49

S R and ~ SBZ are switched to logical state 1. The cycle is then repeated as for the determination of the f i r s t pollutant. Once the injection of the reagent i n line 3 has finished and IV has been switched back t o logical state 0, SR3 and Se3 are switched t o state 0, and

so are PI and

Pz (i.e. the pumps are

stopped), the anlysis being finished at that moment. The cycle is repeated throughout after pre-programmed

intervals, thus allowing the automatic peri-

odic control of the three parameters concerned. As can be seen from Fig. 2.12a, the microcomputer also controls the automatic sampling, data acquisition and result delivery. Prop e t a l . automated an FIA system including a sampling turntable [29]. The hardware used consisted of a Hewlett-Packard 98458 computer furnished with a real-time clock, a parallel 16-bit HP 98032A interface and t i m e r coupled t o the injection unit (BIFOK F I A 05). The data acquisition operation is automated by means of the parallel 3-digit (0-1 V) BCD output of the photometer, a BIFOK FIA 06. The role of the turntable (Skalar Sampler 1000) is similar t o that played by selecting valves SR and SB i n the configuration described above. However, the analytical chemical principles behind the two approaches are d i f f e r ent: this configuration is intended f o r the determination of a single parame t e r in a large number of samples, held i n the turntable cups, while the

configuration above was conceived t o determine three parameters i n a few samples. The software used by Prop e t a l . is written in BASIC and consists of ten subroutines and functions which control the operation of the turntable, injection unit and photometer via the computer’s interface.

MICROCOMPUTER

ELECTRONIC BALANCE

ROBOT

CENTRIFUGE

Fig. 2.13 Scheme o f an automatic robot station. (Reproduced from [ 3 0 ] with permission o f Elsevier).


50

The laborious, complex treatment occaslonally required by some samples is begining t o be affordable for automation thanks to the use of robots i n the laboratory. These restlessly mimic the actions of operators, make ideal stand-ins.

f o r whom they

The control of a robot station, the operation of which

is descrlbed i n detall i n Chapter 9, would be virtually impossible without the aid of a computer directing the robot’s movements and dealing with the measuring instruments involved. Figure 2.13 shows the scheme of a generic robot station [30] and emphasizes the signlficance of the role played by the comput e r which, i n addition t o directing the robot -situated tion f o r easy acces t o all the units i n the station-,

i n a strategic posicollects data and con-

trols the remainder of the units (balance, centrifuge, dispenser and analytical instrument).

2.4 COMPUTERIZED CONFIGURATIONS Today’s laboratories -particularly telligent,

microprocessor-controlled,

the larger onesinstruments

with

use a varlety of inanalogue output and

(micro)computers interfaced t o one another. I t is the fashlon i n which the interfacing i s done that ensures efficient laboratory computerization (automation).

Zlegler 1311 established

three categories of computerized configura-

tions, namely (Fig. 2.14): (a) Dedicated systems. I n these, the computer is exclusively devoted to

a

given analytical task. They can be ’simple’ or ’multiple’ depending on whether each instrument is controlled by a different computer or the same computer governs more than one instrument of the same nature. The former are simpler and commoner, and the latter are of use when the instruments are all located in the same vicinity, the sample throughput required i s not very high and flexible software allowing simultaneous operations t o be controlled through appropriate interfaces i s available. Multiple dedicated systems are frequently used in Industrial or control laboratories (e.g.

In controlling

several

gas

chromatographs). They can pose problems arising from a lack of coordination or from a limited memory storage capacity. ( b ) Centralized systems, i n which a powerful computer is interfaced t o a

series of Instruments of the same or different nature. They have lost populari t y on account of the failing prices or microcomputers, the problems encount e r e d in high-speed data acqulsltion and their cumbersome operation. (c) Hierarchical systems, where each instrument o r analyser has a dedicated built-In microprocessor which solves speclfic problems confronting the particular analytical technique applled. Such mlcroprocessors are not prepared to deal with and store large amounts of data, so they are connected to a cen-

51


DEDICATED S Y S T E M S

SINGLE

MICROCOMPUTER

MULTIPLE :

,-

- - --

---_-__

MICROCOMPUTER

I

CENTRALIZED SYSTEMS

______

I

(

--_--_ I

-_____ I

I

I

COMPUTER

I------

1

HIERARCHICAL S Y S T E M S

- - _ --

COMPUTER

Configurations for laboratory computerization: dedicated (simple and multiple), centralized and hierarchical systems. I: instrument.

Fig. 2.14


52

trai computer which undertakes these functions. This type of system combines the advantages of dedicated and centralized systems and overcomes the problems posed by both. 2.4.1

Workstations On the basis of hierarchical systems, some companies such as Perkin-Elmer

and

IBM have developed the so-called

‘workstations’.

These are interactive

computers based on instruments that allow the user to control one o r most of the

laboratory

operations.

Hence, they

afford

data acquisition,

ciassifica-

tion, amendment, correlation and request, and support data processing and/or process simulation.

INSTRUMENT

Fig. 2.15 Scheme o f a workstation (Professional Perkin-Elmer Series 7000 computer). (Reproduced from [321 with permission o f the American Chemical Society).

Figure 2.15 depicts a workstation for laboratory applications in general. I t Is a falrly

simple, professional Perkln-Elmer

PE-7000s configuration 1321

with the following features: (a) The station’s braln is a 16/32-bit

Motorola 68000 mlcroprocessor

with

expandable addressing and prepared to run both BASIC and FORTRAN software. The


53

ROM and RAM, massive-storage hard-disk drives, a standard RS-232C interface op-

erating serially at 9600 Baud (bit/s) and a parallel one transmitting at 100 Baud make up this section of the system. ( b ) As f a r as can

performance is concerned, a generic

station such as this

be readily adapted for control and acquisition of information from vari-

ous intelligent instruments -provided

with a digital output-

such as I R ,

U V-v isi b Ie and atomic absorption spectrop hotometers, f Iuor imeters, ch romato-

graphs and thermal analysers. Such instruments can be directly linked to the workstation via the ports of the RS-232C interfaces and be prepared for a complete analysis. The software used is stored i n a Winchester disk drive. For instruments lacklng digital output, the station has a special data-acquisition module linked t o the IEEE-488 interface and consisting of an ADC controlled by a dedicated microprocessor (CPU). I t is capable of storing up t o 1000 values in R A M for subsequent reading. (c) Regarding external communication, the station was conceived t o be compatible with Perkin-Elmer computers of the 3200 series, thereby allowing mutual communication between terminals.

2.5 EXPERT SYSTEMS

While the success of computers in most fields of appllcation lies i n their capability to accelerate processes, decrease costs and save human labour, they machines should he understood rather as intelligence amplifiers in the scientific

field;

hence the current allusion t o artificial intelligence (A11 t o

r e f e r t o the science of computer-acquired

knowledge. Indeed, A 1 is the re-

sponse t o the need for software mimicking man's thinking activities, is. prepared to deal with the representation, manipulation and construction of knowledge about facts, actions and random laws. This type of software converts computers into expert systems capable of solving

difficult

problems calling for specific experience In the particular

field of application [33].

Such software i s rarely written in high-level

lan-

guages such as BASIC, FORTRAN or ALGOL, but is rather made of fixed structures with pre-sequentialized

sets of precise instructions capable of 'reasoning' by

themselves or, i n other words, of choosing the correct solution from a number of solutions.

This artificial reasoning is made through symbols contained in

programs usually written i n LISP [34] o r PROLOG [34,35]. As far as the area of knowledge Is concerned, A1 software should be de-

veloped by f i r s t defining the knowledge domain of the particular problem addressed. Thus, the domain of the program DENDRAL is the structural elucidatlon

of organic compounds, while that of the program MYCIN i s the medical diagnosis


54

of bacterial diseases. These programs work on a data or basic knowledge base containing all the information available on already known systems and the logical bases for their reasoning, so that they manipulate the available knowledge until they find a final solution. Knowledge manipulation, as important as the definition of the knowledge domain, Is implemented by a r u l e i n t e r p r e t e r consisting of three parts, namely a p a t t e r n matcher prompting the rules t o be applied i n each sltuation, a f i l t e r

determining which rule of several possible is t o be applied and an executor eventually applying the rule. As the programs used by expert systems are long and complex, it is

diffl-

cult to coordinate new knowledge o r rules with those already present or t o modify them. I n this respect, there are few programs that allow the lncorporation of new rules without altering the structure of the main program. A l t e r natively, a dedicated program can be written for such a purpose (e.g.

meta-

DENDRAL, designed t o expand or amend the origlnal DENDRAL). Expert systems usually work by f i r s t establishlng a dialogue with the user via consultation programs. The system requests Information about the problem. I f the user does not fully understand the question, the system provides a comprehensible explanation. Once the problem has been solved, the system indicates the reliability of the solution given.

As such a solution is

merely a hypothesis formulated to account for the experimental facts observed, the user will accept it only I f it i s consistent -particularly

if a different

solution was expected. Expert systems have been used i n chemical laboratorles for a host of applications such as the design of synthetic pathways, structural elucidation of organic compounds, interpretation of I R spectra, determination of the composition of rocks by X-ray analysis and analysls f o r active principles i n drugs. This range of applications w i l l foreseeably be expanded by addressing many other problems currently confronting chemists. However,

as pointed out by Kate-

man 1361, these systems should be accepted as "an Interesting symbiosis between artificial and human intelligence t o arrive at the optimum solutlons of a problem", but never t o the point of completely replacing the specialist.

2.6 COMPUTERIZED ACCESS TO SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION

Information has no doubt become a strateglc resource i n every conceivable area. The scientist has always f e l t the need t o be well informed about new knowledge, advances and research. However, the amount of information available is so vast that the scientlst would be overwhelmed if such Information were not preserved and organized i n the efficient way only computers can afford.


55

Large libraries have been replaced by small massive digital memory storage units governed by a central computer linked t o a vast terminal network. These are the so-called

’data banks’ or ’data bases’, a homogeneous collection of

information items stored on magnetic media and accessible by computers. They differ

from

other

Information

medla

In

three

essential

aspects,

namely:

(a) The information base is made of a set of computer elements with a homogeneous structure (papers, literature references) and similar contents. (b)Consultation i s made with the aid of a computer and the set of instructions channelling the user’s requests. (c) Information is transmitted through a network -usually network-,

the

telephone

so tat the terminal is always to hand.

The use of data banks usually involves a chain of five links, namely: (1) Editors, who collect information,

organize it and record it on mag-

netic media. (2)

Dealers are supplied with the recorded magnetic media and manage them

in their host computers t o make the registered information available to the end users. (3) The network links the users t o the host computer. A few

international

companies serve this purpose throughout the world. An example is the USAbased Intercontinental INFONET network, leads and artificial satellites.

which llnks computers via coaxial

The telephone line is also commonly used as

the vehicle for transmission of scientific information. (4) Information brokers are professionals

performing specialized searches

for their clients, relievlng them of the burden of treadlng on poorly known ground. (5) End users, the final target of the process are connected t o the host

computer, from which they recelve the requested data vla a visual display, a printer or both. I n addition t o this well-organized access t o stored information, computer users have the choice of bullding laboratory-scaled,

home-made data banks or

files t o organize the information of interest available on a narrower area of knowledge or a given research line. The llterature o r information required is compiled, classlfied, labelled, coded and finally stored i n some massive memory storage unit. I f the lnformatlon is labelled according t o titles or keywords, retrieval by searching f o r the prompted concept Is normally fast and straightforward.

2.7 FINAL REMARKS From the argument above one may conclude that computers are a boon insofar


56

as they relieve laboratory workers from a host of routine tasks that can be automated with their aid. Despite their advantages, computers used i n laboratory automation should meet a series of requirements to be fully acceptable for such a purpose, namely: (a) They should not restrict the instrument’s capabilities (e.g. resolution, time-dependent

resolution,

spectral

dynamlc signal range, sensitivity). I n

fact, problems occasionally arise from the speed of data acquisition (dependent on the nature of the ADC used) or the broad dynamic signal ranges to which the ADC’s digital sampling resolution is not matched. (b)They should be modifiable and expandable, i.e. the user should be

ca-

pable of modifying the software available or developing it himself. This requires data-acquisition

and data-processing software t o be available in inde-

pendent packages. Usually the former i s written i n machine code, which affords higher sampling frequencies, whereas the latter is written i n some high-level language such as BASIC or FORTRAN. On the other hand, the hardware should be expandable t o serve further purposes. (c) The communication between the instrument and the analyst via the computer should be convenient and reliable i n order t o prevent misunderstandlngs and avoid or minimize errors, which should be detected and corrected as f a r as possible. The operator should be capable of going through any part of the process and modifying it as required (i.e.

the system should be automatic, but

also flexible). (d)The system should have a reasonable amount of memory determined by the particular tasks undertaken. Thus, pattern recognition, which involves holding and handling a vast collection of NMR, I R and mass spectra, calls for large memory buffers. (a) It should be linkable t o other systems for exchange of information via the hardware and the software. This i s difficult because of the lncompatibilities between the hardware developed by different companles, which can be overcome In some cases, however,

by the so-called ’hardware links’.

Another major consideration on the use of computers i n the laboratory is the way in which the problem concerned is addressed. The replacement of manual labour with computerized control can be (a) Convenfent, i.e. the problem addressed does not specifically require replacing any of the stages In the process, but doing

so certalnly saves lab-

our and reduces the risk of errors. (b) Necessary, i.e.

the analytical process is perfectly vlable without the

ald of a computer, but some aspects of the problem involved (e.9. a large number of samples, the need for a high throughput) demand automation and hence the use of a computer.


57

( c ) Indispensable, when the analytical technique cannot be applied without the aid of a computer. Such is t h e case when:

( 1 ) A large number eters

determined

of samples need t o be

rapidly

and

accurately

(e.g.

processed and several parami n clinical

laboratories).

In

fact, both continuous (SMAC) and batch ( R A 1ooO) analysers are f u l l y computercontrol led. ( 2 ) A h i g h speed of data acquisition i s required (e.g.

in the stopped-flow

technique o r with dlode a r r a y detectors).

(3) A large number of data are t o be processed, as i s the case in Fourier transform I R spectroscopy. (4) The technique used involves extremely long times (e.g.

X-ray

single-crystal

diffractometry ). Current t r e n d s i n computer science seem t o point t o the construction of

fifth-generation computers. There is a revolutionary and ambitious project by the Japanese intended t o develop computers capable of processing knowledge rather than data. Among the essential functions of these new machines would be those of learning, associating concepts, i n f e r r i n g consequences, making judgements, holding a question-answer

dialogue with the user, solving problems ad-

dressed as a whole and using i n an intelligent manner the information stored

in the data base b y grasping i t s meaning rather than merely storing, retrieving and delivering it.

REFERENCES [I] P. Barker, Computers i n a n a l y t i c a l chemistry, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1983. [ 2 ] C. E. Reese, J . Cbromat. Sc., 18 (1980) 201. [31 C. L. Wilkins, S. P. Perone, C. E. Klopfenstein, R. C. Williams and D. E. Jones, O i g i t a l electronics and laboratory computer experiments, Plenum Press, New York, 1975. [41 ti. ti. Bauer, G. D. C h r i s t i a n and J. E. O’Reifly, Instrumental analysis, A l l y n and Bacon Inc., Boston, 1978. [51 R. J. Bibbero, Microprocessors i n instruments and control, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1977. [61 P. C . K e l l y and G. H o r l i c k , Anal. Chem., 45 (1973) 518. [71 D. E. Leyden, L. D. Rothman and J. C. Lennox, Anal. Chem., 49 (1977) 681. [a] A. Carrick, Computers and instrumentation, Heyden & Sons Ltd., 1979. [9] F. F. Conry, A p r a c t i c a l guide t o minicomputer applications, I E E E Press, 1972. 1101 K. Jones and A . Forzard, Chemistry i n B r i t a i n , 5 (1969) 552. [ l l ] T . M. Shepherd and C . A. Vincent, Chemistry i n B r i t a i n , 9 (1973) 66. [ 1 2 ] D. G. Larsen, Anal. Chem., 45 (1973) 217. El31 N. Busch, P. Freyer and H. Szameit, Anal. Chem., 50 (1978) 2166. 1141 R. van Erk, Oscilloscopes. Fundamental operation and measuring examples, McGraw-Hill, 1978. [15] J. W. Farley, A. H. Johnson and W. H. Wing, J . Phys. E . S c i . Instrum., 13 (1980) 848. [16] E. Barberd, Afinidad, XLI (1984) 249.

58

[171 [181 [191 [20] [211 [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] 1321 [331 [341 [351 [36]

Automatic methods o f analysis J. F. P r i c e , S. L. Cooke and R. P. Baldwin, Anal. Chem., 54 (1982) 1011. D. P. B i n k l e y and R. E. Dessey, Anal. Chem., 52 (1980) 1335. P. F. S e e l i g and R. Levie, Anal. Chem., 52 (1980) 1506. J. T. Vanderslice, K. K. Stewart, A. G. Rosenfeld and D. J. Higgs, Talanta, 28 (1981) 11. J. H. P o l l a r d , A handbook o f numerical and s t a t i s t i c a l techniques, Camb r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press, Cambridge, 1977. A. Rios, M. S i l v a and M. Valcdrcel, Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem., 320 (1985) 762. J. Ruz, A. Torres, A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. V a l c d r c e l , J. Autom. Chem., 8 (1186) 70. I B M Corporation, Introduction t o the l i s t processing f a c i l i t i e s o f PL/I, Form no. GF20-0015-0, 1969. N. W i r t h and K. Jensen, Pascal. User report and manual, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1978. E. Barberd and M. Blasco, Afinidad, 41 (1984) 244. D. C. K i l l o c h , Anal. Proc., 21 (1984) 100. M. Valchrcel, M. D. Luque de Castro and A. Rios, Spanish Patent 535.820, M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r y , Spain, 1984. L . T. M. Prop, P. C. T h i j s s e n and L. G. G. van Dongen, Talanta, 32 (1985) 230. J. N. L i t t l e , TrAC, 2 (1983) 103. E. Z i e g l e r , TrAC, 2 (1983) 148. R. E. Dessy, Anal. Chem., 57 (1985) 77A. J. W. A. Klaesseus, G. Kateman and B. G. M. Vandenginste, TrAC, 4 (1985) 114. B. J. MacLennan, Principles o f programming languages, H o l t , Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1983. D. L. Massart and J. Smeyers-Verbeke, TrAC, 4 (1985) 50. G. Kateman, TrAC, 3 (1984) V I I .

Automation

of

sampling

3.1 INTRODUCTION

As stated i n Chapter 1, the f i r s t f e w stages of the analytical process are

also the more complex and the source of potential major errors, and the cancept of a 'sample' i s rather extensive. The automation of preliminary operations in the analytical process is rendered

particularly difficult

by

(a) the large variety

of existing samples,

available i n all three states of aggregation (solid, liquid and gas) and In different particle sizes, (b) the diversity of circumstances (sampling location and distance to the laboratory, need for preservatlon) and (c) the pretreatment etc.).

All

required

(dissolution,

this makes the f i r s t

preconcentration,

Interference

stage of the analytical

removal,

process one that

cannot be automated in every case; i n fact, endeavours In this field are often aimed at

a particular type of

sample or

application

(e.g.

clinical,

food,

ag ricu It u ral or pharmaceutical analysis). Preliminary operations usually consist of a number of steps, all of which can i n prlnciple be carried out without human intervention. For simplicity, the target of automation can be sampling, sample treatment o r both sub-stages. The last situatlon is by far the commonest, even though the complete automation of the entire sampling stage i s difficult. Automatic sampling and treatment systems (ASP o r automated sample preparation according to Burns [I]) can be incorporated Into the analytlcal process i n one of three fashlons, namely: (a) As one o f the dedicated elements o r modules of an automatic

analyser.

They are the key elements i n dlscrete analysers. Contlnuous analysers, on the other hand, use a module containing the sample set to be analysed (sampler) and perform the required treatment i n the flow system. I n robot stations, various accessories (sample tube racks, exchangeable pipette tlps, dllutors, extractors,

stirrers, etc.)

and instruments (electronlc balance) carry out the

different prellmlnary operations. (b)By on-line

adaptation of a module to an analytical Instrument. Many

commercially available instruments such as spectrophotometers and chromato-


60

graphs can be provided with accessory systems for automatic sampling and treatment.

( c ) As a configuration working off-line with the instrument and performing a specific operation prior t o introduction, whether automatic or not, of the samples.

Automatic dilutors,

recently

very

popular i n clinical

laboratories,

are representative examples of this option. Preliminary operations have an undeniable significance t o the analytical process. They are usually slow and hence decisively influence the analyser throughput. to

Their difficult complete automation requires human participation

different extents and

involves increased

analytical costs.

I n addition,

they are a major source of errors --often minimized or neglected, but always as large as or even more significant than those made in other stages of the analytical process-,

whether small (e.9. those resulting from incomplete dis-

solution or extraction) or large (e.g. those arising from a poorly representative sample or the incomplete cancellation of matrix effects). A serious shortcoming involved in the automation of the f i r s t stage i n

the analytical process is the potential lack of connection between the operator and the operation which,

because of i t s inherent complexity, demands

stricter surveillance than other stages and compels the operator to perform periodic tests on standard samples In order to ensure the correctness of the different parameters measured during the different sub-stages. controlling the accurate measurement of weights and/or

This involves

volumes, dissolution

completeness, the efficiency of preconcentration and Interference removal operations, and also the correct matching of results to samples and of the different data of each analyte to each sample. Although this chapter deals with automatic sampling systems separately, automatic sample-treatment

systems, the subject of the next chapter,

usually integrated with the former in a single module, is often purely artificial.

Occasionally, though,

so

are

that the distinction

both systems are separate

units, the treatment module being included where the analytical reaction takes place and the signal is monitored. Insofar as the different stages of the analytical process are not clearly dlstlnct and depend on the type of sample concerned and the instrument used to measure the analytical signal, some specific systems are also described In other chapters.

3.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF SAMPLING The t e r m 'sampling' is vague [ 2 ] as it Is used t o describe a variety of operations such as (a) collection of the sample from i t s source (e.g.

a pa-

cient, lake, waggon or the envlronment of an Industrial area), ( b ) preserva-

Automation o f sampling

61

tion of the raw sample collected if the remainder of analytical operations are not carried out i n a continuous fashion, (c) reduction of particle size to the extent required by the analytical system available, (d) accurate measurement of the portion to be used for the analyticai calculations and (e) introduction of the sample into the analytical processor. The principal aim of this preliminary operatlon is to obtain a sample allquot representative of the material to be analysed. It is immediately apparent that the complete automation of this sub-stage

is a difficult task. Only

in a few instances (e.g. the automatic i n vivo

determinations described In Chapter 14 and performed with the on-line process analysers dealt with i n Chapter 17) i s this ideal objective affordable. Much more often, some of the above-mentioned operations involve human participation,

although it is still termed 'automated'

[l].

Therefore,

although many

clinical analysers are classed as automatic, the blood and urine samples that they handle are collected and even treated manually before they are placed on the sampler. Such is also the case with automatic off-line analysers,

also calling for

manual collection

water

pollutant

and preservation of samples.

Consequently, the 'automated sampllng' concept as used here refers to the introduction into the analyser or instrument concerned of a definite portlon of sample collected from i t s source and even treated manually, with the few exceptions stated above. Automatic sampling systems can be classified according t o different criteria (see Table 3.1), namely: (a) According t o the s t a t e o f aggregation o f the sample. A distinction can be made between solid, liquld and gas sampling systems, i n addition to those specially deslgned f o r handling mlxed samples (e.g. emulsions, suspenslons or llqulds containing solid materials). Obviously the foundation and design of these systems w i l l be as varied as the nature of the samples handled can be. This criterion w i l l be used as the basis f o r a description of the different sampling systems commented on above.

( b ) According t o the manner i n which the p r i o r t r a n s f e r o f sample is e f fected. I n continuous automatic sampling, a flowing liquid or gas carries the sample from the sampling spot t o the analyser. Such Is the case with reverse

FIA (Chapter 6 ) and completely contlnuous configurations (Chapter 7) or

on-

line process analysers (Chapter 16). More often, though, samples are held In independent containers prlor t o lntroductlon Into the analyser o r Instrument, i.e.

sampling Is discrete as i n both batch, contlnuous and robotic systems. (c) According t o

whether o r not the sampling a l s o involves

quantitation.

Usually, the sample weight (or volume, If fluid) is measured p r i o r t o Introduction Into the analyser. However, the completely continuous systems referred


62

to above and pharmaceutical tablet samplers, among others, require no prior sample quantitation.

TABLE 3.1

Classification o f automatic sampling systems

According t o

Liquid

the state o f aggregation

Gas

o f the sample

Solid

According t o the manner i n

Continuously ( i n s i t u )

which the sample Is transported

Discrete1y

Accordlng t o whether o r not the sample is quantized

With wei ght/vol ume measurement Without quantltation

3.3 SOLID SAMPLING

This represents the most complex situation i n the automation of preliminary operations in general, and of sampling in particular. The chief difficulties involved arise from three aspects, namely: ( 1 ) The sample should be representative of the material to be anaiysed.

Sample collection is, except i n a few instances (e.g. production

i n continuous industrial

assemblies, which afford automation), normally carried out manual-

ly. Once collected, the particle size should be made homogeneous i n order t o ensure the presence of all the original ingredients i n the final sample. I n dealing with compact materials, differences in composition according t o sampling zone or depth should be taken into account. A l l these requlrements make human participation virtually indispensable In most cases. (2) Sample quantitation is a difficult operation t o automate. Weighlng is

i n fact an off-line operation that cannot be readlly implemented by analyser modules wlth the exception of robot statlons. On the other hand, electronic balances do allow the measured welght t o be passed on t o the analyser or instrument microprocessor.

I n this case, the operation Is essentially manual

as only data transfer Is automated. The quantltation of solld samples can be based on:

( a l l Welghing of a preselected amount. This requlres speclal t o exceed the prefixed llm lt o r t o remove the excess If incurred.

caution not The slow-

ness and difflculty Involved In Its automation i s outwelghed by the constancy o f the lnltial data, on whlch all results are based.


63

(a.2) Weighing of the amount loaded on t o the balance scale. This is the commonest alternative as I t merely requires the actual amount weighed each time to be retained for computation of the results and therefore lend itself readily to automation. (b) Weighing o f

prefabricated

samples which, a p r f o r i ,

should

be the

same weight and i n which the analyte concentration must be known in absolute rather than in relative terms (e.g. active components In pharmaceuticals). The weighing Is therefore dispensable and makes the automation of the operation more afford abIe . Sample Cup

\

Wash Jet

I

Power

Jet

3

Funnel

Addition o f a s o l i d sample held i n a cup o f the SOLIDprep I 1 sampler (Technicon), t o the solution vessel through a funnel. (Reproduced with permission o f Technicon).

F i g . 3.1

(3) I n contrast t o

the two operations descrlbed above, the

incorporation

of the solid sample Into the analyser or instrument i s comparatively easy t o automate. Samplers with cups or vials holding each sample separately are relatively Inexpensive. I n batch analysers, samples are treated and transferred separately; continuous analysers, which are much commoner, involve intermediate operatlons (dissolution, extractlon, etc.) and do not have many automatlc systems available for Incorporation of solld samples. One such system Is the


64

SOLIDprep module marketed by Technicon for their AutoAnalyzers (Chapter 5). It consists of a circular sample turntable supporting 20 plastic o r glass cups, each of which can hold between 5 and 10 g of the material, depending on I t s density. When the system i s started, the contents of each cup are poured into a common homogenizing container. The solid sweeping system (Fig. 3.1), unnecessary when working with pharmaceutical tablets,

involves the use of two

pressurized liquid jets, one aimed at the inside of the cup and the other to the funnel leading the suspended sample t o the homogenizer. The elements actually coming into contact with the samples are made of (glass,

Teflon,

Kel-F,

ceramics).

Once i n the

inert materials

homogenizing container,

the

sample is added a suitable solvent and is subjected to vigorous s t i r r i n g at a controlled

temperature.

Once the

dissolution or

extraction

operation

has

finished, a withdrawing t i p like those typically used by AutoAnalyzers takes an aliquot of supernatant and introduces i t into the continuous segmented configuration. A washing system allows each treated sample to be flushed from the system before the next solid sample is introduced. Robot stations (Chapter 9) are the best alternative t o the automation of analytical

processes

involving solid

samples.

This

Is also probably

their

major field of application as they allow the automation of all the sub-stages involved in the preliminary operations, many of which are unaffordable with most anal ysers.

3.4 LIQUID SAMPLING Liquid samples are by far the most frequently involved i n automated analytical processes, which is not surprising taking into account the few technical difficulties which they pose. Although liquid samples do pose some problems arising from the nature of the whole material, these are easy t o solve. Thus, even low sample volumes can be homogenized in an automatic fashion. Large samples are normally handled by taking different representative samples from a given location. Liquids in motion make sampling essentially time-dependent. Sample volumes can be measured i n any of three general ways: (a) by means of a probe aspirating the liquid at a constant rate, (b) by using mechanically or hydraulically actuated, high-precislon syringes f o r a preset time and (c) by weighing the liquid. Automatic samplers, which are fairly commonplace in liquid sampling, consist of the following elements: (a) A sample tray, circular, square or snake-like In shape and

containing

the vials or cups intended t o hold the non-quantlzed liquid samples prevlously


65

transferred from the source matrix (e.g. a patient, lake, reservoir). Obviously, the samples must be perfectly numbered and exactly positioned i n order to ensure their accurate identification.

(b) A mechanical device turning the sample tray through the angle required to place each sample i n t u r n in the aspiration position. (c) A moving articulated needle fitted t o a withdrawal system

(generally

a peristaltic pum or a syringe) serving the dual purpose of measuring the sample volume and introducing it into the analyser.

Special credlt should be

given here to the withdrawal/pipetting systems made by Hamilton, reknowned for their accuracy and reliability in measuring micro volumes, (d) A mechanical-electronic

system synchronizing the functioning of the

previous elements. Full synchronization

requires programming the times of

sample aspiration, which determines the volume taken, sample changeover and aspiration of washing solution, or air aspiration in continuous segmented systems. (e) Other auxiliary elements such as stirrers and heaters. Obviously, no sampler is required when sampling i s performed i n a completely continuous fashion. I n describing some of the systems available for the sequential introduction of samples into analysers and instruments, a distinction w i l l

be made

according to whether they are used with continuous or batch configurations. The introduction of liquid samples into robotic analysers shares some of the features of the operation performed with batch analysers and is described i n detail i n Chapter 9. 3.4.1 Liquid sampling In continuous analysers

The manner in which liquid samples are introduced into a continuous analyser depends on Its nature. Figure 3.2 illustrates some of the commoner situations i n this respect, which are also commented on below. I n completely continuous analysers, samples are taking from an evolving system such as a pipe pouring out waste water o r an industrial effluent. A peristaltic pump continuously aspirates the sample, In which the evolution of one or several analytes is monitored as a function of time. This is the simplest possible alternative and Is characterized by the absence of discontinuities; however, the system can be programmed to operate In a discrete fashion if required. Reverse FIA and completely continuous assemblies (Fig. 3.2a) are

representative examples. Normal flow-injection analysis (FIA) involves using a peristaltic pump to asplrate the sample into the loop of an Injection valve, whlch also quantizes the aspirated volume, and subsequently Inserting the loop contents into a car-

r l e r or reagent stream.


A N A LY 5 E R

SYSTEM N EVOLUTION

-

51

A N A LY 5 E R

si

3

CARRIER

CARRIER

Fig. 3.2 D i f f e r e n t ways o f introducing l i q u i d samples i n t o continuous analysers: ( a ) continuously; ( b ) by i n j e c t i o n ; ( c ) by a s p i r a t i o n without a i r ; (d) by a s p i r a t i o n w i t h a i r .

The discrete aspiration of a fixed sample volume, determined by the time d u r i n g which the sample Is withdrawn from the sampler and by the flow-rate of the peristaltic pump, can be accompllshed in two manners. I n the assembly developed by Rocks and co-workers [3,41, the moving articulated needle features two asplration positions (see Fig. 3.2~). I n the first,

the sample Is aspi-

rated from the sampler vial. Once the programmed volume has been taken, the

Automation o f sampling peristaltic pump i s stopped

67

while the aspirating t i p

remains in position.

Then, the latter is raised and immersed In a carrier o r reagent reservoir, after which the pump is re-started. I n this manner, a sample plug is inserted into the carrier stream without the need f o r a rotary valve, whose function is replaced by the intermittent operation of the pump. A s no air is Introduced into the system, this can be considered an FIA mode. I n segmented-flow analysers, the pump works in a continuous fashion and the aspirating t i p has three positions i n which it aspirates sample, air and washing solution, respectively (Fig. 3.2d). To the r i g h t of Fig. 3.2 Is shown the flow profile obtained after the sys-

tem has sequentially taken two samples, Si and Sz - e x c e p t if sampling Is carried out continuously. Cross-contamination between samples I n the above-described alternatives is discussed i n the corresponding chapters.

3.42 Liquid sampling in batch analysers The asplration systems used by batch analysers, normally moving articulated probes, withdraw the samples from the sampler vials and dispense them t o the analyser cups or cuvettes. Time Is not such a decisive factor here,

so

that high-precision syringes are the commonest option for measuring and transferring the liquid samples.

reagent syringe

o

washing solution

P u..u..u...u..v.. waste

....

.. ..

Fig. 3.3 Introduction of l i q u i d samples i n t o a batch analyser by means o f a syringe. There us a further syringe connected t o a reagent reservoir. The probe can be switched between two positions f o r unloadi n g i n t o a cup or t o waste depending on whether the syringe is f i l l e d with sample or washing solution.

Figure 3.3 depicts a slngle-syrlnge sampling system f o r Introduction of an


68

accurately measured sample volume into a batch analyser. The sample tray holds alternate washing solutions intended t o flush assayed samples in order to avoid carryover. One of the positions of the sample probe Is a waste port. A further syringe is used to add reagent through the same conduit. This operation

Is carried out

immediately after the sample has been added,

which

facilitates its flushing. The transfer of liquid samples by means of a moving articulated needle fitted to a syringe and involving an intermediate washing stage i s commonplace in this context. The scheme i n Fig. 3.4 corresponds t o a configuration featuring a probe with four positions where it aspirates one of the samples held in the sampler vials, dispenses the volume taken to the analyser cup, is submerged in a washing solution reservoir and dispenses the aspirated solution t o the waste reservoir. Once the f i r s t sample has been processed, the sampler is turned to place a fresh sample in position before a new cycle is started.

.u.. .u. ..u...u. ..

.

.

,

waste

Fig.

3.4 Transfer of l i q u i d samples with the a i d o f a moving a r t i culated probe with four positions: ( 1 ) aspiration o f an accurately measured sample volume, ( 2 ) unloading i n t o a cup o f the batch anal y s e r , ( 3 ) aspiration o f washing solution and ( 4 ) unloading t o waste.

Figure 3.5 depicts the scheme of another alternative to the automatic Introduction of liquid samples. It is a non-rotary

injection system resembling

the injection valves used In liquid chromatographs, although simpler than these as they d o not have to withstand such high pressures. I n the filling position, the sample is aspirated -by ample-

into a flxed-volume

means of a perlstaltlc pump, f o r ex-

loop as a syringe is filled with reagent o r flush-

ing solution. I n the injection position, the system connections are changed


69

and the syringe propels the carrier solution, which sweeps the sample held i n the imp to the analyser cup. I n the course of this operation, the sampler turns and a fresh sample is aspirated into the system, so that the f i r s t aspirated portions sweep the residues of the preceding sample.

a)

b) R

Fig. 3.5 I n j e c t i o n v a l v e f o r insertion o f a f i x e d sample volume i n t o a batch analyser. ( a F i l l i n g position; (b) evacuation position.

A recently developed sample transfer mode is the Technicon Model RAIOOO

(Fig.

3.6).

It

functions

similarly

to

a

pipette or

an

articulated

needle,

though it lacks the two positions corresponding t o the washing operation. To avoid

sample carryover,

fluid'

(TRAF). The cornpositlon of this liquid, which Is extremely inert and

it

uses the

so-called

'discretional

access

inert

immiscible with water and which amazingly prevents mixing between liquids successively aspirated by the same pipette,

Is a patented commercial secret.

The aspirating t i p used by the analyser is filled with this VISCOUS fluid and also covered with a t h i n f i l m of it t o avoid contact of the material of construction (steel, Teflon) with the liqulds handled or the atmosphere. A piston pump effects aspiration and dispensing. Before the sample Is aspirated, an air bubble i s aspirated t o facilitate the introduction of the liquid In the bulk TRAF. The few drops of TRAF accompanylng the sample i n filling the reaction cup

ensure complete sweeping of the sample aspirated In the previous opera-

tlon. These TRAF drops, which are heavier than water, do not obstruct the passage of light i n the subsequent spectrophotometric detection. Analysers capable o f determining several anaiytes in a single sample require suitable introduction systems. The samples are split into small volumes whose magnitude depends on the particular analyser. Figure 3.7 deplcts two of


70

the most representative types. Batch analysers can use an iterative system (the probe sequentially fills n analyser cups) or a multi-valve such as that shown i n the figure. The sample i s aspirated through a peristaltic pump into six cylindrically arranged parallel channels connected to one another i n the starting position. As the valve is switched, all six channels are connected to as many independent carrier or reagent streams which sweep the channel contents to six analyser cups. Continuous analysers, on the other hand, use a manifold with a sample stream circulating along a main channel with a series of

diversions to

conceived

for

various

determinative units.

the multi-determination

This

type of

configuration,

of species in clinical chemistry,

is

discussed in detail in Chapter 5, devoted to continuous segmented analysers.

Fig. 3.6 Transfer of an accurately measured sample volume t o the Technicon RA1000 batch analyser with the a i d o f a special l i q u i d (TRAF). (a) F i l l i n g position; (b) evacuation position. (Courtesy o f Technicon).

Malmstadt et al. f51 reported a llquld sampling system based on measurements of computer-controlled

weights (Flg. 3.8). The system uses an electronic

sensor t o accurately weigh allquots of the sample and reagent solutions added at a given position of the sample tray. Once this operatlon has finished, the tray is turned by an approprlate angle t o place the receptor cup In the stlrr l n g position while another, empty cup Is posltloned t o receive an aliquot. The volume of liquid added i s controlled by the mlcrocomputer -which provlded with the exact weight reading for future calculatlonscorrespondlng valves.

Is later

through the


71

t A L I O U O T I N G POSITION

CI E L I V E R Y POSITION 1 0 REACTION CUPS

C l

-

ROTATION

FROM R E A G E N T V E S S E L S

F i g . 3.7

Sample introduction systems f o r multi-analyte determinations based on the s p l i t t i n g o f the samples i n t o accurately measured volumes. (1) Batch analysers use special multi-injection valves. ( 2 ) Continuous analysers employ a manifold directing an accurately measured sample volume t o each o f the determinative u n i t s ( A I , A z , etc.).

The sampling of water f o r the determinatlon of traces of organic pollutants requlres a preconcentration step. The use of sorptive pre-columns i s a representative example of the inability t o separate sample collection

and

treatment, which are carried out i n a single step. This analytical methodology is described in greater detaii i n Chapter 11, dealing with the automation of chromatographic processes. Automatic diluters and dispensers are widely used In control laboratories. These are seml-automatic systems working off-line

with the analyser or in-

strument concerned and generally serving the dual purpose of dlspensing a given volume o f the liquid sample and another of a reagent o r diluent In a sequential manner. Hamilton market different models of these devices, the latest of whlch are furnished wlth a mlcroprocessor controlllng the mechanical motion of two or more high-preclsion syrlnges via a step motor. Other models use two peristaltic pumps. Such Is the case with the Ciinicon diluter, with two Independent pumps, one for the sample and the other for the dlluent o r reagent.


72

The aspirated and dispensed volumes can be independently programmed (from 10 to 150 pL, from 60 t o 900 pL, from 0.2 t o 2 mL, etc.). By means of the manually transported aspiration/withdrawaI tip, the unknown solution i s aspirated by pressing a knob. Then, the volume taken and that of the reagent are poured into the reaction cuvette. Obviously, the sample pump must operate i n a reversi ble fashion.

Fig. 3.8 Automatic systeF for sampling o f variable volumes o f l i q u i d by computerized control of weights, reported by Halmstadt et e l . (Reproduced from [ 5 ] with permission on the American Chemical Society).

3.5 GAS SAMPLING

The monitoring of environmental pollution requlres a large number of determinations t o be made on atmospheric samples taken i n very different places. The automatlon of gas sampling systems is highly recommended or even essential In most Instances, not only i n pollution monitoring b u t also i n industrial

product control

.

There are two generic types of automatic sampllng system, namely batch or

intermittent (off-line) and continuous (on-llne). 3.5.1 Batch gas-mpling systems These are represented by impregnation, sorption and electrostatic systems,

Aut oma t i on o f SamPl ing

73

as well as by those which retain the liquid or solid matter borne by the gas on passage through a f i l t e r under the action of an aspirating pump. These systems are subsequently treated as required to introduce the retained analytes into the analyser or instrument used. This operation is carried out manually in many cases, a4though i t can be readily automated i n some (e.g. with special sorption tubes which, once the sample has been taken, are placed on a sampler which supplies them t o a gas chromatograph incorporating them by programmed thermal desorption). Reed e t al. [61 developed an automatic sampling system for controlling household air-conditioners.

Sulphur hexafluoride is used as

tracer and eventually determlned by gas chromatography. The rate of change of the

gas composition,

r, is

directly

proportional to the

logarithm of the

tracer concentration (c) at time t and i t s initial concentration, co:

-In (c/co) r =

t The sampler mechanism consists of a rotating turntable with 24 vertically positioned, vacuum-sealed 20-mL tubes (Fig. 3.9). The turntable is mounted on a vertical axle which is rotated in steps by a modified uniselector mechanism to place each sampling tube directly beneath a hypodermic needle. This i s connected to a small diaphragm pump which is in t u r n connected to the area of interest. A reciprocating mechanism, driven by a pulsed dc motor, moves the hypodermic needle donwards to penetrate the rubber bung of the sample tube, thereby exposing I t to the test atmosphere. A f t e r a preset delay, the needle is withdrawn from the self-sealing bung and the turntable i s rotated i n two steps to position the next sampling tube beneath the needle. 3.5.2 Continuous gas-sampllng SYStemS

These systems, described i n full detail in Chapter 16, uninterruptedly control the concentration level of one o r several analytes in evolving gas samples. An Interesting example of the implementation of automatic gas sampling is the so-called ’smoking machine’, developed by an official laboratory in the UK for monitoring of the toxic substances In tobacco smoke [7]. Cigarettes are

placed in a system mimlcklng the smoker’s actions. Figure 3.10 shows squematically the sequential operations performed i n the sampllng. First, smoke Is aspirated with the aid of a syringe. A CF Cambridge fllter retains suspended solid particles larger than 0.3 pm in dlameter. The smoke taken i s exhaled t o a flexible collecting bottle with the aid of the syringe and two three-way valves. The sample

is introduced into the senslng system.

A valve then con-

nects the bottle t o conduit fitted t o a pump propelling the collected gas t o a

Automatic niethods o f a n a l y s i s

74

continuous infrared detector ( N D I R ) sensing CO;, and volatile hydrocarbons. The filter i s weighed and i t s contents are extracted with a propanol-ethanol mix-

ture. An aliquot of the extract is introduced into a gas chromatograph for determination of water. The determination of alkaloids is slower as it requires distillation of the above-mentioned extract, a portion of the distillate being analysed photometrically computer

controls

the

automatic

on a Technicon AutoAnaiyzer. operations

and

collects

data

A central

from

the

different instruments (the number of aspirations per cigarette from the smoking machine; the f i l t e r weight from a balance; the CO;, and hydrocarbon concentrations from the NDIR detector; the water content from the gas chromatograph; and the alkaloid concentrations from the AutoAnalyzer).

Finally, it delivers

the complete results corresponding to a cigarette batch. This configuration is a representative example of the combination of manual and automatic operations, although data are handled by a single computer which ultlmately supplies the results sought.

Hypodermic needle

I

PI

FQ. 3.9 Automatic gas sampling system. (Reproduced from permission o f Taylor and Francis Ltd).

161 with

3.6 SOURCES OF ERROR I N AUTOMATIC SAMPLING

The errors introduced by automatic sampling arise from a variety of


75

-8 Clock

-microswi tch

nlrol C on1 rol “ “ , I, I

t lhrcad H

D c lc c t ton

I

Automatic sampling of tobacco smoke by means o f a smoking machine. ( a ) Puff; (b) exhaust; ( c ) post-smoking. (Reproduced from [ T I with permission o f E l l i s Homood Ltd.).

Fig. 3.10


76

sources associated with factors such as the type of sample handled or the caution exercised in certain operations (e.g.

the cleansing of probes). Although

each sampling system has i t s own sources of error, there are some generic causes common t o all, the most typical of which (lack of precision, crosscontamination and mismatching of sample-results) are commented on below. 3.6.1 Lack of precision

Errors arising from the lack of precision i n

quantitating volumes

(of

liquid or gas samples) or weights (of solids or liquids) are currently minimal thanks to the advances in micromechanics and microelectronics, which have allowed the development of high-precision systems for the measurement of both macro and micro voiumes. The commonest sources of error when the volume to be measured is a function of the flow-rate and the time over which collection is performed -flexible

(e.g. tubes

with

peristaltic pumps) are inconstancy

must

pump’s stop-and-go

be replaced

periodically-,

of the flow-rate

irreproducibility

i n the

cycles, inaccuracies i n the timing devices, etc. The con-

trol of syringes by step motors affords highly precise volume measurements. For obvious reasons, reproducibllity is also indispensable i n the movements of aspirating-dispensing probes: each operation must be carried out over a preset time interval, during which the probe must be In the appropriate position.

Other errors arising from unpredicted circumstances such as too low levels of liquid in the vials, which can result in the system taking air rather than the sample, should be avoided at all costs by using special devices such as optical sensors.

3.6.2 Cross-contaminatlon Cross-contamination or carry-over, which is the undesirable mixing of two successive samples, affects not only automatic, but also manual systems although it is easier t o avoid in the latter. Carry-over is a very important aspect of autoanalysers, which differ essentially In the manner in which this undesirable phenomenon is avoided. I n assesslng the real significance of this source of error one should take Into account that it i s a major limlting fact o r of sample throughput. Table 3.2 lists the chief causes of carry-over in automatic analysers. The phenomenon can originate In two main parts: (1) I n the sample collection system. The magnitude of the effect Is

simi-

lar i n batch and continuous anaiysers i n this case. It arises from the use of the same probe and conduits t o take samples and/or reagents successively and can be minimlzed i n four ways:

- By

using an intermediate washlng solution t o flush the

from the system.

prevlous sample


-

77

By use o f TRAF, the 'wonder fluid' employed in the Technicon RA 1000

anal ysers.

-

By aspirating a large voiume (one t o three times the sample

volume

used) t o sweep the preceding sample out of the conduits when using an injection valve. I n practice, t h i s leads t o a minimum sample aspiration time.

-

By means of external

mechanical systems rinsing the liquids (sample o r

reagent) outside the probe, which must therefore have a position f o r such a purpose. Some workers use external cleaning systems combining pressurized washing and subsequent mechanical sweeping. ( 2 ) I n the transport system, i.e in the

transfer of samples and

rea-

gents, whether mixed o r not, t o the detection system. Among batch analysers, only those involving a final transfer t o a measuring cuvette o r rod s t i r r e r s are exposed t o the risk. On the other hand, carry-over

is a major aspect of

continuous analysers. Segmented analysers cannot be freed from t h i s undesirable effect by the mere use of a i r bubbles; i n fact, they require the incorporation of an intermediate washing zone preventing mutual o r cross-contarnination.

The

geometric characteristics of

FIA assemblies

allow

the sequential

insertion of the samples i n t o the system with no mixing. Robotic analysers are less prone t o carry-over,

and i n t h i s respect they resemble batch anaiysers

without final transfer of the reactlng mixture. Carry-over effects can also be classifled according t o whlch Ingredients should not be mixed. Thus, i n principle, there can be cross-contamination

be-

tween samples, reagents o r both (Table 3.2).

TABLE 3.2

Causes o f carry-over i n automatic analysers I n the sample c o l l e c t i n g system

According t o l o c a t i o n

I n the analyser According t o the ingredients involved

Between samples Between reagents Between samples and reagents

(a) Sample carry-over. This

is the

commonest source of e r r o r in the

re-

s u l t s provided by analysers dealing with samples in a sequential manner. The greater the difference between the anatyte concentration in two samples Is, t h e more marked the effect is. Such an effect can be quantitated by means of


78

the expression proposed by Dixon [8].I n practice, the extent of carry-over is evaluated by continuously and sequentially introducing into the analyser four standards: two of a high and equal concentration yielding two signals a1 and a2, and another two of low and equal concentration giving rise t o signals b i

and bz. The extent of carry-over is determined from the equation br -b2

x 100

k = -

a2-b2 The operation is repeated several times on different days t o obtain an average k value representative of the analyser in question. Most often, k ranges between 0.5 and 2%, which does not significantly influence the results obtained in routine analyses. The test should be repeated whenever anomalously large deviations are observed in the results. For k values greater than lo%, Dixon

[a]

recommends using the equation above as an algorithm t o correct the

analytical results after checking the constancy of k with time. For a given k value, the influence of carry-over

depends on the difference in concentration

between the analytes in the successive samples. Thus, If k

1% and the ana-

lyte provides two signals S i and Sz of relative magnitude 100 and 10, the err o r made w i l l be 0.001% i n S i and 10% In Sz (i.e the lower the analyte concentration, the more marked is the effect). (b) Reagent carry-over is typical of batch analysera capable of determining several

analytes In a single sample (e.g.

clinical

determinations).

In

this case, carry-over arlses from the use of the same probe t o dispense the

...)

t o the corresponding reaction cups. The ef-

fect of this type of carry-over

is not a result of the volume change (dilu-

different reagents (Ri,

R2,

R3

tion), which is virtually negligible, but of the chemical influence of one of the reactants on the assay involving another and taking place In the next cup. Such chemical influence can be exerted through changes i n the pH or, worse, as an inhibitory or activating effect on a catalysed enzymatic reaction which may result i n large errors dlsproportionate to the extent of carryover, which must therefore be determined by a special procedure such as that reported by Broughton [9] and involving the duplicate determination of a series of analytes in the same sample by different assays carried out continuously and sequentially, e.g.

-

Test 1 (reagent R i ) Test 2 (reagent R z ) Test 3 (reagent

R3)

... concentration o f analytes a1 and a2 ... concentration o f analytes b i and b2 ... concentration o f analytes c i and c2

The error made i n the determination of b i arising from the contamination resulting by reagent R i In test 2 can be expressed i n relative form as


79

bt -b2

-x

100

bz

i f the second determination is assumed not t o be subject to contamination by the preceding reagent. As the differences encountered in duplicate determiminations can be due to random errors, carry-over between reagents should be considered to be significant only if replicate differences for a given sequence are all in the same dlrection (i.e all positive or all negative) and if all differences are greater than twice the within-run

coefficient of variation

for that analyte concentration. I n order t o avoid carry-over as far as possible in multi-determinations with batch analysers, the determinative sequence chosen should be that which results in the smallest effects possible from the preceding reagents. (c) Reagent-to-sample

carry-over may be the result of the probe coming

into contact with the reacting mixture before being used t o aspirate the next sample. The influence of the reagent contamination i s significant if it is exerted on a different assay. However, if it Is the same assay which is applied to different samples, such an influence is negligible, although there might be some extent of carry-over

between samples. If, on the other hand, different

assays are carried out on the same sample, the effect can be cumulative. The extent of reagent-to-sample

carry-over can be evaluated by the procedure

developed by Smith et al. C103, who used a dye as reagent and water as the sample. I f any dye is detected In the following sample, carry-over should be minimized or taken account of.

3.6.3 Mismatching of sample results O f the three major sources of error found in automatic sampling, this Is

no doubt the most important from a practlcal polnt of view. Dealing with a large number of samples involves the risk of their erroneous matching wlth the results.

One such erroneous identification Is sufficient t o completely mis-

match the whole series wlth the actual results. This risk Is partlcularly serious In clinical chemistry -for

example, a patlent wlth a diabetic coma might

be assigned the blood glucose data from a patlent with normal levels and the latter patlent in t u r n being dlagnosed as havlng a serlous disease. For obvious safety reasons, sample ldentlficatlon systems are mandatory in this field.

Keller [ l l ] defined the t e r m ’sample Identification’ as ”all in-

structlons, equipment and processes for the recognition and allocation of a specimen or sample, and an analytical result t o a dlstlnct source of specimen.” The identification Involves three essential aspects: (a) allocatlon of a complete identification statement consisting of information about the source


80

of the sample, kind of material, ordered tests and instructions, and also the timing;

(b)

intra-laboratory

identification,

which

involves

generating

and

identifying symbols fixed t o the sample during all transport and transfer processes; (c) a system for permanent control of identity throughout the analytical process -including

the final stages of the calculation and delivery of

results. The identification mechanism should be started as soon as the raw sample enters the analytical process. Immediately on admission t o large hospitals, patients are

given

an

identification

identification of his/her

letter

including basic

initial

data for

blood or urine samples submitted to the laboratory

for analysis, together with the name of the doctor who ordered the analyses, the analytes t o be determined and the place where the patient is located. The use of computerized systems for this purpose is obviously of great assistance. There are two main procedures available for sample identification i n laboratories. Indirect procedures,

now on the decline,

involve positional identi-

fication of the sample according t o i t s place i n a chain or on a turntable -a previously made list i s used as a key t o match the results with the samples. This type of procedure carries the greatest risk of sample interchange in the laboratory. Direct identification methods are more recommended and can be implemented i n two ways. One involves marking the sample container and introducing i t directly Into the analyser, equipped with an electronic device for identification which, with the aid of the microprocessor, allows the continuous monltoring of the sample and guarantees absolute matching between samples and results. This is the cheaper and safer way. When the complete identity statement is too extensive and contains more informatlon than Is required f o r the analytical process, I t is necessary

tq" abridge

the statement t o an identification

symbol with the aid of a code. Sample containers, process vessels and analytical records are linked to one another by the identification symbols. Retrieval of the complete identification statment calls f o r a decoding process In which computers are a key component, partlcularly i n large hospitals or industries. There are a variety of systems f o r direct identiflcatlon (labelling) of the tubes and other vessels used t o hold samples. The Eppendorf labelllng system i s based on reflection marks imprinted on the process vessels, which are read automatically by the machlne; they are supplemented by visual characters so that visual checking by the operator is possible at any time. The marks can be printed on labels or punched Into perforated cards. Bar codes are a recent alternative now i n widespread use. They offer a serles of advantages such as the slmpllcity and rapldlty of the reading o r identification (based on laser technology). Even more recent and promising are optlcal character rec-

Automation of sampling

81

o g n i t i o n (OCR) systems, capable of d i r e c t l y r e a d i n g each of t h e d i g i t s on t h e label.

REFERENCES [l] D. A. Burns, Anal. Chem., 53 (1981) 1403A. [2] R . Smith and G. V . James, The sampling of bulk m a t e r i a l s , Royal Society o f Chemistry, London, 1981. [31 C. R i l e y , L. H. A s l e t t , B. F. Rocks, R. A. Sherwood, J. D. McWatson and J. Morgon, C l i n . Chem., 29 (1983) 332. [4] B. F. Rocks, R. A . Sherwood and C. R i l e y , Analyst, 109 (1954) 847. [ 5 ] S. W . Renoe, K. R. O'Keefe and V. H. Malmstadt, Anal. Chem., 48 (1976)

661. [ 6 ] H. L . Reed, D. W . O l i v e r and A. Tavener, J . Autom. Chem., 5 (1983) 94. [7] G. K . Copeland and P. 6. Stockwell, i n Topics i n automatic chemical anal y s i s , J. K. Foreman and P. B. S t o c k w e l l (Eds), E l l i s Horwood L t d , Chichester, 1979. [8] K. Dixon, Ann. C l i n . Biochem., 19 (1982) 224. [9] P. M. G. Broughton, J . Autom. Chem., 6 (1984) 94. [lo] J. Smith, D. Svenjak, J. T u r r e l and D. V l a s t e l i c a , C l i n . Chem., 28 (1982)

1867. [ l l ] H. K e l l e r , J . Autom. Chem., 3 (1981) 196.

4 Automation

in

sample t r e a t m e n t

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The concept of 'sample treatment' is normally used to r e f e r t o the series of operations aimed to render the collected sample ready for introduction into the analyser or instrument. Although this should be a distinct stage, very often it is not separable from the analytical reaction development, either because both are carried out simultaneously (e.9. liquid-liquid

extraction with

formation of a coloured chelate) or because they take place in a sequential manner within the analyser. As put forward i n the preceding chapter, i t is difficult t o establish a clear-cut

distinction between the automation of sample collection and treat-

ment i n many configurations, both commercial and non-commercial. Thus, i n collecting air pollutants by means of sorption tubes, the analytes are simultaneously preconcentrated from the collected samples. The objectives of the automation of the sample treatment stage are as varied as the nature of the sample and the number and type of analytes it may contain. The commonest, summarized in Table 4.1, are as follows: (a) Giving the sample the treatment best suited to i t s nature by applying t o i t the most appropriate preparative technique, viz. dissolution, extraction, filtration and so forth. ( b ) Preconcentrating trace analytes i n those cases where the determinative analytical technique t o be applied features a detection or quantitation l i m i t much higher than the actual analyte content(s1 in the sample. Preconcentration is thus an indirect way to increase sensitivity. (c) Removal of disturbances due t o other matrix components which might in-

t e r f e r e with the determination of the analytes. This, in turn, increases the selectlvi t y indirectly. ( d ) Facilitating the analytical determination, otherwise unfeasible

with-

out a major alteration in the sample characteristics (e.g. a change from a polar t o a non-polar solvent or vice versa). ( e l Protecting

the

analytical

caused by the matrix components.

system

from

the

potential

deterioration

Automation in sample treatment

83

( f ) Facilitating the development of the analytical reactions for detection of the analytes. ( 9 ) Transferring the treated sample to the detection system.

TABLE 4.1 Chief objectives o f automation i n sample treatment

. Preparation o f

sample

(dissolution, disaggregation, extraction, f i l t r a t i o n )

. Preconcentration . Interference removal . F a c i l i t a t i n g the determination

. F a c i l i t a t i n g the development o f the a n a l y t i c a l reaction

. Transfer

t o the detection system

Analytical separation techniques play a major role i n the above-mentioned preliminary operations.

Their

implementation on

automatic systems can

be

achieved i n a variety of ways, although most often i t is done in one of two ways, namely discontinuously or

o f f - l i n e and continuously or on-line. The

former is better suited t o continuous analysers (SFA, FIA), and the latter is equally suited t o continuous and batch anaiysers. The following sections deal with the automation of sample treatment from the point of view of the particular separation technique used. Each section presents representative examples rather than a comprehensive coverage of the topic, which on i t s own would be subject of a separate book. Figure 4.1 illustrates some of the ways in which the chief preliminary operations (sample collection and treatment) can be connected t o each other and their relationship to the instrument or analyser. Complete automation i s achieved

when no clear

distinction

can be established

between all three

stages. Human intervention, on the other hand, Is minimal i n on-line automation (e.g.

via a sampler). Finally, off-llne

configurations Involve the inde-

pendent development of each preliminary operation In an automatic module liable to be connected on-line t o a sampler; however, In some of the connections, samples are transferred manually. Table 4.2 lists some of the different possibilities resulting from the

various connections

and

separatlon

tech-

niques, illustrated with examples corresponding t o the different sections of thls chapter.


84

I

I

ON-LINE

Fig. 4.1 Automation relationship ( o f f - l i n e , on-line) between the samp l e collection and treatment and i t s introduction i n t o the analyser.

4.2 DISSOLUTION AND DIGESTION The automation of preliminary operatlons involving a solid sample or a liquid sample containing a suspended solid i s far from easy,

so much so that

the elimination of human intervention in this tedious stage is, understandably, of great interest. The best alternative t o the automation of solid sample treatment is the use of robots mimicking the operations carried out manuall y by an operator (see Chapter 9). Systems requiring only partial dissolutlon of the sample call for lixiviation rather than dissolution o r digestion. Such systems are dealt with i n Section 4.9, devoted t o solid-liquid extraction. The term ’automatic’ i s improperly applied t o a host of commercially available instruments for the dissolution and digestion of several samples (from 6 to 24) simultaneously. These are straightforward off-line configurations consisting of a central heating unit equipped with time and temperature controls and -optionally-

a stirrer, where suitable vessels to which quantized sam-

ples have been prevlously added manually are placed, also manually. Some designs also feature automatic addition of reagents prior to, during or at the

Automation i n samDle treatment

85

end of the Process. The incorporation of the resultant solution into the instrument o r analyser is generally carried out manually, although it i s also Iiable to automation.

TABLE 4.2

D i f f e r e n t configurations described i n t h i s chapter i l l u s t r a t i n g the r e l a t i o n ships established i n F i g . 4.1 Configuration

Pretreatment

Figure No.

4a-3b

Dissolution

2

~

4a(5a)-2b

Distillation

7

5a-5b

Distillation

5

4a( 5a )-2b

Filtration

11

3a-3b

Sorption

12

2a( 4a 1-2 b

Sorption

13

2a(4a)-2b

Ion exchange

15

4a( 5a)-2 b

Gas d i f f u s i o n

17

la-lb

Solid-liquid

19

extraction 4a-3b(lb)

Liquid-liquid

22

extraction la-2b

Liquid-liquid

27a

extract ion

The pretreatment of solid samples for the determination of metal traces and ultratraces by ICP atomic emission spectroscopy i s a delicate stage calli n g f o r automation. Jobin-Ybon have developed an apparatus called a Plasmasol in whlch samples are introduced manually and individually treated, and where-

from the resultant solution is drawn manually to be diluted -also

manually-

p r i o r t o introduction i n t o the instrument. I n t h i s semi-automatic

predlssolu-

tion design, the sample and flux mixture are poured manually i n t o a composite crucible with two recipients, one external of platinum and another removable inner crucible made of vitreous carbon. The chief advantage of the special crucible Is the absence of sample wetting. The crucible Is located i n a f u r nace which can be moved about a horizontal axis. Heating is accomplished by high-frequency induction. The furnace is fixed on a rotary disc which rotates


86

about an axis passing t h r o u g h i t s centre. The pretreatment can be programmed t o be carried out at a given temperature d u r i n g a preset time, o r even as two independent stages. A t the end of the fusion, the furnace continues t o t u r n until i t comes into the pouring position. The crucible then rotates 120” and the highly mobile molten product is poured i n t o a beaker on a magnetic s t i r r e r which contains about 100 m L o f dilute acid. The s t i r r e r i s activated at the moment of pouring and the fusion product is finely divided in the solution. A f t e r a set time, the furnace r e t u r n s t o i t s vertical position, the magnetic

s t i r r e r ceases to act and a new sample preparation cycle is started.

The

beaker i s placed manually on a hot-plate f o r 3-5 min i n order t o terminate the d issol ution process. pouring,

A l I these functions,

i ncl udi n g fusion, furnace agitation,

r e t u r n of furnace t o the initial position and magnetic s t i r r i n g of

the final solution, are automatic.

Water lwoshl Potassium s o d i u m t a r t r a t e solution

Air

Ammonia Ionhydrous]

Neutralisation vesse Air

DDC solution

Et hanol-watei

lwashl Extraction vessel

sensor

Extract lcollected in turntable1

1

Waste

Fig. 4.2 Scheme o f automatic system f o r the determination o f metal traces i n foodstuff i n c l u d i n g sample d i s s o l u t i o n . (Reproduced from [ l ] w i t h permission o f the Royal Society o f Chemistry).

Technicon’s SOLIDprep I1 module, described i n Chapter 3, i s a representat i v e example of automatlc sample dissolution systems where up t o 20 samples held on a turntable can be treated sequentially. An aliquot of the resultant

Automation i n sample treatment

87

solution is taken automatically by an aspiration probe and introduced Into a continuous analyser. This module thus features automatic operations preceding and following dissolution proper. Similar t o the SOLIDprep is the automatic system developed by Jackson e t

a l . [ l l for the determination of metal traces i n foodstuff. As can be seen from Fig. 4.2, i t consists of the following operational units: (a) A tray for preweighed

soild samples held in specially designed vials.

The entire unit is thermostated at 60’C. I n the sampling position, the side tube of each vessel is connected t o the digestor via a small open reservoir. ( b ) A system dispensing the digestion reagents. Sulphuric acid i s added at

two points, namely t o the vial t o flush the sample and t o the reservoir, which also receives some nitric acid. A hydrogen peroxide stream is inserted into the centre of the digestion unit. (c) A continuous digestion

unit consisting of a borosilicate glsss

helix

which is rotated over three banks of heaters. The sample and digestion acids are f e d in at one end and transported over the heaters by rotation of the helix, and the resultant digest is pumped out of the other end through a pneumaticaliy actuated valve,

either to the neutralization

vessel o r to waste,

by

means of an oscillating piston pump. (d)A neutralization unit consisting of a vessel and a system for dispensing anhydrous ammonia gas under the continuous control of a pH meter regulating the addition. The vessel is automatically flushed with the aid of a water stream. ( e l An automatic

liquid-liquid

extraction

system with

paddle

stirring.

This receives the contents of the neutralization unit through a control valve which can also be switched t o dlvert the flow t o waste i n the flushing operation. The extraction vessel also receives programmable volumes of a solutlon of diethyldithiocarbamate i n 2-heptanone. A f t e r s t i r r i n g for a preset tlme and

phase decantation, the organic phase Is drained by a suction system leading it t o one of the vials of a fraction collector. Draining of the heavier phase is also under control. An ethanol-water

stream is used t o flush the system. A

more detailed description of a similar extraction system is given below (see Fig. 4.23). I n short, the system developed by Jackson et a l . [ l ] features automatic on-line

sample collection from a turntable, acidic-oxidizing digestion of the

sample,

neutralization,

liquid-liquid

extraction

and introduction of the ex-

tract into a sampler vial.

4.3 VOLATILIZATION This separatlon technique Is based on the formation of a gas phase. Al-


88

though some workers use t h i s term indiscrlminately, a distinction should -to our

minds-

be made between volatilization and

distillation

depending

on

whether the starting phase (sample) is solid o r liquid. F u r t h e r distinctions can be made between t h e two separation processes according, f o r example, t o whether the separation i s effected with heat o r not, whether a reagent generating the gas phase i s added o r not, and whether the species o f interest passes i n t o the gas phase o r not. A l l these alternatives involve major differences in the corresponding automatic systems required. This section deals exclusively with the automation of methodologies based on the formation of a gas from a solid. As the analytes Involved i n these cases are generally volatile, the sample treatment system must be prepared t o collect the vapours emitted upon addition of a reagent o r heating of the sample. Head space gas chromatography i s a representative example: a solid held i n a closed vial i s heated i n a controlled fashion whiie the chromatographic carr i e r gas i s forced t o circulate t h r o u g h it. I n t h i s way, the volatile analyte mixture i s incorporated i n t o the chromatographic system. A detailed description of t h i s accessory f o r on-line

use with gas chromatographs i s given in

Fig. 4.3 Automatic system f o r the determination o f humidity i n s o l i d samples ( M e t t l e r I R LP 16 desiccator. (1) P a i r o f dual i n f r a r e d heati n g bars; ( 2 ) two thermal probes; ( 3 ) r i s i n g humidity; ( 4 ) i n f r a r e d radiation; (5) air-cut; (6) sample scale; ( 7 ) a i r gates; (8) outside a i r ; (9) i n p u t keyboard; (10) high-precision balance. (Courtesy o f Mettler).

The routine determination of t h e water content i n a variety o f samples i s

of great interest in areas such as agriculture and nutrition. Several manufac-


bl

a1

I I

-1

Outer Jacket (shown d o t t e d 1 Upper thermopile

.

:.I:,

I

,-Upper

I 1

,

* 4 I

,

8 ,

Column

4 ,

I

,

I

I ,

,I

,

I

0 1

heater j a c k e t

,

I

-Lower

,

:In!,

I

I

,

-

heater jacket Lower t h e r m o p i l e

Vapour s p l i t t e r

Automation o f a laboratory f r a c t i o n a l d i s t i l l a t i o n process. (a) D i s t i l l a t i o n column; ( b ) column head. (Reproduced from [ 2 ] w i t h permission o f Elsevier).

Fig. 4.4

t u r e r s of analytical balances have developed automatic systems f o r t h i s p u r pose by simply f i t t i n g accesories t o existing models. Such is the case with the LP 158 module, designed as an accesory f o r the Mettler PE 300 balance. I n the resulting microprocessor-controlled

assembly,

depicted

i n Fig. 4.3,

the

sample i s placed i n the balance scale, located In the accesory furnace. Four infrared re-placed.

raditation A

bars are automatically

12-stop

activated as the furnace

switch allows the selectlon o f the

lid is

heating intensity,

characterized by i t s remarkable evenness. The temperature can be selected i n 5 " intervals from 50 t o 160'C

via the f r o n t panel. The heating time is equally

programmable between 1 and 240 mln. The data generated are automatically prccessed t o deliver results i n the required form: either as a percentage humidi t y , referred t o the w e t sample, o r I n ATRO values If the final weight i s !

taken as a reference. This assembly f o r the determination of humidity can also be regarded as a specific automatic batch analyser, described i n greater detail at the end of the next chapter.


90 4.4 DISTILLATION

Separation proceses based on liquid-gas interfaces can be divided i n t o two major groups according t o the manner i n which they are connected t o the analyser o r instrument in t h e i r automation,

namely o f f - l i n e and on-line.

Each of

these groups can be i n t u r n divided into sub-groups according t o the analyte volatility and the use of heating and/or a reagent.

L.-

ALKALI I N L E T

I Z

S T E A M GENERATOROUTLET

EXPANSION VESSEL OUTLET

w c

r, 0, v

Fig. 4.5

Scheme of the Tecator KjelTec semi-automatic d i s t i l l a t i o n u n i t 1 f o r steam d i s t i l l a t i o n o f ammonia. ( 1 ) Condenser; ( 2 ) receiver flask; ( 3 ) a l k a l i pump; ( 4 ) splash head; ( 5 ) digestion tube; ( 6 ) steam valve; ( 7 ) expansion vessel; (8) steam generator; ( 9 ) electrodes. (Courtesy o f Tecator).

4.4.1 Off-line dlstllatlon systems I n these, the gas phase is suitably collected and subjected t o the subsequent analytical determinatlons i n a discontinuous fashion. Although the classical distillation systems have fallen i n t o disuse since the advent of the advantageous gas chromatography, t h e i r automation has fostered the development of assemblies of some Interest. Chipperfield e t al. [2] reported a computercontrolled laboratory fractional column f o r small-scale a microcomputer

controls the column-jacket

preparations i n which

temperatures,

boil-up

rate and

reflux ratio t o achieve optimum separations. A schematic diagram of the dis-


91

tillation column and column head is shown in Fig. 4.4.

The assembly uses a

number of continuous control systems, namely: a pot temperature sensor, a pressure transducer, two 15-junction copper-constant thermocouples located at the ends of the column, a column head temperature sensor and a reflux ratio solenoid, whereby the traditional problems associated with manually controlled fractional distilation (e.g. temperature control in different parts of the system, continuous attention by the operator) are avoided. The microcomputer is

used to adjust the boiling rate, various temperatures at different points and the reflux/take-off

ratio for separations over a wide range of temperatures.

I n addition to acting as a controller, the computer monitors the distillation process and displays a schematic diagram of the distillation apparatus and the temperatures at the still pot and the condenser. The determination of nitrogen in a variety of materials based on ammonia distillation

(Kjeldahl methodology) i s of

great

analytical

interest i n some

fields. Figure 4.5 shows the scheme of the KjelTec I instrument marketed by Tecator. Once homogenized -and

ground if necessary-,

the samples are weighed

and introduced into digestion tubes to which the reagents transforming nitrogen into ammonium ion (an acid, an oxidant and a catalyst) are added. These tubes are heated at 420'C i n a preheated digestion unit for a suitable time and the emitted gas is collected in individual vessels in which, once cooled, i t is diluted and introduced into the distillation unit. By manually exerted

pressure, a preset volume of concentrated sodium hydroxide is then added. Next, the steam valve is opened for a preselected time (about 5 min) and the

steam is passed through the sampte in order t o sweep the ammonia gas through a condenser t o a receiver flask containing boric acid. The analyte is titrated off-line

manually in each collecting flask. A higher degree of automation is

represented by the KJelTec Auto 1030 model, in which, once the sample has been introduced, all subsequent operations -including tion, the end-point

the terminal acid-base titra-

of which is detected photometrically with the aid of an

acid-base indicator contained i n the boric acid solution-

are performed with-

out human intervention. Obviously, the system includes a system for automatic draining and cleaning of the receiver flask, which i s thus rendered ready for collection of the next sample. The scheme of this analyser, which can be regarded as an on-line analyser, is depicted In Fig. 4.6. 4.4.2 On-line dlstlllatlon systems

I n these configurations, the vapour or residue containing the analyte(s) is introduced continuously

into the instrument

or

analyser.

A

distinction

should be made depending on whether the analyte of interest is volatile or not.


92

When it is the vapour phase which i s t o be collected, the system uses a reagent t o generate o r release the volatile species, which are led directly t o the analyser. Below are described two examples d i f f e r i n g in the need f o r heating, compulsory i n one and dispensable i n the other.

O

Q

i

e r-

WASTE

I

0 PRINTER

f Fig. 4.6 Tecator KjelTec Auto 1030 automatic analyser i n c l u d i n g d i s t i l l a t i o n and photometric acid-base t i t r a t i o n o f ammonia. ( 1 ) Waste f l a s k ; (2) water ( i n l e t ) valve; ( 3 ) water a s p i r a t o r ; ( 4 ) expansion vessel; ( 5 ) feed valve; ( 6 ) steam generator; ( 7 ) vacuum valve ( i f tube drainage); ( 8 ) steam valve; ( 9 ) water pump; ( 1 0 ) digestion tube; ( 1 1 ) a l k a l i pump; (12) d i s t i l l a t i o n head; (13) condenser; ( 1 4 ) l e v e l pin; ( 1 5 ) motor ( s t i r r e r ) ; ( 1 6 ) lamp ( t i t r a t i o n vessel); (17) t i t r a t i o n vessel; (18) d r a i n valve ( t i t r a t i o n vessel); (19) receiver s o l u t i o n pump; ( 2 0 ) motor ( b u r e t t e ) ; ( 2 1 ) b u r e t t e cylinder; (22) three-port valve; (23) t i t r a n t storage f l a s k . (Courtesy o f Tecator).

Pihlar and Kosta [3] have developed a continuous distillation system f o r the amperometric determination of cyanide i n water with the aim of ayoiding interference from other electroactive species. The configuration Is depicted i n Fig. 4.7. A peristaltic pump sets the flow of sample, which i s continuously aspirated, and t h a t of the different reagents, i n addition to regulating the two outgoing streams of the system. The sample, acidulated with a phosphbric acid stream,

i s introduced I n t o the dlstillatlon unit, also shown in Fig. 4.7.

Its


93

lower p a r t includes an electrical heating system while the central one has a water cooling system. The liquid phase is drained t h r o u g h i t s bottom into a cooler leading t o waste through a peristaltic pump which regulates i t s flow. The released hydrogen cyanide is carried by a nitrogen stream into the absorption column after merging with a stream of sodium hydroxide solution.

The

basic analyte solution emerges from the bottom and is driven t o the continuous electrochemical detector t h r o u g h the peristaltic pump. A debbubler allows the elimination of the nitrogen introduced into the system. Cyanide i s t h u s quantitatively recovered except i n the highest concentration range (100-1000 mg/mL) and can be determined at concentrations between

and 1 mg/t and a sampling

frequency of 60 h-l.

a)

b) Sodium hydroxide

PUMP ‘rn L I . n l ” I

Somple

2 5

H j POi

0 2

distillation Unit

P

debubbler

Glass h 3mm

a

!

/

Fig. 4.7 On-line d i s t i l l a t i o n system f o r the amperometric determinat i o n o f cyanide i n water. (a) Diagram o f the continuous system f o r establishment o f the d i f f e r e n t streams. (b) D e t a i l s o f the d i s t i l l a t i o n and absorption u n i t s . (Reproduced from [3] w i t h permission o f Elsevier).

There are several commercial accessories available with different degrees

of automation f o r hydride generation as an on-line

preliminary stage i n the

determination of species by non-flame atomic absorption spectroscopy. An interestlng alternative on account o f its simplicity involves generatlng the hy-


94

dride i n a continuous fashion in an FIA system suitable f o r t h i s purpose. Figure 4.8 depicts the system developed by Astrom [4] for t h e determination of bismuth traces (10-50 pg/L).

The sample is injected into a hydrochloric acid

solution that i s mixed with a basic sodium borohydride stream. A stream of nitrogen is introduced after the reaction coil i n order t o facilitate the release of the volatile metal hydride. The gas-liquid separation takes place i n a continuous manner i n a separator resembling t h e debubblers used with continuous air-segmented analysers. The gas i s driven t o a quartz cell located i n the l i g h t path of the atomic absorption spectrometer used. The flow-rate of the stream emerging from i t is regulated by the peristaltic pump, thereby ensuring even functioning of the gas-liquid separation. The automation of t h i s preliminary operation considerably increases the sampling frequency ( u p t o 100 h-l), sensitivity and selectivity i n comparison with the manual procedure f o r hydride generation. This system requires no heating. QUARTZ CELL

SAMPLE

I

J

I

2 mi"

Fig. 4.8 F I A assembly f o r continuous generation o f hydrides and transport t o the quartz c e l l o f the atomic absorption spectrometer, designed f o r the determination o f bismuth traces. (Reproduced from [ 4 1 w i t h permission o f the American Chemical Society).

When a non-volatile

analyte i s dealt with, the vaporization o f a liquid

phase can be used to remove interferences or facilitate t h e analytical technique b y changing the solvent. Such i s t h e case with the Evaporation-toDryness Module (EDM) developed by Technicon, the operational diagram o f which

is depicted in Fig. 4.9. The liquid sample i s aspirated t h r o u g h a peristaltic pump and poured slowly on a Teflon conveyor beit. For a preset time, a zone of the module

Is subjected to extreme vacuum t o effect the evaporatlon of the


95

original solvent. The d r y sample, placed on the Teflon belt, is dissolved on passing by a zone where a stream of another solvent flows upwards and the solution is continuously aspirated to a sampler or, directly, t o the instrument or analyser. This module is very useful for solvent change-over in liquid chromatography (e.g. to suit the sample t o reversed-phase chromatography) and for Introduction of samples into instruments with serious constraints on certain solvents (e.g. aqueous samples in mass spectrometers).

7

9' clean up unit

vacuum

t

Teflon wire

p c k - u p solvent @peristaltic

pump

Fig. 4.9 Continuous solvent change-over system f o r vacuum d i s t i l l a t i o n and redissolution marketed by Technicon under the trade name Evaporation-to-dryness Module. (Courtesy o f Technicon).

4.5 FILTRATION

The filtration operation can have two uses i n automatic analytical processes depending on the source of the solid material to be filtered out: (a) When this Is initially present in a liquid or gas sample, more or less finely divided, filtration can be aimed t o collect and preconcentrate the material In order t o use it as such t o carry out the analyte determination or simply t o clean the material. The automatic systems f o r the collection of airborne particulates and the filtering units used In continuous

water collection sys-

tems are representative examples. (b) When the solid matter is generated within the analytlcal process as a precipitate, the aim is usually to facilitate the analyte determination or i t s preconcentratlon. Filtering systems can be roughly divided Into continuous and discrete. The former, much more interesting with a view to automatlon, are the subject of the remainder of

this section;

automatlc

discrete filtering

Is carried out

chiefly by robot stations and a few automatic systems (see Fig. 4.21).


96

It should be noted t h a t few continuous f i l t e r i n g systems have been incor-

porated i n t o automatic systems so far, probably because of the difficulties involved. All such systems involve the generation of a precipitate containing the analyte, which can be determined indirectly via the reagent (differential method) o r directly in the precipitate itself. Figure 4.10 depicts the continuous precipitation system incorporated i n t o a continuous segmented analyser, developed b y Skinner and Docherty [5] i n 1967. I t was conceived f o r determination of potassium in f e r t i l i z e r s and is based on the continuous monitoring at 266 nm of the absorbance of the excess of precipitating reagent, v i z . sodium tetraphenylborate (STPB), after complete precipitation of the analyte. The stream resulting from the merging of the reaction ingredients (the sample, sodium hydroxide, formaldehyde t o destroy ammonium ions and STPB) i s passed through an ultrasonic bath improving the precipitate characteristics and preventing i t s build-up

In the system. A piece o f

f i l t e r paper moving v i r t u a l l y perpendicularly t o the flow continuously removes the precipitate formed. A magnetically s t i r r e d mixing minichamber (2 mL inner volume) i s essential t o avoid anomalies in acquiring the photometric results (absorbance decrease). The results obtained with the system f o r the determination of the potassium oxide content of fertilizers compare well with those found by t h e traditional flame photometrlc technique. AuloAnalyzcr manifold

us

I

F l o w cell

Fig. 4.10 Scheme of continuous segmented analyser w i t h continuous f i l t e r i n g system f o r the determination o f potassium i n f e r t i l i z e r s . (Reproduced from [ 5 1 w i t h permission o f Pergamon Press).

Continuous precipltation can be Implemented more simply In an FIA system designed f o r the Indirect automatic determination of anions by atomic absorp-


97

tion spectroscopy. I n Fig. 4.11 are depicted two systems designed f o r t h i s p u r pose by the authors’ team [61. They are based on the retention of the precipitate formed i n the reaction coil by one the f i l t e r s typically used i n HPLC f o r continuous solvent cleaning, the scheme of which also appears in the figure. The system can operate in two modes: A

RECORDER

0 600

0 000

RECORDER blank

6 sample

FILTER

I

I

1

I

0 000

1

I

Fig. 4.11

Continuous f i l t e r i n g systems f o r use i n F I A f o r the i n d i r e c t determination o f anions by atomic absorption spectroscopy. ( A ) Without p r e c i p i t a t e d i s s o l u t i o n ; ( 6 ) w i t h p r e c i p i t a t e d i s s o l u t i o n . (Reproduced from [S] w i t h permission o f the America1 Chemical Society).

(a) Without precipitate dissolution. The anion-analyte stream of the reagent-cation.

is injected i n t o a

On s t a r t i n g the peristaltic pump, the cation i s

driven directly t o the nebulizer and a constant signal i s obtained as a result. The injection of a distilled water blank gives rise t o a smali negative peak. Subsequent injection of the solution containing the anion results i n the gradual disappearance of the precipitating reagent from the zone where precipitation takes place, which i n t u r n causes a momentary decrease in the signal, the height of which i s directly proportional to the reagent concentration. The f i l t e r requires cleaning in an ultrasonic bath after 50-400 injections, dependi n g on the nature of the Precipitate and the analyte concentration.


98

(b) With continuous dissolution of the precipitate. The precipitate is formed and retained as in the previous case. Two synchronized diverting valves denoted M and S in Fig. 4.11, allow a stream of washing solution and another of an acid o r a solvent for the precipitate dissolution to be passed through the filter. The continuous recording of the signal shows a falling portion corresponding to the washing and a typical F I A peak corresponding to the precipitate dissolution. The height of the latter is proportional to the analyte concentration. Both continuous precipitation systems w e r e assayed on three types of precipitate,

namely

gelatinous

(FezOSH20) for

the

determination

of

ammonia,

curdy (AgCI) for the determination of chloride and crystalline (CaC2042HzO) for the determination of oxalate. Recoveries close t o 100% were obtained in all cases, even at low analyte concentrations, with few interferences. The assembly in Fig. 4.11b, although more complex, has the advantage of requiring no blank.

4.6 SORPTION

The use of finely divided solid materials for the retention or sorption of analytes or interferents in a liquid sample passing through them is

a common

alternative t o sample pretreatment on account of the advantages offered, namely: (a) It affords trace preconcentration in a most convenient and efficient manner. There is no limitation, i n principle, to the sample volume to be treated, which is a substantial advantage over other separation techniques such as extraction or voltammetric stripping. (b) It is of great use in removing interferents (sample clean-up). (c) It is suitable f o r sample storage. Thanks t o the inert nature of most sorbents, the retained species remain unchanged for long periods, which is of outmost Importance i n off-line determinations. ( d ) I t exerts a protectlve action (e.9.

i n filtration) i n preventing unde-

sirable species, whether solid or liquid, from reaching the analyser or Instrument and causing malfunctions -with

potentlal economic repercussions.

( e l I t s automation poses no serious technical difficulties. The sorbents most frequently employed are sillca, al kylsilane-modified

sil-

Ica (bonded phases), alumina, porous polymers (with and without Ion-exchange groups) and carbon materials. They are usually employed packed In cartridges or short stalnless steel or glass columns. Dependlng on the physical proper-

ties of the sorbent ( v i z . particle size, bed length), the cartridge or column can be operated at room pressure under gravity-flow pressures.

conditions or at high


99

From the point of view of automation, the sorption technique can be applied in a continuous or

discrete fashion

In relation to the anaiyser or

instrument. This is the criterion used t o describe the systems commented on below. 4.6.1 Off-llne sorption systems

This type of system is most commonly used in the collection and preconcentration of toxic substances from the atmosphere by means of withdrawal pumps fitted to small columns located at strategic points and connected t o an autcmatic programmed thermal desorption instrument coupled to a gas chromatograph. A detailed description of these systems is given in Chapter 12.

/ '

t

Fig. 4.12 Automatic on-line sorption system f o r chemical clean-up used i n the determination o f TCDD i n tissue samples. (Reproduced frm [ 7 ] with permission o f the American Chemical Society).

Lapeza e t 81. [7] recently reported an automatic system (Fig. 4.12) for pretreatment (sorption and preconcentration) of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodlbenzo-p-

dioxin i n human adlpose tissue for Its subsequent determinatlon at the per 10'2 level by high-resolutlon gas chromatography-mass

parts

spectrometry. The

mtcroprocessor used allows the control of the functloning of the pump and a serles of valves (a slx-position rotary, a four-way

rotary and a tandem slx-


100

position one). The system uses sample extraction (I-V),

potassium silicate/sil-

ica and carbon/glass f i b r e columns. A i r bubbles must be kept o u t of the system -particularly

out of the pump head. A t time zero, the pump i s started and the

selecting valve is set t o receive sample extract from the sample column (I), which i s driven t o the silicate and carbon columns. As the program runs, the silicate column i s removed from the flow, the carbon column i s washed and then eluted i n the reverse direction and, finally, both columns are regenerated by multiple solvent washings.

Neither the pretreatment of the tissue specimens

nor the introduction of the extracts i n t o the instrument -requiring changeover-

solvent

are automated.

I.A: :' SAMPLE PRE COLUMN

PUMP B

4

- - __ ..,

MOBILE PHASE

.

, I ,

PRECOLU MN

DETECTOR

Fig. 4.13 Scheme of on-line sorption system f o r preconcentration of l i q u i d samples p r i o r t o i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o a l i q u i d chromatograph. ( A ) Preconcentration stage; ( 8 ) elution-determination stage. (Reproduced from [ 8 ] w i t h permission o f E l s e v i e r ) .

4.6.2 On-line sorption systems I n t h i s alternative, the liquid eluted from the sorption system -generall y a column-

Is introduced directly i n t o the analyser o r instrument [8,9]. A

scheme of the typlcal functioning of these systems i s depicted in Fig. 4.13. The system operation consists of two stages. I n the first, the sample i s aspl-


101

rated by pump A through a valve i n t o the pre-column and then t o waste -this allows the sample volume taken t o be adjusted according t o the analyte concentration. I n the second stage, the valve i s switched t o another position and a high-pressure pump (B in Fig. 4.13) propels the mobile phase through a pre-column into the chromatographic column. The analytes are rapidly released from the pre-column and led t o the instrument. This assembly can be made more complex by using several pre-columns

and valves. The potential of t h i s opera-

tional i s discussed i n greater detail in Chapterl2. There are several commercially available instruments using sorption systems f o r sample pretreatment. A representative example of those working in a continuous fashion is the Varian AASP (Advanced Automated Sample Processor) [lo]. This uses cassettes of ten sorbent cartridges, each of which is packed

with 40-50 mg of a particular bonded silica gel. I t features three essential differences from typical manual systems, namely the use of lower sample and solvent volumes, the utilization of pressure rather than vacuum and the fact t h a t the liquid emerging from the cartridge i s completely eluted t o the HPLC system, thereby increasing the sensitivity. Analytical Biochemistry Laboratories (ABC) markets a module (GPC 1002 A ) f o r automated clean-up of residues in extracts b y use of a gel-permeation column.

4.7 ION EXCHANGE The use of ion-exchange columns f o r trace preconcentration and interference removal is a mode of the sorption processes described above. The chief d i f f i c u l t y encountered In using ion-exchange column f o r these purposes Is the low selectivity o f the usual cation and anion exchange resins, particularly when solutions with high saline contents are involved (e.g.

sea water mat-

rices). This has fostered the use of more selective resins such as those containing chelating iminoacetic groups o r reagents such as hydroxyquinoline o r thiols immobilized i n organic o r inorganic matrices. Ruzicka, the head of one of the pioneering teams i n FIA, deslgned various assemblies f o r the preconcentration o f traces of metal ions prior t o t h e i r determination b y atomlc absorption or ICP spectroscopy in a variety of l i q u i d matrices b y use of small columns ( 5 mm x 2 mm I.D.)

packed with the chelating

resin Chelex-100 (50-100 mesh). The most Interesting of such assemblies [22] are shown in Fig. 4.14.

The f i r s t assembly (Fig. 4.14a),

the slmplest of all,

features a single llne wlth two serial Injection valves (It f o r insertion of sample and Iz for introduction o f the eluent) p r i o r t o the column on which the analytes are retained. F l r s t the sea water sample is injected and d r i v e n t o


102

the column, where the anaiytes are retained. Then, 2M HNOj is injected t o elute the anaiytes, which are led t o the detector. The column is continuously regenerated by passing the carrier with ammonium acetate buffer through i t s bed. This assembly poses some problems arising from the lack of homogenization between the carrier and the sample, and the uneven swelling of the resin beads in passing from the ammonium to the acid form. The configuration depicted i n Fig. 4.14b was designed to overcome the shortcomings of the previous type. The sample is homogenized by injecting it into an aqueous carrier merging with a buffer stream. Uneven swelling of the resin is avoided

by passing the eluent i n the opposite

direction t o the

sample. The change of the direction of flow is achieved with the aid of an additional valve -the

other two valves are placed on both sides of the coi-

umn. I n the preconcentration position (b.1) the extra valve drives the eluent stream to the detector as the injected sample passes through the column and goes to waste. I n the elution position (b.21, the valves are switched to establish two flows in opposite directions: that of the sample is led to waste, whereas that of the eluent is passed i n the opposite direction through the column and then driven to the detector. The most automated of these systems is shown in Fig. 4.14~. It includes a valve replacing the two used in the previous configuration and a t i m e r ensuring the intermittent functioning of the two pumps. During the preconcentration cycle, pump Pi propels up two three lines (two with water and another with buffer); the sample pH is adjusted and one of the water streams i s sent t o the detector. The stream emerging from the column is also controlled by pump PI. I n the elution stage, pump Pi is stopped as P2 is started. The H N G stream i s forced to circulate upstream through the column and Is driven t o the detector -it

cannot go t o waste as pump PI is stopped. Meanwhile, the n e x t sample i s

aspirated Into the injection valve loop. These assemblies have the shortcoming that they cannot be used with large sample volumes, preconcentratlon of which could be inefficient. To overwme this drawback the FIA configuration depicted i n Fig. 4.15 [12],

based on the

use of two columns packed with Chelex-100 and positioned parallel t o each other was developed. The configuration consists of two pumps and two injection unlts which function simply t o change the direction of the flows -they

have

no volume-meter loops. One of the units is connected vla elght lines with two loops contalnlng the two columns and the other has two connectlons only. Two samples, A and B, mixed with their respective buffers, can be manlpulated in a virtually slmultaneous manner. I n position 1, the streams pass sequentlally through the columns and are sent t o waste. A water stream is continuously circulated through the detector (ICP) and the eluent stream is driven t o waste. Elution is performed i n two sequential stages: i n the f l r s t (28 i n Fig. 4.151,


104

the valves are switched so that the eluent flow may pass through one of the columns -that

corresponding t o sample B-

into the detector. As the smaller

valve is switched t o position 2A, the eluent stream passes through the column for sample A and on to the detector. A further advantage of this system is i t s increased sampling frequency, a result of the possiblllty of treating two samples simultaneously In the slower stage (preconcentration).

2B) INJECTOR VALVE I

ER 0

1)

LE 0 LE A ER A

I N 1EC 1 O R VALVE I

NT INECTOR VALVE 2

H20

18

U P'JMP 2

2A) INJECTOR

PUMP 2

W

SAMPLE

95

1 8 -BUFFER

L

Irnl"1

("L

L L J INJECTOR VALVE 2

A

A

fi I 8

ELUENl

-H20

U PUMP 2

Fig. 4.15 Continuous assembly f o r simultaneous preconcentration o f two samples ( A and B ) by use o f two p a r a l l e l ion-exchange columns. ( 1 ) Preconcentration stage. (2) Sequential e l u t i o n stage. (Reproduced from El21 with permission o f the American Chemical Society).

4 8 .

MEMBRANE SEPARATION Separations based on the use of membranes have gained signlficance In the

context of Analytical Chemistry. The large variety of commercially available membranes facilitates their use for a variety of applications. Their functloni n g Is based on the selective passage of a substance or a group of substances wlth glven characterlstlcs. Membrane separatlon is generally Implemented i n a continuous fashion. The essentlal components of a continuous module are shown In Fig. 4.16. solution contalnlng the sample -to

A carrler

which reagents facllltating the separatlon


can be previously added-

105

is led into a minichamber whose central zone is oc-

cupied by the membrane, which divides the chamber into two symmetrical parts. On one side of the membrane circulates the carrier stream and on the other side circulates,

in the same direction,

a suitable reagent facilitating the

dissolution o r incorporation of the substances separated across the membrane. This module usually consists of two blocks made of various materials into which the same conduits are engraved, and the minichamber -generally

a paral-

lelepiped and less often i n a tortuous or spiral shape to increase the separat i n g efficiency through increased contact surface-

the two halves of which

are tightly pressed on the membrane t o avoid losses.

ACCEPT

SAMP

WASTE

F i g . 4.16

Schematic diagram o f continuous membrane separator. ( a ) Parallelepiped, (b) tortuous and ( c ) s p i r a l separation chamber.

Depending on the nature of the substances to be separated, one can distinguish between two chief types of continuous membrane separation: (a) Dialysfs, i n which the separation i s generally based on the differences In molecular weight between the sample components. Thus, small molecules, and ions pass through the membrane pores, whereas bulkier specles remain In the carrier. This type of Separation i s widely used i n the determination of species with low molecular weights i n biological fiuids.


106

(b) Gas d i f f u s i o n , which involves the use of gas-permable membranes. Gas species can be formed in the sample stream t h r o u g h a variety of reactions, the commonest of which are induced by pH changes t o form volatile acids (HCN, Con, SO2) and bases (NH3). There i s also the possibility of determining dissolved

gases such as 02, 0 3 , Cln and ClO2. The acceptor solution must contain reagents t h a t interact with the diffused gases to ensure t h e i r rapid retention. Dialysers are frequently used with continuous analysers, particularly in clinical applicalfans, a comprehensive description of which i s beyond the scope of t h i s book. Only two recently reported examples of the application of t h i s technique in two different areas are commented on below. PI REAGENT I

I

I I

SAMPLE

I pH2

I I

WATER

I

I

I

Fig. 4.17 (A) Automatic determination o f r e s i d u a l ozone i n water by l i q u i d d i f f u s i o n w i t h two pumps ( P i and P2) working i n t e r m i t t e n t l y under the c o n t r o l of a computer. (B) Functioning o f the p e r i s t a l t i c pumps and the i n j e c t i o n valve. (Reproduced from [131 w i t h permission o f the American Chemical Society).

Figure 4.17 shows the scheme of the system designed by Straka e t a l . f o r the determlnation o f residual aqueous ozone [13]. The gas-diffusion

cell ( a

Chemifold V from Tecator), with a 75 x 2 mm2 area, Is f i t t e d with either a dimethylsillcone or a 0.45 pm pore size Teflon membrane. A valve allows the introduction of either a continuous sample stream o r a c a r r i e r of pH 2. The ac-


107

ceptor stream contains a dissolved dye, potassium indigotrisulphonate, which rapidly becomes colourless upon reaction with ozone. A continuous photometric detector with a flow-ceii

monitors the absorbance decrease, proportional t o

the ozone concentration. The gas-diffusion separation can be performed with a specific period of stopped flow to enable more of the gaseous analyte to permeate through the membrane. Figure 4.17 also shows the diagram of a peristaltic pump and the injection programming carried out by means of the built- in microprocessor of the Tecator Flow Injection Analyzer used. The pump propelling the carrier and sample (P2) works i n a non-stop fashion. A t the beginning of the sequence (To), pumps PI and Pz function as a stream of water at pH 2 passes below the reagent stream. A t the time of sampling (Ti), the selecting valve switches the flow from water of pH 2 to the ozone sample. Simultaneousl y , pump PI

stops for the desired interval (10, 20 or 30 s), Tz-TI.

During

this stopped-flow period, ozone permeates through the membrane. A f t e r the sampling period, pump P i is started again and pumps the decolorized reagent to the detector while the selecting valve is switched

so that water of pH

again passed below the reagent. This also results i n preconcentration. tion limits of 0.03 mg/L

2 is

Detec-

of ozone are possible, with sensitivities and linear

ranges comparable t o those of the manual counterpart of the method. The selectivity is also significantly increased and the interference of chlorine is reduced to 0.008 mg/L of apparent ozone for each part per million of chlorine. The sample frequency i s 65

h-I.

waste

carrier

water

buffer detector adsorbent

Fig. 4.18 Automatic enzymatic determination of 0-galactose i n serum i n a continuous FIA system with l i q u i d d i a l y s i s f o r the removal o f i n t e r f e r i n g macromolecules. Reactors: Cu2+, Bond-Elut-NHz-Cu; Cat, catalase; GalOD, galactose oxldase; POD, peroxldase. Absorbent: arylamino porous glass. (Reproduced from C141 with permission o f E l sevier).


108

An Interesting example of continuous dialysis in enzymatic systems applied t o clinical samples is the determination of D-galactose in serum via a series of coupled enzymatic reactions [141. Figure 4.18 shows the dedicated computerized automatic assembly constructed for this purpose. The samples are aspirated sequentially into the loop of an injection valve.

The sample in-

serted in the carrier is driven to the dialysis unit, after which the carrier stream is sent to waste through a restrlctor intended to match the back-pressure on the detector side of the dialyser. An acceptor stream leads the dialysed serum components t o (a) a Bond-Elut-NHrCu

column for removal of inter-

ferents, ( b ) a catalase reactor for removal of H202 generated in reactions taking place in the copper reactor and (c) a galactose oxidase reactor which produces H a 2 from the analyte. The flow is merged with a reagent stream, which gives rise t o an oxidative coupling reaction i n the peroxidase reactor. The final

detection is performed spectrophotometrically at 514 nm. The dialyser

used consists of two equal Perspex halves with cut channels, clamped together over a 0.025 mm thick cellulose acetate membrane. The dlalyser channels can be filled with solid glass beads (150-250 pm In diameter) t o reduce dispersion. The linear range achieved is from 10 pM to 14 mM D-galactose, and the recovery from spiked serum samples at low analyte levels is close to 100%.

4.9 SOLID-LIQUID EXTRACTION

This selective lixiviation or dissolution operation can be performed automatically by the Technicon SOLIDprep I1 module. The undissolved solid gathers in the bottom of the extraction vessel, so that the aspirating pipette readily wlthdraws the supernatant liquid. A representative example of this type of assembly is shown in Fig. 4.19,

which was designed by Coverly [15] f o r the determination of water-soluble vitamins (nicotlnamide, thiamine,

pyridoxine,

riboflavin) i n pharmaceuticals by

reversed-phase HPLC, at a sampling rate of 10 samples/h. The extractant solution, a phosphate buffer with heptenesulphonate and triethylamine previously heated t o 70'C, is introduced into the SOLIDprep 11, where f i r s t mild s t i r r i n g (500 rpm) and subsequently rapid s t l r r l n g (2900 rpm) facilitate extraction of

the water-soluble fraction. The aspirated extract is prevlously passed through a dialyser. The solution collecting the vitamins separated across the membrane fills the loop of the chromatographic injection valve. A programmer synchronizes the discontinuous functioning of the solid-llquid

extraction unit and

the introduction Into the chromatograph. Technlcon deslgned another system of this type for the determination of hexylresorclnol In pharmaceutical tablets by simultaneous dlssolution and ex-


109

traction [ 1 6 ] . Each of the twenty cups of the solid sampler contains f i v e tablets which are mechanically poured into a homogenizer.

This receives preset

volumes of distilled water and chloroform and is s t i r r e d f o r a given time to increase contact between the three phases originally present. Once t h i s operation

has terminated,

the supernatant i s aspirated i n t o a fraction

collector

without stopping the stirring. This configuration requires no phase separation as phases are decanted i n each vial. The fraction collector i s connected online with a gas chromatograph. Sampling i s effected by a suction system; the aspirating t i p dips into each vial until it f i n d s the organic heavier phase, an aliquot of which i s taken. The configuration uses two turntables, one containing the solid samples and the other holding the corresponding extracts.

sps I1 solid sampler

To wcs te

I I

I 7

06

______

(0

Dialyser

I

-1

I i

I u2 v3 I ,'I "

I I I I I I

I I

I

I

waste I

I

------ -- -Pneumatic actuator

LC

column

Y

I Programmer

LC pump

4.19 Continuous s o l i d - l i q u i d e x t r a c t i o n assembly f o r the determination of water-soluble vitamins i n pharmaceuticals as a prelimi n a r y step t o t h e i r i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o a l i q u i d chromatograph. (Reproduced from [ f 5 ] w i t h permission o f Francis & Taylor Ltd.).

Fig.

The problem of the state of aggregation of the sample is a major mnsidera-

tion in the automation of the preliminary stages of the analytical process; however, it has been tackled only rarely, probably because of the technical difficulties involved.

Problems such as the potentially different compositions


110

of grains o f different size, the varying dissolution/extraction time depending on the state of aggregation, etc. are not generally dealt with in a systematic way. One of the f e w exceptions i n t h i s respect i s the system reported by Bartels e t a l . [17],

a microprocessor-controlled

assembly

consisting of the

following p a r t s (Fig. 4.20):

filling position

grinding position

@ pestle @ milicasing O m i t l i n g bed a d i s c h a r g e pipe

discharging position

12000 15000 RPM

Ij I C

@) distributing plate

@ @

discharge pipe of mill centrifuge wall

@

discharge pipe of centrifuge for steam and tap water

@ nozzles Fig. 4.20

( A ) combined g r i d i n g and s o l i d - l i q u i d e x t r a c t i o n system f o r s o l i d samples. (B) Subsequent phase separation by high-speed c e n t r i f u gation. (Reproduced from [ 1 7 ] w i t h permission o f Francis & Taylor Ltd. 1.

Automation i n sample treatment (1 ) Simultaneous

gralns,

tablets,

grinding

111

and

extraction

capsules, suppositories,

etc.)

unit.

The

samples

(pellets,

are introduced together

with

the solvent o r a mixture of solvents in the filllng positlon, where the rotary mortar i s In an intermediate position. I n the grinding posltion, the mortar is lowered, rotated and moved upside down to grind the samples and bring the solid into contact with the extractant Ilquid. A f t e r a preset time, the mortar is raised (discharging positlon) and the suspension is passed on t o the next unit. ( 2 ) Centrifuging unit, which features a central conduit through which the

suspension i s passed. A dlstributing plate rotatlng at a speed of 12,00015,000 r p m receives the suspenslon frontally and throws it abruptly at the

walls. The liquid creeps upwards on the centrifuge wall, gathers i n an external channel and is removed f o r subsequent determination, fllling the origlnal sample cup. A serles of nozzles located at the top of the centrifuge allow it t o be washed between samples. The dlstributlon plate rotates slowly so that the clean solutions may wash over It and be removed through the dlscharging tube. The final residue can be elther dlscarded o r redissolved In a suitable solvent and collected in a second sample cup In the transport mechanlsm and be subseauently analysed.

I

L70 rnrn

t 360

Frn

Sjde view

K

4.21 Automated discrete solid-liquid extraction system f o r determination o f mineral nitrogen i n soils. (Reproduced from [181 with permission o f the Royal Society o f Chemistry).

Fig.

Automatic methods o f

112

analysis

Marsh e t al. [l8] reported an interesting automatic configuration for the determination of mineral nitrogen in soils without human intervention (Fig. 4.21). The samples are weighed i n special vessels. An adequate extractant vol-

ume is added by means of an automatic, electronically controlled,

home-made

system based on a basic beam balance. A f t e r addition of the reagent, a magnetic s t i r r e r is placed in each beaker and the beakers are fitted into cups of the conveyor on the sample preparation unit (B). The beakers are carried over four rows of revolving magnets to give a total of 48-min s t i r r i n g and stand stirred for a further 12 min, after which they are tipped into filter-funnels (C) around the periphery of a ten-sided

Perspex turntable. The soil extract,

f i l t e r e d through a Whatman no. 1 filter paper, is collected i n a beaker (0) fitted to a similar turntable lying below the filter table. The tables rotate on a common spindle until the sample reaches a sample pick-up arm (E) and is drawn up via a peristaltic pump ( F ) and automatically diluted when needed and dispensed via another arm ( G ) into the cups of an AutoAnalyzer tray (H). Hormann e t a l . developed a much more complex assembly f o r the extraction, clean-up and gas chromatographlc determination of triazine herbicides in soil [191.

4.10 LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION

The automation of liquid-liquid extraction processes is of great interest on account of the relevance of this technique t o the sample treatment and of the technical complexity of such processes when carried out manually. The reduction of human intervention in this preliminary operation can be achieved in a variety of ways: (a) By applying automatic batch methodologies i n which both phases are brought into contact in a vessel t o form an emulsion. (b) By the Craig counter-current extraction. (c) By circulating the volatile phase through the other by means of a distillation-condensation system. (d) By circulating alternate segments of both phases along a flow system. (e) By circulating a mobile phase over a stationary phase retained in one of

the

various

possible

ways

(liquid-liquid

partitioning

chromatographic

configurations). A detailed description of all these alternatives Is beyond the scope of

this book,

so only representatlve examples of two modes, namely batch and con-

tinuous, are discussed here. 4.10.1 Batch liquid-liquid extraction

Thls is uncommon as I t is resorted t o when long equlllbration times are


113

involved as a result of kinetlc effects. Figures 4.22 and 4.23 illustrate two automation possibilities differing i n the way in which the final phase separation is effected once the emulsion has been destroyed -generally

by agitation

with a paddle rod. I n the assembly depicted i n Fig. 4.22, a microcomputer controls all the operations involved, namely: (a) Addition of samples by aspiration of a preset volume o r collection of a given amount quantized by any other means. (b)Addltion of controlled volumes of the reagent and of the other phase -generally

the organic phase.

(c) Controlled stirring for a given period at a preset speed. (d)Collectlon of the phase of interest, which can be effected i n various ways. I f it i s the heavier phase, it is drained by a valve governed by a continuous-flow

sensor

based on refractive Index measurements reflecting the

passage of the interface and controlled by the computer. I f it is the lighter phase, an aspiratlon probe positioned at the appropriate height or a gas pressure-based system is more than adequate -this

alternative is also suit-

able for separation of the heavier phase. (e) Clean-up of the extraction vessel by means of an addition, stirring and drainage system which renders it ready to receive a fresh sample.

Fig. 4.22

Scheme o f computer-controlled t i o n process.

batch

l i q u i d - l i q u i d extrac-


7 74

C E NTRlF UGAT I ON

ST I RR ING

INTRODUCTION

f

ORGANIC

PHASE

R6ANIC PHASE PHASE

SPIN B

DRAIN

L

CLEANING

Fig. 4.23 Automatic batch l i q u i d - l i q u i d extraction configuration based on phase separation by centrifugation. (Reproduced from [20] with permission o f the Association o f O f f i c i a l Analytical Chemists).

Figure 4.23 iiiustrates another alternative for the separation of both phases once the batch liquid-liquid extraction has been finished. Formerly conceived

for

solid-liquid

extractions,

this

complex

mechanical assembly

[20]

consists of two automatic burettes for addition of the two phases, the extractor -moveable

in various fashions-

and a vertically moving paddle stirrer.

The extraction vessel rotates at a high speed, which promotes phase separation, as shown In the figure. The llghter phase creeps up the walls and passes to an upper receptacle -the

separation is facilitated by adding more aqueous

phase. Once separation Is complete, an aspiration probe withdraws the organic phase. Finally, a mechanical system turns the vessel over for cleaning. 4.10.2 Continuous liquid-liquid extraction Of the various possible ways i n which this alternative can be Implemented,

that based on the establishment of a segmented flow is without doubt the most advantageous from the polnt of vlew of automation and scope of application [21,22].

Figure 4.24 depicts the scheme of the essential components of a con-

ti nuous Iiquid-l i qui d extractor, name1y:


175

(1) The s o l v e n t segmenter, which acts as a merging point for the two ini-

tial streams of the two phases converging on it. It is chiefly intended t o obtain alternate, regular segments of both immiscible liquids entering the extraction coil. I t should be designed so that the ’length’ of the segments can be conveniently checked. The commonest type of segmentor consists of a tube

with three openings [23]. The aqueous phase enters through a glass capillary and the organic phase through a platinum capillary perpendicular to the former. Two adjustable concentric Teflon tubes shut off the tube at the other opening in the same direction as the aqueous phase. The height of the inner tube is adjustable. The length of the segments emerging from this tube depends on (a) the aforesaid height, (b) the inner volume of the mixing chamber and (c) the flow-rate of both phases o r their ratio (qdqp), which i s equivalent to the volume ratio in batch liquid-liquid extraction processes. The commonest situation involves identical segments about 5 mm in length. (2) The extraction coil, which receives the segmented flow and holds it for a preset time and serves as a receptacle for the transfer of matter taking place between both phases. There are two general possibilities depending on the type of material of which the coil is made. I f made of Teflon, the organic phase wets its walls and the aqueous phase i s i n the form of bubbles. The flow patterns in coiled solvent segmenters and the direction of the solute transfer are shown in Fig. 4.24.

I n addition to gravitational mixing, effective mass

transfer is the result of the plug flow in the opposite direction of the segments and of the secondary flow patterns formed i n a coiled tube. Hence, tubes of small bore (0.5-1 mm) make good extraction coils. (3) The phase separator receives the segmented flow from the coil and con-

tinuously splits it into two separate streams of the two phases. The separation is rarely quantitative and usually ranges between 80 and 95%. However, the phase in which the determination is to be carried out should be kept completely

free

from the other so that

no parasitic signal is originated on passage

through the detector. O f the different technical alternatives, T-shaped separators use gravity with or without a sort of phase guide made of a material wetted by one phase but not by the other [23]. Figure 4.24 shows a separator of this type which features a piece of Teflon stuck to the inside which aids the separation of the lighter organic phase up to the exit. The most advantageous devices of this kind, though, are membrane separators, based on the selectlve permeability of a microporous membrane (0.7-0.9

pm pore diameter) towards the

phase which wets the membrane material -usually

Teflon. The organic phase

crossing it is completely f r e e from aqueous phase. Figure 4.25 shows schematically the manifolds most frequently employed with automatic continuous liquid-liquid extraction. A l l of them have the following

716

. b-

m w 3

* mu w

5:


I

L 0

a a

m

+J

on f l o w segmentation. (Repro8

e x t r a c t o r based

v-

c c

+J

Components o f a continuous l i q u i d - l i q u i d duced from [ 2 1 1 w i t h permission o f E l l i s Horwood).

0

F i g . 4.24


117

-

AIR

-1

I--

:--D--I

CARRIER 0 R GANIC SOLVENT

+ e x c e s s of 0.5.

I

W

I- - -1 '1 - D l

n

1

I

CARRIER

0 RGA N I C SOLVENT

+excess of o s

1DIs c o NTI N U o u sl [DETECTION

p5-F-q

+excess o s

Different ways of coupling continuous liquid-liquid extraction to air-segmented ( S F A ) , flow-injection ( F I A ) and completely continuous flow analysers ( C C F A ) .

Flg. 4.25

1


118

common elements: a sampler, a peristaltic pump, two channels (one for a carr i e r containing a reagent or not and another for the organic solvent), a sol-

vent segmenter, an extraction coil and a phase separator. The essential differences between SFA and FIA configurations are (a) the air bubbles inserted at two points prior t o merging with the carrier and after separation of the two phases and ( b ) the manner in which samples are inserted (aspirated in SFA and injected in FIA). I n the configuration i n Fig. 4.25c, the sample is aspirated through a two-way valve and there are three possibilities, depending on the type of detection system used: (a) CCFA, when the analyte phase flows directly to the detector flow-cell; (b) FIA, when the analyte phase fills the loop of an injection valve and the phase plug is carried to the detector unit; (c) disc r e t e detection, when the phase containing the analyte is collected i n several

cups and detection is performed individually in a fraction collector. The continuous liquid-liquid extraction carried out b y FIA systems offers clear advantages over those implemented on SFA manifolds, namely: (a) lower sample, reagent and organic solvent consumption, (b) faster determinations, (c) simpler design, ( d ) greater reproducibility and ( e l lower cost. The earliest F I A methods associated with liquid-liquid extraction were proposed simultane-

ously by Karlberg and Thelander [241 and Bergamin et a l . [251 i n 1978. Figure 4.26 illustrates two examples representing the numerous systems of this type described t o date. Shelly et al. [23,261 developed a continuous F I A system with multi-extraction.

That shown in Fig. 4.26a

removal i n the fluorimetric

was conceived for

interference

multi-determination of carclnogenic

polynuclear

aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). A crude oil/ash sample residue (500 PL) dissolved in cyclohexane is injected into a stream of the same organic solvent that merges with a DMSO stream in the f i r s t solvent segmenter. A f t e r passing through a glass extraction coil, the DMSO phase is mixed with a water stream i n a cooling coil. I n the second solvent segmenter, a fresh stream of cyclohexane is segmented with the aqueous DMSO phase. After passage through a Teflon extraction coil, the organic phase is carried through the flow-cell

of a vldeo fluori-

meter. The optimized system has a sample recovery slmilar t o that of an identical manual procedure and a 1.5% relative standard deviatlon between injec-

tions. The sampling rate is 12 h-1. The authors’ team recently developed a configuration for the Indirect atomic absorption spectroscopic determination of anionic surfactants In waste water by FIA/continuous liquid-liquid

extraction (Fig. 4.2613).

The sample is

continuously introduced into the system via a peristaltic pump and merged with a carrier containing the catlonlc chelate l,lO-phenanthroline-Cu(II)

at pH 4.5,

which forms an Ion palr with the detergent t o be analysed. This last i s lntroduced into the contlnuous extractor, where It is transferred t o the organic


119

a) SAMPLE I P N A l

CYCLOHEXANE OMS0

WATER CYCLDHEXANE

D

-

E

X

6

wo

b)

-

PUMP

-

LO c m AAS

L

3.0 Water

PUMP SAMPLE

2 6

CARRIER

0.36

I’ mL I min

Fig. 4.26 F I A configurations with continuous l i q u i d - l i q u i d extraction. ( a ) Multi-extraction system f o r the f l u o r i m e t r i c determination o f polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons; (b) assembly f o r determination o f ani o n i c surfactants i n waste water. (Reproduced from [26] and [ 2 7 ] w i t h permission o f the American Chemical Society).


120

phase (MIBK). The organic phase containing the ion-pair and emerging from the membrane separator fills the loop of an injection valve. An aqueous carrier propelled by another pump sweeps the sample plug t o the atomic absorption instrument measuring the concentration of extracted copper, proportional t o the initial concentration of the anionic surfactant in the water sample. The organic phase streams are established by displacement bottles to avoid their passage through the tubes of the peristaltic pump. The flexible tubes suitable for this purpose have relatively short useful lifetimes. This determination of anionic surfactants in the range 0.1-7.0

pg/mL in waste water offer clears

advantages over i t s manual counterpart, namely (a) higher sampling frequency (45 h-')

-the

manual method requires two successive extractions-,

( b ) higher

surfactant trace recoveries, (c) b e t t e r preclsion and (d) considerably higher selectivity

.

The incorporation of continuous extractlon systems coupled on line to liquid chromatographs is of great potential and has received especial attention i n the last few years. A distinction should be made depending on whether preor post-column modules are involved, i.e.

according t o whether the liquid-

liquid extraction precedes or follows the chromatographic process.

Figure 4.27

illustrates both alternatives with two representative examples of the numerous systems reported so far. Figure 4.27a shows the automatic system developed by Dolan o t al. [281 for the determination of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D and E ) i n pharmaceutical tablets. It consists of an SFA extraction module located prior to an HPLC system with a UV detector (254 nm). The main elements of this automatic assembly are: (a) An automated sample preparation unit (SOLIDprep I1 from Technicon) which receives the tablet from the sample tray, homogenizes i t and places it in an ethanol-water mixture. (b) An air-segmented continuous extraction system that aspirates an aliquot of sample and in whlch the vitamins are partitioned Into hexane to enhance the concentration by a factor of about 4.5. A stream of 5% NaCl is circulated through the centre of the extraction coil t o remove water-soluble interferents. A f t e r passing through the phase separator unit, the debubbled sample Is drawn into a sample loop for automated injection Into an HPLC system via a valve. A microprocessor controls the automated solid unit, the injection valve and the UV detector. Injection occurs 7.5 min after the start of the homogenlzation

cycle. Continuous extraction systems are used after chromatographlc separations for two maln purposes. One of them Is t o act as reaction modules (post-column extraction reactors) t o facilitate contlnuous detection via the reaction of the eluted analytes.

This option is especially

useful for slow analytlcal

reac-


12 1

a)

I I

COLUMN

\

\

HPLC

\

\ \

...--. \

s

--.

'

SOLVENT TO VACUUM SOURCE

6 !,

, , /

I

0C

TO

MS

L MOVING B E L T INTERFACE

Incorporation of a continuous l i q u i d - l i q u i d extraction module ( a ) prior t o and (b) a f t e r the chromatographic column i n HPLC. ( A ) Determination of fat-soluble vitamins i n pharmaceutical preparations; ( B ) post-column solvent change-over. (Reproduced from [ 2 8 ] w i t h permission of Elsevier). F i g . 4.27


122

tions.

The other

possibility

involves

using extraction

modules f o r

solvent

changeover. As a significant fraction of HPLC work is conducted under reversedphase conditions, the direct coupling of a liquid chromatograph to a mass spectrometer i s a problem which remains t o be solved. The major limitations of these methods is t h e i r inability t o effectively remove, p r i o r t o entering the mass spectrometer, either the solvent o r other non-volatile

constituents, o r

both. Figure 4.2713 shows the scheme of an HPLC-MS system using a continuous extraction interface i n the absence of air segmentation. A typical moving belt receives the organic phase with the extracted ion pairs.

REFERENCES C. J. Jackson, D. G. Porter, A. L. Denis and P. B. Stockwell, Analyst, 103 (1978) 317. J. R. Chipperfield, J. R. Gregory and J. R. Webster, Anal. Chim. Acta, 177 (1985) 203-208. B. P i h l a r and L. Kosta, Anal. Chim. Acta, 114 (1980) 275-281. 0. Astrom, Anal. Chem., 54 (1982) 190. J. M. Skinner and A. C. Docherty, Talanta, 14 (1967) 1393. P. Martinez, M . Gallego and M . Valcdrcel, Anal. Chem., 59 (1987) 69. C. R. Lapeza, 0. G. Patterson and J. A. Liddler, Anal. Chem., 58 (1986)

713. R. R. L. S.

W . F r e i and U. A. Brinkman, TrAC, 1 (1981) 45. W. F r e i , Swiss Chem., 6 (1184) 5 5 . Yaao, I n t . Lab.. Nov/Dec (1985) 40. Olsen, L . C. R. Pessenda, J. Ruzicka and E. H. Hansen, Analyst, 108

(1983) 905. S . D.

Hartenstein, J.

Ruzicka

and

G. 0.

Christian,

Anal.

Chem., 57

(1985) 21-25. M. R. Straka, G. Gordon and G. E . Pacey, Anal. Chem., 57 (1985) 1799. B. Olsson, H. Lundback and G . Johansson, Anal. Chim. Acta, 167 (1985)

123. S. C. Coverly, J. Automat. Chem., 5 (1983) 89-93. G. M. Rivera i n Advances i n Automated Analysis, Mediad, Tarrytown, New York, 1976, vol. 2, p. 347. H. Bartels, R. D. Werder, W. Schurmann and R. Arndt, J. Autom. Chem., 1

(1978) 28. J. A. P. Marsh, R. Kibble-White and C. J. Stent, Analyst, 104 (1979) 136. W. D. Hormann, G. Formica, K. Ramsteiner and D. 0. Eberle, J. o f AOAC, 55 (1972) 1031. D. M. Coulson, J. o f AOAC, 58 (1975) 174. M. ValcBrcel and M . D. Luque de Castro, Flow-injection analysis. P r i n c i ples and applications, E l l i s Horwood, Chichester, 1987. M. ValcBrcel, Liquid-liquid e x t r a c t i o n i n continuous-flow systems, I n t e r n a t i o n a l School o f Solvent Extraction, Barcelona, 1984. D. C. Shelly, T. M. Rossi and I. M . Warner, Anal. Chem., 54 (1982) 87. B. Karlberg and S. Thelander, Anal. Cbim. Acta, 98 (1978) 1. F. H. Bergamin, J. X. Medeiros, 8. F. Reis and E. A. G. Zagatto, Anal. Chim. Acta, 101 (1978) 9. T. M. Rossi, D. C. Shelly and I. M. Warner, Anal. Chem., 54 (1982) 2056. M. Gallego, M. S i l v a and M. ValcBrcel, Anal. Chem., 58 (1986) 2265. J. W. Dolan, J. R. Grant, N. Tanaka, R. W. Giese and B. L. Karger, J . Cbrometogr. Sci., 16 (1978) 616.

5 Automatic

continuous

flow

Ai r-segmented

analysers,

I,

analysers

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Continuous automatic analysers (CCA) are characterized by the fact that the transport of samples and reagents along the system is effected by establishing a gas o r liquid stream flowing through the straight and coiled tubes making up a typical manifold. As w i l l be seen i n this chapter and next two, the sample and reagent(s) can be mixed in a number of ways, and a variety of intermediate operations from the mere halting of the flow t o the incorporation of continuous separation

units (dialysers, extractors, etc.) can be involved

in the operation of this type of analyser which also typically uses continuous detection systems featuring a flow-cell through which the stream carrying the reacting mixture is passed -some though, require no flow-cell.

techniques such as atomic spectroscopy,

The transient signals provided by the sensing

system, whose time-dependence and shape are obviously a function of the operational mode used, are collected by a conventional

recorder or a micropro-

cessor. Some of the features of these signals (e.9. the peak height, width and area) are related to the analyte concentration. Functionally, these analysers resemble llquid and gas chromatographs, although their foundation is markedly different [1,2].

They also differ from dis-

crete automatic analysers (DAA) i n various respects, namely the fashion i n which samples are transported and mixed with diluents and reagents, the manner in which

carry-over between samples and reagents is avoided and t h e type of

detection used -continuous

vs. discrete. These differences obviously result

in others (e.g. design, cost, versatility) that were commented on i n preceding chapters and are deal with in greater detail here. I n Table 5.1 Is shown the classification of automatic contlnuous methods based on the way i n which carry-over between Samples successively introduced into the analyser is avoided. As can be seen, there are two general groups: Continuous segmented methods avoid carry-over by use of air bubbles estab-

lishing physical separations (segments) along the continuous flowing stream. These methods are typically implemented on Technicon AutoAnalyzers and Skalar assemblies. Samples are introduced sequentially by aspiration with a moving


124

articulated pipette. Formerly known by the generic name of ’continuous-flow analysers’, they should be referred t o more properly as ’segmented-flow

ana-

lysers’, although the term ’segmented’ is also used to describe the continuous extraction systems presented i n Chapter 4 -these,

however, involve liquid-

Iiqui d interfaces.

TABLE 5.1

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f automatic continuous methods According t o whether

Sample i n t r o d u c t i o n

o r not the streams

According

According

Nature o f

contain bubbles

t o procedure

t o time

flow

Segmented

By a s p i r a t i o n

Sequential

Continuous

By i n j e c t i o n

Sequential

Continuous

Flow-injection

Seauenti a l

Discontinuous

Stopped-flow

Name

Segmented flow analysis (SFA) analysis ( F I A ) k i n e t i c methods

Unsegmented

By a s p i r a t i o n

Continuous

Continuous

Completely continuous-flow analysis (CCFA)

Sequential

Continuous

Seauent i a l

Discontinuous

Controlleddispersion flow analysis (CDFA)

Continuous unsegnented methods are characterized by the absence of air bubbles from the flowing system and by t h e i r greater technical simplicity. The way i n which carry-over i s avoided differs from mode t o mode. Thus, in flow-injection analysis [2,3], the samples are introduced sequentlally by Injection o r insertion of a preset volume into an uninterrupted liquid stream of reagent

or carrier-dlluent.

I n stopped-flow

kinetic methods, the samples are injected

simultaneously with the reagent and the mixtures of both are transported at h i g h speed t o the measuring cell, where t h e flow Is stopped f o r as long as detection lasts.

The entire analytical operation -including

data collection-

A 1 r-segmented

flow anal.yset-s

125

t h u s takes place in a very short interval (of the o r d e r of a few hundredths o r thousandths of a second) [4]. These methods are usually implemented f o r c a r r y i n g o u t physico-chemical studies, on complex, precise and costly commercialy configurations,

although

cheaper

alternatives

p r o v i d i n g comparable

results

have been described [5]. I n completely continuous methods, the sample and reagents are aspirated continuously i n t o the flow system and no discontinuities resulting from injection, sample changeover o r flow

halting are introduced

[6]. I n some continuous unsegmented methods with sequential continuous aspiration of the sample, t h i s is introduced u n t i l the transient signal sought i s obtained, after which i t i s replaced with a fresh one, thereby introducing a disconti nui t y , distinguishing these from complete1y continuous methods. There are also continuous unsegmented methods based on the discontinuous aspiration of the sample, whose sequential introduction i n t o the system i s accomplished b y periodical stopping of the flow rather than by aspiration of air bubbles as

in continuous segmented

methods.

I n these so-called

’controlled-dispersion

flow methods’, intermittent pumping serves the same function as the injection

valve does i n continuous segmented methods [71. As stated above, automatic continuous segmented analysers were the earliest t o be developed i n the field of automatic methods of analysis. They originated from the transcendental contribution of Skeegs in 1957 [8],materialized in the f i r s t continuous dynamic measuring system with sequential introduc-

tion of samples and the use of a flow-cell. Sample carry-over was prevented by segmentation with a i r bubbles introduced between successively aspirated samples. Skeeg’s original idea was consolidated i n the development and massive commercialization of Technicon AutoAnalyzers and later Skalar assemblies and others. For many years, these were the only alternative available f o r the automation of high-throughput control laboratories. However, the iater development of other modes o f automatic continuous analysis has demonstrated the invalidity of Skeeg’s exclusivistic approach. Thus, alternatives such as FIA o r completely continuous methods clearly excel over segmented methods i n performance (rapidity,

reagent saving,

cost,

flexibility).

A l l t h i n g s considered,

due credit should be given t o Skeeg’s contribution, the starting point f o r the systematic development of Iaborator y process automat ion. Unlike with discrete o r batch configurations, the nomenclature used with continuous configurations Is not quite correct t a k i n g i n t o account the clear distinction between the terms ‘analysis’

and ‘determination’,

established

by

Pardue [91 i n his hierarchlcal view o f Analytical Chemistry (see Chapter 1). Thus, terms such as ’continuous-flow

analysis’,

’segmented-flow

analysis’ o r

’flow-injection analysis’ are not meant t o describe the overall analytical process insofar as they do not include the preliminary sampling and sample treat-


126

ment operation. Hence, the word ’analysis’ should be dropped from these expressions.

5.2 GENERAL SCHEME OF AN AIR-SEGMENTED ANALYSER

Automatic air-segmented analysers are characterized by the use of one or several liquid streams (diluents, washing solutions, reagents) where the sequentially aspirated samples are introduced and spaced by means of air bubbles aimed at avoiding the undesirable carry-over [lo-121.

y

‘

MICROPROCESOR

SAMPLER

I

4

AIR

I

MIXING COIL

I / / I

--

r l Y-T

RECORDER

Fig. 5.1

DETECTOR

TEMPERATURE CONTROL

t

PUMP

-

DILUENT REAGENT 1

Scheme o f an automatic continuous segmented flow analyser.

This type of analyser is usually modular in nature and consists of a series of elements (apparatus, instruments) coupled on-line t o one another. Figure 5.1 shows the essential components of a straightforward Technicon AutoAnalyzer, namely:

Sampling system, which consists of a sample turntable and moving articulated aspiration probe, and dlffers very little from the generic designs described in Chapter 3.

Propelling unit(s), aimed t o ’move’ the anaiyser. They are generally peristaltlc pumps, although their function can also be served by piston pumps and the pressure exerted by a gas or gravitational force. I n short, they are meant t o set and keep several streams i n motion. The flow-rate

of such streams

should be regulatable and maintained as constant as possible, which i s normall y accomplished by uslng flexlble tubes that withstand the mechanical pressure to which they are subjected.

Air-segmented flow analysers

127

Reaction-mixing c o i l s , viz. pieces of polyethylene, PTFE

or glass tubing

where the mixing of reactants and the analytical reaction take place. Their length and the flow-rate of streams clrculated through them determine the time over which the reacting mixture 'resides' i n them and hence the sampling frequency, inversely proportional t o the time required for the complete analytical reaction. Heating system, usually consisting of thermostated

baths o r electrical

wires wrapping the coils to favour the development of the analytlcal reaction. Continuous separation systems, optional elements such as dialysers, liquid-

liquid extractors, sorption or ion-exchange columns, filters, etc. that can be placed before the reaction coils to remove potentially

interfering species.

Debubbler, which functions to remove the previously introduced air bubbles

in order t o avoid parasitic signals produced by their interfaces upon reaching the detector. They are not normally required i n the more recent designs as the signals from the detector are usually handled by a computer capable of discriminating between these undesirable signals and those actually corresponding t o the reaction mixture. Continuous detection system, usually of optical (colorimetric, photomet-

ric,

fluorimetric) or

electroanalytical

The design of the flow-cell,

(potentiometric,

voltammetric)

nature.

when required, must be suited t o the particular

detection system used. System f o r data c o l l e c t i o n and treatment, which should be prepared t o

operate in a continuous fashion and be as simple as a typical Y-T recorder or as sophisticated as an advanced microprocessor carrying out both operations and eventually delivering the results as required. Although some of these elements, such as the heater, continuous separator, debubbler or microprocessor, are not indispensable, the rest are dependent on the design of continuous segmented analysers.

5.3 GENERAL CONCEPTS The major features o f a determlnation carried out on an automatic segmented-flow anaiyser, namely precision and rapidity, are highly influenced by technical factors such as the extent of carry-over and mixing of reactants, the tlme during which the reactlng plug remains in the system, etc. Below i s a detailed discussion of a series of concepts key t o the performance of this type of analyser and hence t o the results they provide. 5.81 Foundation Measurements carried out with these analysers are made under a dual equi-


128

librium: physical (homogenization of the sample-reagent zone between two consecutive bubbles) and chemlcal (the analytical reaction has reached equilibrium before the reacting plug reaches the detector, except i n reaction-rate methods). Such determinations are thus non-kinetic,

unlike those implemented

by appllcation of other contlnuous methodologies such as FIA. Hence, the design and functioning of these analysers should be aimed at obtaining state signals (i.e.

constant over a preset time).

Despite their

steady-

non-kinetic

nature, continuous segmented methods are indeed dynamic insofar as the flow motion is a physico-kinetic aspect to be considered.

5.3.2 Analytical signal The typical transient signal provided by continuous segmented analysers is shown in Fig. 5.2.

It is obtained upon passage of the reacting mixture zone,

flanked by two reagent or washing solution zones -the previously removed-

air bubbles having been

through the detector. A s can be seen, it consists of

three parts: a rising portion, a plateau (steady-state signal) and a failing portion merging again with the baseline. I n theory, this signal should be a broken line forming a rectangle with the baseline. The divergence is the result of various factors, but basically of the mixing between segments after the air bubbles are removed.

I TIME

Characteristic p r o f i l e o f transient signal provided by an automatic continuous segmented analyser and parameters defining it. The dotted l i n e represents the theoretical response. Fig. 5.2

Figure 5.2 also presents a serles of characteristlc parameters: t., the

tlme elapsed between the start of sample aspiratlon and I t s arrival at the de-

Air-segmented flow analysers tector; tin, the

129

aspiration time over which the withdrawing needle is sub-

merged i n the sample vial; and tout, the interval during which the aspirating t i p remains outside the sample vial withdrawing air and washing solution. There are another two parameters of great significance t o the transient signal, namely the lag-phase

(tL) and the half-washing time (tw112). The lag-

phase is related t o the f i r s t portion of the signal and is defined as the interval elapsed between the start of the signal and the obtainment of the steady-state

signal, i.e.

half-washing

time is defined as the time required for the signal at a given

the deviation from ideal behaviour i n this zone. The

point t o be halved. A f t e r much study, the rising portion of the transient signal has been found t o respond to an exponential expression of the form

where CE is the equilibrium concentration and C t that corresponding t o a given t i m e t. I n practice, the analyte concentration is calculated from the steady-

state signal, while the signal area, In contrast to other continuous methodologies,

is

rarely

used as

it

is ostensibly

divergent from the theoretical

value.

5.3.3 Sample carry-over Carry-over in continuous segmented-flow analysers arises essentially from the undesirable mixing of successive samples in three parts of the system, namely: (a) The aspiration -both

system, the t i p of which is liable t o be contaminated

internally and externally-

by previous samples unless one of the wash-

ing mechanisms described i n Chapter 3 is employed. (b) The flow system, the most frequent source of mutual contamination between samples. As can be seen i n Fig. 5.3a, a static, thin liquid f i l m prevents direct contact of air with the tubing walls, thereby generating a heading sample residue. Upon arrival at the same point, part of the f i r s t sample is mixed with and Incorporated into the segment of the second. (c) The connectlon between the debubbler and the flow-cell.

Despite i t s

very short length, it favours mixing through the absence of any physical separation between the samples. The Ilnkage should be as narrow and short as possible in order t o avoid axial diffusion, and contain few elbows or void volumes, which favour the mlxing by creating turbulence. Flgure 5.3b shows the effect of carry-over on the transient signals, contrasted with the theoretical situation. As can be seen, substantial carry-over results i n strongly overlapped, analytlcally unusable signals. The Occurrence of carry-over i n a segmented configuration (Fig. 5.4) can be determined by se-


130 quentiaiiy

introducing three samples ( S i , S2, S3), the f i r s t and last of the

same low concentration and the intermediate one (Sz) of a much higher concentration. I n the absence of mutual contamination, the steady-state signals corresponding t o the f i r s t and t h i r d samples should be identical; if the t h i r d is higher than the f i r s t , the continuous segmented anaiyser i s ostensibly subject t o carry-over.

The fact that the signal between samples may not reach the base-

line is not generally of concern in routine determinations as long as the signal attains equilibrium,

i.e.

provided it reaches the plateau on which the

analytical calculations are based.

a)

Flaw

- -

TIME

Fig. 5.3 Carry-over i n air-segmented flow configurations. ( a ) Contamination o f sample S2 by S i i n the flow system produced by the t h i n l i q u i d f i l m between a i r and the tube walls. (b) E f f e c t o f carry-over on the t r a n s i e n t signals yielded by three consecutive samples ( S i , Sz and S3). The e f f e c t increases from Si ( t h e o r e t i c a l s i t u a t i o n ) t o S3.

I n theory, the steepness of the r i s i n g and failing portions determines the extent of overlap between transient signals. The steeper the signals are (theoretical situation),

the

lower

i s the

probability

of overlap.

carry-over i s given by the so-called degree o f interaction

A

measure of

Air-segmented

flow analysers

131

TIME

J:; TIME

Fig. 5.4 Experimental checking o f the occurrence o f carry-over between samples introduced successively i n t o a continuous segmented anal y s e r i n v o l v i n g the use o f three samples (SI, S2, S3) of concentration Cs1, C S Z and Cs3 (=Csl). ( a ) Negligible carry-over; (b) s i g n i f i c a n t carry-over (requires, c o r r e c t i o n ) .

where

tb

i s the overall time elapsed between the aspiration of two successive

samples. The longer i s

tb

and the shorter are the lag-phase and the half-wash-

i n g time, the lower the probability of sample interaction and hence carry-over w i l l be. The influence o f t w l / z

i s more marked than t h a t o f the other two

parameters insofar as it i s a measure o f the slope of the r i s i n g and failing portion o f the transient signal. The extent of overlap decreases with increasing degree of interaction according t o %overlap = 2 4 x 100 A i r bubbles are therefore not completely efficient i n preventing carry-

over i n these configurations. The proof o f t h i s i s t h a t Technicon introduced an Intermediate washing solution almost since they started the commercialization of i t s Autoanaiyzers. This washing solution i s used by the aspirating t i p

in the following sequence, illustrated in Fig. 5.5 alongside the flow profile


132

obtained p r i o r to and after the mixing with the diiuent and reagent streams: (1) aspiration of air, ( 2 ) aspiration o f a sample (Si), (4) aspiration of

washing solution,

(3) aspiration of air,

(5) aspiration of a i r and (6) aspiration

of the next sample (S2). This cycle is repeated until the last sample i n the sampler has been processed. The intermediate washing operation decreases carryover i n the three zones where it usually appears by (a) washing the aspirating t i p internally and externally, ( b ) allowing segments of the sample t o be transferred through the liquid film thanks to the substantial dilution o f the small 'delayed' amount of the heading sample and (c) establishing a liquid zone between samples which drastically reduces the possibility of reaction zones interacting after the debubbler.

WASHING SOLUTION

1

2

3

L

1

2

3

F i g . 5.5

(Top) Use o f an intermediate s o l u t i o n t o avoid carry-over between samples. (Bottom) Flow p r o f i l e a f t e r a s p i r a t i o n o f two samples SI and S2.

The flow-rate (mL/min) of the reacting mixture on passage through the flowcell, determined b y the flow of the waste stream t h r o u g h t h e pump, i s another major factor influencing carry-over.

Figure 5.6

illustrates the effect of low

flow-rates on the transient signal profile. I n addition t o shortening the time required f o r attainment o f the steady-state restoratlon of

the baseline,

thereby

signal, they lengthen the time of

increasing the probability

o f overlap

with the signal yielded b y the next sample. Insofar as the identity of the segments is lost a f t e r the debubbler, low flow-rates

give rise t o markedly in-

creased axial diffusion, t h u s extending the zone of Occurrence of each sample and increasing the r l s k o f mutual contamination. Higher flow-rates

result i n

more efficient sweeping and hence i n narrower transient signals. The deviations i n the r i s i n g portion of the curve are due t o the mixing with the preced-

Air-segmented

flow analysers

133

i n g sample segment or the dilution with the carrier or washing solution, as i n Fig. 5.6, where only one sample was used.

1 TIME

Fig. 5.6 Influence o f the flow-rate on sample carry-over i n a continuous segmented configuration. Carry-over decreases from 1 t o 3.

Sampling frequency

5.3.4

The sampling frequency, commonly expressed as the number of samples processed p e r hour, is one of the features whereby the performance of an analyser is evaluated. According to the statements above, a determination w i l l be feasible only if the transient signal reaches the steady state i n a time sufficiently turn,

short t o

permit

Its recording or

electronic

acquisition.

involves minimizing tin, the sample aspiration tlme,

and tr,

interval over which the sample resides In the system -this,

This,

In

viz. the

however, should

not be so short as t o prevent physlcal and chemical equilibrium to be reached. Carry-over i s yet another factor limiting the sampling frequency: on the one hand, the use of an intermediate washing solution considerably delays the sampling operation; on the other, long lag phases and the half-washing times w i l l impose an Increase in the sample volume t o be aspirated, thereby reducing the introduction frequency. A detailed study of all the factors that influence the sampling frequency

complemented with a computerized procedure for optimization of continuous segmented configurations was reported by Angelova and Holy [13].

5.4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SIGNAL QUALITY

Although the influence of the different experimental variables on the oper-


134

ation of a continuous segmented analyser was commented on above, it is worth considering the repercussions of such variables on three aspects of decisive importance to the quality of the signal and hence t o the analyser performance. These three aspects are the sample dispersion, sample-reagent mixing and flow stability. 5.4.1 Sample dispersion

The t e r m ’dispersion’ is used to r e f e r to the spread of an aspirated sample in a flow system, chiefly as a result of the stationary liquid f i l m detracting from the separating efficiency of air bubbles. Snyder and Adler

[14-

161 studied the influence of a series of experlmental variables on the disper-

sion. Such variables were classified as (a) analyser variables (tube diameter, d; flow-rate,

q; residence time, tr; segmentation rate, n, expressed as the

number of bubbles circulating per second) and (b) sample variables (viscosity, Q;

surface t e n s i o n , y ;

variables,

the

molecular or ionic diffusion coefficient, D). Of these

flow-rate,

tube

diameter,

segmentation

rate,

viscosity

and

residence time influence carry-over t o the greatest extent. The dlspersion is directly proportional t o tr, d and n, which should therefore as small as possible to ensure minimum dispersion. The flow-rate also has a great influence on the dispersion;

as it is inversely proportional t o tr and hence t o the

dispersion, the higher it is the less the carry-over w i l l be. I n general, any alteration i n the above-mentioned variables is t o the detriment of another of the major features of an analyser, namely the sampling frequency. I n the above-mentioned studies, Snyder and Adler used a theoretical model which they contrasted with experimental results. They evaluated the dispersion by assumlng the transient signal t o be Gaussian (see Fig. 5.3b). By expressing the bandwith as a standard deviation (80 and 4.0 f o r signals with and without a plateau, respectively), the dispersion can be related t o the analyser and sample variables through

where d is i n cm, q i n mL/s, n in bubbles/s, \ in Poise, Y I n dyne/cm, tr i n s, 0 In cm/s and o i n s. Fig. 5.6 shows the variation of the standard deviation as a function of the number of bubbles per centlmetre (logarithmic scale) at different flow-rates and constant t s 5 W s and d=l mm. As can be seen, there is a minimum (optimum) standard deviatlon for each flow-rate. should be optimized t o decrease bandwidth and hence

Variables

u as f a r as Dossible.

Air-segmented flow a n a l y s e r s

135

The maximum sampling rate (number of samples processed per hour) achievable with no signal overlap is given by v 3600/4o 900/0 v = 3600/80 = 450/a

(signals with plateau) (sl gnals w.it hout plateau)

Obviously, these sampling rates can be safely augmented (by 20-30%) as a slight overlap between the ends of two signals is acceptable provided that it does not affect their steady-state portions. 5.4.2 Sample-reagent mixing

The basic principle behind automatic continuous segmented analysers is the homogenization of the sample-reagent-diluent

zone between two bubbles. This

physical equilibrium is reached thanks to the existence of a minimum residence time, tr, over which two physical phenomena contribute t o the homogenization of the continuously introduced sample. On the one hand, the compressibility of air bubbles gives rise to a turbulent flow regime which fosters mixing. On the other, tubes are helically coiled to favour radial diffusion through the centrifugal force additional t o the sweeping effect of the flowing stream, which clearly shortens the homogenization tlme. The factors that most strongly influence efficient mixing in these continuous systems are the tube diameter, coil diameter, segment length, flow-rate (or tube length) and the characteristics of

the

flowing

solution

(viscosity,

density,

diffusion

coefficients

of

the

reactants). 5.4.3 Flow stabllity A regular, stable flow profile Is indispensable for the obtainment of reli-

able and reproducible results from a continuous segmented analyser. I n other words, all circulating liquid segments should be of the same length, thereby ensuring the constancy of the flow-rate and the bubbling rate. Irregularities in the length of the segments are chiefly caused by oscillations

in the volume

at which the sample i s mixed with the reagent and the dlluent, which in t u r n arise from:

(a) flow-rate

inconstancy;

(b) pulsations of

peristaltic pumps;

(c) temperature varlatlons, which result In changes in the compressibility of bubbles; (d) sample scarcity (too short aspirations); ( e l d i r t In the sample

or reagent tubes, which may clog the system; and ( f ) the use of liquids that do not 'wet'

the tube walls.

The alterations resulting In deviations

from

ideal flow profiles are chiefly caused by peristaltic pumps (a, b). Keeplng the flow-rate

constant is no easy task as it requires frequent checking and

replacement of the pump tubes as frequently as recommended by the manufacturer. The supression of pulses i s cumbersome: it usually requlres the use of

Automatic methods o f a n a l v s i s

136

special devices fitted to the pump outlets, although their disturbing effect can also be avoided by synchronizing them with the aspiration of air into the system. The efficient mixing of reactants is no doubt one of the chief limitations of continuous segmented analysers, which require more frequent checking than their unsegmented counterparts and have much longer warm-up times (between 0.5 and 1 h), which delay the start of determinations. 5.5 ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF AN AIR-SEGMENTED ANALYSER

Although the automatic continuous segmented anaiysers marketed by Technicon are by far the best known, other firms manufacture a variety of configurations worthy of note (e.g. the FlowComp 1500 from Carlo Erba Instrumentazione). There is also a recent trend to develop continuous analysers capable of implementing segmented and unsegmented methodologies as required. Such I S the case with the more recent assemblies developed by Skalar, a f i r m that formerly concentrated on segmented configurations but which now manufactures a range of automatlc hybrid SFA-FIA systems adaptable t o a larger variety of analytical applications. On the other hand, the later novelties introduced b y Technicon In this area involve mere technical modifications of earlier segmented configurations. All these configurations consist of a series of common basic components already briefly commented on in Section 5.2 and described i n greater detail here. 5.5.1 Sampling system As stated above, the sampling operation is carried out with the aid of a moving asplratlng t i p i n continuous segmented systems. However, unlike in other configuratlons, some air is also withdrawn between sample aspirations. The volume taken by the t i p can be quantized i n two ways, namely: (a)Over a fixed time,

i.e.

by keeping the aspirating t i p submerged i n

the solutlon (sample, washing solution) for a preset interval, so that if the flowrate i s constant, the volume taken i n each operation w i l l be exactly the same. Alhough it i s the commoner option, its efficiency depends critically on the smooth functioning of the propelling unlt. (b)By taking a fixed volume every time by use of two pairs of conductimetr i c electrodes strategically placed close t o the aspiration system. The passage of a bubble between them gives rise t o an electrical signal which switches a simple electronlc assembly governlng the t l p motion and the sample tray turn.

This alternative, although technically more

compllcated, yields more

reproducible results and i s less subject t o the functioning of the propelling unlt.

Air-segmented

f l o w analysers

737

Most samplers are electronically o r computer-controlled,

so that they

allow programming of the aspiration probe and the turntable. Thus, the Technicon Sampler I1 permits the selection of the sample-to-washing

solution volume

ratio, which can be varied between 1:6 and 6:1, and the sampling rate (20, 40 or 60 samples/h).

Later models such as the Sampler I V are even more flexible

and work over wider ranges of the above-menttoned parameters. The SOLIPpepII module (also manufactured by Technicon), described in Chapter 3, allows direct sampling of solid samples i n automatic continuous analysers. 5.5.2 Propelling system The peristaltic pump is the device most frequently used t o propel f l u i d s along continuous segmented systems. Their functioning is based on the squeezing of flexible plastic t u b i n g by means of a series of rollers, which s t a r t s the flow of the enclosed liquids as a result. They normally permit working with several streams (4-29

lines). The flow-rate of the circulating liquids i s

determined by the internal diameter of the tubes; as a rule, i t i s controlled by selecting the appropriate tube diameter,

although some pump models are

suitable f o r t h i s purpose thanks t o t h e i r selectable rotation speed. The pump tubes are one of the elements t h a t most decisively influence the performance of a continuous analyser. On the one hand, t h e i r continuous wear t h r o u g h mechanical

friction

results

i n the

progressive

alteration of

their

internal

diameter and hence of the flow-rate of the liquids circulating t h r o u g h them, which compels the user to replace them f a i r l y frequently. On the other hand, there i s the r i s k of the circulating f l u i d s interacting with the tube walis, the constituent material of which must be resistant t o potentially aggressive agents (organic solvents, oxidizing acids, etc.). There are other alternatives t o the peristaltic pump f o r establishing the flow in continuous analysers,

a detailed description of which is given in the

authors’ book on FIA [23.

5.5.3 Reaction system This function i s served b y compact, helically coiled tubes of a given diameter f o r convenient use. They are readily connected t o the other elements of the system, so t h a t void volumes are minimized. Occasionally, they are heated by means o f electrical wires o r a thermostated bath.

5.5.4 Separation unit One of the most appreciated advantages of continuous analysers Is the possi b i l i t y of incorporating efficient continuous separation units, which considerably broaden t h e i r scope of appllcation in Improving two key analytical as-


138

pects, namely selectivity and sensitivity -through

preconcentration. Over 70%

o f ail the clinical applications of continuous segmented anaiysers reported t o date used a continuous dialyser (see Chapter 4 f o r a detailed description). This requires the segmentation o f the two streams flowing t h r o u g h it: the carr i e r (sample) and the acceptor (generally containing the reagent and eventuall y d r i v i n g the reacting mixture to the detector. Other separation u n i t s such as liquid-liquid extractors are less commonly used with continuous analysers. However, Technicon and Skalar manufacture the elements required t o implement continuous [lo].

Even

extractions

(segmenter,

is the

less frequent

[20,21] units. Figure 5.8

extraction use of

coil,

phase

distillation

separator,

[17-191

and

etc.)

filtration

depicts the distillation system marketed by Skalar.

b)

a)

Liquid drawn

B u b b l e s a n d some liquid

10

11

i gh

P

)

Segmenled slreom

(111 ond 5ome liquid to w a s t e

waste

DEBUBBLER Liquid drawn lhmugh pump

DEBUBBLER

Small

bore tube Light source

-% CONTINUOUS DETECTOR

Lighl *ource

Photocell

CONTINUOUS DETECTOR

Fig. 5.7 Debubbling and detection ( c o l o r i m e t r i c ) systems used i n ( a ) Technicon AutoAnalyzers and (b) Skalar assemblies. (Courtesy o f Technicon and Skalar).

5.5.5 Debubbler The a i r introduced i n segmented systems i s normally removed with the aid o f a high-precision

device generally b u i l t i n t o the flow-cell

(Fig. 5.7).

Its

functioning Is rather simple: It splits the flowing stream I n t o two channels, one pointing upwards and allowing the removal of the bubbles and some liquld,


139

and another carrying the gas-free

liquid flow. Needless to say, the smooth

operation of this unit requires the incoming and outgoing flow-rates to be precisely regulated. Hence, the flow emerging from the detector in continuous segmented analysers may not be sent directly to waste, but must rather be previously passed through a tube of the peristaltic pump regulating the outgoing flow-rate.

Figure 5.7a depicts the channel narrowing after the debubbler and

before the flow-cell,

aimed at preventing the dispersion of the sample zones

sequentially reaching it and hence avolding carry-over. Later Technicon models use no debubblers, as their computerized data acquisition allows the convenient discrimination of the air bubbles passing through the detector.

'ED SAMPLE

WAS TE

-

e

HEATING BATH AT 95OC

AIR

1

Fig. 5.8 Continuous m i c r o d i s t i l l a t i o n assembly f o r incorporation i n t o continuous segmented configurations. (Courtesy o f Skalar)

.

5.5.6 Detectlon system

Continuous segmented analysers are used with a variety of detection systems which generally consist of a flow-cell accommodated i n optlcal o r electroanalytical instruments, whether all-purpose

or specific -the

latter are the

precursors of HPLC detectors. Technicon AutoAnalyzers use the detection system depicted i n Fig. 5.7a for photometric or colorimetric sensing -the

commoner;

on the other hand, Skalar employ U-shaped designs i n thelr assemblies. The use of two photodetectors i n the same optical assembly allows the continuous dlfferentlal monitoring of the analytlcal signal with

respect t o the baseline.

The fluorescence cells used with these systems are slightly different i n design owlng to the required perpendicularlty between the excitation and emlsslon llght paths. Atomic spectroscopic techniques, also Implemented on these assemblies, require no flow-cell,

the role of which Is replaced by a flame,


140

plasma,

etc.

Electrochemical

detection

does require the

use of

flow-cells

placed in such a way that the sensitive part of the working electrode (cylindrical, flat or elongated) is exposed to the flowing stream while the remain-

d e r of the electrodes are accommodated i n a single small chamber or placed elsewhere i n the system, always i n contact with the same flowing stream. A l l these sensing systems are described in greater detail i n dealing with the applications of continuous segmented analysers. Detection in reaction-rate

methodologies implemented with these analysers

is more complex than with their batch counterparts, where it suffices to allow the reacting mixture t o stand in the detector for a given time during which the signal yielded as a result was recorded. Continuous systems can be used in two manners in this respect: (a) By stopping the flow while the reacting mixture is in the

flow-cell.

This option i s not suitable for continuous segmented analysers as bringing the system to standstill results in significant irregularities. (b) By use of two detection points placed serially along the system and separated by a delay coil. These give two sequential signals whose separation i s a function of the flow-rate

and the coil length. This alternative is less

precise than the previous one as it does not provide the entire kinetic curve, but only two signal-time

pairs, generally insufficient f o r the accurate de-

termination of the analyte concentration.

Figure 5.9 shows the scheme of a

continuous detector intended for kinetic measurements with Tachnicon AutoAnalyzers.

A

r

OF

Waste

lair-

REAGENT

1 PM

Flg. 5.9 Assembly f o r k i n e t i c determinations with continuous segmented analysers without debubbling. LS, l i g h t source; PM, photodetector; OF, o p t i c a l f i b r e ; F, o p t i c a l f i l t e r ; FC, flow-cells.

f l o w anal ysers

A 1 r-segmented

141

The transient signals provided b y the detectors were formerly registered with a strip-chart

recorder, which required human participation i n the final

stage of the analytical process: the operator had t o measure signals, contrast samples with standards and match samples and results. The later use of microcomputers f o r data acquisition and treatment allows the easy delivery of

re-

sults, expressed in the preselected units, t h r o u g h a printer. Technicon market hardware and software suited t o t h e i r simpler AutoAnalyzers, which can also be adapted f o r t h i s purpose with the interesting innovations reported recently [22-251.

Multi-channel

models (e.g. SMAC) feature a built-in central computer

which, i n addition to s e r v i n g t h i s function, controls the analyser operation.

5.6 MULTI-CHANNEL CONFIGURATIONS

The determination o f several analytes i n the same sample i s commonplace in some areas,

particularly

i n clinical chemistry.

Multi-parameter

designs are

t h u s of great Interest t o the automation o f laboratory procedures, t o which commercially available analysers,

with the exception o f some rather specific

examples, are perfectly suited. I n continuous segmented analysers, the term DISTRIBUTION UNIT SAMPLE SEGMENTED FLOW

ANALYTICAL Ri Di

UNITS

R2 D2 HANDLING

R EOUCTION

I

w3

WASTE

Fig. 5.10 Foundation o f multi-analyte determinations on the same samp l e i n segmented-flow analysers. CSZ, continuous separation zone ( o p t i o n a l ) ; RC, reaction c o i l ; D , detectors.


142

'multi-parameter'

can be safely replaced with 'multi-channel'

as their opera-

tional principle is the use of one channel per analyte t o be determined. 'Multi-detection'

and

'multi-determination',

despite

their

indiscriminate

use

by some authors, are not synonyms. I n fact, the latter is much wider a t e r m than the former [261. Automatic multi-channel continuous segmented analysers are based on the following basic principles (Fig. 5.10): ( 1 ) The

aspirated sample volume is split into several channels so that an

accurately divided aliquot of sample is driven regularly and evenly together with the other ingredients (air, washing solution) through each channel. ( 2 ) Each channel, led t o an independent

analytical unit continuously re-

ceiving the ingredients (diluent, reagent) required for development of the analytical reaction, may be f i t t e d with optional separation devices, mixing and reaction coils, heaters, etc., and has i t s own continuous detection system for sensing the signal yielded by the analyte determined in it. (3) As a rule, all the channels share a common system for data acquisi-

tion and treatment which must therefore be capable of discriminating between signals t o assign them correctly t o their corresponding analytes. Such discrimination can be effected i n two ways, namely:

-

By sequential arrival of the signals generated by the different detec-

tors. This is based on a simple principle related to the dynamics of the flow system: the flow-rates and tube lengths are chosen so that the residence time of each aliquot in i t s channel delays the reception of the signal at the detector sufficiently t o avoid coinciding with any of the signals generated by the other channels. This is the operatlonal principle of the Technicon AutoAnalyzer 11, capable of determining up to three analytes per sample, and of the SMA 12/60 (Sequential Multiple Analyzer), also made by Technlcon and featuring sixteen channels (including four blanks), which can process up t o 60 samples per hour [27]. The synchronization of the twelve signals generated by this last analyser requires the highly precise, tlme-consuming optimization of the features of the analytical units involved -this

i s facilitated by the use of

an oscilloscope.

-

By virtually simultaneous arrival of all the signals at a powerful data-

acquisition system discriminating between them i n a continuous fashion -a microprocessor. The second option is typically represented by the Technicon SMAC (Sequential Multiple Analyzer plus Computer) I and 11, which are expensive and complex analytical systems capable of determining up t o 20 parameters per sample at a rate of 150 samples per hour [27]. These analysers consist of the following components, all of which are governed by a central computer:

Air-segmented

flow analysers

143

( 1 ) A sampling unit holding up t o 152 vials in a square configuration of

several rows much more compact than the typical turntable. An aspirating probe is used to take 450-pL aliquots which allow the determination of up to twenty parameters each. Carry-over is avoided by means of an external cleaning system. Samples are inserted in triplicate and separated by four air bubbles and

two zones of washing solution. Hence, the final result is three signals per analyte per sample.

(2) A central dispensing system, namely a tube whose verticai lower part is submerged i n the sample-washing solution stream. Along i t s length (roughly 1 m) are alternately and evenly distributed up t o twenty sub-channels.

(3) Twenty

analytical units for individual determination of as many ana-

lytes. I n addition to independent reagent and diluent streams, heaters, dialysers, etc., they are provided with their own detector, usually photometric (for both end-point

and kinetic determinations),

and occasionally

potentio-

metric (ISE). I n colorimetric determinations each analytical unit posseses one or several flow-cells and a suitable f i l t e r . (4) A single, optical fibre-based system for the generation and detection of the light path. The only light source used is thus shared by all the photometric units. The transmitted light is sent to a single photomultiplier tube and a rotating disc sequentially scans the light beams from each unit, thus achieving the required discrimination. Measurements are carrled out at a rate of four

per second. The signals provided by each flbre (three per sample) are

stored by the computer. ( 5 ) A microprocessor which controls the functioning of the analyser and i s

the key Part In it. I n additlon t o fast signal acquisition and discrimination i t delivers results (e.g.

as patient profiles), carries out periodical check-

ups, etc. Because of i t s hlgh cost and labour demands -It tlnuous attention of one o r two operators-

requires the almost con-

the SMAC Is only affordable by

large hospltals requl r i n g high throughputs.

5.7 APPLICATIONS OF CONTINUOUS SEGMENTED ANALYSERS Continuous air-segmented flow analysers have lost the excellent place they had in the automation of sample processing, particularly i n the f i e l d of clinical chemistry. The advantages of their batch counterparts have consigned them t o relative obtlvion. Despite Snyder’s predictions in 1980 [28], the advent of cheaper, faster, technically simpler

and more versatile alternatives t o con-

tinuous analysers (e.g. FIA) was a severe blow t o the earlier analysers. However, it i s worth noting the remarkable degree of technical perfectlon reached


144

by air-segmented designs, which make them very much more reliable than one would expect from their technical complexity. The potential of these analysers is clearly revealed in Furman's book on the topic [lo], the literature on which frequently refers t o technical reports published by the manufacturers themselves. Clinical chemistry is the most extensive area of application of continuous segmented analysers. Indeed, all AutoAnalyzers and some more complex conflgurations (e.g. SMA, SMAC) were designed for the determination of various paramet e r s in biological fluids from humans with the aim of obtaining a more or less complete analytical profile of each patient. However, these analysers can be readily adapted t o other needs i n areas such as pharmacological, toxicological, agricultural, food or industrial chemistry by simply replacing some of i t s elements. Firms such as Skalar make analysers aimed at non-clinical applications, probably so as not to concentrate on f i e l d where the competition is already strong. These analysers can also be adapted for use with solid samples by means of the SOLIDprep module I1 described In Chapter 3 and some other addons. The applications of automatic continuous segmented analysers can also be classified according to the type of detection system involved. Thus, 70-75% of all the methodologies described on this topic used molecular UV absorption spectroscopy (spectrophotometry, photometry), followed by ISE potentiometry (10-15%) and, much less often, nephelometry, fluorimetry,

etc. The applica-

tions described below were mostly developed with the ald of Technicon technology and are classified according to this criterion - o t h e r applications t o specific problems related to laboratory processes are described i n the corresponding chapters. The f i r s t three determinations described here use the detection technique most frequently employed with continuous segmented systems, namely spectrophotometry, and feature interesting differences i n the configurations involved. Figure 5.11 depicts an assembly used f o r the determination of ammonia i n sea and tap water. I t employs no dialyser and is a palpable demonstration of how readily several reagents can be sequentially incorporated into the system with

different

analytical

purposes.

The sample,

which

can

be optionally

filtered if it contains any suspended matter t o avoid Introducing disturbances In the system operation, is mixed with EDTA (metal ion masker) and then with phenolate and hypochlorite streams t o form the dye indophenol blue, whose colour is finally intensified with a nitroprusside stream. The sample is heated at 50'C prior t o passage through the spectrophotometric flow-cell.

The deter-

mination range is 0.02-2 mg/mL and the sampling frequency achievable i s 60 h-1 [291.


145

Continuous segmented manifold f o r determination o f ammonia i n various types o f water. (Reproduced from [29] w i t h permission o f the American Public Health Association).

Fig. 5.11

An alternative determination of ammonia using a continuous dialyser was designed by van Ginkel and Sinnreve [30] for t h e determination of total nitrogen in plants (see Fig. 5.12). Once d r y , the samples are treated with hot hydrogen peroxide until completely dissolved, cooled and placed on t h e sampler.

The

aspirated samples are mixed with a sodium hydroxide stream to yield ammonia i n the f i r s t mixing coil p r i o r t o the continuous dialyser, whose membrane allows passage of the gas. This is collected i n a water stream, also segmented by air bubbles, which is mixed with a stream of Nessler’s reagent containing some tart r a t e t o avoid precipitation o f the reaction product. After de-aeration,

the

absorbance is measured at 410 nm. I n t h i s manner, nitrogen can be determined

in the range 0-350 mg/L at a rate of

80 samples/h.

The manifold deplcted i n Fig. 5.13 Is used f o r the determination of chloride ion in sea and tap water [31]. It uses a dialyser t o remove interferents. The reagent Is a mixture of mercury(I1) thlocyanate and iron(II1) nitrate, which,

i n the

Fe(II1)-SCN-

presence o f the

analyte,

loses the

red coloration of

the

complex as a result of t h e formation of t h e stabler Hg(I1)-CI-


146

complex. The displacement reaction is sensitive enough t o allow the deterrnination of chloride at f a i r l y high concentrations (1-20 g/L).

Waste

Pumping rates/mI.min-'

-

N e s s i e r ' s r e a g e n t 0 32

300 c m

Spectrophotorneter filter 110 nm J flow-cell 10 rnm

Air

Water Air

NaOH

0

-*

; Sampler I-

I-

Waste

I -

-Rerurn

Wash

Fig. 5.12 Continuous segmented flow assembly w i t h continuous d i a l y s e r f o r the automatic determination o f t o t a l nitrogen i n plants a f t e r d i gestion. (Reproduced from 1301 w i t h permission o f the Royal Society o f Chemistry).

Fluorimetric detection has scarcely been used w i t h automatic continuous segmented flow analysers. Figure 5.14 shows the scheme of the configuration designed by Gfeller and Frey f o r the automatic determination of m i n e s of pharmaceutical interest a t low concentrations [321. The determination is based on the formation of an ion pair wlth a highly fluorescent anion (9,lO-dimethoxyanthracene), continuous extraction i n t o an organic phase (1,2-dichloroethane) and continuous monitoring of i t s fluorescence. Between 2 pg/mL and 10 ng/mL can be determined a t a sampling frequency of 15-20 h-1. The functioning of t h l s system i s identical with t h a t o f the continuous unsegmented systems described in Chapter 3, wlth the following exceptions: (a) once the extraction has taken place in EC (Fig. 5.141, the samples are continuously separated i n a T-shaped separator i n which both alr and the discarded aqueous phase, w,.

are


147

also removed; ( b ) the organic phase of interest i s repumped t o the system, which increases the reproducibility o f the functioning of the separator PS; (c) an ethanol stream is used t o smooth the baseline. The procedure has the advantage t h a t none of the excipients commonly found i n pharmaceutical preparations interferes with any of the large variety of amines t h a t can be determined. On the other hand, i t s performance i s strongly bound t o the pH.

SAMPLER RATE 60ihr RATIO 9 1

WASTE

'3

I WASTE

'* 1 WASH

-,.

3"DIALYSER

.- /r

.

COLOUR R E A G E N T

WASTE

Fig. 5.13 Continuous segmented configuration f o r the determination o f c h l o r i d e i n water. (Courtesy o f Technicon).

Potentiomet r y with I S E s i s the elect roanal y t Ical tech niq ue most frequent Iy used with continuous segmented configuratlons. Figure 5.15 shows an assembly designed f o r the simultaneous determination of sodium and potassium In animal urine [33]. The system is in fact composed of two distinct u n i t s f o r the determination of each analyte. The sample i s aspirated and split p r i o r t o the peristaltic pump into two channels, which are subsequently mixed with an appropriate buffer (Tris/acetic

acid o f pH 8.15 f o r sodium and diethylamine/acetic

acid f o r potassium) and de-aerated

before they reached t h e i r respective selec-

t i v e electrodes. The reference electrode is an ordinary one and Is connected t o both streams, into which are introduced two platinum wires connected t o the


148

potentiometer ground t o lessen the background noise arising from the flow pulsations generated by the peristaltic pump.

SAMPLER to wash receptacle

or b u f f e r

J

SAMPLE

I

REAGENT SOLUTION MC EC

2 \ s

--

AIR

/ r

\ l 2 DICHLORO

ETHANE

-

/

MC

J

I

,

ETHANOL nT O

1 , 1 \

Fig. 6.14 Continuous segmented assembly w i t h l i q u i d - l i q u i d e x t r a c t o r f o r the determination o f various amines by ion-pair formation. AC, mixing c o i l s ; EC, e x t r a c t i o n c o i l s ; PS, phase separator. (Reproduced from 1321 w i t h permission o f Springer Verlag).

A potentlometric determination o f reducing sugars and glucose i n natural

and artificial products was reported by Diamandis and Hadjiioannou [34]. The configuration employed i s depicted i n Fig. 5.16. The sample is aspirated i n t o the system and mixed with a segmented stream of periodate previously merged with a b u f f e r stream.

Periodate reacts selectively w i t h a-diols

conditions by cleaving C-C

under mild

bonds i n the Malaprade reactlon. This takes place

in a delay coil at a controlled temperature ( 2 0 ' C ) f o r 20 mln. After the debu b b ler, a flow-t h rou gh Iodate-selecti ve membrane electrode

continuously

monitors the reagent concentration i n the flow. The decrease In the signal Is proportional t o the concentration of the analyte, which can be determined i n the range 3-18 mM.

flow anal ysefs

A i r-segmented

149

-

A1 R TRIS buffer

I

-

4

REFERENCE ELECTRODE

\

Et,NH buffer

\

!,

\

A1 R

-\IR WASTE

I-

?IK

ELECTRODE

I

--

Fig. 5.15 Continuous segmented-flow assembly f o r dual potentiometric ( I S E ) determination. (Reproduced from 1331 with permission of the New York Academy o f Sciences).

The use of continuous segmented analysers for implementation of atomic spectroscopic techniques offers major advantages over the direct manual aspiration of the sample Into the nebulizer, namely: (a) higher sampling rate; (b) lower sample consumption; (c) automatic dilution and addition of ionic supreasants and (c) drastic reduction of undesirable effects such as those arising from high salt contents. Figure 5.17 depicts the scheme of a continuous segmented analyser for atomic spectroscopic determinations. It is interesting t o note the absence of a flow-cell and the waste, typical of atomic spectroscopic techniques. The sample is diluted with water and the flow is segmented with air bubbles and then mixed mith a lanthanum stream, subsequently being deaerated after a mixing coil and connected t o the nebulizer of the atomic absorption spectrometer.

5.8 RECENT ADVANCES I N CONTINUOUS SEGMENTED ANALYSERS To counteract the growing cornpetltion t o thelr AutoAnalyzers slnce the


150

Continuous segmented manifold using an ISE f o r determinat i o n o f reducing sugars and glucose i n natural and a r t i f i c i a l products. (Reproduced from [34] with permission o f the Royal Society o f Chemistry).

Fig. 5.16

1970s, Technicon have developed and marketed two alternatives that consider-

ably improve the performance of their earlier models in various aspects. Their functioning is still based on air-segmentation;

however,

they feature inter-

esting technological innovations resulting from the vast experience of this f i r m i n the field of segmented-flow and batch analysers (RA 1000).

The so-called 'third generation' of Technicon air-segmented

flow anal-

ysers is represented by the TrAAcs-800, a modular model capable of handling between one and four channels (parameters). The advantages offered by these analysers can be summarized as follows: (a) Greater automatic control of the different modules by means of a personal computer (an IBM PC, XT, AT or PS) which, wlth the aid of suitable software, allows total system control, data collection, report generation and sys-

tem d iag nostlcs. ( b ) A sampler with 120 positions based on a combination of sample block and probe movements. I t s two-probe capability allows the sample system to aspirate two different samples for simultaneous determinations. A low dead volume overflow washing solution station is provided for high rates of determination with less carry-over. (c) The use of one peristaltic pump per channel. These pumps feature interesting rnodlfications such as a large number or rollers ( 6 0 ) and sub-chan-


75 I

nels (ten liquid tines) and the use of a microprocessor t o control the pneumatic pressure exerted on the tubes. WATER

-

-

-

LANTHANUM

--

WASH SO LU T I 0 N

-

Fig. 5.17 Continuous segmented analyser f o r atomic absorption spectrometric determinations. (Reproduced from [ 3 5 ] with permission o f Perkin-Elmer).

(d) An air-pressure system synchronized with the pump left-off and controlled by an optical sensor which actuates solenoid valves in-phase with the pump rollers.

( e l The small bore of the transport and reaction tubes (1.0 mm), intended to avoid carry-over,

increase the sampling frequency (120-240 h-1) and lower

the sample and reagent consumption -this

is the result of exploiting one of

the advantages of FIA configurations (see Chapter 6). (f) A

dual-channel

fibre

optic

detection

system

using

source. The flow-cells (path length 10-75 mm) are self-aligned

a single

light

with the opti-

cal beam via a keyed mounting slot In the colorimetric casting. (9) The segmented analytical stream is passed through the flow-cell

with-

out debubbllng and the parasitic signals from the bubbles are eliminated with the aid of computer software. Maintaining the continuity of segmentation i n this fashion minimizes dispersion and results In Increased sample throughput. This type of anaiyser i s basicaliy intended f o r non-clinical

applications

such us the monitoring of water pollutants, the determination of assimilable elements in soils or industrial analyses. For clinical applications, Technicon launched an air-segmented flow analyser, the CHEM-l,

based on a novel philosophy called 'capsule chemistry tech-

nology' by Its Inventors C321. This Involves the use of an Inert fluorocar-


7 52

bonated liquid of high viscosity and polymeric nature already employed by the Technicon RA-1000

batch analyser described i n Chapter 8. A t h i n film of t h i s

liquid retained on the walls o f a Teflon tube encapsulates the segmented flow, thereby keeping i t s components from the tube walls. This avoids the typical carry-over of bare glass t u b i n g (see Fig. 5.3). The mere replacement o f glass with Teflon so t h a t the a i r i s i n direct contact

with the tube walls and

ensures adequate sweeping i s unsatisfactory as bubbles are segmented unevenly i n t h i s configuration.

Conversely,

i n the capsular

flow

configuration

(Fig.

5.18), the a i r bubbles act as total barriers i n directly wetting the encapsu-

lating film,

t h u s completely

and efficiently

separating the liquid segments

and avoiding carry-over. a1 L I O U I D FLUOROCARBON CAPSULE FLUID

LIQUID

AIR

FLOW

bl

VANISH ZONE

Fig. 5.18 Innovative hydrodynamic p r i n c i p l e s o f the CHEM-1 autoanal y s e r . ( a ) Capsule chemistry technology: the fluorocarbon l i q u i d f i l m prevents contact between the segmented flow and the tube walls. (b) Mixing o f two l f q u i d segments LI and L2 separated by an a i r bubble i n ( c ) Special mixing loop. (Courtesy o f Technicon). the 'vanish zone

.

Another novelty introduced with the CHEM-1 is the way in which sample and reagents are mlxed In the so-called

'vanish zone'.

This Is a widening of the

tube diameter by 50% (from 1 t o 1.5 mm) over a short length, which causes a momentary alteration In the flow: the separating a l r bubbles, of lower volume


153

than the liquid segments t h a t they flank, detaches from the lower wall and al-

lows each pair of l i q u i d segments t o mlx (Fig. 5.18b).

A t h i r d innovative as-

pect of the CHEM-1 i s the special design of i t s mixing loops (Fig. 5.18c), located before and a f t e r the vanish zone, which increases the typical mixing efficiency of helical coils by a factor of 5. These three innovations are associated with an extremely simple design of the CHEM-1 hydrodynamic system which requires no carry-over suppressants o r additional

merging or

mixing units;

in fact,

a single-channel

(567 cm in

length) manifold with a peristaltic pump is more than sufficient. Figure 5.19 shows the scheme o f the essential elements of the CHEM-1, namely a sample and reagent aspiration probe, a microconduit t o the vanish zone, a series o f photometric sensors unevenly distributed along the tube and a peristaltic pump which establishes the flow by aspiration. MULTIPLANAR

--

I------

SAMPLE a n d LEVEL SENSOR

EAGENT REAGENT

RI

Fig. 5.19 Scheme Technicon).

R?

WASTE

o f the CHEM-1 segmented-flow analyser. (Courtesy o f

Figure 5.20 depicts the sample and reagent introductlon system, basically a single Teflon probe of 1 mm 0 internally and externally wetted with the fluorocarbon fluid. Each sample cup has a permanent floating drop introduced before the determinations are started. This floating drop prevents contact between the different liquids as the aspiration probe Is submerged in the cup contents t h r o u g h it, thereby avoiding t h e use o f a washing solution and increasing the sample throughput. Sample and reagents are identified by means of a bar code scanner, so they can be placed randomly on t h e i r respective trays. The probe Is initially introduced i n t o each cup t o withdraw a small volume of the capsule f l u i d forming a film on I t s inner walls.

Figure 5.20a shows the


154

situation of the Probe after the sequential aspiration of sample-reagent 1 and reagent 2 with a i r

bubbles of different

volumes (test 11, and

Fig. 5.20b

depicts the scheme o f the sample and reagent metering operation. Reagents and sample are introduced i n t o the system by means of a series of f o u r synchronized stop valves. During the sampling, stop valve 1 switches t o allow sample aspiration t h r o u g h the I-pL single-stroke,

positive-displacement

pump. As t h e

stop valve closes, the probe is moved t o a refrigerated (4-8°C) reagent carousel and positioned over the appropriate reagent cassette containing both reagents ( R i and

R2)

t o be used i n the selected test. The volumes of the rea-

gents are measured with the aid of fifteen LEDs and matching optical detectors placed at heights t h a t match probe contents of 7.0, 7.5, 8.0 and 8.5 pL. When the meniscus between R i and air is sensed at the appropriate height, the stop valves switch automatically t o shut o f f f u r t h e r flow. The computer controlling the system also positions

R2

under the probe and introduces a i r and the water

wash segments into the system. During operation, stop valve 4 connects the reagent and sample i n t o the main channel. As the valve is open, the negative pressure produced by the single-tube

peristaltic pump draws the appropriate

0)

I I

VA LV t

SINGLE S T R O K E MICRO SAMPLE PUMP PROBE VOLUME SENSORS

Fig. 5.20 System f o r i n t r o d u c t i o n o f sample and reagents ( R i and R 2 ) v i a a s i n g l e probe i n t o the CHEM-1 analyser. (a) Scheme o f the segmented flow once introduced i n t o the probe f o r a t e s t . ( b ) Control o f sample and reagent metering. (Courtesy o f Technicon).

Air-segmented flow anal ysers

155

reagent past the probe volume sensor. When stop valve 4 i s closed, an idle stream of air and water i s aspirated into the analytical channel t o maintain constant hydraulic conditions. Once the capsule has been completed, it passes into the temperature-controlled reaction chamber (Fig. 5.19) through a multiplanar coil which thoroughly mixes the contents of the f i r s t liquid segment, RI+S,

in the test capsule. This step initiates incubation o f Rl+S f o r about 5

rnin. The individual segments then pass through the f i r s t of a series of line detectors, also made of 1.0-mm

in-

I.D. Teflon. The absorbance of each liquid

segment of the test capsule i s read photometrically t o establish the baseline reagent and serum absorbances f o r blank purposes. The test capsule then enters the vanish zone, where the segments are combined and the assay reaction is started. The test capsule, now a single 15-pL liquid segment, passes through a second multi-planar coil to ensure complete homogeneity of i t s contents. The diameter of the analytical pathway now decreases t o 1.0 mm. As shown i n Fig. 5.19, the system has nine photometric detection stations

based on the passage of a l i g h t beam through the main tube which allow data to be acquired from the segmented flow within 30 s after passage o f a test capsule t h r o u g h the vanish zone, and subsequently at 30, 30, 30, 90, 90 and 90 s intervals (8 min altogether). Each photometric station consists of three types of optical detector: bubble, spectrophotometric and nephelometric (see Fig. 5.21 1. The station f i r s t identifies a new test capsule by the unique absorbance pattern (at 800 nm) of the air-buffer-air

segment preceding the capsule. Then it measures the absor-

bance of t h e passing test capsule: l i g h t from a central 56-W tungsten-halogen l i g h t source i s passed through a rotating f i l t e r wheel containing eight filters. The collimated l i g h t i s distributed t o each o f the in-line detectors by quartz optical fibres and then passed through the Teflon t u b i n g and monitored b y individual silicon photodiodes. Six successive absorbance readings of the central portion of the moving test capsule are taken at 100-ms intervals f o r ail available wavelengths (340, 405, 500, 550, 570 and 600 nm) as the capsule passes the spectrophotometric detector.

The signals are sent t o an ana-

logue/digital converter and transformed i n t o concentration units by a series of algorithms. Then, the in-line detector monitors the l i g h t scatter of particles produced i n the latex particle agglutination immunoassays and immunoprecipitation methods for

specific proteins.

When placed at a 30'

angle t o the

light source, the detector functions as a nephelometric detector. A separate l i g h t source and f i l t e r wheel are used f o r t h i s application;

particle forma-

tion ls monitored at a 400-500 nm bandwidth f o r the immunoprecipitation methods and 800-1000 nm f o r latex agglutination t o obtain the maximum signal. The CHEM-1 i s t h u s a sophisticated analyser r e q u i r i n g s t r i c t control of


156

a)

b)

c)

SPE CTROPHOTOME T E R

Fig. 5.21 Photometric detection u n i t o f the CHEM-1 f e a t u r i n g ( a ) bubb l e , (b) spectrophotometric and ( c ) nephelometric o p t i c a l detectors. (Courtesy o f Technicon).

functioning and self-regulation

by a computer which also acquires and pro-

cesses data and delivers results as requested. I t uses samples and reagents f a i r l y sparingly and allows u p t o 35 different methodologies (both end-point and kinetic) t o be implemented at a rate of up t o 1800 parameters per hour. I t is able t o perform urgent determinations without essentially altering i t s programmed functioning. By use o f an additional module, consisting of three selective electrodes plus a reference electrode, it allows the determination of sodium, potassium and carbon dioxide. The module probe takes sample aliquots and introduces them into a vessel where they are diluted with the aid of the probe itself. The vessel contents are then drained and sent t o the potentiometric multidetection system f o r sensing.

REFERENCES [ l ] C. Ranger, Anal. Chem., 53 (1981) 20A. [ 2 ] M. ValcArcel and M. D. Luque de Castro, Flow-injection analysis: p r i n c i p l e s and applications, E l l i s Horwood, Chichester, 1981. [ 3 ] J. Ruzicka and E . H. Hansen, Flow i n j e c t i o n analysis, Wiley, New 'fork, 1981. [ 4 ] D. PBrez-Bendito and M . S i l v a , K i n e t i c methods i n a n a l y t i c a l chemistry, E l l i s Horwood, Chichester, 1988. [ 5 1 A . L o r i g u i l l o , M. S i l v a and D. PBrez-Bendito, Anal. Chim. Acta, 199 ( 1 9 8 7 ) 29. [ 6 ] M . Goto, rrAC, 2 (1983) 92. [ 7 ] B. F. Rocks, R. A. Sherwood and C. Riley, Analyst, 109 ( 1 9 8 4 ) 847. [ 8 ] L. T . Skeegs, Amer. J . C l i n . Pathol., 28 ( 1 9 5 7 ) 311.

Air-segmented

flow analysers

157

[9] H. L. Pardue and J. Woo, J. Chem. Educ., 61 (1984) 409.

[lo]

Continuous flow analysis: theory and practice, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1976. [ l l ] W. A. Coakley, Handbook o f automated analysis, Marcel Dekker, New York, W. B. Furman,

1981. [12] L. Snyder, J. Levine, R. Stoy and A. Conneta, Anal. Chem., 48 (1976) 942A. [13] S. Angelova and H. W. Holy, Anal. Chim. Acta, 145 (1983) 51. [14] L. R . Snyder and H. J. Adler, Anal. chem., 48 (1976) 1017. [15] L. R . Snyder and H. J. Adler, Anal. chem., 48 (1976) 1022. [16] L. R. Snyder, J. Chromatogr., 173 (1979) 211. [17] J. Keay and P. M. A. Menage, Analyst, 94 (1969) 895. [18] H. 0. F r i e s t a d , D. E. O t t and F. A. Gunther, Anal. Chem., 41 (1969) 1750. [19] R. K. Love and M. E. McCoy, i n Advances i n automated analysis, Technicon I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress, 1969, v o l . 11, Median I n c . White P l a i n s , New York, 1970. [20] L. C. Schroeter and W. E. Hamlin, J. Pharm. S c i . , 52 (1963) 811. [21] T. P. Michaels and L . P. S i n o t t e , Ann. N. Y. Acad. S c i . , 130 (1965) 496. [22] C. Crandell, J. Autom. Chem., 7 (1985) 145. [23] H. Baadenhuijsen and Th. Zelders, J. Autom. Chem., 5 (1983) 18. [24] D. Keating, G. J. Dunlop, A. L. Evans, R . A. Gowdie, N. L. Gregory, T. Lee and L. G. S. Rao, J. Autom. Chem., 5 (1983) 14. [25] R . Massen, J. C. Smith and H. Baadenhuijsen, J. Autom. Chem., 6 (1984) 158. [26] M. D. Luque de Castro and M. ValcBrcel, TrAC, 5 (1986) 71. [27] K. Schwartz, Anal. Chem., 45 (1973) 739A. [28] L. R. Snyder, Anal. Chim. Acta, 114 (1980) 3. [29] Standard methods f o r the examination o f water and wastewater, American P u b l i c H e a l t h Association, Washington, 1980, p. 364. [30] J. H. van G i n k e l and J. Sinnreve, Analyst, 105 (1980) 1199. [31] From Technicon manual. [32] J. C. G f e l l e r and G. Frey, Z. Anal. Chem., 291 (1978) 332. [33] H. Jacobson, Ann. N. Y. Acad. S c i . , 153 (1168) 486. [34] E. D. Diamandis and T . P. Hadjiioannou, Analyst, 107 (1982) 1471. [35] M. J. Fishman and D. E. Erdmann, Atom. Abs. Newslett., 9 (1970) 88. [36] M. Cassaday, H. D i e b l e r , R. Herron, M. Pelavin, D. Svenjak and D. Vlast e l i c a , C l i n . Chem., 31 (1985) 1453.

Automatic

Continuous analysers,

Flow-inJection

11,

analysis

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Flow-in jection analysis (FIA) falls clearly into the classification of automatic continuous methods of analysis established in the preceding chapter. This

novel

technique

features

a simple

basis,

inexpensive

labware,

and

straightforward and convenient operation. I n addition, and most surprising taking into account all the aforesaid

virtues, it provides excellent results.

I t s extreme versatility singles it out from most of the more recent analytical techniques. On the one hand, it can be readily adapted to virtually every type of analytical problem, and on the other, it allows for direct control by the researcher. Other salient features of F I A are as follows: (a) The flow is not segmented by air bubbles, which marks an essential difference between this methodology and segmented flow analysis, SFA. (b)The sample, a liquid, is injected or inserted directly into the flow rather than aspirated into it. (c) The injected plug is transported along the system. Thls physical process may be concurrent with others of a different nature (chemical reaction, dialysis, liquid-liquid extraction, etch (d)The extent of

dlspersion or dilution undergone by the

analyte i n the

above-mentioned transport process can be readily controlled through the gecmetric and hydrodynamic characteristics of the system. Sample and ,reagent(s)

mix Incompletely, although reproduclbly, giving rise t o a concentration gradient which varies along the system as a functlon of time. ( e l The contlnuous detector usually employed provides a transient signal which i s suitably recorded. (f) Neither physlcal equilibrium (homogenization of a portlon of the flow)

nor chemical equilibrium (reaction completeness) has been attained by the time the slgnal is detected. Hence, FIA can be considered a fixed-time

analytical

methodology. (9) The operational timlng must be highly reproducible as measurements are carried out under non-steady-state

conditions, so that small changes may

glve rise t o serious modifications of the results obtained.

Flow-injection analysis

159

A l l these features can be combined into four wider aspects: unsegmented

flow, direct injection, controlled partial dispersion and reproducible operational timing. Figure 6.la shows a basic FIA configuration consisting of: (a) a propelling unit, which drives one or several flowing stream solutions (either containing a dissolved analyte or acting as mere carriers) at a constant rate; ( b ) an injection system which allows the reproducible insertion or introductlon of an accurately measured sample volume into the flow piece of tubing, usually

without halting it; (c) a

referred to as reactor, along which the reacting mix-

ture is transported; ( d ) a flow-cell accommodated in a measuring device (photometer, fluorimeter, potentiometer) which transduces the slgnal generated to a recorder and/or microprocessor -usually,

the stream emerging from the sens-

ing system i s wasted.

D C

flow cell

-

4

ClI

-.I

Q

II

;

7-;\

A

Q

W

I

I

z

*

h ‘

I

Q

z

Fig. 6.1 ( a ) Scheme o f a basic FIA system. C: c a r r i e r (with o r without a dissolved reagent) ; PS: propelling system; I V : i n j e c t i o n valve; R: reactor; D: detector; W: waste. (b) Slow recording -the comnonest i n t h i s technique- corresponding t o i n j e c t i o n o f t r i p l i c a t e standards and quintuplicate samples. ( c ) Fast recording, with i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c pa rameter s

.

Figures 6.lb and c show typical recordlngs obtained with this technique


160

(analytical signal vs. time). The parameters defining such recordings are as follows: (a) Peak height, h, related t o the analyte concentration. (b)Residence time, T,

defined as the interval elapsed from injection t o

the appearance of the maximum signal. (c) Travel time,

t, namely the period separating injection from the end

of the baseline. (d)Return time, T',

viz. the time elapsed between appearance of the maxi-

mum signal and baseline restoratlon. (e) Baseline-to-baseline

time,

At,

o r interval elapsed between the onset

of the peak and baseline restoration. It should be noted t h a t FIA peaks are i n no way Gaussian curves,

so t h a t

none o f the parameters above describes the peak shape i n full -particularly the t r a i l i n g portion, which i s peculiar of t h i s type of recording and distinguishes it from the transient signals typical of other analytical techniques. A comparison between the basic features of FIA and SFA (Fig. 6.2) allows

the following essential differences t o be established:

S '

SAMPLE

n

i

DETECTOR

! l I l I I 1 l I

time

SFA

WASTE

Fig. 6.2 Comparison between FIA and SFA systems and t h e i r characteri s t i c recordings. The c h i e f difference l i e s i n the use o f bubbles i n SFA. The passage of the flowing stream emerging from the detector through the pump i s intended t o regulate the flow-rate more accurately i n order t o achieve reproducible s p l i t t i n g o f the segmented flow.


161

A i r bubbles. Their presence in the flow i s the most significant

differ-

ence between both methodologies. While SFA relies on flow segmentation, the most significant contribution of FIA i s the absence o f bubbles and hence the avoidance of t h e i r inherent shortcomings, namely impracticability of miniaturization, pulsations due t o the different compressibility of liquids and gases, decreased efficiency of the continuous separation devices incorporated i n the system,

generation of static electricity, irreproducibility

tion of stopped-flow and technical

i n the implementa-

kinetic methods, d i f f i c u l t y i n controlling the flow-rate

complications arising from the incorporation of bubblers and

debubblers. A l l these drawbacks, from which FIA i s completely free, make t h i s methodology a major analytical alternative with the additional advantages of perfectly reproducible flow-rates, simple and inexpensive labware, miniaturization capability, high sample throughput, great analytical potential and broad scope of application. Technical features.

Notwithstanding t h e i r instrumental Ii keness -both

methodologies make use of similar reactors and propelling systems-,

there are

a number of essential differences between the two, the most marked of which are as follows: (a) The start-up time i s longer in SFA, where it i s usually necessary t o wait between 30 and 45 min in o r d e r t o obtain reliable measurements. The only delay time common to both t h i s and FIA i s t h a t required f o r t h e detector stabiI ization. ( b ) The geometric characteristics of the manifold are different. The tubi n g diameter i s usually much smaller i n FIA, which determines the physical behaviour of the injected plug. ( c ) T h e flow-rates commonly employed In FIA are normally lower than those used i n SFA. ( d ) T h e sample is aspirated in SFA and either injected o r inserted dlrectl y i n t o the flow in FIA, which calls f o r different labware. ( e l The sampling time i s longer and the sample volume i s larger in SFA. ( f ) The wash cycle, essential In SFA t o avoid carry-over in both sampling and transport, i s unnecessary in FIA. Detection. Despite the fact t h a t both methodologies use v e r y similar sensIng systems, there i s a basic difference as regards t h e moment a t which detection is performed. Thus, i n SFA the signal is measured under steady conditions (when at least 95% of the maximum signal has been attained) and t h e plug pass50 that the recordings obI n contrast, F I A measurements

i n g through the detector Is v i r t u a l l y homogeneous, tained are plateau-shaped

(Fig. 6.2, bottom).

are carried o u t under non-steady conditions on non-homogeneous p l u g s (Fig. 6.2, top).

A u t m a t i c methods o f a n a l y s i s

I62

Versatility. Flow-injection analysis i s much more versatile than segmentedflow analysis; the former allows f o r the implementation o f a variety of techniques (titrations,

stopped-flow

methods,

etc)

which are

inapplicable with

the latter.

Data supply. The unsegmented mode clearly exceeds SFA i n i t s information capability as, in addition t o the peak height (common t o both), i t provides interesting data such as peak areas, peak widths (in the gradient mode) and peakto-peak parameters ( i n the stopped-flow variant). Table 6.1 compares SFA i n FIA in terms of the above characteristics.

TABLE 6.1 Comparison between the two c h i e f types o f continuous a n a l y t i c a l methodologies: segmented (SFA) and unsegmented (FIA) Feature

SFA

FIA

Sample i n t r o d u c t i o n

Aspi r a t i o n

I n j e c ti o n

Sample volume

0.2-2 mL

10-100 pL

Response time

2-30 min

3-60 s

Tubing inner diameter

2m

0.5-0.7

Detection

I n equilibrium

With c o n t r o l l e d p a r t i a l

(homogeneity)

dispersion

Sample throughput

4 8 0 samples/h

4300 samples/h

Precision

1-2%

1-2% Low

mm

Reagent consumption

High

Washout cycle

Essential

None

Continuous k i n e t i c analysis

Not f e a s i b l e

Stopped-flow

T i trations

No

Yes

Data supplied

Peak height

Peak height, area and width; peak-to-peak distance

6.2 FOUNDATION OF FLOW-INJECTION ANALYSIS The physical foundation of FIA is related t o the behaviour of t h e sample p l u g inserted in t h e flow, which Is characterized mathematically by means o f the so-called

dispersion. This, in t u r n , is defined b y the shape of the pro-

file yielded b y the injected sample portion along the system -particularly the flow-cell.

at


163

Although the nil mixing between successively injected samples was formerly attributed t o the turbulent regime under which FIA experiments were believed t o be conducted [1,21, It has been demonstrated beyond doubt [3,43 that most FIA systems operate under laminar flow conditions (Fig. 6.3).

CONVECTIVE TRANSPORT

x

TURBULENT FLOW

L A M I N A R FLOW

4

4

I

’ 4

4

DIFFUSIONAL TRANSPORT

ErAXIAL

Fig. 6.3

RADIAL

General types o f transport i n closed tubes.

When the sample is injected into the flowing stream, its dilution within it is a function, of, among other factors, the time considered along the trans-

port process.

Initially,

dilution

becomes convective-diffusional character.

is chiefly

convective in

nature;

later

it

and eventually develops a purely diffusional

The intermediate situation

(i.e.

convective-diffusional

transport)

i s by far the most common i n FIA. It has been demonstrated that radial dlsperslon contrlbutes more signifi-

cantly t o the dilution of the sample i n the flow than does axlal dispersion. This type of fluid movement, termed ’secondary flow’ by Tljssen [4], results i n a washout effect accounting for the low mutual contamination of samples successively injected into a carrier stream. This advantageous feature i s a result of the use of low flow-rates and small tubing bores, and results i n decreased peak-width and hence t o increased sampling rate. Theoretical studies on FIA have been aimed at the establishment of accurate relationships between the geometric (length and diameter) and hydrodynamic (flow-rate) characteristics of an FIA system and the parameters defining the profile obtained

(travel time,

coordinates of the peak maximum and peak

width ). Several models have been proposed t o account for the non-Gaussian shape of


164

typical FIA recordings, which reflects the odd behaviour of a solute injected into an FIA system. The best known among such models are the following: Taylor’s model. This is applicable only when purely diffusional or convec-

tive phenomena are involved and is therefore based on a Gaussian conception of the FIA curve. Tanks-in-series model. This model is based on the assumption that the sys-

tem is composed of n perfect minimixing chambers resembling chromatographic plates, and i t s accuracy increases with increase in the number of plates considered. I n any case, i.t describes more factually ordinary F I A systems than does Taylor’s model. Mixing chamber model. This is valid only when a perfectly stirred mixing

chamber is used. General model. This is the best alternative as it describes i n the most

accurate way possible the behaviour of a solute injected into an F I A system.

I t is based on the general expression describing convective-diffusional transport, which takes account of both axial and radial concentration gradients, the parabolic shape of the velocity profile corresponding t o a laminar flow regime and the contribution of convective transport

(6.1) 6x2

Sr2

r 6r

6X

where D is the molecular diffusion coefficient (expressed in

cm2/s), C is the

analyte concentration, t is the time (in s), x is the distance from the tube radius (cm) and uo is the linear flow velocity (cm/s) [5]. Equation 6.1 is by no means easy t o solve in a straightforward manner. By use of suitable approximations, Vanderslice e t a l . [3] derived two expressions relating two of the most relevant parameters of the FIA curve (travel time and peak width) to the essential characteristics of an ordinary F I A system ( v i z . the reactor length, I, and radius, r, and the flow-rate,

q), together with the

molecular diffusion coefficient:

t= At =

109r2Daa( L/q)l.m( 1/ f ) 35.4( r2/DQM)( L/q)aW

These two expressions are descriptive of experlmental facts only if an accanmodation factor, f, is included. A different approach t o the problem is represented by Ruzicka and Hansen’s

dispersion c o e f f i c i e n t , D, defined as the ratio between the analyte concentra-

tion prior t o and after the transport process [S].

It coincides with the or-

dinate at the maximum of the FIA curve and is related to other parameters through the expression [71


where

tr

165

is the statistical residence time, V i i s the injected volume and 6 i s

the Levenspiel-Smith linear dispersion number, which i n t u r n i s related t o the standard deviation of the c u r v e by

This complicates the practical application of the model because of the nonGaussian shape of the FIA curve, which must unavoidably be traced i n order t o determine i t s exact profile. Equations (6.2) t o (6.4) provide both 'horizontal' and 'vertical' information on the FIA curve, b u t lack practical and direct application owing t o the introduction o f the accommodation factor in the first two and t h a t of the linear dispersion number i n the t h i r d . A few experiments and a suitable computational program [8-101 recently ai-

lowed several expressions relating the characteristic parameters of t h e FIA peak t o those representative of the FIA system t o be obtained: Ib

LENGTH (cm)

A

A

, 10

>

I

,

, 30

20

, 0

LOlIr!

,

,

,

,

0

10

20

LO

, 60

. 10

.

,

20

30

,

,

,

,

,

80

1W

120

110

160

tls!

tll!

Fig. 6.4 Influence o f F I A variables on the p r o f i l e o f the FIA recording. (a) E f f e c t o f the reactor diameter (L = 100 cm; q = 2.0 mL/min). (b) Influence o f the reactor length (0 = 0.5 rnm; q 2.0 mL/min). ( c ) Influence o f the flow-rate (L = 100 cm; 0 0.5 mm).

7 66


Figure 6.4 shows several FIA curves obtained with an ordinary FIA setup. A s can be observed, the dlsperslon increases with Increasing reactor diameter (a) and length (b), and decreases with increase i n the flow-rate (c). The extent of dilutlon or dispersion undergone by the analyte also depends on several other factors such as the Injected volume and dead volumes in the connectors or In the flow-cell. A l l the statements made

so far are valid only i n the absence of a chemical

reaction. If such a reaction Is involved, it Is necessary t o take Into account ail Its kinetic aspects as these affect the characteristics of the FIA peak considerably. Painton and Mottola [ l l ] evaluated the kinetlc contribution (Dc) to the dispersion coefficient due t o physlcal phenomena, flndlng that the expression D

= Dc + Dp holds provided that the chemical reaction results In a

decrease In the concentration of the monitored species. More recently, Painton and Mottola have gone deeper into the study of the chemical contribution t o the dispersion [121 by checking the suitability of introducing a t e r m of the form -k.Cn Into the left-hand slde of the general equation governing dlffusional transport. Such a t e r m represents the extent of dilution undergone by the sample plug upon chemlcal reaction.

6.3 BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN FIA SYSTEM An ordinary FIA system usually consists of a least four essential parts: (a) A p r o p e l l i n g system, which drives the carrier stream t o the dlfferent elementary unlts of the system. Ideally, It should provide a pulse-free and perfectly reproducible flow of constant rate. (b) An i n j e c t i o n

o r i n s e r t i o n system for introduction of varlable sample

volumes into the carrler stream in a highly accurate and reproducible manner. (c) A transport system linking the various elements which make up the FIA system and allowing the sample t o attain a suitable degree of disperslon or mixing as it travels through it. When the extent o f disperslon Is not suitable for the experlment concerned and a reaction o r further spllttlng of the flowing stream is required, the system can be supplemented with accessories such

as mlxlng chambers, reactors and merglng points. (d)A sensing system allowlng continuous monitoring of a given property of the sample o r I t s reaction product and provldlng qualitatlve and quantitatlve information about the former.

Flow-injection analysis 6.3.1

167

Propelling system On account of the constancy of the flow-rate provided, undoubtedly the

most important prerequisite t o be met,

the peristaltic pump is the fluid

propelling system most frequently used In FIA. Other lesser common alternatives are gas pressure and gravity pressure-based devices. Peristaltic pumps call for the use of flexible tubing squeezed by a set of rollers whereby the fluid enclosed in the system is kept i n motion. This type of pump provides a pulsed flow, which is undesirable in FIA. The pulse duration, which decreases with the number of rollers used and decreases with their diameter, dictates the number of tubes (lines) through which the fluids involved can be propelled (between 1 and 16, but 4 i n most cases). Pressure-based propulsion, whether by gravity o r by a gas, results i n pulse-free

flow, but poses serious problems In controlling the flow rate of

two o r more simultaneous streams. 6.3.2

Injection system The injection system is Intended t o place a well-defined sample plug into

the flowing carrler stream and should meet a number of requirements imposed by the intrinsic features of the FIA technique, namely: (a) It should insert accurately measured volumes of sample in a reproduci b l e manner. The w i d e r the volume range is, the more versatile the system w i l l be. (b)The sample should be incorporated into the carrier stream i n such a way that no disturbances t o the latter are caused. (c) It should allow f o r convenient and fast operation in order t o achieve a high sampling rate. I n addition, it should be controllable by an electric motor. These requirements make the aspiration systems commonly employed i n SFA unusable in FIA. I n fact, such systems result i n relatively inaccurate sampling, with variations i n the injected sample volumes of the order of 3-4%, which does not represent a serious problem i n SFA, In which the indicator reaction does attain equilibrium and volume variations affect the peak width rather than the peak height,

which Is the parameter of actual analytical

interest. The earliest lnjectlon unit employed i n FIA was as simple as

a syrlnge and

hypoderrnlc needle. Currently, the Injection systems most frequently used are the rotary valve and the proportional Injector. The so-called four-way

or hexagonal rotary valve (Fig. 6.5a) consists of

SIX ports (three Inlets and three oulets) and can adopt two positions. I n the fllllng posltion, the sample enters the valve through port 2, fills the sample


168

loop (ports 1 and 4) and is continuously wasted through port 3; meanwhile, the carrier stream goes into the valve through port 6 and leaves it through port 5 in the direction of the reactor. I n the evacuation position, port 6 is linked internally with port 1 and the carrier sweeps the sample, which enters the valve through port 2 and is wasted through Port 2, towards the reactor via ports 4 and 5.

-

ROTARY VALVE

PROPORTIONAL INJECTOR

a)

Filling

-W+ -reactor-

Injection

Fig. 6.5 Schemes of t y p i c a l i n j e c t i o n systems i n t h e i r f i l l i n g and evacuation positions. (a) Rotary valve; (b) proportional i n j e c t o r .

The proportional injector, developed by Bergamln et e l . [13], has been Improved slnce Its creatlon t o adapt I t t o different FIA modes. The

simplest

version of this type of InJectIon system (Fig. 6.5b) conslsts of three drilled polyethylene or Perspex blocks (two fixed and one movlng). I n the filling posltlon, the upper and lower ports of each block are matched so that the sample (upper port) enters through block 1, fills the loop i n block 2 and runs t o waste through block 3; the reagent or carrier solution enters through the lower port of block 1 and leaves towards the reactor via block 3. I n the evacuatlon posltlon, the central block rises until Its lower port (sample) confronts the lower ports of the side blocks,

so that the sample solution held In

Flow-injection a n a l y s i s

76'1

the corresponding loop (Ls) i s swept t o the reactor by the reagent o r c a r r i e r stream. Both the rotary valve and the proportional injector supply highly reproducible, variable

injected volumes (held i n loops) and are fast and convenient

t o operate manually. I n addition, they allow f o r easy automation of the injection operation.

6.3.3 Transport and reaction system I n addition t o i t s primary function o f transporting the flowing stream along the manifold and allowing, where appropriate, a reaction t o develop t o a suitable extent, the transport and reaction system serves to link the different p a r t s of the FIA system. The t r a n s p o r t system normally consists of small-bore tubes of I.D. between 0.1

and 2 mm, b u t usually 0.3,

dispersion

requirements,

0.5 and 0.7 mm f o r low, medium and high

respectively. Larger diameters are of l i t t l e use as

the remainder of the FIA components are not designed t o match them -tubing expansions and compressions of other components result i n irreguiarities t h a t significantly

affect the dispersion.

Diameters smaller than 0.3 mm (e.g.

0.2

mm) are used only i n the miniaturized FIA mode, viz. capillary FIA. Teflon, polyethylene and polypropylene are the materials most commonly used i n the manufacture o f FIA tubing. As all three are highly permeable t o oxygen, serious problems are encountered when dealing with strong reductants. On the other hand, they are of great use i n checking f o r catalysed aerial oxidations. The connectors used i n an FIA set-up serve the Purpose o f joining the tubes t o one another and t o the other p a r t s of the system. There i s a wide range of connectors available f o r each t y p e of application, b u t basically they are either dual (linear o r V-shaped),

triple (T-, Y- o r W-shaped) o r quadruple

(usually i n the shape o f an arrowhead). The reactor, a major component of the transport system, influences the residence time and the profile of the sample plug, and is designed t o meet the particular needs of the system concerned. There are f i v e basic types of FIA reactor: Open tubes. These are s t r a i g h t

tubes o f variable length and diameter, lo-

cated between the injection and sensing systems.

Coils are pieces o f t u b i n g helically coiled around a r i g i d cylinder of the desired diameter. Pecked reactors usually consist of a length of t u b i n g fllled with a cheml-

cally active o r i n e r t materlal. They have not been wldely used i n FIA

so f a r

as packlng materials with large particle slzes give rlse to Insurmountable irregularities in the flow, while small-sized

particles result in increased re-


170

actor compactness and hence i n greater flow resistance, which calls for the use of high pressures, thus detracting from the inherent simplicity of the FIA technique. Chemically active packed reactors (ion-exchange, redox and enzyme) have been preferentially used over inert reactors so far. The s i n g l e bead s t r i n g r e a c t o r (SBSR) is essentially a piece of tubing of variable length packed with glass or chemically inert polymer beads whose diameter i s 60-00% that of the tubing, so that the tube cross-section i s occupied by only one bead at a time. As the packing does not take up much space, the flow encounters little resistance. The use of this type of detector offers advantages such as increased residence times, ostensibly decreased dispersion and smwt h baselines. Mixing chambers are used when a high degree of mixing (merging point or un-

stirred chamber) or complete homogenization of sample and

reagent (well-

stirred chamber) is required, which is usually the case when using an electric system or when there are considerable differences in viscosity, specific gravity, temperature or detergent content between the carrier and sample [15]. They are also commonplace in F I A titrations. 6.3.4 Sensing system

Detectors t o be used in FIA should ideally be endowed with a number of attributes such as low flow-cell volume and noise, flow-rate-independent

signal,

fast and linear response over a wide concentration range and high sensitivity. FIA methodology utilizes a variety of analytical detection techniques such as optical

(spectroscopic

and

non-spect roscopi c 1,

electric

(amperomet r ic,

po-

tentiometric, conductimetric, coulometric) and thermochemical. The use of the voltammetric technique has fostered the development of a host of cells and electrodes, both solid and liquid (DME) [16-251, as well as the study of the principles describing the behaviour of such devices as parts of F I A systems 123-251. Redox [26], ion-selective [27-301 and ISFET [31-321 potentiometric sensors have been widely used i n FIA applications. I n contrast, voltammetric [33,34] and

potentiometric [35,36] stripping,

mulometry

[37,38] and conductimetry

[39-411 have received less attention from FIA researchers. Optical detectors

are by f a r the most common in FIA, even though

few dedicated cells have been designed as most of the cells,

only a

partlcuiarly

photometric and fluorirnetric, manufactured for other flow methods can be readily adapted for use i n FIA. On the other hand, other optical techniques such as chemiluminescence [42] and refractometry 1431, of more limited use i n this methodology, have favoured the development of new types of cell suited t o specific

needs. A t this point I t is worth noting the simplicity of the joint


171

use of FIA and atomic techniques; i n fact, no sensing cell is required as the injected sample i s directly aspirated i n t o the b u r n e r

[&I.

I t is significant t h a t despite the large number of FIA applications de-

veloped since the introduction o f t h i s methodology i n 1975 11,451,

not many

commercial instruments have been designed in t h i s field, probably because of the hindrances posed by the companies devoted t o t h e manufacture of batch and segmented flow analysers, which

are usually much more expensive and compli-

cated than FIA instruments. This initial reluctance is gradually being overcome and there are already a number o f companies i n the USA, Brazil, Sweden and Japan constructing and commercializing various types of FIA autoanalysers.

6.4 F I A MODES

One o f the most prbminent features of FIA is i t s great versatility, i r r e futable proof o f which i s the large number o f alternatives d e r i v i n g from the basic mode and developed f o r specific purposes. Among the large variety of FIA

c1 c 7

c2

Cl

b’

n I I

I

I I

ii

I

c1

cz c1

RIMARY FIA OKIWRAlION

1

CHANKL

ITYE/ A181

i I

REAGENTS

OR

CARRIERS

___ MERGING PClNlS

C,

Fig. 6.6 D i f f e r e n t types o f primary FIA configurations. (a) With both merging p o i n t s s i t u a t e d a f t e r the i n j e c t i o n system; (b) w i t h one merging p o i n t located p r i o r t o and another a f t e r the i n j e c t i o n u n i t ; ( c ) c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f primary FIA configurations according t o the number o f channels, reagents, c o i l s and merging p o i n t s used.


172

modes available t o date, eight of them are worth spacial note, namely primary FIA, reversed FIA, FIA in closed systems, zone manipulation, miniaturized FIA, gradient FIA, kinetic methods developed by F I A and FIA associated with separation techniques. Ordinary o r primary F I A Involves a single injection of the sample, which

is inserted into a continuously flowing

carrier with which it can react or

not. The reactlon(s) can also be induced by merging one or several suitable streams with the main line. No second phase is necessary f o r the reactions involved (redox, complex formation, etc.) t o occur. The transient signal generated is always measured at the point of maximum reaction development. The two most general types of primary FIA configuration with one, two and three channels, depending on the relative situation of the merging points with respect t o the injection unit, are depicted schematically in Fig. 6.6.

Four and five-

channel primary F I A systems have also been used at times [46] i n dealing with complex chemical systems in which the formation of the monitored product involves a large number of steps or with very complicated samples calling for various masking operations. I n reversed FIA the sample is circulated along the main line of the manifold, into which the reagent(s) i s (are) injected 147,481. The basic differences between this mode and primary FIA are illustrated i n Fig. 6.7. Reversed FIA is of great use when very frequent analyses of abundant and inexpensive samples (e.g.

i n the monitoring of pollution in waste waters) [49-511 or in-

creased sensitivity [52] are required. The only two disadvantages of this mode are its low sampling frequency and the considerable sample consumption. Sample changeovers entail washing the system with the actual sample, which results i n

W

W

W

W

n

Fig. 6.7

Comparison between normal and, reversed F I A set-ups.

Flow-in j e c t i o n analysis

173

a delay period whose length is proportional t o the difference in concentration between successively injected samples. The continuous circulation of the sample along the system results i n increased consumption in comparison with normal FIA. Flow-injection analysis can be implemented with the aid of closed systems of two basic types: closed-loop and closed-open systems. I n closed-loop systems the flow is continuously recirculated along the system and a purpose-built unit situated after the sensing system regenerates and/or

removes certain species. These systems are particularly suitable for

reactions involving dissolved enzymes [53,54]. A representative example is illustrated in Fig. 6.8 for the catalytic determination of copper with the aid of the indicator system Fe3*/S~32-.The uncatalysed reaction is not sufficiently slow t o give rise to a steady baseline. This shortcoming is circumvented b y injecting one of the reactants (thiosulphate) simultaneously with the sample instead of incorporating it into the solution reservoir. The rate of the overall reaction (catalysed rically by addition of thiocyanate,

+

uncatalysed) i s monitored absorptiometwith which iron forms the red complex

Fe(HzO)sSCN2*. The formation constants of the iron complexes (roughly 100 for Fe3+ and 10 for Fez+) allow for the occurrence of sufficient f r e e Fez* t o give rise t o the anodic oxidation of this species at a controlled potential and hence for the regeneration of both Fe3+ and the monitored species. Such an oxidation reaction can be conveniently carried out at a potential of +0.60 V

v s . SCE and allows the separation of catalytic copper ion through cathodic reduction t o metal copper and hence isolation of the catalyst and regeneration

Fig. 6.8 Closed system f o r the c a t a l y t i c photometric determination o f copper using the Fe3+/Sz032- system and thiocyanate as a ’revealer’, featuring a special u n i t f o r removal and regeneration o f species. (Reproduced from [541 with permission o f the American Chemical Society. )


174

of the main reactant of the indicator reaction simultaneously. The eiectroiytic process further decreases the rate of the uncatalysed reaction as thiosulphate decomposes t o gaseous SCh i n the electrochemical cell [55]. Figure 6.9 depicts a typical closed-open system, whose key element i s a selecting valve (SV). This allows the system t o be kept open until the sample reaches the inner circuit. By appropriately switching the valve, the sample is allowed t o circulate through the loop until completely homogenized with the carrier, which entails n passages through the circult and results i n the acquisition of n signals at the detector. The curve recorded by monitoring the disappearance of a reactant (a) or the formation of a product (b) -rather acteristic i n either case-

unchar-

has the typical shape of a classical kinetic curve

and therefore aiiows the calculation of the rate of the reaction involved, application of amplification or dilution methods (based on the sum of the height of several peaks and on the measurement of peaks other than the f i r s t and thus lower than it), kinetic monitoring of a single species 1561, appiication

of

differential

kinetic

methods

1571,

calculatlon

of

stoichiometries

[581, speciation [591 and so forth.

I

t

CARRIER

PHOTOMETER

t

A

I’

J-. t

Fig. 6.9 Closed-open system f o r multi-detection and t y p i c a l recordings obtained by (1) i n j e c t i n g a dye, ( 2 ) monitoring the disappearance o f a reactant and ( 3 ) monitoring the formation o f a product. The inj e c t i o n valve, V i , can be placed inside or outside the loop. S denotes a selecting valve which can be switched either t o allow the flowing stream t o enter the loop or t o be trapped within i t and be kept r e c i r culating by means o f pump P u n t i l complete homogenization i s achieved -in t h i s position, the c a r r i e r i s sent d i r e c t l y t o waste. (Reproduced from [561 with permission o f the American Chemical Society).

The sample, or indeed a portion of It, can be advantageously manlpulated i n a variety of ways t o improve the features of conventional FIA. The

so-


175

called zone manipulation mode has given rise t o three different submodes: merging zones, zone sampling and zone trapping. (a) The merging zones mode Is of enormous interest when minimum sample and reagent consumption Is desired (e.g.

in enzymatic clinical analyses). It in-

volves (Fig. 6.10) the use of two channels of the same length which converge on a point prior t o which i s located a dual Injection valve Inserting low sample and reagent volumes into their corresponding lines. On merging, the two

plugs mix thoroughly, which facilitates reaction development [SO,Sl].

tf

7-r

c _ _ _

cR

W

1 'WR

Fig. 6.10 Typical set-up f o r implementation o f the merging zones mode. The two loops o f the dual i n j e c t o r are loaded with sample and reagent, which are subsequently injected simultaneously i n t o channels o f the same geometric characteristics that merge elsewhere i n the system.

(b) The zone sampling mode is Implemented by Introducing a preselected portion of the sample Into a second carrler stream [62], thereby obtalnlng two sample subplugs o f different concentration which can be used t o determine two species requlring different degrees of dispersion 1631. (c) The so-called zone trapping mode, a

varlant of zone sampling, in-

volves separating the reactlng plug from the flowing stream by means of a suitable devlca (usually a proportional lnjecror) over the time needed for the


176

reaction t o develop t o an appropriate extent with no increase i n dispersion. Once such a period has elapsed, the trapped plug is returned t o the circulating stream, which drives it to the detector [64]. As with other analytical techniques, there is a trend in FIA towards significant reductions in size, which ultimately

result i n considerable advan-

tages. I n this way miniaturized FIA in i t s two versions was conceived: capillary FIA and integrated microconduits. (a) The tubes used i n capillary FIA rarely

exceed 0.2 mm i n diameter and

1 pL in volume. Such small dimensions enable the experimenter t o obtain signi-

ficantly increased sampling rates with sparing sample and reagent consumption [65,66]. (b) Integrated microconduits are a relatively recent conception of FIA assemblies consisting of a series of sinusoidal

channels engraved on a PVC

block of 70 x 45 x 10 mm and covered with a thin lid of the same material in such a manner that the microconduit section Is semicircular. accommodate (Fig.

6.11)

an

injection

unit

(hydrodynamic

The block can

injection

system

[64]), a sensing system (photometric probe, selective electrode) and/or a separation unit (dialysis membrane, ion-exchange column) 167,681. The rigidity of the structure ensures perfect reproducibility i n the measurements.

Fig. 6.11

Integrated microconduits. The sample i s aspirated i n t o i t s corresponding loop, Ls (20 pL) through pump P i , while the l i n e s holdi n g the remainder o f reactants are kept s t i l l . On stopping P i and s t a r t i n g Pz, the sample plug i s swept t o the straight stretch o f the tubing, namely the flow-cell (D), through which l i g h t i s transmitted by means o f o p t i c a l fibres. As the sum o f the flow-rates o f the incomi n g ( c a r r i e r and reagent) and outgoing streams i s equal, the system i s i n hydrodynamic equilibrium.

Both variants of miniaturized FIA have a serious shortcoming, v i z . the easy clogging of the micromanifold.

:77


Gradient techniques i n FIA are based on the measurement of the analytical signal at a point other than the peak maximum. There are f i v e basic types of FIA gradient techniques:

(a) I n the gradient c a l i b r a t i o n mode, a standard solution i s measured t o obtain a single FIA peak from which the corresponding calibration graph i s run. ( b ) T h e e l e c t r o n i c d i l u t i o n mode allows the range of application of a given FIA method t o be broadened by c a r r y i n g o u t measurements at different times on the FIA peak, which i s equivalent t o using different sample solutions as the dispersion varies along the FIA c u r v e [691. (c) F I A t i t r a t i o n s can also be included among gradient techniques as they involve the measurement of the peak width a t a preselected height [70- 731. Nevertheless, they w i l l be dealt with alongside with other types of t i t r a t i o n in the following chapter. ( d ) T h e pH-gradient mode is based on the establishment of two opposing pH gradients upon injection of a large sample volume a t a pH, pHc different from t h a t of the carrier, pHz. Strongly pH-dependent systems can therefore be used

INJECTION

i!I.L I N G

OR

PAR IpH=2.(1

L=60cm

530 nm

PAR IpH=10.21

SAMPLElpH: 2.11 y : 2 B m i min-'

Fig. 6.12 ( a ) Relative s i t u a t i o n o f the two i n j e c t i o n valves used t o create a pH gradient. (a.1) F i l l i n g p o s i t i o n (V., sample valve; VR reagent valve). (a.2) Evacuation p o s i t i o n . A quadruple reagentisample-rsagsnt2-sample i n t e r f a c e is established. ( b ) S i t u a t i o n o f the i n j e c t i o n u n i t w i t h i n the F I A system.


178

t o c a r r y out simultaneous determinations (e.g. t h a t of vanadium and lead with A more sophistlcated manner o f implementing t h i s mode involves

P A R [75]).

injection valve (intercalated i n t o the loop of the main

using a secondary

valve) t o insert reagent and sample at an acidic pH i n t o a basic stream of the reagent (Fig. 6.12) [711. (e) A reagent concentration gradient at

the head and tail of an unusually

large sample volume ( 2 mL) results In the appearance of two reaction zones at the ends of the plug, separated by a non-mixing zone. On passage t h r o u g h the detector, such zones yield two F I A peaks which can be used for kinetic determinations, either differential o r of a single species (based on the signal increment between the two peaks corresponding t o the time increment between t h e two residence times) [761. K i n e t i c methods. F I A , on account o f i t s Intrinsic features (measurements

under non-equilibrium conditions), can be considered t o be a fixed-time methodology. However,

according t o F I A jargon, a kinetic method is based on the

monitoring of the evolution of the analytical signal (stopped-flow

methods) o r

on the measurement of two o r more signals at the number o f times required (differential o r individual kinetic determi nations).

I

.

-t,'

b)

n

/

/

\

PUMP

Fig. 6.13

FIA (a) The timer, the pumps. ( b ) the i n j e c t i o n w i t h switching a dye (2a) and 2d).

Stopped-flow

+

STOP

+

assembly f o r

implementation o f stopped-flow methods. w i t h the stop and s t a r t o f Stopped-flow set-up f e a t u r i n g a three-way valve between u n i t and the detector. The timer synchronizes i n j e c t i o n o f the valve. ( c ) Stopped-flow recordings obtained w i t h various systems o f d i f f e r e n t reaction rates (2b, 2c and T, synchronizes i n j e c t i o n

F I A methods are applicable t o reactions with haif-lives be-

F l o w - i n j e c t i o n analysis

179

tween 10 and 120 s. The specific additional instrumentation required to implement either of the two variants (Fig. 6.13) is simply an electronic timer synchronizing Injection with either the stop and start of the peristaltic pump (Fig. 6.13a) or the switching of the diverting valve (Fig. 6.13b).

I n either

case, the reacting plug i s stopped at the flow cell t o monitor the reaction development (Fig. 6.13~).

1

R

*l

D1

B

W

S

C

1

R2

e

W

R1

0

Rz

FIA configurations w i t h two detectors for development of kinetic methods. ( a ) Serial configuration; ( b ) parallel configuration w i t h single injection and s p l i t t i n g of sample; ( c ) parallel configuration w i t h dual injection. R , reagent; C , carrier; S , sample; D, detector; w, waste. Fig. 6.14

Kinetic F I A methods, whether differential or not, can be implemented in two ways: either by obtaining different analytical signals for a single sample with the aid of serial or parallel detectors (Flg. 6.14), or by suitable manipulation of the F I A system and use of a single detector, which undoubtedly demands greater Ingenuity from the experimenter. Three representative configurations of this variant are depicted i n Fig. 6.15.

The rnanlfoid shown in Fig.

6.15a features two serial inlection valves inserting the sample solution simultaneously Into the reagent stream. The reactor located between the two valves fixes the interval separating the passage of the two peaks through the reactor


180

and hence the time elapsed between the appearance of the two peaks making up the FIA recording. The configuration depicted in Fig. 6.15b

has a s p l i t t i n g

point and a merging point separating two channels of different geometric and hydrodynamic characteristics intended t o lead two subplugs of the injected sample t o the detector, which is reached a t a different time by each of them. The scheme i n Fig. 6 . 1 5 ~ corresponds t o the use of an a b r u p t concentration gradient i n a large sample plug i n order t o obtain two reaction zones [72].

Fig. 6.15 Types o f single-detector F I A configurations used t o obtain two a n a l y t i c a l signals a t two d i f f e r e n t times from a s i n g l e sample. ( a ) With two simultaneously actuated s e r i a l I n j e c t i o n valves. (b) With s p l i t t i n g and merging points. ( c ) Single-channel system i n t o which a l a r g e sample volume is introduced t o e s t a b l i s h two r e a t i o n interfaces. C, c a r r i e r ; P, p e r i s t a l t i c pump; I V , i n j e c t i o n valve; R, reactor; D, detector; W, waste.

Closed-open systems can also be used f o r individual and differential kinetic determinations [56,57],

a relatlvely unexplored area In which rapid scan

detectors have great potential. The association o f FIA with separation techniques such as distillation, dialysis, Ion exchange o r liquid-liquid extraction has opened up new fields of application t o the analysis of complex samples, as demonstrated in Chapter 4.

F l o w - i n j e c t i o n analysis

1P 1

Of particular interest t o FIA is the use of two-phase

systems f o r purposes

other than the separation or concentration of species, as i s the case with redox columns and enzyme reactors. Redox columns used within FIA set-ups can either act upon an agent dissolved i n the carrier stream which later r e t u r n s t o i t s oxidized form by reducing the unknown [77,78] o r on the sample itself, in which the ingredient of interest i s t h u s converted to an oxidation state suitable for measurement (e.g. or the

simultaneous determination use of oxygen-impervious

reduction of nitrate t o n i t r i t e f o r individual of these analytes). t u b i n g and

Either alternative entails

permits determinations

t h a t are

impossible by SFA. The use of enzymes as analytical reagents has grown enormously in the last few years. I n FIA, these biochemical catalysts have been exploited chiefly immobilized on packed columns, open tube wall reactors, single bead s t r i n g reactors and controlled pore glass reactors [79]. Liquid-liquid technique

extraction has also been used in conjunction with the FIA

i n special

cases t o implement

a particular determinative method

rather than as a mere means of separating o r concentrating certain species. One such method i s the indirect determination of perchlorate by extraction as an

ion pair

with the Cu(1)-azine

complex of 6-methylpicolinealdehyde.

The

amount of copper detected is a measure of the concentration of perchlorate in the sample [80]. One o f the features o f FIA testifying t o i t s great versatility is automation capability.

Flgure 6.16

its

illustrates the operation of a f u l l y auto-

mated FIA system linked t o a microprocessor via passive and active Interfaces. The passive interface, f i t t e d t o the computer t h r o u g h the detector, collects raw data and treats them suitably t o provide the analytical results matching each of t h e samples injected. Thus, i t can perform a variety of functions such as fa) selection o f the peak height, area o r width data corresponding t o a given signal level, o r of signal increments as a function of time; ( b ) collection and averaging o f data obtained i n repetitive determinations carried o u t on a single sample; (c) supply of analytical data, usually obtained by transf e r r i n g readings to a calibration graph and applying Lagrange’s interpolation method

i f these

fall

outside the

linear

range,

to

peripherals such as a

p r i n t e r o r plotter. The active interface allows the microprocessor to participate t o a greater o r lesser extent in the operation o f the automated process. Hence, it is usually assigned the task o f synchronizing the operation of the sampler with that of the injection unit, the valve of which should be filled and evacuated b y the action of an electric motor cam. On the other hand, the microprocessor i s an indispensable element o f stopped-flow

configurations i n

order t o control the stop and s t a r t of the pumps ( o r d i v e r t i n g valves), as

well as t o f l x both the delay and measurement times.


r---------1

SAMPLER ACTIVE

I

PASSIVE INTERFACE

b-----1

REACTOR CARRIER

u -

REAGENT

WASTE

-

OPTIONAL RECORDER

711 II WASTE

2

PUMPS

Fig. 6.16 Scheme o f a f u l l y automated F I A system. The passive i n t e r f a c e c o l l e c t s data from the detector and processes them. The active interface actuates the pumps, sampler and i n j e c t i o n unit.

The basic set-up i n Fig. 6.1 and the fully automated assembly In Fig. 6.16 represent extreme situations between which lie a variety of configurations with different degrees of automation suited to the particular requirements (analysis rate, number of samples, type of measurement) o r chemical system invol ved.

6.5 FEATURES OF FLOW-INJECTION ANALYSIS I n dealing with the most oustanding features of FIA, only those clearly distinguishing this methodology from segmented-flow o r conventional manual methods w i l l be considered. 6.5.1 Sensitivity

As a rule, FIA methods are less sensitive than manual and SFA technlques for two basic reasons: first, the short reaction times involved result In partial reaction yields; and second, the physical dispersion or dilutlon of the


183

sample in the carrier prevents the signal from attaining its maximum possible value. Little is gained i n attempting t o optimize the experimental conditions involved as greater reactor lengths or lower flow-rates intended t o increase the reaction development result i n increased dispersion and vice versa, so that compromise values must be chosen f o r each of the variables involved i n order t o obtain the best possible results. Insofar as the variables t o be optimized are normally interrelated, i t is usually advisable to apply the simplex method. 6.5.2 Selectivity The automation or semi-automation of a conventional manual method b y F I A often results i n a decrease in the number and level of interferents. Thus, i n the FIA version of the determination of cyanide by the classical reaction with barbituric acid/chloramine

T,

nitrite and sulphide pose no Interference at

concentrations ten times as high as that of the analyte, which is otherwise adversely affected by the presence of both interferents i n the manual method

[48]. The greater tolerance t o foreign species i n FIA methods can be generally to their kinetic character, so that undesirable side reactions

attributed

scarcely have the opportunity to develop t o an appreciable extent i n such a short interval as the residence time. The tolerance t o extraneous species is even more remarkable in kinetic F I A methods based on the measurement of a reaction rate (stopped-flow).

Optimization of FIA systems as regards selectivity

is a relatively simple task on account of their enormous versatility. 6.5.3

Preclsion Despite the fact that the F I A methodology Involves kinetic, physical and

chemical aspects whlch may a p r i o r i lead anyone into thlnking that the results obtained w i l l be anything but preclse, the reproducibility levels achieved are in fact fairly high, even comparable to those attained by manual and segmented flow methods. This is possibly one of the keys t o the success of FIA. 6.5.4

Rapidity This is one of the most outstanding features of the F I A methodology, which

clearly exceeds both manual and automatic analytical methods i n this regard. The time needed t o start up an FIA set-up or instrument is normally much shorter than that required t o set an SFA assembly ready for measurements

-

usually 30 min or more. Reliable FIA measurements can generally be made within 5-10 min after starting the pump(s), as such a short time i s sufficient for

the flow t o regularize. A s a rule, the delay tlmes, if any, In FIA are dictated by the detector warm-up.


184

TABLE 6.2 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f F I A methods according t o t h e i r sampling rate Sampling rate

Occurrence

(samples/h)

(X)

0-50

24

50-120

54

120-200

10

200-1 700

12

I n any case, the rapidity of the FIA methodology Is more clearly reflected i n the sampling rate, which is enormously higher than that of most manual methods and two t o five times higher than that of the fastest SFA techniques. Table 6.2 Ilsts the sampllng rate distribution of the FIA methods reported to date. As can be seen, 54% of the methods have sampling rates between 50 and 120 samples/h, 10% between 120 and 200 samples/h and another 24% between 0 and 50 samples/h. Nevertheless, some methods have an extremely low or high sam-

pling rate; thus, the determination of chemical oxygen

demand affords a f r e -

quency of only 10 h-1 (the reactor length Is no less than 40 m) [81],

whereas

the enzymatic analysis of hydrogen peroxide and glucose can be performed at an unusually high rate (1700 samples/hr) C531. The higher sampllng rate of FIA can be attributed t o the Occurrence of radial dlffuslon forces, which are much more significant than convective or axial dlffusion forces, that aid i n preventing carry-over by limiting the peak

w l dth through thelr washout effect. 6.5.5 Slmpllclty

I n contrast to classical continuous flow methods, FIA is characterized by great simplicity, which i n t u r n Is the result of the combined contributlon of three aspects: (a) Simple foundation. Flow-Injection

methods are only a conceptual modi-

fication of SFA techniques Involving replacement of the characteristic

air

bubbles of segmented-flow analysis with suitable geometric and hydrodynamic condltlons which ultimately result In substantial advantages over classical automatic methods of analysis. (b) Straightforward manlfolds conslstlng of Teflon tubing, connectors, flow splitters, etc., of easy assembly, which is i n clear contrast with the typical

F1 ow-in j e c t 1on analysis

135

instruments employed by the latest analytical methodologies, usually very sophisticated, expensive and d i f f i c u l t t o tune u p and maintain. ( c ) Easy operation. FIA set-ups are not only easy t o use f o r routine analyses, b u t also t o adapt t o the particular needs of each experimenter. Thus, the determination of a given analyte i n different matrices usually only

re-

quires replacement of some component, lengthening of a reactor or a different working temperature. 6.5.6 Economy

,

Such a straightforward technique as FIA i s also naturally inexpensive, i n clear contrast t o other automatic methodologies, both continuous segmented and batch. On average, an FIA instrument is two t o five times cheaper than an automatic instrument featuring similar o r even poorer performance. I n t h i s regard, i t is interesting t o note the possibility of assembling inexpensive home-made configurations from commercially available parts.

Such assemblies are much

cheaper than commercial instruments, which has probably been the chief reason for the meagre commercial development of t h i s novel

technique.

Flow-injection analysis i s also an economical technique as regards react a n t consumption, which i s usually 2-15 times lower than i n SFA and 20-100 times lower than i n conventional manual methods.

6.5.7 Versatility The modular character of an FIA system allows it t o be readily adapted to the particular needs of each type of analysis.

Component replacement is a

relatively easy task as high pressures are not used. On the other hand, the optimization of a purpose-built

FIA system poses few problems if the r i g h t

alternative is applied (e.9. the simplex method). The flexibility of t h i s methodology allows f o r a variety of applications: from determinations

with no additional chemical reaction t o sequential

tions involving f i v e o r six reactants; from gradient technlques t o flow

reac-

stopped-

or kinetic determinations; from incorporation of liquid-liquid extraction

units t o Insertion of gas samples. Flow-injection analysis

is also an excellent substitute f o r manual methods

involving classical problems. Thus, the possibility of incorporating reducing columns i n t o the system allows the use of strong reductants (e.g. Crz+ o r with

no

special

precautions.

The

ease

with

which

typical

V2+)

analytical

instruments such as photometers and pH-meters can be incorporated i n t o FIA assemblies f u r t h e r adds t o its versatility.

6.6 APPLICATIONS OF F I A The broad scope o f application of FIA i s a consequence of i t s flexibility,


186

which is responsible f o r i t s widespread [83],

nutritional [84] and environmental

use in clinical [82],

pharmaceutical

[85] chemistry. The most significant

contributions of FIA t o these areas are described in detail i n Chapters 13-15. Flow-injection analysis, as stated earlier in t h i s chapter, o f f e r s a host of substantial advantages over conventional analytical methodologies, automation i t y , etc.

capability,

flexibility,

low

reactant consumption,

great

namely versatil-

Thanks t o i t s automation capability, the FIA technique i s a major

alternative t o many continuous flow methods i n areas such as clinical chemis t r y which require the processing of a large number of samples i n a time as short as possible. FIA is compatible with standard-addition methods [86,87] and with other calibration

techniques

such

as

electronic

calibration

1701 and

exponential

dilution [7]. The gradient dilution technique, developed by Tyson e t al. for application i n atomic

absorption

spectrometry, features f u r t h e r

advantages

such as rapidity, low sample and reagent consumption and no need f o r volumetric glassware.

I n t h i s context

injection of standard

i t i s worth mentioning a procedure f o r

solutions i n t o the sample stream i n order t o effect

calibrations by the standard-addition method, as well as a convenient method for

the

determination

of

the

tolerance

level

afforded

[86,88].

Another

interesting contribution i n t h i s field i s represented by the creation of exponential concentration gradients with the aid of a gradient chamber [86-881.

A

classical mathematical equation permits an unknown concentration t o be calculated by measuring the time needed f o r a given absorbance value t o be attained. Several mathematical expressions describing the variation with time o f the concentration of a sample i n a large volume f i r s t injected i n t o a flowing stream and then passed through a mixing chamber have been reported by different workers. Tyson e t relationship

al. [86] derived the following simplified experimental

describing the

profile of the

evolution of

the

sample-carrier

i nt e rf ace: C

=

Co[l

-

exp(-qt/Vg)l

(6.10)

The plot of C against t i s a typical r i s i n g exponential c u r v e s t a r t i n g at C 0 (for t

=

0) and tendlng t o Co at sufficiently

long times, which obviously

depend on the flow-rate and the gradient chamber volume. I f it i s the carrier t h a t i s Injected Into the sample stream (i.e.

some dilution is involved), the

expression above becomes C

=

Co exp(-qt/Vg)

(6.1 1)


187

This Is representative of a falling exponential curve.

Pungor et a l .

[89]

found analogous expressions in developlng a procedure f o r the calibration of Ion-selectlve electrodes. Figure 6.17 shows the experimental set-up proposed by Tyson e t a l . [861 for gradient calibrations. It conslsts of two reservoirs holdlng water and a concentrated standard solution of the metal ion, linked via a three-way valve which allows the two solutions t o be sent separately t o the nebulizer.

--Water

-

-

.-

-

- _-

7.-

_ - Concentrated - . solution IMn+l -_ -_

_ __ _

Atomic absorption

1

I Gradient chamber

h

U Recorder

Flg. 6.17

Calibration system f o r AAS with gradient chamber.

When low sample and/or reagent consumptlon Is required because of the inaccesslbility (biologlcal fluids), expense (enzymes) or detrlment caused t o the sensing system (e.9. highly saline samples intended f o r analyses by atomic absorption spectrometers [MI), FIA modes such as merging zones [60-63] or integrated microconduits [67,68] offer conslderable advantages over other methodologies. Flow-lnjectlon analysis Is suitable for use with chemical systems wlth very

different reaction rates.

Thus, fast reactions are usually treated by

normal FIA, whereas slow processes are generally dealt with by other modes such as zone trapping [64] or stopped-flow techniques [611. Unstable chemlcal systems, which cannot be investigated by many other techniques, can be conveniently studied by FIA. Thus, determlnatlons involving reagents liable to b e affected by contact with the atmosphere (e.g.

strong

reductants [77,78]) or systems yleldlng unstable monitored products [eO] pose hardly any problem when carried out by FIA, whlch Is also an invaluable tool for the determination of acid-base constants of easlly hydrolysable substances [Sol.


188

When the analyte concentration falls outside the analytical range of the method In question, F I A allows the implementation

of

amplification and dilu-

tion techniques with the aid of: (a) A microprocessor 1701, (b) a closed-open single-detector multi-detection system allowlng recordings such as that shown i n Fig. 6.18 t o be obtained, from whlch the beam of straight lines I n Fig. 6.18b

is obtained, either on the basis of the sum of

the absorbances of different peaks (amplification method) o r by use of a single peak other than that of maximum absorbance (dilutlon method) [561; or (c) a multi-detector

(e.g.

an on-line

diode spectrophotometer)

either for

addition of the absorbance values at the maximum and in a neighbouring zone

on both sides of the maximum or for taking a slngle measurement wavelength more or less distant from the absorption maximum of the chemical system (dilution method) [91].

a

b)

A

A 0

1000

0 800

0 600

0 100

0 200

01

Time I mini

12

20

2 8

i L

36

IS GI

x

10.'

M

(a) Typical recording obtained by i n j e c t i n g a dye (Bromocresol Green, BG) i n t o a closed-open system. (b) Straight l i n e beam obtained by applying the amplification and d i l u t i o n technique t o BG. A t , straight l i n e obtained from the f i r s t peak (dotted l i n e ) , as usual i n FIA. A2, b , A ' 2 and A ' i correspond t o t h e measurement made a t the maximum o f the second peak, absorbance a t equilibrium, minimum o f the econd peak and maximum o f the f i r s t peak, respectively. $Ai and denote the sum o f the absorbances o f the f i r s t f O U r , t ree and two peaks, respectively

Fig. 6.18

jAi

k,

.

Flow-rnjection aiialysis

1P9

The development of kinetic methods (both stopped-flow

and differential)

by FIA offers substantial advantages over conventional methodologies. The possibility of c a r r y i n g out simultaneous determinations of several analytes i n a single sample by FIA has hardly been exploited so far,

al-

though i t i s a highly promising aspect on account of i t s great versatility. Such a possibility

is of special relevance to two areas o f analysis,

namely

clinical and environmental chemistry. A summary of the most common configurations used f o r simultaneous determinations carried o u t with a single detector is presented i n Fig. 6.18.

The manifold in Fig. 6.18a, described above, has

allowed the development of differential

kinetic methods for the analysis of

Ni-Co [93], pyridoxal/pyridoxal-5-phosphate

[94]

and

phosphate/siIicate

tures, while manifold b can be utilized f o r both non-kinetic

mix-

and differential

kinetic determinations by making RI = R2 (e.g. determination of phosphate and silicate

[95]).

The

reversed

FIA manifold

employed f o r the simultaneous non-kinetic

depicted

i n Fig.

6 . 1 9 ~ has been

determination of water

pollutants

Manifolds used f o r simultaneous determinations w i t h a single detector. (a) With s p l i t t i n g and merging points: ( b ) w i t h dual i n j e c t i o n and one merging p o i n t ; ( c ) reversed FIA w i t h sequential i n j e c t i o n o f reactants; (d) i n j e c t i o n o f a l a r g e sample volume and f o r mation o f two reaction zones; ( e ) manifold w i t h two s e r i a l flow-cells accommodated i n a spectrophotometer; ( f ) closed-open system. R, reagent; S, sample; D, detector; W, waste; SV, s e l e c t i n g valve.

Fig. 6.19


190

[49,511,

whereas the configuration shown in Fig. 6.19d

has been applied t o

simultaneous non-kinetic determinations based on pH-gradients (e.g. Pb-V and Co-Cu [96])

and to the differential

[741

kinetic determination of Ni and Co

[761 by use of a reagent concentration gradient. Manifold e i n F i g 6.19 i s

J

been

systems f o r the differential

kinetic

useful for both types of determination: differential kinetic (e.g.

N’-Co [971)

and non-kinetic (chromium speciation [98]). Finally, multidetection /has used i n conjunction

with open-closed

determination of Cu and Fe [Sl!,

i n addition t o other applications commented

on above. The configurations usually employed f o r simultaneous determinations by use of two detectors (Fig. 6.14) were also dealt with above.

I t has been plausibly demonstrated t h a t the development of a method using FIA leads t o a substantial decrease in interferences [52] in relation t o the

manual alternative. This is probably a result of the kinetic nature of fiowinjection measurements. On the other hand, it has been i r r e f u t a b l y proved that the on-line

incorporation of continuous separation

liquid extractors, ion exchangers,

devices such as liquid-

diaiysers o r distillation u n i t s i s of con-

W /

MICROPROCESSOR

’

INTERFACE

Fig. 6.20 FIA configuration f o r the speciation o f chromium. ME, glass-calomel microelectrode; DPC, 1,5-diphenylcarbazide; qt, ( t o t a l flow-rate) = 3.26 mL/min; q’ 0.30 mL/min; V i and V z , i n j e c t i o n valves (1300 and 475 pL); L i = 650 cm; Lz = 360 cm; Ls = 60 cm; 01 = 02 = 03 = 0.5 mm.

Flow-in j e c t i o n a n a l y s i s

siderable use for

191

preconcentration operations and/or

interference removal.

Flow-injection analysis is suitable for the determination of physico-chemical parameters such

as

acid-base

[go]

and

complex-formation

constants

[99],

refractive indices [loo] and viscosities [ l o l l . I n its reversed mode, FIA is fully adaptable to industrial process control and to studies of the speciation of various elements In waters [102].

[49-511,

One of the most promising developments in the latter area is the speciation of chromium by means of the configuration depicted in Fig. 6.20.

This uses a com-

bined glass-calomel microelectrode incorprorated in the sample stream prior to the simultaneous injection of the reagents (Ce4+ and 1,5-diphenylcarbazide for Cr3+ and Cr(V1). The data obtained for the concentration of these two species,

together with the sample pH and the constants corresponding to the equilibria in which

both oxidation

states are involved, allow the calculation of the

concentration of up to nine different chromium species: aquo complexes and hydroxylated forms of Cr(II1) and ionic, molecular and dimeric forms of Cr(V1)

[103]. These are but a f e w aspects in which the F I A methodology competes advantageously with or even excels other automatic flow analysis methods.

6.7 TRENDS I N F I A

Flow-injection analysis is currently at a stage of almost exponential growth judging by the large number of papers devoted to unravelling i t s principles and broadening its scope of application every year. The significance of this novel methodology and i t s impact on the

scientific community can be

assessed from i t s treatment as a separate discipline at international meetings, as well as from its vlrtually constant presence in the latest issues of the leading analytical journals. The discussion below advances likely future trends i n FIA regarding Its foundation,

instrumentation and applications.

As regards the foundation of FIA it i s reasonable t o assume that the near future holds the flnal establishment of the theory allowing the geometric and hydrodynamic characteristics of an FIA assembly t o be accurately related to the parameters defining the FIA recording. This w i l l undoubtedly call for the development or computer-simulated FIA processes and experimental comparisons It

is

also

probable,

and

certainly

deslrable,

that

accurate

relationships

between chemical kinetics and the physical processes involved w i l l be finally derived. As far as instrumentation Is concerned, manufacturers are expected to supply dedlcated Instruments suited to present needs (e.g. multi-channel apparatuses for simultaneous determinatlons). More accurate and readily controlled


192

propelling systems, also t o be expected.

the use of f i b r e optics and f u r t h e r miniaturization are The growing affordability of microcomputers w i l l almost

certainly make them indispensable components of every FIA set-up.

I n the context of FIA applications it is natural t o predict t h a t clinical chemistry and environmental pollution will be the two most appealing fields t o t h i s methodology. Flow injection analysis is also bound t o b r i n g significant changes i n the f u t u r e orientation of kinetic methods of analysis. I t should be noted t h a t FIA i s not exclusive t o analytical chemistry.

Thus,

Betteridge has claimed t h a t the new methodology is indeed a major

alternative f o r the acquisition o f comprehensive chemical

information i n a

simple, fast and inexpensive manner [104]. As stated b y prestigious researchers, the only limitation of FIA i s the user’s imagination [la-1061.

REFERENCES [l] J. Ruzicka and E. H. Hansen, Anal. Chim. Acta, 78 (1975) 145. [2] J. Ruzicka, E. H. Hansen and E. A. G. Zagatto, Anal. Chim. Acta, 88

(1977) 1. 131 J. T. Vanderslice, K. K. Stewart, A. G. Rosenfeld and D. J. Higgs, Talanta, 28 (1981) 1 1 . [4] A. Tijssen, Anal. Chim. Acta, 114 (1980) 71. [5] C. C. Painton and H. A. Mottola, Anal. Chim. Acta, 154 (1983) 1. [6] J. Ruzicka and E. H. Hansen, Flow I n j e c t i o n Analysis, Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981. [7] J. Ruzicka and E. H. Hansen, Anal. Chim. Acta, 145 (1983) 1. [8] M. A. Gbmez Nieto, M. D. Luque de Castro, A. Martin and M. Valchrcel, Talanta, 32 (1985) 319. [9] J. T. Vanderslice and G. R. Beecher, Talanta, 32 (1985) 334. [lo] M. Valchrcel and M. D. Luque de Castro, Talanta, 32 (1985) 339. [ l l ] C. C. Painton and H. A. Mottola, Anal. Chem., 53 (1981) 1713. [12] C. C. Painton and H. A. Mottola, Anal. Chim. Acta, 158 (1984) 67. 11131 F. J. Krug, H. F. Bergamin and E. A. G. Zagatto, Comnutation i n flow i n j e c t i o n analysis, Flow Analysis 111, Birmingham, 1985. [14] J. M. Reijn, W. E. van der Linden and H. Poppe, Anal. Chim. Acta, 123, (1981) 229. [15] E. Pungor, Z. Feher, G. Nagy, K. Toth, G. Horvay and M . Gratzl, Anal. Chim. Acta, 109 (1979) 1. [16] S. Hughes, P. L. Meschi and D. C. Johnson, Anal. Chim. Acta, 132 (1981) 1. [17] P. L. Meschi and D. C. Johnson, Anal. Chim. Acta, 124 (1981) 3 0 3 . [181 A. G. Fogg and N. K. Bsebsu, Analyst, 106 (1981) 1288. [19] A. Ivaska and T. Ryan, C o l l e c t . Czech. Chem. Comnun., 46 (1981) 2865. [203 J. Wang and H. D. Dewald, Talanta, 29 (1982) 901. [211 J. Wang and H. D. Dewald, Anal. Chim. Acta, 153 (1983) 325. [22] J. Wang and H. D. Dewald, Telanta, 29 (1982) 453. [23] B. P i h l a r , L. Kosta and B. H r i s t o v s k i , Talanta, 26 (1979) 805. [24] W. Lund and L. N. Opheim, Anal. Chim. Acta, 79 (1975) 35. [25] L. Brunt, Electrochemical detectors f o r high-performance l i q u i d chromatography and flow analysis systems, i n Trace Analysis, vol. I, Ed. J. Lawrence, Academic Press, 1981. ~~

Flow-injecticn analysis

193

8. K a r l b e r g and S. Thelander, Analyst, 103 (1978) 1151. J. Ruzicka, E. H. Hansen, A . K. Ghose and H. A. Mottola, Anal. Chem., 51 ( 1 9 7 9 ) 199. S. F. Simpson and F. J. H o l l e r , Anal. Chem., 54 (1982) 43. H. Mullet-, C h l o r i d e and cyanide determination by use o f t h e flow i n j e c t i o n method u s i n g i o n - s e l e c t i v e flow-type electrodes, 3rd Symposium on i o n - s e l e c t i v e electrodes, Matrafured, 279 ( 1 9 8 0 ) . M. Mascini and R. G i a r d i , Anal. Chim. Acta, 114 (1980) A. U. Ramsing and J. Ruzicka, Simultaneous determination o f C a t + and pH i n flow i n j e c t i o n a n a l y s i s w i t h i o n - s e n s i t i v e f i e l d e f f e c t t r a n s i s t o r : A model system f o r i n v i v o measurements, Proc. I n t . Conf., Nijmegen, (19801, p. 134. A . U. Ramsing, J. Janata, J. Ruzicka and M . Levy, Anal. Chim. Acta, 118 ( 1 9 8 0 ) 45. H. Kavel and F. Umland, Z. Anal. Chem., 316 ( 1983) 386. C. Wechter, N. Sleszynski, J. J . O’Dea and J. Osteryoung, Anal. Chim. Acta, 175 (1985) 45. D. Jagner, M. Josefson and K. Aren, Anal. Chim. Acta, 141 (1982) 147. D. Jagner, TrAC, 2 (1983) 53. R. Lindstrom and D. C. Johnson, Anal. Chem, 53 (1981) 1855. H. Weisz and G. F r i t z , Anal. Chim. Acta, 139 (1982) 207. T. M i l l e r , Adv. I n s t r u m . , 35 (1980) 21. J. M. R e i j n , W. E. van der Linden and H. Poppe, Anal. Chim. Acta, 114 (1980) 118. D. B e t t e r i d g e , W. C. Cheng, E. L. Dagless, P. David, T. B. Goad, D. R. Deans, 0. A. Newton and T. B. Pierce, Analyst, 108 (1983) 1. J. L. Burguera, A. Townshend and S. Greenfield, Anal. Chim. Acta, 114 (1980) 209. D. B e t t e r i d g e , E. L. Dagless, 6. F i e l d s and N. Graves, Analyst, 103 (1978) 897. M . Gallego, M. 0. Luque de Castro and M. Valchrcel, Atomic Spect., 6 (1985) 16. K. K. Stewart, G. R . Beecher and P. E. Hare, Fed. Proc. Fed. Am. SOC. Biochem., 33 (1974) 1429. M . V a l c h r c e l and M . D. Luque de Castro, F l o w - i n j e c t i o n a n a l y s i s : P r i n c i p l e s and a p p l i c a t i o n s , E l l i s Horwood, Chichester, 1986. K. S. Johnson and R. L. P e t t y , Anal. Chem., 54 (1982) 1185. A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. ValcBrcel, Talanta, 31 (1984) 673. M. ValcBrcel, M. D. Luque de Castro and A. Rios, Spanish Patent no 535820 1984. A. Rios, M . D. Luque de Castro and M. V a l c a r c e l , Analyst, 109 ( 1 9 8 4 ) 1487, A. Rios, M . D. Luque de Castro and M. ValcBrcel, Analyst, 110 (1985) 221. F. LBzaro, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valcarcel, Analyst, 109 ( 1 9 8 4 ) 333. C. M. W o l f f and H. A . Mottola, Anal. Cbem., 50 (1978) 94. S. M. Ramasamy, A . Iob and H. A. Mottola, Anal. Cbem., 51 (1979) 1637. S. M. Ramasamy and H. A. Mottola, Anal. Chim. Acta, 127 (1981) 39. A. Rios, M. D. LUQUe de Castro and M. ValcBrcel, Anal. Cbem. 57 (1985) 1803. A . Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valchrcel, Anal. Chim. Acta, 179 (1986) 463. A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valchrcel, J. Cbem. Ed., 63 (1986) 552. J. Ruz, A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and N. Valchrcel, r a l a n t a , 33 (1986) 199. E. A. G . Zagatto, F. J. Krug, H. F. Bergamin, S. A. Jorgensen and B. F. Reis, Anal. Chim. Acta, 104 (1979) 279. J. Ruzicka and E. H. Hansen, Anal. Chim. Acta, 106 (1979) 207. A. 0. Jacintho, E. A . G. Zagatto, B. F. Reis, L. C. R. Pessenda and F. J. Krug, Anal. Chim. Acta, 130 (1981) 361.

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Zagatto, A. 0. Jacintho, L. C. R. Pessenda F. J. Krug, B. F. Reis and H. F. Bergarnin, Anal. Chim. Acta, 125 (1981) 37. F. J. Krug, 8. F. Reis, M . F. Gine, E. A. G. Zagatto, J. R. F e r r e i r a and A. 0. Jacintho, Anal. Chim. Acta, 151 (1983) 39. T. A . K e l l y and G. D. C h r i s t i a n , Anal. Chem., 54 (1982) 1444. T. A. K e l l y and G. D. C h r i s t i a n , Anal. Chem., 53 (1981) 2110. J. Ruzicka, E. H. Hansen and J. Janata, Danish Patent Appl. no 4296/82, US Patent Appl. no 478227. J. Ruzicka, Anal. Chem., 55 (1983) 1040A. J. Ruzicka, P h i l . Trans. R. Soc. Lond., 305 (1982) 645. S. Olsen, J. Ruzicka and E. H. Hansen, Anal. Chim. Acta, 136 (1982) 101. G. Nagy, Z. Feher, K. Toth and E. Pungor, Anal. Chim. Acta,100 (1978)

[631 E. A. G. [641 [65] [661 [671 [68] [69] [70] [711

181. [72] H. L. Pardue and B. F i e l d s , Anal. Chim. Acta, 124 (1981) 39. [73] J. Ruzicka, E. H. Hansen and H. Mosbaek, Anal. Chim. Acta, 92 (1977) 235. [74] D. B e t t e r i d g e and 8. F i e l d s , Anal. Chem., 50 (1978) 654. [75] A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valcdrcel, Anal. Chem., 58 (1986) 663. [76] A. Fernhndez, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valcdrcel, Anal. Chim. Acta, 193 (1986) 107. [77] R. C. Schothorst, J. M. R e i j n , H. Poppe and G. den Boef, Anal. Chim. Acta, 145 (1983) 197. [78] R. C. Schothorst and G. den Boef, Anal. Chim. Acta, 175 (1985) 305. [79] M. C. Gosnell, R. E. S n e l l i n g and H. A. Mottola, Anal. Chem. ( i n press). [so] M. Gallego and M . Valcdrcel, Anal. Chim. Acta, 169 (1985) 161. [81] T. Korenaga, Anal. L e t t . , 13 (1980) 1001. [82] P. Linares, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valchrcel, Rev. Anal. Chem., VIII(3) (1985) 230. [831 A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valchrcel, J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal., 3 (1985) 105. [84] M . D. Luque de Castro, Annal. Brom., XXXVII-1 (1185) 197. [85] F. Lhzaro, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valcdrcel, Analusis, 13 1985 47. [861 J. F. Tyson, J. M. H. Appleton and A. B. I d r i s , Analyst, 108 (1983) 153. [87] J. F. Tyson, J. M. H. Appleton and A. 8. I d r i s , Anal. Chim. Acta, 145 (1983) 159. [88] J. F. Tyson and 1. B. I d r i s , Analyst, 106 (1981) 1125. [89] G. Horvai, K. Toth and E. Pungor, Anal. Chim. Acta, 82 (1976) 45. [go] A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valcdrcel, Anal. Chim. Acta, 171 (1985) 303. [91] F. Ldzaro, A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valcdrcel, Anal. Chim. Acta, 179 (1986) 279. [92] M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valcdrcel, Analyst, 109 (1984) 413. [93] A. Ferndndez, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valcdrcel, Anal. Chem., 56 (1984) 1146. [94] P. Linares, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valcdrcel, Anal. Chem., 57 (1985) 2101. [95] P. Linares, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valcdrcel, Talanta, 33 (1986) 889. [96] D. B e t t e r i d g e and B. F i e l d s , Anal. Chim. Acta, 132 (1981) 139. [97] M. Valcdrcel, M. D. Luque de Castro, A. Fernandez and P. Linares, New approaches f o r developing d i f f e r e n t i a l k i n e t i c methods by flow i n j e c t i o n analysis, 1st I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on K i n e t i c s i n A n a l y t i c a l Chernis t r y , Cbrdoba (Spain), 1983. [981 J. Ruz, A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valcdrcel, Anal. Chim. Acta, 186 (1986) 139. [991 D. C. S h e l l y , T. M. Rossi and I.M. Warner, Anal. Chem., 54 (1982) 87. [lo01 S. Olsen, L. C. R. Pessenda, J. Ruzicka and E. H. Hansen, Analyst, 108

(1983) 905.


[loll [I021 [lo31 [lo41 [lo51 [lo61

195

B e t t e r i d g e , W. C. Cheng, E. L. Dagless, P. David, T. B. Goad, D. R . Deans, D. A. Newton and T. 6. P i e r c e , Anslyst, 108 (1983) 17. M . 0. Luque de Castro, Talanta, 33 (1986) 45. J. Ruz, A . Torres, A. Rios, M. 0. Luque de Castro and M. V a l c h r c e l , J. Autom. Chem., 8 (1986) 70. D. B e t t e r i d g e , 2 . Anal. Chem., 312 (1982) 441. H. A. M o t t o l a , Anal. Chem., 53 (1981) 1312A. W. E. van d e r Linden, TrAC, 1 (1982) 188.

0.

7 Automatic

continuous analysers,

Other automatic unsegmented f l o w

111, methods

7.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter deals wlth a variety o f automatic methods with very peculiar features that distinguish them from those described In the preceding chapters and make them appllcabie t o particular problems In areas such as completely contlnuous flow

analysis (e.g.

waste water analysis) and clinlcal analysis.

These methods can be classified Into three general groups, namely continuous

mixing methods, stopped-flow continuous mixing methods and continuous-flow titra tions. 7.1.1 Continuous mlxing methods These Involve introducing the sample into the system, mixing it with the carrier or reagent, measurlng the reacting plug as It passes through a sultable detector and elther sending it t o waste (open systems) or reclrculating I t i n order that the analyte may partition between the two phases upon contact

with the immiscible phase (closed systems). Alternatively, the sample can be introduced into the system In an intermittent fashlon and wash cycles can be intercalated between samples t o avoid carryover. I n some instances, the determination conslsts of two well-deflned

stages: (a) deposition of the anaiyte

with removal of sample and (b) asplration of buffer prior t o detection (e.g. i n the determination of heavy metals In waters as proposed by Cnobloch and based on the preconcentration-red issoi utlon prlnci ple). 7.1.2 Stopped-flow continuous mixing methods The flow can be stopped at varlous stages durlng the process. In the variant of sample Insertion without injectlon, the purpose of stopplng the flow Is t o prevent alr from entering the system between sample aspiration and reagent aspiration o r washing. In methods based on fast kinetlcs, the flow Is halted at the detector i n order t o monitor the evolution of the reaction, whereas the Idea behind stopplng the flow In SF/USA i s t o r e f i l l the syringe after each injectlon.

197

Other- a u t o m a t i c unsegmented f l o w methods

7.1.3 Continuous-flow titrations

I n these, the sample is introduced i n t o the system i n a continuous manner, either by keeping i t s speed constant and changing t h a t of t h e t i t r a n t , o r vice versa -alternatively,

both sample and t i t r a n t can be kept at a constant speed

and measurements can be made as a function of the analytical signal thus obtained. A discontinuity i s occasionally introduced i n t o the system i n order t o intercalate the wash solution; other times (e.g.

i n F I A titrations,

volve

stream

injecting

signal/time

the

sample

into

the

titrant

and

which in-

monitoring

the

binomial) there is no need t o stop the flow as the t i t r a n t stream

itself acts as a wash solution.

TABLE 7 . 1 Types o f d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n automatic methods

Type

Features of

o f method

the d i s c o n t i n u i t y

Batch, r o b o t i c

No flowing stream. Samples held i n separate cuvettes

Continuous

-

Segmented

A i r bubbles/wash s o l u t i o n

Unsegmented (a) Sample (reagent) i n j e c t i o n a.t I n t o a continuous c a r r i e r

Single s e r i a l i n j e c t i o n system

o r reagent stream a.2 Simultaneous mixing o f sample and reagent

Dual p a r a l l e l i n j e c t i o n and h a l t i n g

o f flow

(stopped-f low) ( b ) Sample a s p i r a t i o n b . l Without h a l t i n g o f flow

No d i s c o n t i n u i t y

(CCFA) b. 2 I n t e r m i t t e n t i n t r o d u c t i o n

. Without h a l t i n g o f flow . With h a l t i n g o f f l o w

Sample changeover I n t e r m i t t e n t pumping/sample changeover

( CDFA )

None of the methods considered here s t r i c t l y

uses segmentation b y a i r bub-


198

bles. Whenever air is introduced, i t s function is different from that in SFA (e.g the determination of total mercury by CCFA,

in which the air present

facilitates the diffusion of mercury vapour). An overview of the different types of discontinuity used i n automatic methods and their characteristics is presented in Table 7.1.

The most common dis-

continuity in discrete and robotic methods is the absence of flow, which involves keeping the samples i n separate vessels f o r measurement. On the other hand, automatic continuous methods use very different kinds of discontinuity

or do not use one at all. The discrete nature of segmented methods is determined by the presence of bubbles and wash cycles as a means of avoiding carryover, whereas that of unsegmented methods i s dictated by the manner in which the sample -and

reagent-

is introduced into the system. There is only a

single type of method using no discontinuity:

completely continuous flow

analysis (CCFA).

7.2 CONTINUOUS MIXING METHODS Under this heading are distinguished two groups of methods according t o the way i n which the sample is introduced; this can be either incorporated into the system (open or closed) by insertion into the carrier in a continuous fashion or introduced intermittently into it,

with intermediate wash cycles

between successively injected samples i n order t o avoid carry-over. 7.2.1 Continuous lntroductlon of sample Automatic cont in uous-f low met hods i nvolvi n g the cont i n uous i nt rod uct ion of sample into the system are implemented by means of two different configurations: (a) open, in which the flow i s wasted after passing through the measuring cell, and (b) closed, in which the flowing solution is returned t o the vessel t o be recircuiated once it has passed through the detector. 7.2.1.1

open systrrns

Open configurations, the general scheme of which i s depicted in Fig. 7.1, involve evolvlng systems. The extent to which the system concerned has evolved is continuously monitored through the changes detected by the sensing system

on mixing the sample with a suitable reagent whlch is discarded after measurement. The outstanding feature of this type of system Is the use of a slngle sample, the evolution of which i s monitored as a function of time. As only one sample is employed, no wash cycle i s required;

it suffices t o follow

the

changes occurring In the concentration of the analytes. These systems are thus ideally suited t o the monitoring of water, industrial effluents, etc. -abun-

Other automatic unsegmented

flow met hods

199

dant and inexpensive samples requiring the continuous control of various species.

a) PROPELLING

-

SYSTEM

DETECTOR

-

.- - -

_.-I

,, W

P R O P E L LING SYSTEM

-

DETECTOR

--

-

Basic types o f configuration used i n completely continuous analysis. (a) Open: the sample i s discarded a f t e r measurement. ( b ) Closed: the sample i s recycled.

Fig. 7.1 flow

This methodology was f i r s t implemented i n the completely continuous flow analyser (CCFA) developed by Goto C1l for the continuous monitoring of chemical oxygen demand (COD) i n waste water and of total mercury i n water. He determined COD by use of a conflguration such as that depicted i n Fig. 7.2a, in which the sample stream is mixed continuously and successively with an acidic solution of 40% HJPO~and 10% HzS04, a 5% solutlon of AgNh and a

16mM solu-

tion of KMnO4. The slow kinetics of the redox reaction involved calls for the use of an 18-m reactor immersed i n a thermostated bath at 100°C. The stream finally

reaches a thin-layer

electrolytic

flow-cell

working

at

a constant

potential of 0.50 V against an Ag-AgCI electrode. Figure 7.2b shows the recording obtained by amperometric monitoring of permanganate reduction in laboratory waste throughout an afternoon (from 4.00 t o 8.30 p.m.1.

Note the low flow-

rates used (100 and 50 pL/min f o r the sample and reagent, respectively), which result In decreased reagent consumption.


200

a)

A Sample

I-

-

1moc - - - - :I

Potentiostat

I

Recorder

I

J-

5 % A g NO3

I I

t I

h

I t

,1I ; I

Electrolytic cell

I

1

waste

COD Img/ll

16'00

17 00

1900

2 0 30

time

(a) Scheme o f a completely continuous flow analyser f o r uninterrupted determination o f chemical oxygen demand. (b) Results obtained i n the monitoring o f laboratory waste throughout an afternoon. (Reproduced from [ l ] with permission o f the Royal Society of Chemistry).

Fig. 7.2

The continuous monitoring of total Hg was accomplished by Goto [ l ] with the aid of the configuration displayed In Fig. 7.3a,

i n which the sample i s

aspirated at a relatively high flow-rate ( 3 mL/min) through A and mixed continuously with an acid stream, D (50% HzS04) and an oxidant, E (4% potassium persulphate).

It is then introduced into a Teflon reactor (1.0 mm bore, 10-m

long) immersed in a thermostated bath at 8O"C, where the organic compounds present in the sample are oxidized and organic mercury i s converted into inorganic metal. The digested sample i s mixed with the reductant, B (10% SnCIz i n 10% HCI) and air (C),

subsequently

being driven t o the reductionextraction

reactor (polyethylene tubing), where Hg(I1) is reduced t o elemental mercury which diffuses to the gas phase. The sample is later led t o a gas-liquid separator in which the liquid is sent to waste whlle the vapour i s carried by the air stream through the condenser -immersed

i n a water-bath-,

where any steam

present i n the gas phase is condensed and passed t o waste. The d r y

mercury

vapour passes through the flow-cell of a UV spectrophotometer, which monitors the absorbance at 353.7 nm. Figure 7.3b

Illustrates the results obtalned on

monitoring laboratory waste f o r an afternoon. The determlnatlon, like that of


COD,

f l o w methods

20 1

i s carried o u t at a low reagent flow-rate

(0.1 mL/min),

although t h a t

used f o r air is higher (3.0 mL/min).

a)

11

L

b)

I

,

15 00

16 00

15 30

16 30

lime

Fig. 7.3 Diagram o f analyser f o r continuous monitoring o f t o t a l mercury i n water: 1 and l ’ , p e r i s t a l t i c pumps; 2 , 2 ’ , 2 ” and 3, merging points; 4, reaction-oxidation tube; 4’, reduction-extraction tube; 5, gas-liquid separator; 6, condenser; 7 , UV f l o w - c e l l ; 8 , UV spectrophotometer; 9, recorder; 10, mercury vapour absorber; 11, water-bath sample, reductant, reagent, a c i d and oxidant stream, re(O’C); A-E, spectively. (Reproduced from [ l ] w i t h permission o f the Royal Society o f Chemistry).

The monitoring of such a

highly toxic anion as cyanide has also

been

carrled o u t by t h i s completely continuous methodology [ 2 ] by use of a classical spectrophotometric system (barbituric acid/chloramine T ) and t h e configuration shown i n Fig. 7.4a,

in which a stream of chloramine T i s mixed with the

sample and then merged with a pyridine/barbituric acid stream after the corre-

A second reactor allows the coloured product t o form and be monitored at 578 nm. This method, also implemented by normal and reversed FIA, allows a comparison between these two modes and CCFA. I n addition, it delimits

sponding reactor.

the scope of application of each configuration: continuous monitoring of abundant and inexpensive samples f o r completely continuous flow analysis o r reversed FIA -if

only sporadic control Is required in the latter case-

expensive o r scanty samples f o r normal

FIA.

o r of


a1

-

"75 r n llr n "

Y H P L E ICN I BUFFERlpH~631 CHLORAMINC - T

PIR I 01NE -0ARBIT W1C

L

ACID REAGENT

b) 0 95 rnl/rn\"

n

PYRIOINE BARBITURIC ACID REAGENT

I

r

I

BUFFER l p H - 6 3 1 CHLORAMINE -T SAHPLEICN~!

C) 0 30 ml/rnin BUFFER I p H - b 11 CHLORAMINE 1 PHOTDETER

SAMPLE ICN !

,

PYRlDlNE BARBITURIC ACID REAGENT i---

~

~

-

.

~

~

Fig. 7.4 Configurations constructed f o r the determination o f cyanide i n water. (a) Normal F I A method (periodic analyses o f valuable o r scanty samples). ( b ) Reversed F I A method ( p e r i o d i c analyses o f abundant, inexpensive samples). ( c ) Completely continuous method (uninterrupted analysis i n evolving systems). (Reproduced from 121 w i t h permission o f Pergamon Press).

7.2.1.2 Closed systens This t y p e o f configuration i s shown schematically i n Fig. 7.lb. use i s with two-phase

I t s chief

systems in which one of the phases, after passage

t h r o u g h a suitable separator, i s continuously pumped t o the sensing system, which monitors the changes i n the chemical system. The applications described

so f a r are connected with studies of extraction kinetics o r titrations. Figure 7.5 shows the configuration designed by Freiser e t a l . f o r the study of extraction kinetics [3]. I t represents an improvement over a non-automatic instrument previously devised by Freiser's group [4]. The configuration concerned, which was applied t o the extraction of Ni(I1) with dithlzone, consists of a reservoir (immersed in a thermostated bath) i n t o which the sample is introduced t h r o u g h inlet C. The reservoir i s furnished with a high-speed s t i r r e r , a Teflon phase separator capable of selectively f i l t e r l n g water-immiscible solvents from an intimate admlxture with the aqueous phase and situated at the end of a piece o f t u b i n g leading t o the flow-cell o f a spectrophometer.

Other automatic unsegmented flow methods

203

Once the organic phase has been separated, it is introduced i n t o the flowcell, G (volume 50 pL), fitted t o the peristaltic pump, I. The spectrophotometer is connected t o a recorder (J), an analogue-to-digital

converter (K) and

a clock (L), and interfaced t o a microcomputer ( M I , a floppy-disk

d r i v e (N)

and a p r i n t e r o r digital plotter (P). The use of suitable software allows correction f o r baseline d r i f t and anomalously large absorbance readings arising from possible passage o f a i r bubbles through the flow-cell.

The calculation of

the rate constant of extraction o f Ni(I1) b y dithizone i n t h e organic phase i s based on the use of hundreds o f experimental points and is made over at least two half-lives in order t o allow i t s utilization over a wide range o f reaction

rates. As absorbance readings are made on the organic phase, the

reaction

development can be followed by measuring either the decrease in the f r e e extractant concentration o r the increase i n the chelate concentration i n t h i s phase.

Fig. 7.5 Instrumental design for automatic study o f e x t r a c t i o n kine t i c s . (Reproduced from 131 w i t h permission o f the American Chemical Society).

The instrument illustrated in Fig. 7.6a, similar t o that descrlbed above, has been applied t o the photometric t i t r a t i o n of weakly acid drugs I n the presence of an immiscible solvent. The essential

differences between t h i s i n s t r u -

ment and the previous one lie i n the use of a spoiler aimed at minimizing vortex formation arising from the utilization of a s t i r r i n g bar; a burette dispensing the t i t r a n t o r the washing solution and a t r i p l e layer of f i l t e r paper on the Teflon membrane t o allow it t o be traversed by the aqueous phase which, in t u r n , is propelled t o the flow-cell

b y means o f a peristaltic pump [5].


204

2

a)

I

U

25

20

15

5

10

0 millUleS

Fig. 7.6 (a) Automated instrument f o r acid-base t i t r a t i o n o f drugs. 1, Flow-cell; 2 , p e r i s t a l t i c pump; 3, automatic burette. ( b ) Recording used t o construct the c a l i b r a t i o n graph. (Reproduced from [ 5 ] w i t h permission o f the American Chemical Society).

The procedure followed i n the determination i s as follows: 10 mL of the aqueous solution of sample are placed i n t o the t i t r a t i o n vessel together w i t h 20 mL o f CHC13/CCI4 ( 1 : l ) and the system i s then started. After 4 min is the

following equilibrium is attained

BH+

+

= Ka

Hz0

+

X-

KIP

It

BHX

B

+

HJO+ Ka 80

it

KBHX = (BHX)o

whence the absorbance o f the aqueous solution reaching the flow-cell lizes.

A t t h i s point the t i t r a n t

reaction

B + HJO+ It (810

OHKH

2H2 0

is added a t 1.5-min

stabi-

intervals so t h a t the


flow methods

205

may be completed and the aborbance may reach a new plateau (Fig. 7.6b). The titration curve is traced by plotting the values of the different absorbance plateaux as a function of dilution effect.

the volume of t i t r a n t added (mL), allowlng f o r the

The t i m e needed t o attain stability after each additlon of

t i t r a n t is dependent on (a) the s t i r r i n g efficiency, ( b ) the pumping rate, (c) the fraction of the aqueous phase contained i n the pumping system and flow-cell and ( d ) the flow pattern through these two elements. This configuration allows for replacement of the hydrophilic filter paper by silicone-treated hydrophobic paper, which i s permeable only t o the organic phase and hence permits Inversion of the monitored phase. The instrument can also be utilized for complexometrlc titration of metal Ions by use of ligands that form extractable complexes with the ions.

7.2.2 Intermittent lntroductlon of Satnple This mode of sample introduction is used when dealing with distlnct samples whose successive analysis requlres two major demands t o be met: (a) Periodic changeovers of the sample solution, which involve stopping the aspiration i n one of the reservolrs and starting it in another. Inasmuch as the propelling system operates i n a continuous fashion, sample changeover includes an interval durlng which the end of the aspiration tube i s out of contact with the solution so that some air enters the system. (b) Wash cycles to be Intercalated between successively inserted samples. Obviously, the more different the samples are the longer Is the wash period required, and the lower the analysls rate.

Sample

Fig. 7.7 Simultaneous analyser f o r glucose and urea: A and 6, enzyme electrodes f o r these species; R, recorders; C, flow-cell (40 pL).


206

The inherent features of these methods make them Particularly suitable for

clinical

analyses,

with

either

electrical

or

optical

detection

of

the

analytical signal, which i s measured as such (non-kinetic methods) o r monitored as a function of time (kinetic methods). Some representative examples

are commented on below.

b)

Fig. 7.8 (a) Diagram o f a m u l t i p l e analyser f o r determination o f Na+, K+, H+ and C1- by means o f s e r i a l potentiometric detectors. ( b ) Enlarged section o f the valve used f o r selection o f sample and standards. (Reproduced from [ 7 ] w i t h permission o f the American Chemical Society).

Mascini and Paleschi [61 proposed the straightforward set-up shown in Fig. 7.7 f o r the simultaneous determination of glucose and urea in serum samples by

use o f home-made electrodes incorporating enzymes immobilized on nylon nets fixed on oxygen o r ammonia sensors. other within a slngie flow-cell

The electrodes are placed facing each

(40 pL) t h r o u g h which the sample Is aspirated

f o r 1 min at a flow-rate of 1.8 mL/min), followed b y a wash period o f 2 min with a b u f f e r intended t o restore the baseline between successively injected samples. The recorder connected t o each sensor allows the collection of the slgnals corresponding t o each sample. I n Fig. 7.8a is shown a serial configura-

tion of sensors used for the determination of up t o four inorganic specles

20 7

Other automatic unsegmented f l o w methods

It permits the continuous sequential pumping of the sample plus two cali-

[7].

bration standards, as well as acquisition and treatment o f the data correspondi n g t o the concentration of Na+, K+, H+ and CI- i n blood serum. The dotted line i n the f i g u r e represents the thermostating system used (38°C). A r o t a r y valve (Fig. 7.8b) driven by a low-speed motor determines the o r d e r i n which each of t h e three streams is sent t o the sensing system. Amperometric detection has been utilized i n conjunction with t h i s type of method f o r the determination of both lactate b y use o f an oxygen sensor covered

with a nylon membrane supporting immobilized enzyme

[a]

and penicillins

[9] with differential amperometric monitoring and s p l i t t i n g o f the sample i n t o two substreams (Fig. 7.9), one of which acts as a blank and the other causes the

analytical

reaction

involving oxidation of

penicillin t o penicilloic acid

(which i s determined iodometrically) by means of penicillinase o r an alkali base. Hence, the only difference in composition between the solution circulati n g through the reaction manifold and the blank I s the absence of an oxidant from the latter. The two tubular P t electrodes used, one per line, are bridged t o a common reference electrode (SCE). The peristaltic pump supplies a pulsati n g flow which undoubtedly influences the appearance of the recordings. To circumvent t h i s shortcoming, the sample i s pumped t o waste at a lower rate than t h a t a t which it is aspirated i n t o the system and excess liquid is evacuated t h r o u g h PSI and PS2.

Fig. 7.9 Scheme o f instrument f o r enzymatic determination o f l a c t a t e by d i f f e r e n t i a l amperometric measurements. The c h i e f difference between the measurement ( t o p ) and reference manifold (bottom) i s the absence o f an oxidant from the l a t t e r . (Reproduced from [ 8 ] w i t h permission o f Elsevier).

A relatively simple configuration t h a t can be Included in this section was


208

developed by Cnobloch et al.

[lo]

f o r the determination of heavy metal ions i n

natural and waste waters on the basis of t h e electrolytic preconcentration principle and coulometric detection. The set-up used is described i n detail i n Chapter 14. The method applied involves deposition of the metals concerned on the cathode (which is maintained at a constant potential and where s t r i p p i n g and measurement of the electric charge involved i n the process are carried out), evacuation of the cell and subsequent

loading with p u r e electrolyte.

The interesting system proposed by Weisz and F r i t z E l 1 1 uses both electrochemical and optical techniques f o r a number of catalytic determinatlons, all o f which are based on controlled anodic generation o f a catalyst and spectrophotometric monitoring o f the catalysed reaction. I n t h i s manner, with t h e aid o f the instrument depicted i n Fig. 7.10, they determined Fe(II1). The reagents utilized are propelled i n t o the mixing chamber (MC), where they mix with the catalyst generated a t G, which in turn is swept by the NazSO4 solution. The reacting mixture enters the vertical cuvette C, which Is traversed b y a l i g h t beam previously selected by a suitable filter. After passing t h r o u g h the solution held in C, the beam reaches the photoelement (PE). The absorption signal obtained is plotted as a function of time and is a measure o f the analyte concentration and hence of the reaction rate. The solution emerging from the cell

Is led t o a levelling bottle, the height of which i s fixed so that the solutions pass t h r o u g h the cuvettte as quickly as they enter the mixing chamber. I f all the reactant concentrations are kept constant, the signal provided by

the photoelement i s a measure o f the concentration o f catalyst produced i n t h e generation cell. Catalysts such as Cu(I1) and Ag(1) have been employed i n de-

Fig. 7.10 Experimental set-up f o r c a t a l y t i c determinations w i t h electrochemical generation of the c a t a l y s t as employed f o r determination o f i r o n ( f o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s , see t e x t ) . (Reproduced from [ l l ] w i t h permission o f Elsevier).


209

veloping a large number of determinative methods based on catalytic (determination o f Fe3+), inhibitory (EDTA), activating (Zn2+ and bipyridine) o r react i v a t i n g (Cd2+) effects. Aoki and Munemori [12] approached the photometric and fluorimetric determination of gases by application of automatic continuous mixing methods with intermittent introduction of the sample and the use of the set-up

depicted

schematically i n Fig. 7.11a, the most important p a r t of which i s a dual-tube system (shown i n greater detail i n Fig. 7.11b) consisting of an inner microporous polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) tube wrapped by another tube of the same material. The particular configuration shown is used in the determination of

f r e e chlorine i n water, which involves pumping the sample and

1 M HCI solu-

tion t o the merging point (M) and then i n t o the inner tube (Ti) of the separation unit. A 0.1 M NaOH solution is pumped through P2 i n t o the outer tube (T2) of the separator.

Molecular chlorine generated as a result of the merging

between the sample and the HCi solution diffuses through the microporous tube and is converted i n t o CIO- upon dissolution i n the NaOH stream circulating through Tz, subsequently reaching the flow-cell of a U V detector, where i t is monitored at 290 nm.

a)

Sample 0.1N M O H 1 N HCI

Pyrex

L

Microporous PTFE ( T 2 1

1x18

Fig. 7.11 ( a ) Instrumental design o f a photometric ( f l u o r i m e t r i c ) gas analyser. (b) Separation u n i t f e a t u r i n g two concentric PTFE tubes o f d i f f e r e n t porosity. (Reproduced from [12] w i t h permission o f the American Chemical Society).

The same t y p e o f membrane and a similar configuration are used in the fluorimetric determination of ammonia i n water based on the reaction of t h l s base with o-phthalaldehyde (OPA) i n the presence of alkaline 2-mercaptoethanol (MCE) t o yield a fluorescent adduct [131. I n thls case, the merging of the


210

sample solution

with a

stream of 7 M NaOH gives rise to the formation of

NH3, which diffuses through T1 i n t o Tz, where it reacts with the OPA-MCE mixture, the development of t h i s indicator reaction being monitored at hex = 370 nm and

Aen

= 486 nm. Some distilled water i s circulated t h r o u g h TZ f o r 5 min

after each measurement and the reading thus obtained i s taken as a reference t o be subtracted from t h a t provided by the sample [14]. Blaedel and Hicks [15] developed several methods f o r the determination of

various enzymes and substrates b y use o f a dual-beam spectrophotometer i n which the reference and sample cells are located i n series (kinetic methods) o r i n paratlel (differential

methods).

They determined glucose b y a kinetic

method implemented with the configuration depicted in Fig. 7.12a and the aid of the enzymes glucose oxidase and peroxidase, the former t o promote the aerial oxidation of the substrate t o gluconic acid and the latter t o facilitate the oxidation of o-tolidine t o benzidine (monitored at 635 nm) by

HZOZgener-

ated i n the previous reaction. The reagent and the sample stream are set i n motion by g r a v i t y flow and with the aid of a peristaltic pump, respectively,

01 R E A G E N l ?ESER\OIII

PERISTALTIC PUMP SAMPLE

:HAhGLR

0-1 O m '

SAMPLES

Analysers f o r (a) d i r e c t and ( b ) d i f f e r e n t i a l k i n e t i c determinations. The determination c a r r i e d out on l a ) (glucose) is based on two measurements made a t two d i f f e r e n t times; t h a t performed w i t h (b) (transaminases) r e l i e s on the simultaneous measurement o f a s i g n a l increment a r i s i n g from the difference i n reaction r a t e r e s u l t i n g from a difference i n temperature between the two channels. (ReDroduced from [151 w i t h permission o f the American Chemical Society).

Fig. 7.12

Other

automatic unsegmented f l o w methods

211

and meet at a merging point. A three-way stopcock located p r i o r t o the pump allows switching from sample t o sample with no introduction of a i r o r disturbance t o the f l o w of sample. The pulser situated before the merging point is intended t o increase the efficiency of reagent-sample mixing and t o facilitate the flushing of the measured sample by a fresh sample. The reacting mixture yields signals of (different

&/At

different intensity on passage through each of the cells

reaction times);

this

permits

kinetic

measurements

of

the

form

t o be performed. This method has been applied t o the determination of

glucose in blood 1151. The instrumental design illustrated i n Fig. 7.12b

enables the user t o

c a r r y out differential measurements f o r the determination of enzymes. The chemi s t r y associated with the determinative procedure i s as follows: amino-acid

+ a-ketogiutaric acid

glutamate + NAD+ NADH

+

= =

=

a-ketoglucarate

oxidized dye

NAD+

+

keto-acid

+

+

glutamate

(1)

NADH + NH4+

(2)

reduced dye

(3)

The enzyme sample (serum o r tissue homogenate) is diluted in GDH (glutamic dehydrogenase) and buffered amino-acid, and introduced at a constant flow-rate of 1 mL/min until meeting a reagent stream containing the remaining ingredients required f o r the reaction t o develop, namely a-ketoglutarate,

a transamin-

ase (GXT), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), phenazine methosulphate

(PMS) and t h e dye 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol.

The mixture resulting from the

merging i s s p l i t into two lines thermostated

at 37 and 1 8 " C , respectively.

After a residence t i m e of 2 min, the content o f each line flows t h r o u g h i t s corresponding cell. The absorbance difference between the two signals obtained i s then measured and recorded. The use o f calibration standards and a suitable computer program allows readings t o be reflected on the recorder chart directl y i n enzyme u n i t s [16].

7.3 STOPPED-FLOW CONTINUOUS MIXING METHODS Under this heading are discussed those methods in which f o r m e reason o r another t h e flowing stream i s halted somewhere along the system, either t o change the aspiration probe from the sample solution t o the reagent o r wash solution,

t o effect

sample

changeover o r

t o allow

sufficient time f o r

the

indicator reaction t o develop. Stopped-flow continuous mixing methods can be Implemented in three different manners depending on the aim of the flow interruption: by inserting the sample without injection, on the basis o f fast kinetics and by means of the so-called

stopped-flow/unsegmented storage analyser.

7.3.1 Sample insertlon without injection This analytical methodology, descrlbed by Riley e t al. [17], who original-

2 72


l y gave i t the unfortunate name of 'FIA without injection',

i s an interesting

alternative both t o FIA and t o automatic segmented methods. The typical insertion o r injection of the sample by means of a valve i s replaced here by a peristaltic pump stopped and started at s t r i c t l y controlled intervals. A kinematically controlled probe aspirates a given sample volume t h r o u g h a steel tube dipped i n t o the sample solution,

after which i t is raised and the pump is

stopped. The probe is then immersed i n the reagent reservoir and the pump is restarted. The reacting plug i s led t o the detector via the reaction coil. As no air i s aspirated in t h i s operation and the flow is completely bubble-free (unsegmented 1.

bl

P

P

R

C

Fig. 7.13

CDFA systems o f d i f f e r e n t complexity. (a) Straightforward system w i t h sequential a s p i r a t i o n o f sample and reagent. (b) The reagent, R, i s aspirated i n a continuous fashion and mixed w i t h the a l t e r n a t i n g flow o f sample, S, and washing solution, C. ( c ) Merging zones system w i t h a l t e r n a t e a s p i r a t i o n o f sample/reagent and a washing solution. (Reproduced from [171 w i t h permission o f the American Chemic a l Society).

Figure 7.13a shows the general scheme of the set-up used t o implement t h i s mode of continuous-flow analysis. The peristaltic pump is connected t o a microcomputer-controlled

motor. It is interesting that the passage of the reacting

p l u g t h r o u g h the roller-squeezed pump tube results i n no increase whatsoever

Other aut oma t i c unsegmented f l o w met hods

273

i n dispersion. A dual-channel system within which the reagent i s in continuous motion and meets the sample carrier a t a merging point p r i o r to the reaction coil (Fig. 7.13b) is a suitable alternative. Figure 7.13~ shows a more complicated set-up

based on the merging zones principle: two aspiration tubes are

immersed simultaneously i n the sample and reagent reservoir and then i n t h a t of the carrier. The incorporation of a microcomputer permits the system t o be automated as regards both i t s control and data treatment. According t o i t s creators, t h i s analytical mode, known as c o n t r o l l e d d i s p e r s i o n f l o w a n a l y s i s (CDFA), o f f e r s a number of major advantages, namely: (a) Decreased sample consumption as a result of avoiding the use of a t r i p l e sample volume t o flush the previous sample from the injection valve loop, which i s a great asset i n clinical chemistry.

( b ) Valve leakage due t o heavy workloads i n hospital laboratories is minimized. (c) The technique i s suitable f o r joint use with various FIA modes (e.g. merging zones). The microcomputer can be programmed to stop the flow when the reacting plug reaches the detector and hence t o apply the stopped-flow

mode,

particularly suitable f o r kinetic-enzymatic determinations. ( d ) The results obtained are comparable i n precision t o those provided by an injection valve. The usefulness and advantages of t h i s technique have been demonstrated by i t s proponents in the determination of real samples, both clinical and pharmaceutical. Several other configurations similar t o those described above have been used f o r determination of albumin, with a simple set-up depicted i n Fig 7.13a,

and of triglycerides and theophylline,

similar t o t h a t by use of a

configuration resembling that o f Fig. 7 . 1 3 ~ and involving merging zones and stopping of the flow a t the flow-cell

i n o r d e r t o c a r r y out kinetic measure-

ments [18]. Both are discussed i n detail in the Chapter 10.

7.3.2 Methods based on fast kinetics Time is a distinct feature of kinetic methods as compared with equilibrium methods. For a kinetic method t o be successfully applied it is i n fact essential

t o s t r i c t l y control variables such as the delay time o r the measurement

time. The method used t o determine the rate o f a given reaction obviously depends on i t s half-life. As a rule, reactions with half-lives shorter than 10 s are classed as fast. Such reactions involve specific instrumental requirements as regards both t h e i r study as such (structural elucidation, determination of rate constants) and t h e i r use for analytical purposes. The chief problem with methods based on fast kinetics lies i n achieving


214

instantaneous and reproducible mixing of the reactants. Mixing devices designed so f a r have been aimed at lowering the level of reactlon half-lives t o which t h i s methodology could be appplied, at decreasing the volume of reactant solution needed and at improving the design of the system controlling the overail operation. Figure 7.14 shows representative schemes of the configurations used t o implement the most important mixing methodologies described t o date: conti n uous-f low,

accelerated-f low,

stopped-flow

and

pulsed-flow

met hods.

Others such as relaxation methods have a narrower scope of application, namely reversible systems.

PULSED FLOW

32===il SCHEME

MINIMUM

VOLUME REOUIRED MAXIMUM FLOW

2 5 - 250mL

L IrnL

O2mL

4 mls

blOmlr

3 mlr

L ml

2-9mls

VELOCITY FLOW

VE L OC I T V A5 A FUNCTION OF TIME

I

I

I

FU. 7.14

Mixing methods f o r f a s t reactiohs. The f i g u r e shows the h a l f - l i v e s t o which they can be applied, the reagent volume used, the maximum v e l o c i t y attained by the flow and the measurement zone used i n terms o f such a v e l o c i t y .

7.3.2.1 Continuous-flow methods These were the earliest t o be developed (Hartridge and Roughton, 1923). By means of gas o r hydrostatic pressure o r with t h e aid of if peristaltic pump, the solutions containing the reactants are driven t o a merging point o r minizone from which they are led t o an observation tube (OT) along which Is monltored the signal yielded (absorbance) at different reactlon times. As the reaction progresses simultaneously t o t h e same extent at every point along the

as in other cases. Reactions with s can be dealt with by t h i s t y p e of method, the

OT, measurements need not be made so quickly

half-lives as short as 3x10-3

greatest shortcoming of which Is the increased consumption o f reactant solu-


tion (circulated at a speed of 4 m/s)

2 15

i n each determination. The distance

between the merging point and the f i r s t observation point, I, is dictated both by the reaction half-life,

which includes the ’dead time’ elapsed between pass-

age of a given element of f l u i d t h r o u g h the mixer and the f i r s t observation point, and b y the efficiency of the mixing system -ideally,

t h i s should b e no

less than 95%. The latter factor i s linked t o the reactor geometry, the flowrate and the viscosity o f the flowing solution, which should circulate under a t u r b u l e n t regime (the Reynolds number should be greater than 5000.) 7.3.2.2 Accelerated-flow methods

I n t h i s t y p e o f method the reactants are held in two hypodermic syringes which are unloaded quickly and simultaneously. The solutions are accelerated from zero velocity t o a given value p r i o r t o evacuation. The system features a single observation point located at a distance of 7 mm from the merging point. The maximum velocity attained is 10 m/s. As the dead time involved is 7x10-4 s, the method can be applied t o reactions with half-lives equal t o o r greater than 0.5 ms. 7.3.2.3 Stopped-flow methods

The typical system whereby stopped-flow methods are implemented consists basically of the same elements used i n the methods described above plus a stop s y r i n g e located after the observation tube which halts the flow once t h i s has been accelerated. The above-defined dead time includes a new component here: the so-called

’stop time’,

i.e. the interval elapsed from the moment t h a t the

syringe plunger reaches i t s retainer t o t h a t i n which the enclosed f l u i d i s effectively brought to a standstill -absence

of shock waves. This time should

be much shorter than those o f mixing and transport in o r d e r that the overall mixing time may be reasonably short. During t h i s period, the flow velocity varies from zero when the system i s started t o a maximum,

Vmu,

as i n the pre-

vious case. The monitoring of the signal as a function of time is started immediately a f t e r the stop. The l i g h t trajectory can either be perpendicular t o the OT, as above, o r r u n parallel t o i t s axis if it has a different configuration. The reactant voiumes used are small (0.2 mL) and the maximum velocity attained i s 3 m/s.

The scope of application extends to reactions with half-

lives as short as 3x10” s. Stopped-flow methods are by f a r the most popular and frequently used i n studies involving fast reactions [19-291. In fact, several European and American firms supply dedicated instruments o r accessories t o be f i t t e d t o commercia1Iy available spectrophotometers. I n Fig. 7.15 is shown the scheme o f an automatic analyser involving mix-


216

ing, t r a n s p o r t and measurement by the stopped-flow

technique and spectro-

photometric monitoring of t h e signal. The microcomputer used allows control of the instrument operation as well as data acquisition and treatment. The mechanical system loads the two liquids and unloads them into the mixing minichamber i n conjunction with the three-way

valves, which are duly switched f o r each

operation. A sampler permits automatic sample changeover between injections. The flow-cell,

T-shaped,

lies i n the l i g h t path of a spectrophotometer.

The

stop syringe takes in the mixed solution. The dead time elapsed between t h r u s t and stop of the plunger is controlled b y means of a retainer, the height of which is regulated with a micrometer screw. The impact of the plunger on the retainer gives rise t o an electric signal t h a t i s received by the computer, which i n t u r n s t a r t s collecting the signal from the detector as a drain valve sets the instrument ready f o r a new injection. Alternatively, both signals can be received by an oscilloscope o r a speedometer. I n non-automated models, the dual injection is carried out pneumatically o r hydraulically and the position of the retainer i s fixed by the t u r n of the micrometer screw.

An electric

switch system fitted t o the retainer must always be used t o ensure t h a t signal collection

is started accurately as o r d i n a r y

recorders do not o f f e r suffi-

ciently fast responses. r - - -

- -------

-1-

7

I

-

SYSTEM

1 I

1

Fig. 7.15

ij

Automatic stopped-flow analyser w i t h photometric detector.


217

7.3.2.4 Pulsed-flow methws This t y p e of method was originally developed by Gerisher (1965 and 1971), who called i t ’continuous-flow

method with integrating observation’ (CFMIO),

and later improved b y Margerum and co-workers i n 1980 [25,261. I t is implemented with the aid of syringe system similar t o that used in stopped-flow methods, b u t with a v e r y s h o r t pulse duration. Reagent consumption i s only 4 mL and the maximum flow velocity attainable ranges between 2 and 9 m/s. The most outstanding feature of the set-up

utilized i s ’integrating observation’,

which involves placing both the mixing zone ( f r o n t p a r t of the OT) and the remainder of the observation tube i n the l i g h t path of the sensing system. This mode calls f o r v e r y efficient mixing over a relatively small area o f the OT compared with i t s length, which i s not feasible by merely using two separate conduits leading the reactants t o the entrance of the OT,

where they

merge. The solution t o t h i s problem lies i n employing a radial mixer/observation cell.

Seven channels per reactant unload t h e i r contents alternately a t

the f r o n t of the observation tube. A l l seven radial channels are connected t o two circular

with the reactant solutions,

conduits filled

highly efficient,

turbulent

mixing.

As the two syringes

which are

results i n

unloaded, the

reactants flow t h r o u g h the channels and meet at the OT. The detection technique most commonly used with methods based on fast kinetics i s photometry (either in its conventional

form o r with multi-detection

systems such as image detectors) and, to a much lesser extent, fluorimetric and electroanal ytical methods. The data collection system used i s of paramount Importance in these methods as the detector provides a large number of data i n an extremely short time; thus, the collector,

usually a micro-

o r minicomputer, must be highly

responsive t o time. The subsequent treatment o f the collected data can be very different i n nature depending on the particular aim pursued.

7.3.3 Stopped-flow/unsegmented storage analysis This i s a continuous flow mode [27] based on an adaptation of the stoppedflow assemblies orlginally designed t o study and use reactions with fast kinetics. The essential modification with respect t o the methods described above i s the incorporation of a storage coil between the mixing u n i t and the flowcell t o prevent the reacting mixture from reaching the detector in too s h o r t a time, which allows t h i s mode to be applied to reactions attaining equilibrium i n times of the o r d e r of a few seconds (or minutes). Figure 7.16 shows the scheme of a prototype f o r automatic stopped-flow/unsegmented storage analysis (SF/USA). The microcomputer o f the system controls the simultaneous injection of sample and reagent with two syringes via a dual


218

three-way

valve. A suitable mixer brings both solutions i n t o contact. The r e -

acting mixture passes through the coil (store) and reaches the detector flowcell, which is controlled by the microcomputer,

which in t u r n captures and

processes the absorbance signals generated and transduces the results to a p r i n t e r , provided t h a t the instrument is previously calibrated with standard samples. Normally, each t u r n of the coil stores the contents f o r one injection. The system depicted i n Fig. 7.16 requires six aliquots f o r the coil t o be flushed from the previous sample, and a seventh to be used f o r measurement and which is followed by another aliquot intended t o isolate it from the effects of the next sample t o be injected. The scheme shown i n Fig. 7.16 (bottom) represents two sequential

situations:

after injection of the six flushing aliquots,

(1)

three

of which have by that time passed the detector unmeasured, plus the measurement aliquot (sample A ) and the isolating aliquot;

and (2) upon injection of the

next sample (B), when the previous sample has not yet been measured. The time elapsed i n aliquoting, mixing and injecting the samples into the storage coil i s 1.6 s. Hence, the measurement aliquot takes 9.6 s (6~1.6) t o traverse the length of the coil and reach the detector.

W

I

_ 1

P H O l' O M E T E R

PRINTER

0 -

1

-

-

FLOW CELL

MIXER

MIXER

I I dZ7iZh

-SAMPLER

--

FLOW

MIXER-

CELL

Sample B

c

Sample A

Flg. 7.16 Stopped-flow/unsegmented storage analyser (SF/USA) and enlarged sections o f the storage c o i l .


219

I n this manner, Malmstadt e t al. [27] applied typical stopped-flow technology to the analysis of a series of samples on the basis of reactions with normal kinetics. According to i t s proponents, SF/USA offers significant advantages over SFA and FIA: (a) The precision is of the order of 0.1%, i.e. ten times higher than that achieved by other automatic continuous methodologies. (b) I t i s compatible with reaction-rate ing measurements i n the fraction-of-a-second

methods, even with those

involv-

range.

To demonstrate the latter feature, they have applied their method to a

set of systems with very different reaction rates. They developed a method for the determination for Fe(II1) based on the reaction of this ion with ammonium thiocyanate, which i s monitored over 1 s. As the reaction is completed i n 10 s, the storage coil can hold six sample aliquots. The determination of protein nitrogen by Berthelot’s reaction, which is slow, has been speeded up by application of SF/USA with a 12-turn storage coil and measurement of the absorbance at 620 nm after reaction for 20.8 s (i.e. before completion). I n a similar way have been developed a method for determination of phosphorous by formation of the well-known heteropolyacid -subsequently reduced with ascorbic acid-,

using a 12-turn coil (travel time 21.2

s), and a method f o r ascorbic acid based on i t s oxidation with 2,tj-dichlorophenolindophenol, a reaction which takes 30 s t o complete, so that the dalay time resulting from t h e 18-turn coil used i s 18 s. The SF/USA methodology is therefore applicable over a wide range of reactions

rates. Moreover, it affords sampling rates above 200 samples/h i n

every instance and features low sample consumption and outstanding reproduci bility.

7.4 CONTINUOUS-F LOW TITRATIONS This type of titration overcomes one of the most serious drawbacks of titrimetric analysis, namely of all the continuous-flow

the long operational. t h e involved. As the results titrimetric determinations

developed t o date are

obtained by monitoring of the analytical signal as a function of time, this is a variable of paramount importance and therefore calls f o r strict control. The flowing stream into which the sample is inserted o r with which it is merged can be either stopped after each titration o r kept circulating between consecutive samples, thus giving rise t o different modes, all of which result i n a considerable decrease I n the time usually needed for conventional titrations. 7.4.1 Without haltlng of the flow between samples

Under this heading are Included the so-called ’FIA titrations’ or ’scale


220

expansion techniques', exemplified

by

proposed

an acid-base

by

Ruzicka e t al.

(NaOH-HCI)

[281. Such techniques,

photometric titration,

involve the

injection of a large analyte volume (200-500 pL) into a reagent stream containing an indicator system. The sample plug gives rise t o a broad peak upon arrival at the detector. There is a given absorbance value represented by one point in the rising portion and another in the tail of the peak which correspond to complete neutralization between the base and the acid, i.e. at which the t i t r a n t and titrand are in a stoichiometric ratio, as in conventional t i trations -hence

the name. I t has been demonstrated that there is a linear re-

lationship between the width of the peak obtained and the logarithm of the analyte concentration. This type of titration can be implemented (Fig. 7.17)

by intercalating

into a single-channel FIA system a gradient chamber (partial mixing chamber) or simply a reaction tube (high-speed F I A titrations) 1291.

I

1

mpHm +S

Tube

ANALYTE

Titrant

Injection

Pump

Detector

5 +bWaste

Gradient chamber

t

t

sm t

Manifolds used i n the development o f normal (gradient chamber) and high-speed (tube) F I A t i t r a t i o n s , and t h e i r corresponding measurements and recordings.

Fig. 7.17

Pardue and Fields have made a deep theoretical study of these systems [30, 311, questioning the suitability o f giving this F I A mode the name "titration",

as it does not conform t o the typical features o f conventional titrations. I n fact, (a) the sample and reagent react i n non-stoichiometric

amounts, (b) the

dynamic continuous flow system involves sample or reagent

losses by mass flow

rather than through reaction, and (c) the resuls obtained

with and without a

reagent i n the flowing

stream are similar, so that no chemical reaction is

required f o r a calibration graph t o be run.


22 1

These reasons led Pardue and Fields t o consider that t h i s type of t i t r a tion is actually another variable-time

kinetic method insofar as it is based

on the measurement o f a time increment,

At,

between two preselected reference

points located at the same height from the baseline in the r i s i n g and falling portions of an FIA peak yielded by a physico-chemical process which has attained neither physical equilibrium -there sample p l u g and the regent solution-

is some mass flow between the

nor chemical equilibrium -the

reaction

is s t i l l incomplete. Although the argument of Pardue and Fields i s quite valid if one considers t h a t no equivalence point o r physic-chemical

equilibrium i s attained in FIA

titrations, the proposal of Ruzicka e t a l . is supported by a number of facts: (a) The argument of Pardue and Fieids t h a t slmilar results are obtained i n the presence and absence of a chemical reaction is not s t r i c t l y valid as t h i s statement was inferred from the use of an acid-base indicator, which undoubtedl y reacts (changes i n colour) with the basic medium i n which it i s dissolved. Strictly, there would be no chemical reaction as such if the detector (potentiometer,

atomic

absorption spectrometer,

etc.)

used

directly measured the

anal yte concentration. ( b ) I t should be emphasized t h a t a reagent stream is chemically much more versatile than a water stream, whose only appreciable effect i s sample dissolution. (c) As the reagent i s circulated at a constant flow-rate,

the time incre-

ment used as an analytical signal can be related t o a reagent volume i n much the same way as i n classical titrations, although such a volume also varies with the preselected level at which the signal is measured. ( d ) T h e resemblance of the methodology of Ruzicka e t a l . to ordinary titrations becomes more apparent if one considers t h a t the tailing portion of the FIA peak is v e r y

similar t o a t i t r a t i o n c u r v e (plot of pH,

mV, etc.,

against the volume o f t i t r a n t added). (e) Finally, there are two points, one i n the r i s i n g and another i n t h e falling portion o f the peak, a t whlch the analyte and reagent coexist i n a stoichiometric ratio. The time increment between these two points reinforces the similarity between t h i s methology and conventional titrations. Stewart and Rosenfeld [321 looked at the subject from a different angle. They concluded t h a t the use of volumes as large as those employed in t h i s FIA mode permit the linear ranges o f t h e calibration graphs t o be significantly widened. As a result, they proposed t h e denomination ’scale-expansion

tech-

niques’ as an alternative t o ’FIA titratlons’. 7.4.2 With halting of the flow between samples: kinetic tltrations

Pardue and Fields [30,31], who establlshed differences between

various


2i"p

types of titration, took

the automatic potentiometric titration system pro-

posed by Blaedel and Laessing [331 as a representative example of kinetic titrations. The system i n question included a tubular platinum electrode (TPE) as indicator which,

i n conjuction with an appropriate reference electrode,

allows a potential that is a function of the concentration of electroactive species at the electrode to be obtained. Such a potential is taken as a r e f e r ence t o control the pumping rate of the titrant, whereas the sample flow-rate is

kept constant,

flow-rate

so that

its concentration is a function

of

the titrant

at the equivalence point. The potentiometer, connected to the cen-

tral unit, continuously compares the cell potential with that corresponding to the end-point.

The assembly used (Fig. 7.18) is very simple and requires no

burette or standardized titrant, a standard calibration sample being used in its place. The results are usually delivered i n digital form.

CON STANT SPEED

PUMP

Waste Fig. 7.18 Scheme o f a t y p i c a l instrument f o r k i n e t i c t i t r a t i o n s featuring constant flow-rate o f sample and variable o f reagent.

More recently, Ablcht [34] proposed a 'controlled dynamic titrator' which operates inversely t o the above-described

system, so that the t i t r a n t

flow-

rate is maintained constant while that of sample changes with time. Figure 7.19a shows the titrator. The liquid samples t o be measured are placed on the sampler. Every 2 min the sampling burette takes a new sample and unloads it into the mixing cell as I t sends a suitable 'order'

for the titration t o be

started. The flow of t i t r a n t is activated simultaneously with that of the sampling burette. A second pump supplies the cell with a constant flow of solvent, which mixes homogeneously with the sample and titrant. A f t e r a short reaction tube, the mixture enters the detector flow-cell,

from which it is


223

subsequently driven to waste. Titration times are printed alongside with t h e i r corresponding number of the sample. Figure 7.19b shows a typical plot in which the shortest t i t r a t i o n time corresponds t o because as versely

= kt, then

Vm

Nm

the most

concentrated

sample,

= Nvvdkt, i.e. the sample concentration i s in-

proportlonal t o the duration of the titration;

all other parameters

are kept constant. Photometric, potentiometric and voltammetric detectors used with this t i t r a t o r have yielded good results.

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I ; Programmer

1

1

"

'

1

1

1

'

1

1

36 U 40 42 41 4s U r0 52 51 56 U 6D 62 66 66 mln

Fig. 7.19

(a) Dynamic t i t r a t o r f e a t u r i n g a constant f l o r - r a t e of the t i t r a n t and a v a r i a b l e flow-rate o f the o f sample. ( b ) t y p i c a l forms o f measurement and recordings. (Reproduced from 1343 with permission o f Elsevier).


224

Nicholson proposed a differential indicator

electrodes

for

the

potentiometric t l t r a t o r involving two

automatic

control

of

processes

in

industrial

plants [35]. As can be seen from Fig. 7.20, the sample and reagent streams are s p l i t and led t o two half-cells via capillary tubes adjusted t o provide slightl y different t i t r a t e d fractions. The potential difference (AE) between t h e two indicator electrodes

Is transmitted

t o a control and

detection

system

(D)

which regulates the flow of t i t r a n t in an automatic fashion b y means o f valve V, thereby maintaining the preselected

AE

between the two ends o f the cell.

The speed of t i t r a n t addition, reflected by the flow meter ( M I , is a measure o f the sample composition. An evaluation of t h e instrument carried o u t by the t i t r a t i o n o f dichromate with iron(I1) revealed t h a t the conditions t o be used must be carefully selected.

Thus,

stable electrode responses are only ob-

tained i n the zone where Fe(I1) prevails, and not i n that where dichromate prevails over the former as the process determining the potential obtained i n such a zone is irreversible. This method therefore has limited application i n the control of slow reactions.

1

2

D Detector controller system M Flowmeter V Valve

Fig. 7.20 D i f f e r e n t i a l potentiometric t i t r a t o r . (Reproduced from [35] withe permission o f the American Chemical Society),

A completely different

conception of flow titrations,

although suitable


flow methods

f o r inclusion i n t h i s section, veloped

a flow

titrator

225

was introduced by Griepink e t al., who

involving optical

detection.

They

also

de-

reported

a

theoretical model describing both the instrument and the flow that circulates t h r o u g h it from the results obtained i n the t i t r a t i o n of sulphate with barium. The schemes i n Fig. 7.21 illustrate the basis o f t h i s titration.

Samples from

a turntable are mixed with a set-point solution consisting of barium sulphate solution, barium ions and dimethyl sulphonazo 111 (DMSA), and fed t o an 8-mL cell t o which the t i t r a n t

is dispensed. The excess solution i n the cell

is

continuously pumped t o waste. The reaction involved i n the determination, Ba(DMSA)

+

Sod2- =Bas04

+

DMSA2-

is monitored by the sensing system depicted i n Fig. 7.21a. This includes a bulb emitting white l i g h t (I) which passes t h r o u g h two f i l t e r s and is delivered a t two wavelengths: At [isobestic point f o r Ba(DMSA) and DMSA2-] and

Az, a t which both substances have different molar absorptivities. The consistency between simulated and experimental responses confirms the suitability

L

WASTE

TITRANT

(a) D e t a i l o f automatic t i t r a t o r w i t h photometric detection system; (b) general configuration of the t i t r a t o r . (Reproduced from [36] wih permission o f Elsevier).

Fig. 7.21

of the proposed models [36,37]. Determinations are carried out In a maximum


226

time of 2 min, with wash p e r i o d s of t h e same l e n g t h in between [38]. The r e s u l t s obtained in t h e application of t h i s method t o real samples ( v a r i o u s t y p e s of water) indicate i t s s u i t a b i l i t y [39].

REFERENCES [l] M. Goto, TfAC, 2 ( 4 ) (1983) 92. [2] A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valchrcel, ralanta, 9 (1984) 673. [a] H. Watarai, L. Cunningham and H. F r e i s e r , Anal. Cbem., 54 (1982) 2390. [4] S. P. C a r t e r and H. F r e i s e r , Anal. Cbem., 51 (1979) 1100. [51 F. F. Cantwell and H. Y. Mohammed, Anal. Chem., 51, (1979) 218. [6] M. Mascini and G. P a l l e s c h i , Anal. Cbim. Acta, 145 (1983) 213. 171 H. Dahms, C l i n . Chem, 13 (1967) 437. [81 M. Mascini, D. Moscone and G. P a l l e s c h i , Anal. Cbim. Acta, 157 (1984) 45. [91 J. Bomstein, J. M.Shepp, S. T. Dawson and M. Blaedel, J. fharm. S c i . , 55 (1966) 94. [lo] H. Cnobloch, W. Kellermann, D. Kuhl, H. Nischik, K. P a n t e l and H. Poppa, Anal. Chim. Acta, 114 (1980) 303. [ll] H. Weisz and G. F r i t z , Anal. Chim. Acta, 139 (1982) 207. [12] T. Aoki and M. Munemori, Anal. Cbem., 55 (1983) 209. [13] M. Roth, Anal. Cbem., 43 (1971) 880. [14] T. Aoki, S. Uemura and M. Munemori, Anal. Chem., 55 (1983) 1260. [151 W. J. Blaedel and G. P. Hicks, Anal. Cbem., 34 (1962) 388. [l6] G. P. Hicks and W. J. Blaedel, Anal. Cbem., 37 (1965) 354. [17] C. R i l e y , L. H. A s l e t t , B. F. Rocks, R. A. Sherwood, J. D. McWatson and Morgon, C l i n . Cbem., 29(2) (1983) 332. [18] 8. F. Rocks, R. A. Sherwood and C. R i l e y , Analyst, 109 (1984) 847. [19] D. N. Hague, Fast Reactions, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1971. [20] 8. M o r e l l i , J. Chem. Educ., 53 (1976) 119. [21] G. E. M i e l i n g , R. W. Taylor, L. G. Hargis, J. E n g l i s h and H. L. Pardue, Anal. Cbem., 48 (1976) 1686. [22] I. R. B o n e l l i and J. D. Defreese, Anal. Chem., 52 (1980) 139. [23] J. W. Moore, K. W. Hicks, K. G. Williams, K. Gehring, S. P i t t i n g e r , J. R. V i d o l i c h and S. Schubbe, TrAC, 2 (1983) 74. [24] G. E. M i e l i n g and H. L. Pardue, Anal. Cbem., 50 (1978) 1333. [25] G. D. Owens, R. W. Taylor, T. Y. R i d l e y and D. W. Margerum, Anal. Chem., 52 (1980) 130. [261 G. D. Owens and D. W. Margerum, Anal. Cbem., 52 (1980) 81A. [271 H. V. Malmstadt, K. M. Walczak and M. A. Koupparis, I n t . Lab., Jan./Feb. (1981) 32. [28] J. Ruzicka, E. H. Hansen and H. Mosbaek, Anal. Cbim. Acta, 92 (1977) 355. [291 A. U. Ramsing, J. Ruzicka and E. H. Hansen, Anal. Chim. Acta, 129 (1981)

1. Anal. Cbim. Acta, 124 (1981) 39. H. L. Pardue and B. F i e l d s , Anal. Chim. Acta, 125 (1981) 65. K. K. Stewart and A. G. Rosenfeld, Anal. Chem., 54 (1982) 2368. W. J. Blaedel and R. H. Laessing, Anal. Cbem., 36 (1964) 1617. S. M. Abicht, Anal. Cbim. Acta, 114 (1980) 247. M. M. Nicholson, Anal. Cbem., 33 (1961) 1328. H. F. R. Reijnders, J. J. van Staden, G. H. B. E e l d e r i n k and B.Griepink, Anal. Cbim. Acta, 114 (1980) 235. [37] B. Griepink and H. Verbruggen, Anal. Proc., June (1977) 141. [38] H. F. R. Reijnders, J. J. van Staden, G. H. B. E e l d e r i n k and 6. Griepink, Z. Anal. Chem., 292 (1978) 290. [391 H. F. R. Reijnders, J. J. van Staden and B. Griepink, Z. Anal. Cbem., 293 (1978) 413.

[30] [31] 1321 1331 [34] [35] [361

H. L. Pardue and B. F i e l d s ,

Autornatlc

a1

batch

analysers

INTRODUCTION

Discrete or batch automatic analysers (DAA) are characterized by discontinuity: each of the samples assayed preserves i t s integrity in the cuvette or cup where it i s held and mechanically transported t o the detection zone. Unlike in continuous automatic analysers (CFA), the sample is transported by means of a flowing fluid continuously circulating along the system. However, they do not differ so markedly from robotic configurations: both feature mechanical transport, although i n DAAs this is carried out by a conveyor b e l t or a turntable, whereas in robot stations it is performed by the minirobot mimicking the actions of a human operator. Despite the frequent use for a long t l m e now of sample trains to reduce human intervention, the earliest DAA models were introduced after Technicon Autoanalyzers (SFA) in response t o the need for enhanced performance in some fields -particularly

i n clinical chemistry.

I n fact, DAAs feature

a number of advantages over continuous analysers:

(a) They allow the rapid processing of a large number of samples and the convenient determination of several analytes i n the same sample. (b)They are more versatile, i.e.

more readlly adapted t o different needs

without much alteration. (c) Because of their inherent characteristics -samples lated from one another-

are physically iso-

the risk of sample carryover Is much lesser and

arises from the sampling system and the use of paddle agitation; a common element is brought into sequential contact with the samples and reaction mixtures, which can give rise t o cross-contamination unless an efficient clean-up system i s employed. (d) They allow the use of corroslve fluids (e.g. organic solvents, concentrated acids) impossible with continuous analysers on account of the risk of the system connections and walls being attacked. However, DAAs have some disadvantages o r shortcomings that should not be underestimated : (a) They are generally complex mechanlcally. I n fact, they are cumbersome


228

to maintain as they require skilled workers even for minor repairs. Moreover, current commercially available DAAs are highly computerized -built-in

micro-

processors play a major role i n their design and functioning, which adds t o the aforesaid complexity. (b) Despite their versatility,

their

basic configurations are difficult to

change. Thus, in F I A systems, the replacement of some component or the incorporation of an another module -from cated continuous separation unit-

a straightforward heater t o a sophisti-

is a relatively easy task. Hence, research

on and the development of automatic methodologies is easier by continuous methodologies for laboratories without the infrastructure required to incorporate the latest advances i n micromechanics and microelectronics. (c) They are generally much more expensive than continuous analysers.

1

S E PAR AT I 0 N

,

_____-__--___--

I. I

I I

L_

coliector

----

*

----

S E PARATI ON

SAMPLER

I I I

fraction

7

TE C HNIOUE

TECHNIQUE

___--_-___--

CONTINUOUS A . A.

Fig. 8.1 Ways o f incorporating separation techniques and (b) continuous automatic analysers.

i n t o ( a ) batch

(d) Because of their conflguratlon, they do not allow the on-line

lncor-

poratlon of analytical Separation techniques, unless these are implemented on self-contained

automated units independent of the analyser. Figure 8.1 illu-

strates the different manners In which a separation process (sample treatment) can

be

incorporated

into

the

two

above-mentioned

types

of

analysers.

Automatic batch analysers

229

Analytical processes performed by DAAs are similar to those carried out manually. Hence, they allow readier adaptation of manual methods than do continuous analysers insofar as the latter require stricter optimization of the different chemical and physico-chemical

variables involved. As can be seen

from F i g 8.2, of the three types of automatic analysers, robotic types bear the strongest resemblance t o manual configurations. MANUAL METHODS

A NA LY S E R S

INDEPENDENT

DEGREE OF OPTIMIZATION

Fig. 8.2 Adaptation o f manual analytical methods t o the types o f automatic analysers.

three basic

8.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BATCH ANALYSERS As can be seen from Table 8.1, the large variety of D A A s currently available can be classified according t o a number of criteria: (a) According t o the manner i n which the a n a l y t i c a l signal i s measured, one may distinguish between sequential measurement, characterized by a fixed

time between measurement of samples -this

i s the commoner case-

and simul-

taneous measurement, where data are obtained from all samples at roughly the same t h e and with the same detector -this trifugal analysers',

Is typical of the so-called 'cen-

where detection takes place in a parallel configuration:

slgnals are generated In a virtually slmultaneous way on passage of the cuvettes at a high speed through the light path of a slngle photometric detection polnt, the flow of data being controlled by a microprocessor.


230

TABLE 8.1 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f batch analysers According t o measurement

Serial Parallel

According t o sampling

Manual Automatic

I n the analyser On-line module

According t o number o f analytes

Single-parameter Multi-parameter With

According t o f i n a l t r a n s f e r

Without Number

According t o measuring c e l l

One Several

Material

Disposable Non-disposable

Circular

According t o motion

Non-circular

( b ) According t o whether sampling is automated o r not, a distinction can be made between DAAs with and without

automatic sampling. The former, usually

highly automated, are conceived f o r the analysis of a large number of samples. They are represented by the batch analysers f o r clinical determinations such as the Technicon RA-1000 o r Union Carbide Centrifichems, and by instruments (gas o r I i q u i d c h romatograp hs an d electrothermal-vaporization tion spectrometers) with a sampling module coupled on-line. tions,

usually featuring automated

atomic absorpThese configura-

data acquisition and treatment,

can be

classed as analysers, although they are more commonly referred t o as instruments t o emphasize t h e i r determinative rather than t h e i r automatic aspects. (c) According t o t h e i r c a p a b i l i t y , D A A s can be classified i n t o single-parameter and multi-parameter. The former are deslgned f o r the determination of a

single analyte per sample and perform a single, pre-programmed operational sequence (reagent delivery, s t i r r l n g , heating, measurement). The latter can b e programmed t o determine several analytes i n t h e same sample. Figure 8.3 shows the basic differences between multi-parameter configuratlons i n batch and contlnuous analysers. I n continuous-flow equivalent t o multi-channel

designs-

analysis, multi-parameter designs -here require a precise sample s p l l t t l n g sys-

tem and a series o f reaction and detection modules o r systems, one per analyte

Autmatic batch analysers

23 1

t o be determined. On the other hand, multi-parameter designs i n DAAs, improperly called multl-channel

designs, split the samples into aliquots by means

of a sampling system; each sample Is held In an independent cup according to the methodology Implemented for each parameter -a

different reagent for each

anaiyte, heatlng or not, etc. A maJor dlfference between the two types of configuratlons Is the occurrence of a slngle detectlon polnt I n DAAs.

Fig. 8.3 Scheme o f the cornnonest configurations o f (a) continuous and (b) batch analysers f o r multi-parameter determinations.

(d) According t o the manner i n which the sample i s transferred I n the flnal operation, DAAs can be sald t o functlon with or without f i n a l transfer (Fig. 8.4).

I n analysers with flnal transfer, the reactlon mixture Is trans-

ported to the detectlon system, where the analytical measurement Is carried out i n a fixed cuvette. Samples do not preserve their integrlty In the analyser and are therefore llable to carry-over. In analysers wlthout flnal transf e r of the reaction mixture, all the stages of the process (sample receptlon, reagent dispensing, heatlng, s t i r r i n g and measurement) take place In the same vessel. This crlterlon Is the bask f o r the descrlptlon of the DAAs wlth autcmatlc sampling descrlbed below.


232

I b)

DETECTOR

I

.-

I

det ec t Ion

point

Fig. 8.4 Batch analysers (a) with and (b) without transfer o f the reaction m i x t u r e p r i o r t o detection.

(e) Batch analysers can also be classified according to the measuring c e l l used. Thus, DAAs use a single cell or a number of cells - o n e per sample or anaiyte-

depending on whether they involve final transfer of sample o r not.

Some anaiysers with multi-determinations.

potentiometric detection

use selective electrodes for

A distinction can also be made according t o whether the

cuvettes used are disposable or not. ( f ) The typical cups used by batch analysers can be moved c i r c u l a r l y and l i n e a r l y . I n DAAs with circular motion, cuvettes are placed around the periphery of a disc which is rotated like a conventional sampler. This is the way i n which the Technicon RA-1000 and Hitachi 705 operate. Centrifugal analysers feature a dual circular motion: that of the dosing and that of the analyser module. I n D A A s with linear motion, the cups are displaced along a not completely linear trajectory including some t u r n s at different angles (go', 180' o r intermediate values). This configuration affords a large number of cups to be handled and hence increases the analyser capacity. However, these systems are much more complex from a mechanical point of vlew. I n organizing this chapter, D A A s have been classified accordlng t o whether they feature built-in automatic sampling o r not. A further distinction

Automatic batch a n a l y s e r s

233

is made i n the latter instance depending on whether they include a module

coupled on-line f o r that purpose.

8.3 BATCH ANALYSERS WITH AUTOMATIC SAMPLING This section deals with commercially available ana'ytical processors designed f o r the analysis of a large number of samples containing one o r several analytes i n which the sampling system

IS

a non-differentiated

part of the sys-

tem. They are characterized by t h e i r flexibility f o r adaptation t o different needs i n the determination of a large variety of analytes. Their sole Iimitations i n t h i s respect are the state of aggregation of the sample and the detection system t o be used -photometric

o r spectrophotometric.

I n dealing with these analysers, a distinction will also b e made according to whether the sample

IS

transferred o r not from i t s original positron t o the

detection system. 8.3.1 Batch analysers with final t r a n s f e r

Vitatron manufacture an analyser called A k E S f o r the automatic determination of enzymes and substrates based on kinetic photometric measurements (see Fig. 8.5). The sample t r a i n used is moved linearly. The sample is aspirated i n a f i x e d position from a vial t o a cuvette (no. 14) placed on a turntable as a preset volume of diluent i s added. There is a single measurement point (cuv-

e t t e no. l ) , where the absorbance is monitored as a function of time. I n the immediately p r i o r position, the reagent is added and s t i r r e d with a rod, whereas in the immediately

following position,

the cuvette contents are emptied

with the aid of a suction system that sends the solution t o a waste bottle. I n the next position, the cuvette is washed and again drained by suction. The end of the sample t r a i n features a position where the sample being measured a t the detection

unit can be identified by means o f an optical sensor.

Thus,

the

p r i n t e r receives two signals; one from the microprocessor (the analytical result obtained after processing of the absorbance-data times and correlation with the analyte concentration via the calibration graph) and another from the sample-result matching system.

Automatic c e n t r i f u g a l analysers are also batch analysers with final transf e r of the reaction mixture p r i o r t o measurement. They have become very popular i n clinical

laboratories i n the last f e w

years.

The different manufac-

t u r e r s offer a wlde a range of models; the Centrifichem Models 400 and 600, manufactured by Union Carbide, are probably the best known and most widely used, so they w i l l be described here as the most typical representatives. should be noted, though, t h a t there are no significant

It

differences between


234

different prototypes such as the GeMASAEC (General Medical Sciences Atomic Energy Commission) and those developed by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

Fig. 8.5 Scheme of the V i t a t r o n AKES analyser, designed f o r photometric determinations. (Courtesy o f Vitatron).

kinetic

Centrifugal analysers consist of two separate instrumental units: the

dosing module, which dispenses samples and reagents, and the analyser module, where samples and reagents are mixed and the reaction mixture i s measured, generally spectrophotometrically.

The most advanced models feature a computer

t h a t controls the operatlon of the two units and allows t h e user t o program the system f o r the determination of a given number of parameters and delivery of printed results.

Automa t i c batch anal ysers

C) R2

235

5

REAGENT?

Scheme o f automatic c e n t r i f u g a l analysers. Dosing module: (a) sample turntable; ( b ) r a d i a l t r a n s f e r u n i t ; ( c ) l o c a t i o n o f the previous u n i t s on sample and reagent dosing.

Fig. 8.6

Figure 8.6 shows the main elements of the dosing module. A sample t u r n table (a) holds samples (serum, urine) on its outermost disc.

The transfer

disc ( b ) is the most important p a r t of the system. I t is made of Teflon and contains 30 radially arranged u n i t s (Figs 8.6b and 8.7).

Each of these units

has a reagent cavity (a), sample cavity ( b ) and transfer p o r t (c). The sample and transfer discs can be coupled. The module rotates by 1 2 "

(360:30) t o place the different units sequentially in the pipetting zone. Two moving pick-up arms connected t o high-precision dosing pipettes effect the transfer. The sample (standard) pipette transfers a preset volume from the disc microvial t o the sample cavity with an intermediate washing operation. The pipette(s) transfer(s)

the reagents from cuvettes not depicted

In the

figures t o t h e i r corresponding cavltles. Once the transfer is finished, the transfer disc is taken manually from the dosing module t o the analyser module, where the assembly is f i t t e d t o the r o t o r and covered with a plastic l i d (Fig. 8.7a) t o obtain a temperature-controlled chamber.

A

hydropneumatic system

evacuates the chamber, both f o r mixlng of reactants and f o r the washing and


236

a) Reagent

Pnlng s c r e w

Scheme o f automatic c e n t r i f u g a l analyser. Analyser module: (a) l o c a t i o n o f the t r a n s f e r disc; (b) the t r a n s f e r o f the reaction mixture takes place during c e n t r i f u g a t i o n ; ( c ) o p t i c a l detection system on a single, f i x e d point.

Fig. 8.7

d r y i n g operations following the determination.

This disc i s spun at 960 rpm

and the resultant centrifugal force is sufficient t o sweep both liquids from t h e i r radial u n i t s and mix them i n a measuring cuvette facing the transfer p o r t of each u n i t (Fig. 8.7b). The sample is also held i n place by the cent r i f u g a l force f o r as long as the disc is spun. The cuvettes are placed on an external disc which Is also spun. The bottom of the system i s made o f quartz,

Automatic batch a n a l y s e r s

237

as is the zone over each cuvette. The sole optical system used is i n a fixed position (Fig. 3 . 7 ~ ) and continously measures the contents of each cuvette passing through it. A screen continuously displays a bar graph showing the increase in absorbance i n each of the 30 cells u p t o a fixed value i n each case. A p r i n t e r provides the result of each measured parameter. Not only are end-point measurements possible, b u t the system can also be programmed f o r kinetic enzymatic measurements. As all 30 samples are, apparently, measured i n a simultaneous fashion, the system can b e said t o effect a parallel multi-determination -hence

the gener-

ic name ’parallel fast analyser’ given by some workers to these instruments, which are even dealt with separately from batch analysers i n automatic methods of analysis. However, such a difference i s only apparent and, i n fact, it is a

typical I y discontinuous process, both because of the sequential measu trement (with a single detector) and because there is a manual intermediate operation (the transport of the transfer disc from one module t o the other). 8.3.2

Batch analysers without final t r a n s f e r I n these OAAs, all operations -signal

measurement included-

are carried

out in the same vessel. There are a large number of commercially available analysers of t h i s type. A comprehensive description of them i s beyond the scope of

this

book,

so

only

three

representative

multi-parameter,

non-specific

examples are commented on here. I t is significant that Technicon, the pioneering and virtually exclusive

developers

of

continuous automatic analysers,

have

recently

devoted their

production efforts to batch models. Probably, t h e i r RA-1000 model was created

tc compete with the centrifugal analysers introduced by other firms and which w e r e gradually displacing continuous-flow

AutoAnalyzers, widely used until a

decade o r so. The RA-1000 is a compact, computer-controlled

analyser consisting of three

discs (Fig.8.8a): (a) A central

u n i t o r reaction t r a y consisting of a disc containing 100

disposable optically transparent ( 7 mm l i g h t path) cuvettes around i t s periphery. ( b ) A sample turntable with 30 0.5-mL

cups where samples are held.

(c) A reagent tray, w i t h 25-mL cups. The system uses high-precision

Hamilton pipettes t o transfer samples

(3-20 p L ) and reagents (300 pL) t o the central reaction tray. Some i n e r t fluid TRAF, the instrument’s most significant innovation, over. Each parameter is measured

i s used t o avoid carry-

In a single cuvette; thus, if f i v e

eters per sample are t o be determined, the instrument capacity

param-

w i l l be 20


238 (100:5)

samples per operation

(complete t u r n of the central disc).

I n fact,

the instrument is capable of analysing f o r up to 40 parameters p e r sample. The detection system is a single-f i l t e r spectrophotometer with two photodetectors allowing the instrument t o c a r r y out a self-adjusting p r i o r measurement of the cuvette cleanliness and the reagent quality before the sample i s added t o make the final measurement. No s t i r r i n g is needed. a)

SAMPLE TURNTABLE

REACTION TRAY

b)

REACTION TRAY

FILTERS

LAMP

PHOTODETECTOR

Fig. 8.8 Scheme o f the Technicon RA-100 analyser. (a) Sample, reagent and reaction discs, w i t h two intermediate l i q u i d t r a n s f e r systems; (b) o p t i c a l detection system. (Courtesy o f Technicon).

The microprocessor exerts control over (a) the number of parameters determined per sample; (b) the t y p e of analysis to be applied in each instance

Automa t i c batch anal ysers (end-point, and

first-

o r second-order

reagent pipettes;

detector

operation

239

kinetic); ( d ) the transfer of the sample

(e) the circular motion of the three

(filter

selection,

blank

correction);

tion and processing; ( h ) result delivery -normally

(9)

discs; signal

as a print-out-;

( f ) the acquisiand ( i )

urgent delivery o f data without alteration t o the system. Even more complex and powerful than the Technicon RA-100 is the Hitachi Model 705, a multi-parameter

analyser capable of analysing f o r up t o 19 ana-

lytes per sample. As can be seen from Fig. 8.9,

it consist of the following

elements: (a) A sample disc with 70 positions, 40 around i t s periphery f o r routine samples and 30 (16 f o r standards, 3 f o r control sera, 8 f o r urgent cases, 1 f o r electrolyte standards and 2 f o r blanks

29, no 30) on an inner circle. It

is equipped with a sensor controlling the level of the liquid i n each vial.

( b ) A reaction disc, with 48 non-disposable

plastic cuvettes with opti-

cally transparent bottoms, located on i t s periphery. This disc effects a complete t u r n every 20 s. The cuvettes are immersed i n a thermostated heatingcooling bath t h a t controls the temperature t o within kO.1 "C.

I

Fig. 8.9 Hitachi).

I

I

Lsarnple disk

Llncubation bath

Essential

p a r t s o f the H i t a c h i 705

I

analyser. (Courtesy

of


240

( c ) A flat, thermostated u n i t containing oblong cuvettes holding the different reagents, diluents, etc. ( d ) A liquid transfer system consisting of three moving articulated needles fitted t o high-precision

syringes, one of which is used t o aspirate and

pour a small sample volume (5-20

pL) from the sampler to the reaction-mea-

surement cuvette while the other two are employed to dispense variable volumes of

reagents/diluents

t o the reaction cuvettes after

withdrawing them from

t h e i r corresponding reservoirs. (e) A

peculiar

photometric

sensing

system:

the

light

path

is

vertical

rather than horizontal (Fig. 8.9) and it has eleven photodetectors strategically arranged behind the monochromator which allow the absorbance t o be measured simultaneously at eleven different wavelengths, thereby enhancing the automatic multi-parameter

performance o f the analyser. A l l the cuvettes are

monitored every 20 s and the system always carries out a blank determination per cuvette. Naturally, i t can be used t o implement both end-point and kinetic determinations.

A l l the above-described

operations are controlled b y a computer with

programs f o r the fast determination of analytes i n urgencies, e r r o r checking, throubleshooting, etc. The analyser can be connected on-line t o any laboratory microcomputer and features a number of advantages: (a) high sampling frequency; ( b ) capability of analysing a large number of parameters per sample and the possibility of determining potassium,

sodium and chloride potentiometri-

cally by means of t h e i r respective ESIs; (c) thermostatic control; ( d ) a quali t y photometer rather than a f i l t e r spectrophotometer; (e) the possibility of automatically determining i n a quantitative manner three clinical parameters (icteric,

haemolytic and lipaemic indices) generally determined semiquantita-

tively by visual inspection. The FP-9 and FP-01 models manufactured by Labsystems Oy are examples of single-parameter batch analysers automated t o a lower degree than the Technicon o r Hitachi models described above. Their keypiece is the so-called pipette',

'Finn-

a multi-pipette combining nine in one and allowing the transfer of

nine equal volumes (5 pL-1 mL) in a simultaneous fashion (Fig. 8.10). The nine disposable plastic t i p s make a block linked t o the pipette central barrel. A mechanical system allows them t o be detached in a single operation. A block containing nine tubes o r vials receives the contents of each sample o r reagent transferred manually. This block can be coupled t o independent incubation

400) o r centrifugation simultaneous

(FP-510)

pipetting over

modules.

nine

Partial automation

cylindrical

plastic

(FP-

is achieved by

cuvettes

(0.2-0.8

mL)

with optically transparent bottoms. These cuvettes can be adapted t o solidphase enzymatic immunoassays thanks t o supports retaining the solids. The


24 1

FP-SO1 analyser proper is a serni-automatic nine-channei photometer with verti-

cal

parallel l i g h t paths unlike conventional

photometers. I:

has nine l i s h t

sources 2nd as many photodetectors. Measurements are carried out simultaneously, which makes t h i s a parallel batch system. However, despite i t s apparent multi-parameter

character, it can only determine one parameter i n each batch

of operations. I t aliows f o r incubation at 30 o r 3 7 ' C and for mixing within each cuvette. I t s functioning i s controlled by a microprocessor.

a)

Fig. 8.10 Scheme o f the FP-901 analyser manufactured by Labsystems Oy. (a) Finnpipette; (b) m u l t i p l e o p t i c a l system 1: l i g h t s w r c e , 2: chopper, 3: lens, 4: m i r r o r , 5: f i l t e r wheel, 6: f i b r e bundle, 7 : openings, 8: lenses, 9: cuvette block, 10: detectors. (Courtesy o f Labsystems Oy).

8.4 BATCH ANALYSERS WITHOUT AUTOMATIC SAMPLING

This section includes those automatic systems i n which the sample introduction u n i t i s differentiated from the main module. They are dealt with here from the point o f view o f t h e i r flexibility, in which respect they were classified i n t o general and specific designs (see Chapter 1).

8.4.1 General designs

These are analytical configurations capable of determining a large number of analytes i n a variety o f samples.


242

Taking i n t o account the concept of automation given i n Chapter 1, many commercial Iy available analytical instruments (optical,

thermal,

electroanal yt-

ical, magnetic) are automated to some degree. As a rule, the last two stages of the analytical process, namely signal measurement and data acquisition and treatment,

are

performed

with no human intervention

by a microprocessor

coupled on-line with the instrument, which governs p a r t of i t s functioning and handles data as programmed. This computerization is unnecessary i n some instances as i t merely solves minor problems o r makes for more convenient work.

I n t h i s respect, routine kinetic determinations have been one of the fields benefiting t o a greater extent from computerization: virtually all instruments with microprocessors -even meters-

the simplest ones, b u t particularly spectrophoto-

feature programs f o r t h i s purpose yielding results expressed as con-

centrations.

On the other hand, computerization

plays a major role i n some

analytical techniques, t o the point of owing t h e i r existence t o the advent of computers. Such is the case with ultra-fast

kinetic methodologies (stopped-

flow) o r Fourier transform spectroscopy (both I R and NMR). Most o f these instruments have sampling accessories --generally on-line-

coupled

t o reduce human intervention i n the analytical process. They often

also have an independent microprocessor linked to the main one (Fig. 8.11). The aforesaid accessories can have a variety of purposes, namely: (a) Reducing

human intervention i n processing large numbers of samples.

( b ) Improving the precision of the analytical determination a sampler t o introduce samples

(e.g.

use of

i n t o an electrothermal-vapourization

atomic

absorption spectrometer). (c) Facilitating sample pretreatment o r p a r t of it. This is the purpose of some of the sampling accessories used i n gas chromatography, which look like ordinary samplers b u t perform automatic non-routine operations in the sampling position. Such i s the case with the samplers f o r a i r sorption tubes, the contents of which are introduced into the chromatograph by means of a programmed thermal desorption device, o r the sampler used f o r introduction i n t o the chromatograph of volatile substances from liquid o r soiid samples dealt with i n head-space gas chromatography (see Chapter 11 1. The incorporation of a sampler i n t o an instrument t u r n s the latter into an analyser.

However, the scientific jargon

supports the original

with very f e w exceptions. Thus, the term 'analyser'

nomenclature

is used t o describe ( 1 )

complex automatic systems where detection i s only another aspect among others that are equally important and ( 2 ) straightforward specific automatic systems with emphasis on the particular analyte determined rather than on the instrumental technique upon which t h e i r operation i s based. Detailed descriptions of the automation of instruments typically used i n


243

a) INSTRUMENT SAMPLES-%-,

(AND P R E T R E A T M E N T )

MODULE MICROPROCESSOR

------L I

MICROPROCESSOR I

PLOTTER

b)

$#

-1

'MICR

SAMPLES

o PR OCESSOR

SAMPLER

I I I

+

,-I

-

SPECIFIC

I

I

ANALIZER I I

MICROPROCESSOR

research

and

control

laboratories,

whether

i n one,

-'

several

or

all

of

the

stages of the analytical process, are given i n the chapters devoted t o optical (Chapter l o ) , electroanalytical (Chapter 11) and chromatographic (Chapter 12) techniques. I n most of these instances,

samples are introduced sequentially,

so they preserve t h e i r integrity. Hence these can be rotighly considered batch analysers. Nevertheless, the conduits along which samples are transported i n spectrophotorneters with aspiration and i n chromatographic processes are shared by all o f them, so t h a t these are closer t o the concept of continuous analysers (CFA). I n fact, the likeness and differences between F I A and HPLC have been discussed by some authors.

8.4.2 Speclfic designs These are analysers conceived f o r the determination of one analyte o r a few i n a given t y p e of sample. There are configurations automated t o different degrees, with o r without a microprocessor, the commonest of which are shown

FURNACE

P

I

I

v2

7 SOLID STATE I R DETECTOR-

I

I-I

p:ys- .

ELEC;RONlC

INTEGRAL BALANCE

DIGITAL READOUT "PERCENT CARBON AN SULFPHUR

PRINTER RECORD OF DATA\ \

-

I

MICROPROCESSOR

VISUAL MESSAGE CENTRE

CONSOLE

- I

t ANALYTICAL

CONTROL CONSOLE

UNIT

0 -+I

Main p a r t s o f t h e CS-244 s p e c i f i c analyser manufactured by LECO f o r t h e simultaneous det e r m i n a t i o n o f carbon and sulphur i n inorganic m a t e r i a l s . (Courtesy o f LECO).

Fig. 8.12

3 L (1,

3

I-. (0

Automa t i c batch analysers schematically introduction possibility

in of

(b.2)

Fig.

245

8.11 b.

the samples

The simplest

alternative

-previously

quantized

(b.1) if

involves the use of a conventional

involves manual

needed.

The second

sampler on which the

samples are placed manually t o be subsequently transferred t o the instrument without human intervention. The samples are normally liquid and the transfer

is usually accompanied by their quantitation. Configuration b.3 i s common with solid samples, which are weighed manually and introduced into the analyser. I n order t o reduce human intervention i n t h i s stage, the analyser microprocessor receives data from the electronic balance on which calculation of the analyte concentration i s based. Nevertheless,

in the MAC-400,

described

below, the

turntable containing the samples is p a r t of the instrument. Caution should be applied at t h i s point not t o confuse t h i s type of analyser with the variety of automatic modules available f o r sample preparation which offer no analytical information themselves. Specific designs have been conceived t o resolve special problems in various

fields

(clinical

and

metallurgical

chemistry,

pollution,

nutrition,

etc.).

I n fact, they are instruments covered b y a denomination r e f e r r i n g to the anal y t e and type of sample f o r which they are intended. They are particularly slritable f o r c a r r y i n g out a more o r less large number of crucial determinations in the fields mentioned above. They are characterized by t h e i r simple operation

(tuning,

calibration,

sample

introduction,

insofar as they are intended f o r unskilled staff -so

delivery

of

results)

much so t h a t f e w control

laboratories know t h e i r operational foundation (i.e. the particular determinat i v e technique being applied). There are an overwhelming number and variety of commercially available specific designs. As a comprehensive description i s beyond the scope of t h i s book, only some significant examples are discussed. Other analysers belonging to t h i s group are commented on the Chapters 14 and 15, devoted t o the automatization o f clinical and environmental pollution monitoring. The CS-244Simultaneous Carbon/Sulfur Determinator manufactured by LECO is a specific microprocessor-controlled

analyser developed f o r the determination

of these two elements i n metals, ferrous and non-ferrous alloys and various inorganic materials. As can be seen from Fig. 8.12,

i t consists of three essen-

tial elements: (a) The analyser module proper, which yields the analytical signals. It is governed by the microprocessor and incorporates two determinative modules. One contains the plate of an integral electronic balance where the crucible i s placed together with the accelerator; once automatically tared, the sample is added and the weight transmitted t o the microprocessor. The other i s a manifold c a r r y i n g oxygen, varlous clean-up u n i t s (dust, moisture and

so3

traps),

Automatic methods of a n a l y s i s

246

flow-rate

regulators and two solid-state

continuous I R detectors f o r the de-

tection of SO2 and COm, i n addition t o a catalytic bed f o r conversion of CO to

con. (b) The induction furnace (18 MHz, 3600 V), an independent module (LECO HF100). Once the sample has been weighed i n the crucible, it is transferred manu-

ally t o t h i s u n i t and the cycle i s started. The sample is burn:

i n an oxygen

atmosphere, and the gases generated are passed on t o the analyser module. High combustion

temperatures

are

microprocessor-controlled

for

more

consistent

b u r n s and the result i s improved reproducibility, particularly when analysing difficult-to-burn

materials

such as nitrides, cast iron o r refractory metals.

This module also features automatic dust ejection after each determination and semi-automatic cleaning. (c) A c o n t r o l console, connected t o the microprocessor. I t s keyboard al-

lows the control of most of the functions of the analyser module. Data treatment is effected i n much the same way as in gas chromatographs: i t

IS

per-

formed by the microprocessor, which receives the two signals (peak) and calculates the carbon and sulphur contents on the basis of the initial weighing and delivers them via the digital panel o r a printer.

Fig. 8.13 nation o f o f LECO).

LECO MAC-400 Proximate Analyzer, designed for the determimoisture, v o l a t i l e matter, ash and f i x e d carbon. (Courtesy

The LECO CS-344 has an additional automatic sample loading and unloading feature incorporated i n t o the furnace module. LECO also manufactures models f o r the individual determination of carbon (IR-212) and sulphur (IR-213) and

Aut oma t i c ba t ch

analyse rs

24 7

even more specifc for the determination of surface carbon on sheet steel and copper t u b i n g (RC-212). The MAC-400 Proximate Analyzer, also made by LECO (Fig. 9-13), is capable of

performing

four

different

determinations

(moisture,

volatile matter,

ash

and fixed carbon) i n each sample (coal, coke and other organic materials). The instrument operates by monitoring the weight

loss of the sample as it is

heated i n a temperature- and atmosphere (N2 o r 02)-controlled environment. It allows t h e

implementation of

several

analytical

alternatives:

complete

ana-

lysis cycle, modified ash mode and any combination of the moisture, volatile matter and ash cycles. The MAC-400 i s a microprocessor-based

analyser;

it

allows t h e most

unit to

be

important functions of

the analytical furnace

controlled via i t s console. A n electronic u n i t houses the microprocessor and associated electronics.

The furnace u n i t contains an internal balance system

and a turntable with 20 crucibles which

rotates samples and

lowers them

individually on t o the balance plate. A t the s t a r t of the procedure, empty crucibles are placed i n the turntable. The furnace top closes t o prevent a i r currents and each crucible i s individually weighed. Nineteen samples are then positioned manually i n t o crucibles, which are again individually weighed. The data are collected

by the control console and then the analyser

proceeds

automatically t h r o u g h the selected analysis cycle while continuously rotating and weighing the samples. The apparent changes i n the weight of the empty reference crucible are used by the microprocessor t o correct the results obtained from the samples themselves.

OXIDIZING ATMOSPHERE

R ED U C IN G ATMOSPHERE

Fig. 8.14 LECO).

Gas-flow

system of the LECO MAC-400 analyser. (Courtesy o f


248 A simplified flow

diagram of the MAC-400 i s shown i n Fig. 8.14.

During

the moisture cycle, the furnace is purged with nitrogen and the temperature is raised t o 106'C. Either a constant-weight o r a fixed-time mode can be selected f o r the determination of the moisture content. When t h i s step ends, the analyser emits a bleeping sound t o remind the operator t c place covers on t h s crucibles, which are tared again. Then the furnace temperature is raised to 950°C i n a nitrogen atmosphere. The weight

loss is related t o the voiatile

matter content. After the volatilization cycle is complete, the temperature is lowered t o 600'C and the analyser again bleeps, t h i s time t o remind the operator to remove the crucible covers. Then, an oxidizing atmosphere is introduced and, after a programmable period of time, the furnace temperature is raised t o 750"C, where

i t remains u n t i l the samples again attain constant

weight. Any weight loss d u r i n g t h i s final cycle is attributed t o fixed carbon, and any weight remaining is considered t o be the ash content. The p r i n t e r finally delivers the weight percentages corresponding t o the determined parameters. The microprocessor and the console can simultaneously control the operation of two MAC-400 analysers, so that 114 samples can be analysed every 8 h. The high cost and sophistication of large instruments such as NMR and

X-

ray fluorescence spectrometers make them unaffordable by control laboratories. Thus, some firms have marketed analysers based on the same principles b u t designed f o r specific determinations not r e q u i r i n g too high precision, b u t rapidi t y and efficiency. Such is the case with the MK-I11 and MK-4000 analysers manufactured by Newport Instruments, based on NMR measurements of the hydrogen content of solid and liquid samples f o r the rapid ( a f e w seconds) determination of the f a t and moisture content i n a large variety of samples. A detailed description of these instruments is given i n Chapter 15. LECO also markets several microprocessor-based analysers using X-ray fluorescence measurements f o r the individual determination of silicon (XR-1221, phosphorus (XR-1231, manganese (XR-124) and all three (XR-172) i n cast iron, steel, ferrous alloys and non-ferrous

materials. Sampling,

sample treatment and determination

require

less than 5 min overall and all the analysers offer direct readouts of percentages of Si, P and Mn.

Robots

in t h e laboratory

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Robotics Is currently one of the priority topics [l-31 In research and development strategies i n advanced sclentiflc communltles, so much so that there are already some organizations, such as the Robot Institute of America and the Brltlsh Robot Association, specifically devoted to thls subject. Nevertheless, the prospects f o r the use of robots i n different fields of applicatlon greatly surpass their present achievements. Insofar as robots are designed t o replace human effort partly or completely,

their applicatlons can be consldered the latest alternative t o automatic

methods of analysis. Although some workers regard them as a part of batch meth-

ods, there are sufficlent dlstinctlve elements t o treat them as a separate category. The use of robots in the laboratory Is one of the strongest trends In the

fleld of analytical lnstrumentatlon. Irrefutable proof of the growlng Interest In robotic applications is the recent establlshement In the USA of commercial flrms devoted exclusively t o thls area. Several other manufacturers have already Introduced robots In their most recent ranges. Prestlglous scientific journals such as Analytlcal Chemlstry [4] and Science [51 considered robotic systems t o b e the most outstandlng novelty at the Pittsburgh Conference i n 1985. I n addition, an increasing number of courses, semlnars and symposla are

being organlzed on both sides of the Atlantlc. The applicatlon of robots In the laboratory i s still at an early stage o f development. However, I t is easy to predict that robots w i l l occupy a prornlnent place In laboratorles In the years t o come. Nevertheless, despite the popular connotations behlnd the word 'robot', technology Is not yet In a position to offer

inexpensive, Intelligent moving machines In the style of the

w el I- k now n and rol ds of science-f IctIon f IIms. There are clear precedents f o r the use of robots In the laboratory. So far there have been great advances In the development and manufacture of robots for lndustrlal purposes,

and these wlll

ultimately facllltate the tncorpora-

tion of minirobots Into the laboratory. On the other hand, the most representa-


250

t i v e precursors of today's robots are probably the manipulators developed f o r handling radioactive o r hazardous samples over the past f e w decades. The development of robots has obviously relied on the spectacular advances i n three scientific areas, namely micromechanics, microelectronics and microcomputer science. No robot can be considered t o be a useful piece of equipment if i t s motion cannot be precisely controlled by a suitable computer, good proof of which i s the fact t h a t the National Bureau of Standards has designed a device f o r controlling the precision of robot movements [61 consisti n g of a laser interferometer, a servo-controlled

t r a c k i n g mirror, a target

mirror mounted on the robot's wrist and a computer governing the whole system.

9.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF ROBOTS Robots are sophisticated machines whose movements resemble those of a human being, aimed t o perform a well-defined operational sequence. According t o the Robot I n s t i t u t e of America, a robot is "a reprogrammable, muitifunctional manipulator capable of moving a variety of tools and parts, through a variable, preprogrammed task." I t is important to make a clear distinction between robots and other types of automatic mechanical systems. I n fact, robots have two distinct features i n t h i s regard, namely programming -and reprogramming and self-programming-

even

capability and flexibility f o r adaptation

t o different tasks or situations. The word 'robot', on account of its novel implications, is sometimes misused in the literature [71 t o describe other automatic devices i n an attempt t o enhance t h e i r significance. 9.2.1 Classification of robots

Robots used f o r industrial o r laboratory purposes can be broadly classified according t o t h e i r interaction with the outside world and t h e i r programming capability i n t o two general categories: sensorless and sensor-bearing. Sensorless robots lack the possibility of communicating with t h e i r environ-

ment and can be f u r t h e r classified i n t o two basic types: computer-controlled o r 'first-generation'

robots, which can be programmed by means o f a computer

system, and training robots, which merely repeat a sequence of moves under the direct and continuous control of a human operator. Sensor-bearing robots can communicate with the outside world via

differ-

ent types o f sensor (optical, acoustic, tactile, etc); they can also be externally programmed and reprogrammed and take decisions i n real time !i.e.

they

can program themselves with the aid of computers accommodating suitable feedback mechanisms).

These 'second-generation'

dowed with the so-called stage of development.

'artificial

o r 'intelligent'

intelligence',

robots are en-

which i s still at an early

25 1

Robots in the laboratory 9.2.2 Robot components

Despite the great formal differences between the various possible configurations of

robotic systems possible, these can be said t o consist of f o u r

basic common elements (Table 9.1), three of which (manipulator, control system and

power

supply)

are

indispensable,

whereas

the

fourth

(sensor)

is

characteristic of second-generation robots.

TABLE 9.1

Essential components and features o f a robot Manipulator

Essential elements

Body Arm

Gripper (hand) S p a t i a l geometry

Cartesian Cylindrical Spherical Revolute

Power supply

Hydraulic Pneumatic Acoustic

Controller

Point-to-point

programming

Software Sensing system

Location

On the robot O f f the robot

Optical Acoustic Tactile

The manipulator constitutes the mechanical system of the robot and i s composed of two essential

elements:

various

parts,

linked v i a suitable joints

(kinematic pairs), which are responsible f o r the robot’s movements (translation and rotation), and g r i p p i n g devices which mimic the actions of the human

Automatic methsds o f a n a l y s i s

252 hand

(grasping, orientating,

moving and

releasing the manipulated pieces).

Overall, a robot’s mechanical system consists of a body, an arm and a hand (gripper), all of which are moving. Depending on the coordinate systen characterizing the robot’s motion and defining the spatial position of i t s hand at a given moment, robotic systems can be classified into f o u r spatial categories [ 8 ] , namely: C a r t e s i a n Robots belonging t o t h i s group can only perform translational

movements, which are defined i n a three-dimensional coordinate (x,y,z) system. C y l i n d r i c a l . Here the hand’s position is defined i n cylindrical

cwrdi-

nates (x, z and the angle 8). The robot is therefore capable of performing both translational and rotational movements (Fig. 9.la). Spherical. The hand’s position is given i n spherical coordinates ( x and

angles 0 a n d Y ) and i t s movements are basically rotational. Revolute. I n t h i s case

(Fig. 9.lb).

The essential

the robot’s movements are exclusively

rotational

difference from the other three is that, i n addi-

tion t o the rotatory motion of the base, the arm i s jointed i n the human style and includes a shoulder, an elbow and a wrist, all of which can perform angular movements.

A

6

Fig. 9.1 Commonest configurations o f laboratory robots. (a) C y l i n d r i c a l . (b) Revolute.

There are

several interesting papers [4,12]

i n which the advantages and

disadvantages of each t y p e of robotic configuration are discussed. The gripper Is essential t o a robot. It emulates a human hand, although it

is s t i l l a long way from achieving the same degree o f freedom. The g r i p p e r can

Robots i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y

253

b e either fixed or interchangeable for greater versatility. I t is usually manu-

factured in one of three different configurations: (a) With non-flexible fingers capable of angular or parallel motion only. This is the simplest alternative. ( b ) With interrelated fingers which allow the pressure applied on the

ob-

ject t o be regulated according t o i t s fragility.

(c) With multi-jointed fingers, which in t u r n can b e retroflexive -very similar to their human counterparts-,

close around the object or form two

parallel sets facing each other. The incorporation of tactile sensors into grippers allows for increased r e liability and easier programming. The power supply provides the energy needed to move the different parts of the manipulator. It is of great relevance as i t determines the robot’s speed, precision and resolution, Not only the type of power source used, but also its location i n the system is important. Hydraulic sources are essential when dealing with heavy objects, whereas pneumatic systems are employed when quick movements are required. Robots used i n laboratory applications are usually driven by electric energy. An electric servo motor or stepping motor is usually employed depending on whether moderate or light loads are t o be handled. The robot’s controller is usually a computer or microprocessor which programs its operation and sends I t the corresponding drive signal. The robot can be controlled in two different fashions: (a) By point-to-point

programming, which involves driving the robot

ally and directing every

stage of the operational

manu-

sequence from a teach

pendant box where the robot’s movements are suitable reflected. Robots thus controlled are similar to radloactive sample manipulators and are of

little

practical interest; in fact, thelr chief use Is as substltutes for humans in clean chambers (e.g. i n trace analysis). ( b ) By use of sowftware allowing the operational sequence t o be programmed via the keyboard of an ordinary computer. According to Kool and Michotte [91, four different levels can be considered In programming a robot’s motion: (1) The joint level (the lowest), where the programmer has to decide by what amount each of the robot arm joints has t o rotate (or translate) t o achieve a desired position through a teach pendant box. ( 2 ) The coordinate level, at which the programmer can speclfy the coordinates of the point t o be reached and the orientation t o be realized. Most software available nowadays works up to this basic level and was developed from known languages such as BASIC, Pascal or Algol. (3) The object level, which

allows the user t o issue lnstruc-

tions of the type ”put the object A on object 6.” The lnltial position, orientation and size of the objects are retrleved from stored data and trajectories


254

and new positions are automatically calculated. This level requires ’computeraided design and planning.’ (4) The task-prggraming level, at which the programmer asks the f l e x i b l e automated analysis system to carry out a given analysis or to determine or synthesize selected products. I t is an expert system affording complete flexibility. I n addition to controlling the robot’s motion, the computer performs a variety of tasks such as the control of the apparatus and intruments used and the collection, processing and delivery of generated data. The robot’s sensing system allows i t t o be reprogrammed for different situations (e.g.

when objects of different weights, sizes, fragility, etc. are to

be handled). The robot feels, sees, hears and responds t o these stimuli by changing i t s movements. Therefore, sensor-bearing robots are more flexible than their sensorless counterparts insofar as they are prepared to face unexpected situations. The sensing mechanism can be placed i n two basic parts of the robot, namely the manipulator (usually on the grlpper) or a point at which the gripper has t o be stopped and manipulated. Robots use three basic types of sensor, depending on the nature of the signal utilized for communication: optical, acoustic and tactile

[lo].

The simplest optical systems employed by robots consist of LED-photodetector pairs mounted on the hand. The presence of the object t o be manipulated i s detected when this interrupts a light beam, the finger movements being activated as a result. Although a conventional TV camera may serve this purpose, linear or square diode arrays (with 250-1000 and 250x250 elements, respectivel y ) radiated by a single source afford greater information. Acoustic sensors have been less frequently used on robots. They are generally based on the use of a pulsating ultrasound source (ca. 40 kHz) and the accurate measurement of the time interval between transmission and reception of the pulse. The most straightforward type of tactile sensor .used consists of a contact switch which provides binary high-low

information. Other types of mechanism

such as strain gauges and carbon fibre materials change their electric resistance

under

stress,

whereas

piezoelectric

materials

generate

an

electric

charge when subjected t o mechanical strain. Hirschfeld [ l l ] presented an interesting discussion on

the incorporation

of sensing systems into robots commonly used in laboratory applications. Among these and deserving of special consideration i s a simple photometer which, by use of different filters, can control a series of interesting operations such as preclpitatlon,

decantation,

boiling, dissolution and extraction. The work-

piece (generally a test tube) crosses the light path which monitors the d i f f e r ent zones.

Figure 9.2

illustrates the operation control of

a precipitation

Robots in the laboratory

255

process in a test tube by use of a horizontal light path filter in a conventional photometer. I t also includes the response of the sensor as a function of the tube height.

Light source.

I

ABSORB1NG SOLUTION

NO TUBE c

Light power

Use o f a photometer as a sensor i n a laboratory process cont r o l l e r . A tube i s introduced i n t o the l i g h path o f the photometer, which accommodates a horizontal f i l t e r . (Reproduced from [ 111 with permission o f Elsevier).

Fig. 9.2

Commercially available

laboratory robots (e.g. Perkin Elmer) have been

conceived for use in corrosive environments. They have hard-wearing spare parts and a special system delivering an inert gas stream which

flows con-

tinuously over the robot's micromotors and electronic circuits t o prevent them from coming into contact with the aggressive atmosphere in which they usually act. A major limitation of laboratory minirobots with respect to human operators is their action range (usually restricted t o within 50-70 cm); i n other words, they have no f e e t to move along a workbench, which i n t u r n llmlts the number of peripherals that can be fitted t o them. This shortcoming can be overcome by mounting the robot on rails along which it Is moved, also under the control of a computer.


256

9.3 LABORATORY ROBOTIZATION

Every analytical process is the sum of three fundamental operations: preliminary manipulation, measurement and transducing of the analytical signal, and data compilation and processing. It is the last two stages which have experienced the greatest extent of automation i n the past 20 years or so. The incorporation of a micropocessor for the automation of instrumental operations is becoming commonplace in most commercial instruments -even

in the

less

expensive models. Data acquisition and treatment are readily affordable at present and is carried out with the aid of

built-in microcomputers or by use

of ancillary modules (personal microcomputers, electronic integrators) coupled on-line with the instrument in question. I t is the f i r s t stage of laboratory analytical methodologies which poses

the greatest problems for automation (see Chapter 2). Operations such as weighing,

dissolution,

porate on-line

grinding

and

centrifugation

are

difficult

to

incor-

in automatic analysers (whether batch or continuous). I t is

therefore here that robotic systems cover a field inaccessible to the remainder of automatic methodologies. This f i r s t stage is as important as or even more so than the other two inasmuch as (a) they are a major source of a variety of errors --some

so large as t o decisively

influence the final

result-,

of them

(6) they are time-

consuming, (c) they are complex and expensive and (d) the system is subject t o human contamination, which is a high risk in trace analysis, for instance. Laboratory robotization i s chiefly aimed to the f i r s t f e w stages of the analytical process -hence

its relevance t o analytical procedures involving

long, multi-stage preliminary operations. There are two basic options for incorporation of robots into laboratory work: (a) The robot can be an independent module performing one or several specific tasks within the system framework. The microprocessor is exclusively devoted

t o programmlng

and control of the robot and additional computers are

required if other operations of the overall process are to be controlled. (b)Alternatively, the robot can be an integral part of the general work system, so that every operation -from

sampling t o delivery of results-

is

controlled by a single computer. This is the more reasonable, economical and frequently used

option and Is represented by the so-called 'robostation',

a

sort of analytical black-box [131. Figure 9.3 shows the general scheme of a robotic workstation consisting of four essential elements: the robot; the micromputer (which can be either dedicated or indeed any commerclally available

machine); apparatus such as liquid

dlspensers, mixers, extractors and centrifuges performing a variety o f tasks;

Robots i n the l a b o r a t o r y

instruments

such

as

25 7

balances,

pH-meters,

spectrophotometers,

fiuorimeters,

atomic absorption spectrometers and gas o r liquid chromatographs, aimed at providing

analyticai

information.

Several

other ancillary

elements

such

as

racks (intended to hold tubes, Erlenmeyer flasks, sorption coiumns o r burette tips) and waste bins make up the robotic system.

. PRINTER

.*

~

.......

~

MECHANICAL COMPUTERIZED HaMAN

O O O ~ D O ~ . O D

Fig. 9.3 Scheme o f a robotic workstation. ( 1 1 , I2 and struments; A i , A 2 and A 3 represent apparatus.

There tween

13

denote i n -

are three types of connection i n a robotic station: (a) human,

the computer

processor and

and the

operator; ( b )

the robot and the different

computerized, between

be-

the micro-

apparatus and instruments; and (c)

mechanical, between the robot and i t s environment. The

general functions allocated to the

microprocessor [14] are thus: (a)

enabling the operator to plan the experiments via the keyboard entry; (b) trolling

con-

the robot's motion; (c) effecting communication between robot, peri-

pherals and instruments; and ( d ) data acquisition and processing. The

connection o r linkage

instruments o r

between the microprocessor

apparatus making up the

system can be of

and the different either of these two

types, unidirectional o r bidirectional. (a) Unidirectional. The instruments send t h e i r analytical signals t o the


258

microprocessor, which i n t u r n controls the switching of the different apparatuses. INSTRUMENTS

Ib)

-

MICROPROCESSOR -APPARATUS

Bidirectional. The microprocessor not only collects the signals from

the instruments, b u t also takes p a r t in t h e i r operation (e.9.

in selecting a

suitable wavelength f o r a spectrophotometer o r programming the temperature of a chromatographic furnace), usually via another microprocessor coupled to it. The apparatus can also be bidirectionally linked to the microprocessor, particularly

i f they

accommodate sensing elements

involved i n one o r several

steps of the process (e.9. in locating the centrifuge tubes). INSTRUMENTS

MICROPROCESSOR Z A P P A R A T U S

9.4 UNIT OPERATIONS

This section deals with the most relevant operations that a robot can perform as p a r t of a workstation.

I n some cases, a given operation is repeated

along the operational sequence. 9.4.1 We1ghi n g The automation of the weighing operation is virtually indispensable, particularly

with solid

samples,

although

it also simplifies

t o a great extent

the weighing of liquids, which is difficult t o automate by other methodologies. The

weight of sample taken, measured within a certain limit of accuracy,

i s sent t o the microprocessor, which stores it as a basis f o r the final calculations.

The typical

operational

cycle

involves the following

stages:

(1 )

t a r i n g of the sample flask; (2) placement of the required amount of sample i n the flask; (3) reweighing of the flask; ( 4 ) removal of the flask from the balance; and (5) weighing of the balance pan i n case some spillage has occurred i n the previous operations. A l l f i v e stages are controlled by the microprocessor which, after some computations, determines the sample weight and stores i t f o r f u t u r e calculations. 9.4.2 Addition of liquids Robots usually include a special addition u n i t f o r dispensing liquids such as solvents, dlluents and reagent solutions t o the sample flask.

Such a u n i t

normally consists of one o r several systems made up of a solution reservoir, a high-precision syringe and a T-shaped valve that can be switched between two

Robots in the laboratory

259

positions: filling of the syringe and unloadlng of the iiquld i n the preselected

position (Fig. 9.4).

The syringes are driven pneumatically or elec-

trically. The liquids are poured into the collecting tubes thorough a fixed syringe or interchangeable tlps -replaced

by the robot Itself-

in order t o

avoid carry-over.

T H R E E -WAY

DISPENSING UNIT

RO 801

RESERVOIR

Fig. 9.4

Liquid dispensing u n i t with a fixed addition point.

9.4.3 Transfer of llqulds As shown In Fig. 9.5, the transfer of llquids can be accompllshed i n two

ways: by pouring from tubes o r flasks, or with the ald of an aspiration-injectlon syringe fitted t o a disposable t i p which is grasped by the robot and Immersed i n the solution, from whlch I t takes an aliquot that Is subsequently unloaded Into the collector. 9.4.4 Grasping of tub-

This is a common operation i n workstations.

Tubes are taken from and

placed In racks after determlning the exact position f o r collectlon and dellvery. This Is accomplished by means of the computer, whlch takes three corners of the rack as reference. Any subsequent location operation is based on the previously fixed references. 9.4.6

Stirring

This operation Is performed at a definite locatlon wlthln the workstatlon and requlres careful programming of the perlod during whlch the flask concerned w i l l be stirred.

’


260

Robotic workstations employ there basic types of s t i r r i n g unit:

vortex,

which is suitable f o r tubes only; magnetic, particularly suited t o beakers and Erlenmeyer flasks; and l i n e a r , capable of handling several vessels at a time and particularly useful f o r slow digestions.

I

I

PNEUMATICALLY D R I V E N

P R E C I S I O N SYRINGE

Fig. 9.5 L i q u i d t r a n s f e r systems used i n robotic workstations. ( A ) By pouring. (B) By p i p e t t i n g w i t h a high-precision syringe. The t r a n s f e r can be effected e i t h e r by t a k i n g both vessels t o a f i x e d l o c a t i o n (as i n Fig. 9 . 4 ) o r by means o f a disposable moving p i p e t t e .

9.4.6 Heating Heating units are usually required t o speed certain physico-chemical processes and normally consist of thermostated baths (either water baths o r d r y type units such as the Peltier system) i n which the robot places the tubes containing the reacting mixture and where these are kept f o r a preselected period.

9.4.7 Centrifugation Like weighing, t h i s operation,

so commonly needed as a vital step i n sam-

ple pretreatment, is d i f f l c u l t t o automate by other methodologies. The most Important p a r t of centrifuges used i n robotic stations is prob-


26 f

ably a sensor external to the robot, mounted i n a fixed position on the centrifuge and consisting of a straightforward LED-photodetector system. The centrifuge rotor has an indexing tab on i t s periphery which, on passing through the sensor, i n t e r r u p t s the l i g h t path and generates a signal. This is how the sequential

situation of the tubes within the centrifuge is determined.

Before

introducing a tube, the tab is aligned with the optical sensor. Then the robot places the tube i n the centrifuge and rotates the rotor by the amount needed t o introduce a second sample, and so fcrth. Once all the samples have been placed i n the centrifuge,

the latter i s spun

fcJr

a preselected time d u r i n g

which the microprocessor is completely insensitive t o the signal generated b y the optical sensor. On stopping the rotor, the situation of the tubes can only be determined accurately by having the robot rotate the rotor until the indesi n g tab is aligned with the optical sensor. 9.4.8

Extraction

This operation can be of either of two types: (a) Solid-liquid

e x t r a c t i o n . This is the more simple of the two.

To a

given amount of sample held in a vessel is added a f i x e d volume of liquid(s). A f t e r suitable s t i r r i n g -and

heating i f necessary-,

an aliquot of the super-

natant is withdrawn and delivered t o another vessel. This operation can be repeated as many times as required and the extracts gathered in a single vessel. ( b ) Liquid-liquid e x t r a c t i o n . This operation, rather more complex than the previous one on account of the d i f f i c u l t y involved i n phase separation,

is

performed in much the same way as in manual procedures. Thus, once both phases have been added, the tube o r flask i s shaken (stoppered) f o r a preselected time. A f t e r decanting, phase separation is accomplished either by immersing a pipette t i p f i t t e d t o an aspiration-pouring

system deep enough t o take the

heavier o r l i g h t e r phase, o r by using a decatation funnel as collector

(in

t h i s case, the heavier phase is separated from the lighter phase with the aid o f a stopcock o r solenoid valve). 9.4.9 Placement in t h e measuring instrument

The sample o r the reaction mixture can be placed on the measuring i n s t r u ment i n two ways (see Fig. 9.6): (a) Directly, t h r o u g h a conventional sampler. The robot places the vials -usually purposes-

sample

capped elsewhere i n the station if used f o r chromatographic

on the turntable.

Alternatively,

the robot can f i l l the cups al-

ready situated on the turntable with aliquots of sample taken with the aid of a pipette tip f i t t e d t o a loading-unloading system. ( b ) Indirectly, by placing the sample tube i n a given position (measure-


262

ment point). The are two alternatives. One involves t a k i n g the sample t o the instrument by means of an aspirating tube (the robot can either take the sample tube t o a fixed location f o r aspiration or b r i n g the aspirating tube t o the sample rack and withdraw the sample). This i s the typical procedure followed f o r introduction of samples i n atomic spectrometric techniques, f i l l i n g of the injection valve loop in chromatographic methods and i n (un)segmented continuous analysers,

or

loading of a flow-cell

already

positioned

in the

l i g h t path of a photometer o r fluorimeter. The other possibility entails the use of a sensing probe (off the instrument), which is introduced by the robot i n t o the sample vial. This is the usual approach i n using potentiometric o r voltammetric electrodes o r photometric probes.

AU'O

S A M P L E R OF

THE I N S T R U M E N T

11'1

SAMPLE R A C K

Fig. 9.6

D i f f e r e n t mechanisms f o r placement o f the f i n a l a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n i n the measuring instrument. I n d i r e c t l y , v i a the instrument autosampler, which can receive e i t h e r a v i a l ( A ) o r a sample a l i q u o t t o be held i n cups ( 8 ) . D i r e c t l y , by means o f a sensor ( C ) o r by asp i r a t i o n (D) a t a f i x e d p o i n t where the tube i s taken o r w i t h the a i d o f a moving a s p i r a t i o n tube, which i s inserted by the robot arm (RA) i n each tube i n the rack i n turn.

9.5 SOME CHARACTERISTIC EXAMPLES

The f o u r appllcations commented on below have been selected because they

Robots i n the laboratory

263

are representative of the potential of laboratory robotization.

The f i r s t two

are described i n greater detail than the others. 9.5.1 Colorlmetric determination of formaldehyde In water

The procedure concerned is based on the formation of an intensely pink dye between the anaiyte, p-rosaniline and sodium hydrogen sulphite. No sample pretreatment is required.

I[

CONTROLLER

F/

ROBOT

El

-

HANDS

D I LUTION RACK MASTER L A 3 STATION

DISPENSER

Fig. 9.7

Robot s t a t i o n f o r c o l o r i m e t r i c determination o f formaldehyde i n water. (Courtesy o f Zymark).

The workstation used f o r t h i s determination [15] i s depicted schematically in Fig. 9.7 and consists of the following components: (a) A microprocessor interfaced t o printer. ( b ) A Zymark robot working i n a cylindrical coordinate system and using three types of hand: two grippers f o r grasping tubes (GPH), one with a t i p f i t t e d t o a syringe (SH) and a t h i r d one accommodating a photometric probe (PSH) linked t o a conventional photometer via an optical fibre. (c) A u n i t f o r loading and unloading of liquids (master lab station) consisting of three syringes f i t t e d t o three-way

valves -two

of the ways (A, B )

are used t o unload reagents while the other (C) acts as a pipette, withdrawing and delivering liquids. ( d ) A dispenslng u n i t f o r addition o f a fixed volume of liquid. ( e l Several racks holding sample tubes, disposable pipette t i p s and clean tubes f o r dilution and reaction development. ( f ) A u n i t devoted t o washing t h e photometric probe. (9) A vortex s t i r r i n g station.


264

( h ) A conventional photometer. The operations carried out by the workstation are as follows: ( 1 ) The operator places the water samples i n t h e i r correct o r d e r in the

sample rack. (2) The operator, with the aid of a hand f i t t e d t o a syringe (SH), takes

an interchangeable tip, withdraws an aliquot of sample from a tube and transf e r s i t t o a clean tube i n the dilution/reaction rack. (3) The robot replaces i t s hand by a gripper (GPH), with which i t takes

the tube containing the sample aliquot and takes it t o the dilution where 10 mL of distilled water are added. master lab station,

where

it is f i r s t

unit,

Next, the tube is taken t o the

positioned on the t i p f i t t e d t o the

syringe, which adds 1 mL of p-rosaniline, and then t o the fixed t i p connected to the other syringe, which adds 1 mL of the sodium sulphate solution. Then the tube i s kept i n the vortex s t i r r e r f o r 30 s and subsequently returned t o the s t a r t i n g point, where i t is allowed t o stand f o r 1 h. (4) The robot switches hands again and takes the photometric probe (PSH)

and dips i t into the tube containing the reaction mixture. Once the measurement has been carried out, the probe i s placed i n the wash station, i n which it is f i r s t immersed i n a renewable water bath and then i n a d r y i n g chamber

t h r o u g h which a nitrogen stream i s passed. The absorbance reading (signal) is collected by the microprocessor, which treats data on the basis of previous calibrations performed with standard solutions of formaldehyde. The results corresponding t o the series of samples are delivered t h r o u g h the printer. I f the absorbance measured falls out of the linear range of the calibration graph, the robot repeats the operational sequence, either t a k i n g a larger aliquot o r diluting the starting solution t o a suitable extent as required. I n either case, the microprocessor takes into account these operations i n calculati n g the formaldehyde concentratlon. During the time each sample i s allowed t o stand before being measured, the robot t r e a t s other samples i n sequence. This example is illustrative of a not v e r y complex determination i n which the use of a robot is recommended when the sampling rate required is not very high. The water samples are placed i n t h e rack as they are received i n the laboratory. When a reasonable number of them has been gathered, the station is set u p t o perform the above-descri bed operational sequence. I n the meantime, the robot can be used for other applications. 9.5.2 Determination of a toxic agent in feed by gas chromatography

This is a representative example [161 of those determinations in wich sample pretreatment is essential t o the analytical procedure and where robotiza-


265

CHROMATOGRAPH AUTOSAMPLER

!i O D 0

ROBOT

0 0 0

000000 000000

MASTER LAB STATION

GPH

clean t u b e s sample t u b e s

Robot s t a t i o n f o r determination o f a t o x i c agent i n feed by gas chromatography w i t h a p r i o r l i q u i d - l i q u i d extraction. (Courtesy o f Zymark).

Fig. 9.8

tion plays an important role as a means of automation -in

fact, t h i s t y p e of

determination is difficult t o implement by any other automatic methodology. Figure 9.8 depicts the different elements making u p the robotic workstation used f o r t h i s purpose, namely: (a) The robot and the microprocessor (interfaced t o a suitable printer). ( b ) F o u r different hands - o n e of which (LDHi) accommodates a wash u n i t while the other (LDHz) has a device f o r

holding/releasing

columns,

and a

multi-functional hand (gripper, GPH). (c) The

master lab station (MLS), which handles solvents with the aid

of

three syringes f i t t e d to SH, LDH and LDHz. ( d ) Four racks containing the tubes holding the solid samples, disposable Florisil columns (each with a clean collecting tube),

disposable pipette t i p s

and unsealed capped chromatographic vials. (e) A vortex mixer.

(f) A n automatic pneumatic vial capping unit. ( 9 ) An analytical balance. ( h ) A gas chromatograph with an autosampler. ( i ) Three verification systems (an optical sensor surrounding the vial cap-

p i n g station, a push-button switch f o r pipette t i p s and a magnetic reed switch at the parking station). The operational sequence performed by t h i s workstation involves a number of steps, namely:


266

(1) Ten preweighed tubes each contalning an aliquot of feed sample are

placed in the sample rack and their welghts are stored by the computer. (2)The robot grasps a tube

with Its

gripper (GPH) and takes it to the

vortex mixer. (3) The robot swltches hands. By means of LDHi, connected t o the master lab statlon, it adds 10 mL of toluene to the solid sample. (4) The tube is shaken f o r 2 min and then allowed t o settle f o r a f u r -

ther l min. ( 5 ) With the same hand (LDHi), the robot pipettess 7.5 mL of the superna-

tant extract and pours it into a clean tube i n the rack.

(6)Two Identical solid-liquid

extraction operations are carried out sim-

ultaneously, but adding only 4.5 mL of toluene each time.

( 7 ) The robot switches hands; I t replaces LDHI -which proper place-

is washed in i t s

with GPH.

(8)The robot takes the tube containing the treated sample and returns it to the rack; then it grasps the tube holding the extracts and takes it to the vortex, where it is agltated until homogenization (20 s), and then back to the rack. (9) There is another switch of hands. With the SH on, the robot takes a

disposable pipette t i p and asplrates 0.5 mL of the extract, which is unloaded into a Florisil column. (10) The robot releases the pipette t i p and swltches hands. With the ald of

LDH;! it places the column and i t s collectlng tube on the balance -the which i s prepared t o accommodate the tube-,

pan of

whlch Is then tared. The sample

Is eluted wlth toluene Into the tube. The addition operation, which is facilitated by passing nitrogen through the Column, is halted on reaching a given weight. The microprocessor stores the final weight. (11)The robot discards the used column and replaces LDHz with GPH, with which it takes the tube from the balance t o the vortex mixer and then t o the rack. Then it removes the cap from a vlal and holds it. (12) The robot swltches hands and with SH takes a pipette t i p and trans-

fers (In conjunction wlth the MLS) 1.5 mL of the clean extract t o the uncapped vial. (13)The robot now replaces SH with GPH, caps the vlai and takes I t t o the pneumatic crlmper, where It is sealed. Then the vial Is placed on the autosampler of the gas chromatograph. The data supplled by the Instrument are transmltted to the microprocessor, which, on the bask of the Initial sample weight introduced by the operator, provides the content

or concentratlon of the toxlc agent i n the feed sample.

The use of the robot i n thls determlnatlon Involves two drawbacks, namely


26 7

decreased sampling frequency and recovery, which are outweighed by two significant advantages,

viz.

reduced human intervention

and around-the-clock

working.

9.5.3 Liquid chromatographic determination of a contraceptive in pharmaceutical tablets The use of robotic systems is becoming increasingly common i n pharmaceutical analysis. I n fact, t h i s i s one of the areas where robots are gradually r e placing conventional techniques in control laboratories. As an example the determination of a contraceptive is

described,

an

application

usually

calling

for

i n commercial tables

a variety

of

preliminary

operations [17]. The robot station used f o r t h i s purpose i x l u d e s a large number of peripherals and the operational sequence involves nearly 30 steps, the . -

most significant of which are as follows: (a) Placement of ten tablets in ten sample tubes. ( b ) A liquid-liquid

extraction with two different reagents (aqueous NaCl

and chlorororm). (c) Transfer of an aliquot of supernantant chloroform t o an evaporation u n i t by heating i n an open atmosphere with a nitrogen stream. ( d ) Treatment of the d r y residue with water-methanol i n a sonic bath. ( e ) Filtering of the supernatant t h r o u g h a syringe accommodating an in-

ternal f r i t t e d glass disc. ( f ) Loading, capping and placement of the chromatographic vial

on the chro-

matograph sampler. The results obtained are comparable t o and i n some respects even better than those provided by manual systems. 9.5.4 An add-base titration This i s an example o f l i t t l e practical use, b u t demonstrates the versatili t y of robotic configurations and their capability of adaptation t o a variety of situations and requirements [14].

I t involves the t i t r a t i o n of a concen-

trated solution of hydrochloric acid with a solid basic standard, namely tris (hy d roxymethyl )ami nomethane (Tris). The basic components of the station, as shown i n Fig. 9.9a, are as follows: a microprocessor (Apple I1 computer), a single-handed robot, several meas u r i n g devices (pH-meter,

pipette/burette)

tional scheme o f t h i s set-up positions (H-1

and a dilution unit. The opera-

i s illustrated i n Fig. 9.9b: there are f o u r fixed

t o H-4), one of which (H-2)

accommodates a magnetic s t i r r e r ,

and another six positions i n which the beakers or flasks can be positioned.


268

METER

PIPETTE / BURETTE

I

[

(8)

ELECTRONIC BALANCE

COM MP U T ER-

[

ROBOT

OISPE NSER

B

Braker positions

N U : B u f f e r positions

E L Solance H E n d e f f e c t o r assemblies

PIE : Pipettc/Burctte PM: p H - m e t e r R Robot V ' b s p e n s e r valve

I.C 1-

L I N E A R STEPPER MOTOR 1 0 m L SYRINGE

E R

COMPUTER

%+7

REGULATOR

RESERVOIR

Robot s t a t i o n f o r t i t r a t i o n of an acid solution w i t h s o l i d basic standard. ( A ) Block diagram of the s t a t i o n . ( B ) Top view of t h e s i t u a t i o n of the d i f f e r e n t elements o f the s t a t i o n . (C) Pipette/bure t t e assembly. (D) Solvent dispenser system. (Reproduced from [ 1 6 ] w i t h permission of the American Chemical S o c i e t y ) . Fig. 9.9


269

The 18 sequential actions involved i n the t i t r a t i o n can be summed up i n five: (a) Weighing of the solid standard. ( b ) Dissolution of the standard (addition of water followed by s5rriKg). (c) Withdrawal and dilution of an aliquot of sample (HCI). (d)Placement of the beaker containing the standard solction i n the t i t r a tion position,

where i t i s s t i r r e d and the combined p H electrode

is intro-

duced. (e) Programmed addition of the diluted solution of the unknown in O.T-mL increments down t o p H 7 and again i n 0.2-mL increments down to pH 2, at which the t i t r a t i o n is finished. The p r i n t e r provides both the t i t r a t i o n curve and the concentratior: of the HCI solution. The precision for f i v e determinations of the same sample is not

v e r y good

(t 0.6%) compared with that achieved by the conventional volumetric

method (2 0.196). This i s typical of robotic methods.

9.6 SCOPE OF APPLICATION As stated above, laboratory robotizaticn is of especial i-elevrnce t o :he automation of the so-called

preliminary operations, particulary when these are

lengthy, cumbersome o r hazardous. O f all robot stations reported so far, the most frequently used are those

handling liquid or gas chromatographs, although a number of workstations based on the use of other measuring instruments such as photometers, fluorimeters, pH-meters, and atomic and NMR spectrometers have also been described. Among the different apparatus employed i n robotic stations, vortex mixers and

systems f o r

Others,

such

as

addition/tranfer

of

liquid-liquid

and

liquids are by f a r solid-liquid

the most common.

extractors,

centrifuges,

heaters and pneumatic crimpers are less frequently used, although not uncommon i n robotic configurations. Pharmaceutical analysis [18-201 has undoubtedly been the most receptive field t o robotic applications,

probably

due t o the suitability of robots f o r

quality control operations. To a much lesser extent, robots have been used i n environmental

monitoring,

i n the treatment of

biological

samples

(clinical

chemistry) and i n elemental organic and inorganic analyses. I t i s worth pointi n g o u t the small number of references available on the use of robotic stations f o r t h e analysis of foodstuffs or materials of industrial interest. A compilation of the references on the application o f robots in the labor-

atory can be found a t the end o f t h i s chapter. It must be admitted t h a t robotics i s an atypical technique

i n t h i s sense;

i n fact,

although the first


270

robot stations were reported over 5 years ago, few papers have been devoted t o this exciting subject during this perlod. This can be understood after looking closely at the source of the few artlcles publlshed so far: most of the authors concerned work for large pharmaceutlcal or petrochemical firms, whlch are usually endowed with better means and facllltles than universities or public research institutions. Not until such centres have included laboratory robotlzatlon among their prlorlty topics and made plans f o r multidlsclpllnary

re-

search wlll this methodology gain due support.

9.7 FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

This last section poses and answers a few questions about the role that robots play and are expected t o play i n laboratories In the near future. To begin with, questlons such as "What Is the use of robots?" and " A r e there any reasons to justlfy the use of robots In the laboratory?" can only be answered by considering m e of the advantages' offered by robotlzed methods as compared wlth both manual and other automated methods, namely: (a) Decreased costs. It has been calculated that the replacement of manual with robotic work results i n a reduction i n expenses by a factor of four. (b)Increased working capablllty. Robots can work non-stop 24 h a day, 7 days a week. (c) Increased

rellabllity as a result of avoidlng alterations Introduced

by human errors. (d) Improved personal safety. Robots are invaluable substitutes f o r humans In handllng hazardous samples, reagents or Instruments. ( e l Fiexlblllty. such as weighing,

Robots allow dissolution,

for

automation of

a serles of

grlndlng and centrlfuglng,

operations

none of whlch Is

affordable by other methodologies as stated above. This is of particular importance i n handling solid samples. ( f ) Easier adaptation of manual methods compared wlth other methodologles (both batch and continuous). An apparent disadvantage of robotlzed methods with respect t o other automatlc methods Is their slowness. The number of samples that can be processed per hour or day is conslderably smaller, especially In contrast t o non-segmented continuous methodologles such as flow

Injection analysis.

Strlctly,

both extremes are not comparable Insofar as robotlzed methods allow f o r automatlon of cumbersome, time-consumlng operatlons unaffordable by the rest. Should the sampling rate Include the tlme spent on prellmlnary oprrations, robotlzed methods would compare more favourably wlth other methodologies. A true dlsadvantage of such methods Is thelr lower preclslon procedures.

compared wlth manual


271

When i s it really recommendable t o use a robot station in the laboratory? This question is very important in considering the renewal of laboratory instrumentation and when changing the working philosophy, as it involves quite a different concept. Adressing such a compromising question requires A distinction t o b e made between flexible automation, characterized b y i t s great versat i l i t y and adaptability to different situations and needs, and dedicated automation, namely the design of a specific system f o r a particular application.

A

B

MedNum

LOW

High

LOW

H8ph

Medium

COMPLEXITY

C O M P L [ X I TY

Fig. 9.10 S u i t a b i l i t y o f d i f f e r e n t automatic methodologies according t o t h e i r sampling frequency and the complexity o f the a n a l y t i c a l procedure used. ( A ) Without robots; ( B ) With robots. (Courtesy o f Zymark).

Figure 9.10 shows two graphs representing the qualitative relationship between the complexity of the methodology (number of stages, precision needed, time of operation, etc) and the sampling frequency:

high ( > l o 0 h-l), medium

(25-100 h-l) and low (15 F 80 152D>10 - F = 5 0 1 0 2 D > 6 -F=30 6 2 D > 3 -F=20 32D>Z-F~:10 2>0> 1 -F=5 1 2 D > 0-F: 2 TECTION/CAL-

CALCULATE

YES

P PRINT

I -

b

SEND F PULSES TO BURETTE (DELIVER F/L500mll /

/ L E A S T SOUARES FIT ON E O .

I *

FIL500

I

cl,

(!3

RETURN

RETURN

Fa. 18.12

I

1 -

Flow charts o f the o v e r a l l c o n t r o l and two main subrout i n e s f o r t i t r a t i o n method w i t h k i n e t i c detection o f the end-point. (Reproduced from [ 7 5 ] w i t h permission o f Pergamon Press Ltd).

Automat i c t i t ra tors

419

Howard and Henzel [761 developed a coulometric titrator t o control the titration rate in order t o obtain constant changes In the pH wlth time (1.e. evenly spaced

APH

values), especially In the vicinity of the end-point t o be

determined. Although maintaining a constant rate of pH change prior to the endpoint Is time-consuming, the resulting values are particularly well suited t o curve-fitting analyses. I n order t o be able t o titrate relatively large samples (up t o 100 pmol compared with the typical 0.1-10

pmol) In a reasonable

time and still regain control without overshooting In the region of the equlvalence point, they devised a control algorithm different from any reported previously [4,9,14],

with the required dynamic range, rapid response and fine

pol n t control. The coulometric tltrator developed by Howard and Henzel consists of a titration cell, an electrochemical t i t r a n t generation system with a constant current source, an Orion 8 0 1 A Ioanalyser pH-meter, a DEC PDP 8/E minicomputer-, a teletype with a paper tape punch and the required Interface hardware t o allow the minicomputer to control the t l t r a n t generation rate, acqulre the data and output them. The tltratlon cell is a thermostated 30-mL welghing bottle fitted with a rubber stopper modlfled t o accommodate the electrodes and allow for purging with nitrogen. The software used allows the operator to enter the number of readings to

be summed f o r each output, the number of readings t o be delayed so that the solution may become more homogeneous, whether acid or base is t o be generated, the desired pH change readlng and the coefficients for the control algorlthm. Most of the tltrations carried out Involved over 2000 data readings and typically 10-25 summed readings per datum output, with a pH change of 0.003 unit per reading. The closed loop control Is based on a proportional plus Integral plus differential plus squared (PIDS) algorlthm that Is used t o calculate the

time the t l t r a n t generation system should be on (TO) for each Interval: TO

=

LTO

+

(AE+BE[E]+CAE[ilE])/(FApH/LTO)

(6)

where LTO is the previous TO, E Is the error In the pH ( E

= measured pH - cal-

culated desired pH for the present reading), ApH ls the change I n the pH from the previous pH and A-F

are constants entered during the lnltlallzatlon phase

of the program and ranglng between 4095 and Its reciprocal. The term hpH/LTO

Is used to allow f o r the non-llnear varlatlon of the pH as a functlon of the amount of t l t r a n t added. Both E,

AE

and

APH

are rnultlplled by 1000 prior to

Introduction Into Eq. ( 5 ) . Small values are used for the coeflclents of the squared terms

so that they only become Important when E or AE Is relatlvely

large. A first-In,

flrst-out (FIFO) rubber band storage routlne Is used t o

hold the data until they can be output t o the teletype and Paper tape punch.

420


The o u t p u t routine f o r the pH and TO data pairs is a low-priority background program. The punched paper tape with the data is input into a DEC Edusystem 50 computer which is programmed in BASIC t o analyse the data and display them on a Tektronix 4010 terminal. A typical t i t r a t i o n requires about 30 min, and the analysis of data another 5. Howard and Henzel applied t h e i r system t o the t i t r a t l o n of f o u r samples of 35.82 pmol Na2CCb and obtained a mean o f 71.50 Mmol of hydronium ion generated with a relative standard deviation +0.27%. The t i t r a t o r was less than full on i n the pH ranges 3.3-5.3

and 6.8-8.9.

I n these ranges, the measured pH was

controlled t o within 0.002 pH u n i t s of the desired value. A compact automated t i t r a t i o n system f o r the determination o f calcium i n

sea water was designed by Anderson and Gran6li and t r i e d o u t successfully during

the YMER-80 Arctic expedition [77].

The system burette (Fig. 13.13)

acts both as a measuring device, a t i t r a t i o n vessel and a cuvette. The burette i s d r i v e n by a four-phase stepper motor and t h e up-and-down

motion o f the

piston is determined by i t s direction of rotation. The unit i s controlled b y a Commodore PET 2001 computer equipped with 8kb RAM and 8kb ROM, and using cassette tape from program storage. It is usually programmed in BASIC, though

Sample

Reagents

Waste

Solenoid valves

S t e p p e r motor

PET

2001

Driving

I

Fig. 13.13 Schematic diagram o f t i t r a t i o n system f o r high-precision determination o f calcium i n sea water. (Reproduced from 177) w i t h permission o f Taylor & Francis L t d ) .

Automatic t i t r a t o r s

421

i t also accepts machine code subroutines. The titration system bus is connected t o two devices: a printer, where results and primary data are reported, and a multimeter, which is connected t o the colorlmeter used. The parallel 1/0 port serves three functions,

namely: (a) to drive the stepper motor (two

lines); (b) t o drive the stirrer (one line) and (3) to control the solenoid

valves (three lines). direction of

One of the lines t o the stepper motor controls the

rotation while the other Is used t o trigger the motor drive

ioglc. The three lines t o the valves are decoded so as t o allow up to eight valves t o be controlled. This system was also used t o implement the photometric titratlon of calcium i n the presence of a higher concentratlon of magnesium reported by Jagner [78]. Calcium was titrated with EGTA at pH 8.6. A small amount of Zn-EGTA was also used and the decrease i n the calcium concentration was followed by the simultaneous titration of zinc with Zincon as indicator. The experimental data for absorbance

vs t i t r a n t volume added ( v ) were llnearized by the Gran

function [64]

where vo is the total volume (excluding that of the titrant), A, An% and Aare absorbance values (measured at 620 nm) and

where

tEGTA

denoted the t i t r a n t concentration and [Ilw the total concentra-

tion of indicator at volume

VO.

Volume v i Is Introduced t o compensate f o r the

EGTA released by the Zn-EGTA complex in the formatlon of the Zn-indicator compiex. Ten consecutive titratlons of deep water (from 3000 m below sea level) carried out on board the YMER gave an average of 10.205 mMw (mmol/kg sea water). I n practical work, the accuracy was set by the standardization of NmEGTA. The time from the start of one titratlon t o the beglnnlng of the next was approxlmately 20 min. Ionlcs Inc. are the designers and manufacturers of a multl-function digital analytical instrument sultable f o r making up t o three simultaneous measurements on process solutlons containing Inorganlcs,

reactlve organics or

dissolved metals [79]. Some of the measurements that can be made are acid-base


422

a

b

c

d

PH b Selective ion electrode c Colori me trtc tit ra t ion endpoint sensor d Colorimeter coil

cl

,---Alarms

I-f1

External

Digital Display Printer / Plotter

- -I

cm

Recorder

I

I

I-

Computer interface

I L- Signal transmitter

R eac ii on Cell

JfJ n' - 05 .

A

Sample

Fig. 13.14 Scheme o f automatic multi-function (Courtesy o f Ionic I n c . ) .

digital titrator.

Automatic ti t r a t o r s

423

Karl Fischer or amperometric titrations; colour change end-points absorption characteristics and specific Ion concentrations.

and colour

Functions are se-

quenced through a front panel keyboard or EPROM chip for sample fill, reagent delivery, spin, rinse

,

Walt and detector sensing actions t o enact the desired

titrimetric procedure. Figure 13.14 shows four different sensors that can be used along the rotary reaction cell with up t o five digitally controlled bure t t e assemblies. Dilution water can be added t o the reaction cell by means of

a burette assembly or a fixed-volume

solenoid valve. The basic Operation of

this instrument as an automatic tltrator is as follows: the reaction cell is rotated slowly during most of the titration cycle; sample, diluent and various reagent burettes are sequentially filled

with through air-operated,

sliding

ceramic valve assemblies. A f t e r the burettes have been filled, a small voiume of liquid from each burette is dumped Into the cell t o ensure that any air bubbles present are expelled from the burettes; water is then added to the cell, which is rinsed and evacuated by using centrifugal force developed by spinning i t at a high speed. A second water wash and rinse sequence is used t o remove any trace impurlties remaining i n the cell after the first operation; a small preselected volume is then added with the reaction cell rotating slowly followed by a preset voiume of diluent. A f t e r waitlng for a few seconds to ensure complete

mlxing,

the

titrant

volumes until a specifled end-point

is

incrementally added

i n microlitre

o r pH is reached. When the titration i s

complete, the output is displayed on a digital panel meter and held until the next titration cycle. The panel meter, printer and/or recorder are updated at the end of each titration cycle. The wash, rinse and reagent addition cycle is then repeated as programmed via the keyboard RAM memory o r permanent PROM memory. Figure 13.15 shows the operational scheme of this automatlc titrator. The heart of the unit Is an INTEL 8080 microprocessor mounted on the central processing unlt (CPU) board. The rotary reaction cell assembly can accommodate up t o three different sensors for multiple measurements on the same processed sample. Each stepper burette board controls up t o two burette dlspenslng assemblies. Function boards such as the colorlmeter board, air burette board,

E/I output board and RS-232 printer Interface boards are available optlonally. The optional D/A and E / I board i s used for closed-loop applications where the tltrator

controls the final

element such as a control valve.

The RS-232

printer interface board Is useful f o r troubleshooting the equipment and edlting user-defined programs. The Instrument accuracy, repeatability and response time vary widely and depend on the particular type of measurement concerned. The system requires 8.c.

power, a 75-psi

air supply and a dilution water

supply for proper operation. The air flow-rate

required is o f about 50 cms/mln

I --1 -

D A T A BUS AND il /i D n DATA

---

I---

DISPLAY lNTERCONNEC BOARD

I

ICOLORIMETER’ (NOTE I )

SENSOR BOARD

1

- T---‘

I__

I

57 - -- --- - - ---- - - --11 I

--I

LIGHT I SOURCE I ASSY I - _ ----1 ----1

FRONT PANEL ASSY I

I

ROTARY ROTARY REACTION CELL ASSY

t

1 I

I

I I I

HI Lo

BOARD.

Pss--1

OPT0 22 I RELAY BOARD

AIR

I ,

I BURETTE I 1 BOARD I- - - - _ _

NOTE 2

1

’I

/OIA AND E / I I BOARD I

I__ - t

- - -I

RS-232C PRINTER INTERFACE BOARD

‘

I

NOTE 2

I EXTERNAL DEVICES

-

DIGITALLY CONTROLLED DISPENSING MODULE

1

I

n

ll

PRINTER AND/OR DIG I TAL

I

I YOLUME I DISPENSING I I MODULE I

4

DC SUPPLY VOLTAGES

1------_1

POWER

I I

I------?

NOTES : 1. POR PHOTOMETRIC SENSING, COLORIMETER 15 ADDED TO SENSOR BOARD AS COLORIMETER SENSOR

I

2 c r-----

I

I

/----

I *

*

- - -- - - - -

(KEVEOARD)(DISPLAY) (KEVEOARD)(DISPLAY)

‘r

- -2.2 - -

STEPPER BURETTE BOARD

ANALOGUE BOAR D

I

4

ADDRESS L I N E S (MOTHERBOARD)

-1

7

&

ru

I

I

b’

I

I---_--l

I_-_

-__ J

I S T DER. PORT

2. INSTRUMENT ACCOMMODATES UP TO FIVE DISPENSING MODULES 3. OPTIONAL USE ON 3 0 0 SERIES

ANALOS PORTS 1-3

EL,

Fig. 13.15 F u n c t i o n a l b l o c k diagram o f t h e automatic t i t r a t o r d e p i c t e d i n F i g . 13.14. Ionics Inc. )

.

(Courtesy o f

EL, 3 k

Automatic ti t r a t o r s

425

and about 8 gal of dilution water are used per month. The sample temperature must be between 1 and 40'C. Sample consumption Is typically

10 cm3 per

analysis, and suspended solids of u p t o 1/16-in diameter can be handled by the manufacturer's internal sampling system. The built-in self-dlagnoslng

program

is a major feature o f t h i s automatic titrator, which makes a precision meteri n g device capable of making accurate and repeatable titrlmetric determinations of the concentration of various acids and bases. It has been described as "a chemist i n a box" but, according t o i t s manufacturers, it i s more than t h a t as i t i s not subject t o the human e r r o r o r the judgement of t h e laboratory analyst. Finally, it i s worth emphasizing t h a t t l t r a t o r s have progressed from the laboratory t o process areas, where they are being applied to an increasing number of d i f f i c u l t problems involving on-line measurement and control. Thls t r e n d i s expected t o continue as more and more laboratory instruments are being adapted f o r and applied t o the chemical and petrochemical industries.

REFERENCES [l] T. W. Hunter,

I. T . Sinnamon and

G. H. H i e f t j e ,

Anal. Cbem., 47 (1975)

497.

[ 2 1 s. Ebel, Cbem. Ing. Tech., 46 (1974) 811. [3] G. Svehla, Automatic p o t e n t i m e t r i c t i t r a t i o n s , Pergamon, Oxford, 1978. [4] T. F. Christiansen, J. E. Busch and S . C. Krogh, Anal. Cbem.. 48 (1976) 1051. [ 5 ] D. Betteridge, E. L. Dagless, P. David, D. R. Deans, G. E. Penketh and P. Shawcross, Analyst, 101 (1976) 409. [6] P. V. Fruh, L. Mejer and H. Rutishauser, Anal. Cbim. Acta, 95 (1977) 97. [7] R. W. Hendler, D. Songco and T. R. Clem, Anal. Cbem., 49 (1977) 1908, 1914. [ 8 ] A. A. B. Wu and H. V. Malmstadt, Anal. Cbem., 50 (1976) 2090. [91 D. J. Legget, Anal. Cbem., 50 (1978) 718. [lo1 N. Busch, P. Freyer and H. Szamelt, Anal. Chem., 50 (1978) 2166. [ 1 1 3 L. Andersson, A. Granhli and M. Strandberg, Anal. Cbim. Acta, 103 (1978) 489, C123 L . Pehrsson, F. Ingman and S. Johansson, Talanta, 23 (1976) 769, 781; 24 (1977) 79. 1131 L. M. Doane, J. T. Stock and J. D. Stuart, Anal. Chem., MI (1979) 415. I141 Ch. R. M a r t i n and H. Freiser, Anal. Chem., 51 (1979) 803. 1151 T. Nishikawa, I. Ogasawara and T. Harada, Anal. Cbim. Acta, 133 (1981) 463. [IS] S. Ebel, J. Hocke and B. Reyer, Fresenius Z. Anal. Cbem., 301) (1980) 437; 312 (1982) 346. 1171 J. C. S m i t and H. C. S m l t , Anal. Chim. Acta, I 4 3 (1982) 45. 1181 G. D. Owens and R. J. Eckstein, Anal. Chem., M (1982) 2347. 1191 J. Boelema, PhD Thesis, University o f Groningen, 1982. C201 F. L. Hahn and G. Weiler, Fresenius I. Anal. Chem., 69 (1926) 417. [21] G. Gran, Acta Chim. Scand., 4 (1950) 559; Analyst, 77 (1952) 661. 1221 G. F. Tubbs, Anal. Chm., 26 (1954) 1670. [231 E. Bishop, Anal. Chim. Acta, 26 (1962) 397; 27 (1962) 253. [241 W. E. Wentworth, J. Chem. Educ., 42 (1965) 96. [251 N. Ingru, W. Kakofowicz, L. G. S i l l e n and B. Warnqvist, Talanta, 14 (1967) 1261.


42 6

[26] 0. Dyrssen, D. Jagner and F. Wengelin, Computer calculations o f i o n i c e q u i l i b r i a and t i t r a t i o n produres, Almqvist and Wiksel. Stockholm, 1968. [27] J. A. Goldman and L. Meites, J. N e c t r o a n a l . Cbem., 14 (1967)373; 16 (1968) 47; 18 (1968) 41; 19 (1968) 204; Anal. Cbim. Acta, 28 (1963) 472. [ 2 8 ] D. Midgley and C. McCallum, Talanta, 21 (1974) 723. [29] P. Gans, Coord. Cbem. Rev., 19 (1976) 99. [30] M. Bos, Anal. Cbim. Acta, 81 (1976) 21; 90 (1977) 61; 122 (1980) 193. [31] G. Arena, E. R i z z a r e l l i , S. Samnartano and C. Rigano, Talanta, 26 (1979)

1. [32] A. O l i n and B. Wall&, Talanta, 25 (1978) 720. [ 3 3 ] R. A. S t a i r s , J. Cbem. Educ., 55 (1978) 99. [34] H. N. J. Poulisse, Anal. C b i m Acta, 112 (1979) 361. [35] R. Rosset, D. Bauer and J. Desbarres, Lebo-Pbama, 303 (1980) 833; Cbimie analytique des solutions e t micro-informatique, Masson, Paris, 1979. [36] H. Narasaki, Talanta, 27 (1980) 409. [37] T. F. Brown and S. D. Brown, Anal. Cbem., 53 (1981) 1410. [38] A. D. Zuberbuhler and T. A. Kaden, Talanta, 29 (1982) 201. [ 3 9 ] Ch. W i l l i s , J. Cbem. Educ., 58 (1981) 659. [40] F. Gaizer and A. PuskBs, Talants, 28 (1981) 565. [ 4 1 ] L. Meites, Anal. L e t t . , 15 (1982) 507. [42] R. T. Shrager and R. W. Hendler, Anal. Cbem., 54 (1982) 1147. [ 4 3 ] W. E. Gordon, J . Pbys. Cbem., 83 (1979) 1365; Anal. Cbem., 54 (1982) 1595. 1441 A. Avdeef, 0. L. Kearney, J. Brown and A. R. Chemotti, Jr., Anal. Cbem., 54 (1982) 2322. [45] S . Ebel, E. Glaser, R. Kantelberg and B. Reyer, Fresenius I. Anal. Cbem., 312 (1982) 604. [46] J. Stur, M. Bos and W. E. van der Linden, Anal. Cbim. Acta, 58 (1984) 93. [47] R. H. M u l l e r and H. M. Partridge, Ind. Eng. Cbem., 20 (1928) 423. [48] H. V. Malmstadt, Anal. Cbem., 29 (1957) 1901. [49] N. B e t t , W. Nock and G. Morris, Analyst, 79 (1954) 607. [50] J. F. Brown and W. F. Volume, Analyst, 81 (1956) 308. [51] W. J. Blaedel and H. V. Malmstadt, Anal. Cbem., 24 (1952) 455. [52] S. Gordon and C. Campbell, Anal. Cbem., 29 (1957) 1706. [ 5 3 ] G. M. H i e f t j e and B. M. Mandarano, Anal. Cbem., 44 (1972) 1617. [54] Lord Rayleigh, Proc. London Math. Soc., 10 (1879) 4. [55] N. R. Lindblad and J. M. Schneider, Rev. S c i . Instrum. 38 (1967) 325. [ 5 6 ] E. Pungor, S. FehBr, G. Nagy and K. Tbth, CRC Crit. Rev. Anal. Cbem., 14 (3) (1983) 175. [ 5 7 ] T. W. Hunter, J. T. Sinnamon and G. M. H i e f t j e , Anal. Cbem., 47 (1975) 497. [ 5 8 ] T . H. Beasley, H. W. Z i e g l e r , R. L. Charles and P. King, Anal. Cbem., 44 (1972) 1833. I 5 9 1 P. T. P r i e s t l e y , Analyst, 88 (1963) 194. [60] M. J. Stern, R. W i t h n e l l and R. J. Raffa, Anal. Chem., 38 (1966) 1275. [61] A. Moreno, M. S i l v a , M. 0. PBrez-Bendito and M. Valchrcel, Analyst, 109 (1984) 249. [62] P. A. Johansson, U. Stefansson and G. Hoffmann, Anal. Cbfm. Acta, 151 (1983) 49. [63] D. Betteridge, E. L. Dagless, D. R. Deans, G. E. Penketh and P. Shaweross, Analyst, 101 (1976) 409. [64] G. Gran, Analyst, 77 (1952) 661. 1651 J. Frazer, Personal C m u n i c a t l o n , 1974. [66] J. W. Frazer, A. M. Kray, W. S e l i g and R. Lim, Anal.Chem., 47 (1975) 869. [67] J. W. Frazer, W. S e l i g and L. P. Rigdon, Anal. Cham., 49 (1977) 1250. [68] S. B. T i l d o n and M. B. Denton, Univ. o f Arizona, Tucson, A r i z . 85721. [69] S. R. Goode, Anal. Cbem., 49 (1977) 1408. [70] G. J. Thompson, B. G. Cooksey, J. M. Ottaway and W. C. Campbell, Anal. Proc., 22 (1985) 190.

Au t oma t i c t i t ra t ors

42 7

[ 7 1 ] H. 0. H a r t l e y , rechnometrics, 3 (1961) 269. [ 7 2 1 P. R. Adby and M. A . H. Dempster, Introduction t o optimisation methods, Chapman and H a l l , 1974. [ 7 3 1 G. R. Walsh, Methods o f optimisation, John Wiley, 1975. [74] 6 . G. Cooksey, D. H. H a l l , L. S. Macdonald, J. M. Ottaway, G . J . Tompson and W. C. Campbell, Anal. Proc., 22 (1985) 368. [ 7 5 1 C. E. E f s t a t h i o u and T . P. Hadjiioannou, Talanta, 30 ( 1 9 8 3 ) 145. [ 7 6 1 G. D. Howard and S . Henzel, Anal. Chem., 56 (1984) 1750. [77] L. Anderson and A . GranBli, J. Autm. Chem., 4(2) (1982) 75. [ 7 8 ] D. Jagner, Anal. Chim. Acta, 68 (1974) 83. [ 7 9 1 I n s t r u c t i o n Manual f o r Digichem 3000 and 4000 Series Programmable Chemic a l Analyzers, I o n i c s Inc., November, 1980.

14 Automation

In

clinical

chemistry

14.1 INTRODUCTION

Clinical analysis is probably the area best representing the evolution and gradual and systematic development of analytical automation. I n the past 30 years clinical laboratories have made increasing use of automated apparatus and accesories C1-31 (i.e. devices intended to replace o r supplement human effort), chiefly as a result of the overload arising from the Increasing attention paid t o health, which i n t u r n has resulted I n an increasing number of analyses required for an increasingly larger number of patients. These needs have been met by an avalanche of commercial instruments automated

to dlfferent extents and received with different attitudes by clinical workers depending on their v i t r o or in

skill,

adaptation

capabilities and usual needs (i.e

in

vivo, intra- or extracellular analyses, etc.).

The reason why some clinical methods should be labelled automatlc or not Is not completely clear. The generic definition does not establish the extent t o which human effort need be replaced or the method concerned be facilitated for the latter t o deserve t o be categorized as 'automatic'. A manual method is rarely considered automatlc merely because It calls for a water-bath

whose

temperature Is adjusted by means of a feed-back mechanism. On the other hand, self-contained

continuous-flow

instruments Including the sampler, perlstaltic

pump, dialyser, spectrophotometer with flow-cell and recorder are m m o n although,

accordlng t o IUPAC's definltlon,

Improperly called

'automated'.

In

fact, few of the elements of such Instruments, apart from the dlalyser bath or the recorder servo, are regulated by a feed-back mechanlsm. The methods typically used with high-throughput analysers involve processi n g biological fluid samples. Roughly 90% of all measurements are based on the molecular absorption photometrlc technique, whlle the rest are normally based on flame photometry and atomic absorption or, more recently, dlrect potentlometry wlth Ion-selectlve electrodes. As a rule, these methods are not more automated than the manual counterparts that they replace and there Is no strong argument for using a feed-back rnechanlsm i n the steps Involved In the quantltatlve analysls.

Automation i n c l i n i c a l chemistry

429

The incorporation of computers into clinical chemistry has run in parallel with the automation and commercializatlon of complex anaiysers. The operation of multi-channel anaiysers is controlled by suitable software, as is the acquisition of analytical data. The earliest clinical analysers including computerized control of the analytical process were marketed i n 1970. Virtually every analyser launched after 1980 is microprocessor-controlled. The rapid growth of instruments with built-in microprocessors or computers has been the result of a number o f reasons. First, the enormous growth of the number of clinical analyses required, which increased by 10-20% yearly between 1970 and 1980. Second, the need for better performance from analysers whose precision could not be improved or even preserved without computerization. Even the basic concept behind some anaiysers (e.g. centrifugal analysers) or enzymatic rate measurements with multi-detection are not feasible without

recourse to computerization.

Another pressing need fostering the incorporation of computers in clinical chemistry was the growing number, variety and complexity of STAT analyses, performed as fast as possible under conditions of serious risk t o the patient’s life. STAT assays cannot always be efficiently carried out manualiy. A special type of automatic analyser has been developed not t o meet the need f o r a large number of analyses, but rather t o ensure application of a variety of procedures with the minimum possible set-up. It should be emphasized that microprocessors are relatively inexpensive ac-

cessories. A i l the above-mentioned reasons for the development of automation would not have been sufficient i f the cost of the computerized control of the analytical process had not been so low and easy t o repay. It should also be noted that the most recent advances in automation, name-

iy robotics,

have also been incorporated into the clinical field,

either

by

using conventional arms and adapting the remainder of the station (sofware, modules adapted t o ELISA and microassays i n general) as is the case with the system marketed by Hewlett-Packard, or by using robots specially designed for the clinical laboratory (e.g. the Blomek 1000 station manufactured by Beckman, whose arm i s capable of performing up to eight simultaneous analyses by means of as many pipettes). The recent advent of these systems does not allow one t o assess the advantages and disadvantages of their use i n Clinical Chemistry. However, Craig has evaluated the advantages of automation over manual work in a clinical laboratory [4] and drawn the foliowlng conclusions: (a) As far

as quallty control is concerned, automation can Improve the

quality of clinical tests because it is typically about four times more pre-

clse than manual procedures. With greater preclsion, automated procedures reduced quality control and the number of test repeated and r u n i n dupllcate


430

to a t h i r d of the former level at the SIX small hospitals where this was measured (Fig. 14.1).

Bclorc

After

automat ion

au Io ma I i on

Ouality c o n t r o l repeuts and d u p Iicat ions

tests

Fig. 14.1 Reduction o f q u a l i t y control, repeats and duplications res u l t i n g from automation. (Reproduced from [41 with permission o f Franc i s & Taylor).

(b) Regarding the impact on labour productivity, automation can increase I t by 93% t o as much as 472% according to the results obtalned by Craig In his study of selected hospital clinical laboratories C41. By increaslng the product i v i t y of the existing staff, automation reduces the need t o add personnel as the laboratory’s workload increases. It also Improves the workload dlstribution and allows the laboratory t o use less skilled people t o process tests. This frees skilled technologists for more demanding tasks.

Space saving is

another parameter t o consider when evaluating automatlon. By reducing bench and chemlcal storage space, automatlon can reduce the size of the laboratory or offset the need to expand I t with an Increasing workload. This results in major costsavings as most laboratories operate on a cost per square foot basis. (c) As regards the financial Impact on the hospital system, automation not only

increases laboratory efficiency,

but also benefits the entire hospltal

system. Thus, it accelerates laboratory turnround times, which can Increase patient turnover, and

it improves out-patient services by providing faster and

more tlmely diagnostic information. These beneflts are most evident i n small hospitals, where It is easier t o isolate the impact of automatlon on the hospital system.


43 1

14.2 STAGES OF CLINICAL ANALYSIS The analytical data required by a physician t o make a diagnosis of a patients's state are the result of the various stages shown schematically in the flow diagram i n Fig. 14.2. A f t e r examining the patlent, the physlcian requests a series of analyses - e i t h e r directly or via the computer, depending on the type of hospital-,

whlch leads t o the subsequent stage, namely collection of

the patient's sample. This, after incubation and/or pretreatment, is placed on the sampler via which it is introduced into the anaiyser whlch, after measurement, processes data to deliver the corresponding results via a printer. A built-in

microprocessor

usually

controls the sampler functloning,

acquires

data from the analyser and processes them for presentation via the printer. The printed results can reach the physician in two ways: directly or through the computer, depending on how the analyses were originally requested. The data can be Incorporated into a bank if there i s one, and be used in the future for statistical analysis of the evolution and overall state of different events (e.g.

frequency and evolution of a given disease, age, sex and

circumstances usually involved). Another contact between physician and patient allows the latter t o know his or her diagnosis.

2a

SAMPLING

+-l

\, \

I

-_--

TREATMENT

Fig. 14.2 t e x t 1.

MICROPROCESSOR

Scheme o f the

2b

COMPUTER

I

P R E T R E A TME N T

L

I

CJ

ANALYTICAL P R O F I L E REQUEST

Lcl?

~

stages preceding

I

I

a medical

diagnosis (see


432

The most distinctive features of each of these stages are commented on below. 14.2.1 Analysls requsst and sample collectlon

The instrument devoted to sample collection can be flexible f o r adaptation t o the patient’s needs -whether

he or she is i n bed or not-

or be fixed In

the laboratory. Manual sample collection obviously involves more personnel i n this stage (the physician, the nurse or specialist effecting the collection, a technician, a clerk), which i s remarkably simplified by the use of a computer. The work following collection should be perfectly organized i n order t o eliminate the

risk of

sample-patient

mismatch, again

minimized by

the

use of

computers. 14.2.2 Sample storage, volume and pretreatment

Sample treatment should be considered part of the analysis program. Some instruments require blood samples that are to be aspirated by the sampling probe to be haemolysed, whereas others simply need centrifuged samples. When the sample is to be stored for some time, the storage conditions should be appropriate to prevent any changes i n the fluid composltion. Unfortunately, these conditions are not clear-cut and this is an experimental area where industry can co-operate with the user to a great extent. The literature on this topic is frequently contradictory. Thus, serum and plasma from which

r e d cells have been separated should be protected from light and evaporated; however, their refrigeration may pose more problems that I t may solve as the precision of sampling is generally affected by temperature changes. The sample volume should be small, although sufflcient t o perform all the assays required. The maximum amount of sample t o be extracted from critical patients and children is 1 mL. This should be divided into parts sufficiently large t o allow the different analyses required (e.g. glucose, Co2) t o be carr i e d out. The chief problems resulting from the use of small sample volumes arise from the lack of homogenizatlon when the sample must be reconstituted o r thawed after I yop hi lizatlon and freezing, respective1y. The instrument should only carry out the requested tests and use the sample volume required. Some simple Instruments allow the implementation of analytical procedures requiring as little as 20 pL of sample and featurlng excellent precision, reliability and throughput. Improvements i n thls respect have been aimed at developing automated instruments performing functions slmliar t o those carried out manually. A reasonable goal In t h l s sense is the possibility of carrying out twenty freely selected assays wlth 100 pL of blood sample, whlch results In a typical sample volume of 5 pL. Such a small volume

Automation i n clinical chemistry

433

poses the added problem of adaptlng the instrument's chemistry and reading accordingly. Thus, the usual sample t o final volume ratio in serum analysis is 1.8. This means that only 40 p L of the final mixture should be measured in the

appropriate detector. Carry-over arising from the contact between samples, species and reagents should be kept below detectable levels. Alternatively, a computer can be used to compensate for mutual contamination. A logical and dual solution t o t h i s problem involves minimizing contact between surfaces by using disposable pipettes,

cuvettes, etc.,

and carefully

washing and drying re-usable

labware

between samples. 14.2.3 Measurement

Some measurements such as enzyme activlties must, by definition, be made under strictly preset conditions. Those methods involving dlchromatic measurements, excessive dilution of the substrate, erratic control of temperature or undefined or non-standardized temperatures, or non-preset zero time

may yield

results consistent with those provided by standard methods, but be considered inadequate because of the lack of sultable material for calibration. Instruments used to implement these methodologies not following the prescrlbed prccedures may be fatal t o the patient's treatment. Stable calibration is a major attribute of automated instruments. The principle behind calibration is simple: the Instrument must be calibrated with a suitable material prior t o any new analysis and later, periodically, by using control

materials t o evaluate the precision of the assays. I f the results

obtained with the control material suggest a decrease In the reliability of the analyses, these should be stopped and the Instrument be recalibrated -this

is generally a slow, costly operation. Automated instruments are self-

checking and self-adjusting.

I f they

fail at all, their alarm systems stop

their functioning, preserve valid results and delete the rest. Starting new analyses only after the prevlous ones have been completed is the logical and analytically correct modus

operandi. However, laboratory work-

ers rarely follow this golden rule, so that thelr working schemes involve some overlap, particularly when batch analysers are involved as these allow for sampiing, reagent dispensing, dilution and mixing whlle a serles of samples previously introduced into the instrument are belng measured with complete lndependence. The ideal analyser should be flexlble enough t o allow the user t o define the parameters governing data acquisition. The start of measurements, the average number of measurements per data polnt, the Interval between measurements and their number should be definable by the user accordlng t o the method t o be


434

implemented and the characteristics of the instrument and detector employed. I n addition, the ideal analyser should offer the user a variety of calibration alternatives. For linear methods, the techniques involved should include: (1) the use of theoretically derived factors for conversion of the series of measurements t o concentration units; ( 2 ) calibrations based on one or two points and the use of a suitable blank; (3) multiple calibration by linear regression techniques. I n order to obtain the best-fitting calibration graph, non-linear chemi-immunoassay methods may require calibrations based on multiple points and point-to-point,

log-log, spline, high-order polynomial and potential-func-

tion regressions. 14.2.4 Data acquisition Tnis stage involves the occurrence of an appropriate interface converting the signal provided by the analyser to one readily usable by the microprocessor. The data from the detection system can be very simple (e.g. a single absorbance, potential or current intensity i n equilibrium methods) or a series of data obtained from each sample during the evolution of the indicator reaction in kinetic methods. I n either instance, the data are compared with those of the calibration graph stored by the microprocessor i n order to obtain the analyte concentration in the unknown. These final data are sent to a printer for presentation. 14.2.5 Errors Quality control i n clinical laboratories has traditionally been based on a standard deviation limit of 22%. This leads to errors and a high frequency of misrejections -the

result may fall outside the limits for statistical reasons

even i n the absence of error-

particularly with multi-channel analysers. Mis-

rejections increase enormously with the number of analytical observations or channels when the above-mentioned limit is used f o r quality control. There are multi-rule

programs for quality control that allow misreJections t o be mini-

mized while being sensitive t o real errors. I n addition, a multi-rule system indicates whether the 'out-of-range'

condition is due to a systematlc or ran-

dom error. Other programs developed for this purpose detect a preselected level of error for a known probability of misrejections. The appllcatlon of advanced quality control systems gives the user the confidence that the instrument Is operating under medically acceptable limits of error.

14.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CLINICAL ANALYSERS The large varlety of clinical analysers currently available can be classified according t o two basic criteria, namely (Table 14.1):


435

(a) The t y p e of determination f o r which they are conceived. An instrument can be designed f o r the determination of one o r several given species or, alternatively,

be adaptable f o r different types of determinatlons.

These last

instruments, in t u r n , can be capable of determining one o r several parameters (species) i n a simultaneous (parallel) o r sequential manner.

TABLE 14.1

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f c l i n i c a l analysers According t o

Specific

Single-parameter

Flexible

Single-parameter

the type o f determination

Multi-parameter Multi-parameter

Parallel Sequential

According t o

Continuous

the type o f

SFA UFA

technique

FIA CDFA

Discrete

With f i n a l

Centrifugal

transfer

Others

Without f i n a l

Ordinary

transfer

cuvettes Prepared

Cuvettes w i t h

supports

reagents Dry reagents

In s i t u

(b) The type of technlque to be used (continuous or discrete). Among the continuous techniques Implemented on clinical analysers are both the classical air-segmented [5,6] and the unsegmented types -the

latter Include flow-lnjec-

tion analysis (FIA) [7,8] and controlled-disperslon

flow analysis (CDFA) [5].

Discrete techniques i n turn can Involve the transfer of the reaction mixture from the cup where it is originally held t o the measuring cell. These techniques are typically employed b y centrifugal analysers

[lo] and

a large group

of other analysers In which measurements are carried o u t i n ordinary cuvettes, whether disposable o r not, once the analytlcal reaction has been completed in another cell, vessel o r tube.

Techniques without final transfer include both

anaiysers with ordlnary cuvettes designed f o r the analysis of a large number


436

of samples, in situ analysers and those using reagents packed in columns or deposited on films -specially

suited to the fast analysis of a few samples

(STAT analysis). Below are described some of the most representative clinical analysers according to the type of technique that they use, although due mention is made in each instance t o the type of determination for which they are intended. 14.3.1 Continuous analysers

Continuous-flow analysers in their segmented version prevailed in the automation of clinical chemistry for over a decade, until they began to be displaced by batch analysers which, oddly enough, where introduced b y the same manufacturers who launched and popularized SFA. This type of analyser was commented on in Chapter 5, which described in detail the Analyzers 11, SMA

12/60 and SMAC, as well as a series of non-clinical applications grouped according to the type of detection system used. The SMAC and SMAC I1 represent the highest degree of sophistication of SFA as they include a computer controlling the different functions, namely sample identification, sampling, pumping,

detection and data acquisition, processing

and delivery. Their

in large hospital centres has resulted in

incorporation

more affordable workloads on account of the large number of samples that can

be analysed for up to 20 parameters in a relatively short time. Typical

examples of the clinical applications of these instruments are

the enzymatic and non-enzymatic determination of cholesterol In serum with the aid of the SMAC. The non-enzymatic determination of cholesterol developed by Burchard [12]

is based on its reaction with strong acids as described by Llebermann [ll]. The method was formerly developed in its manual verslon by Huan e t al. [131 and later automated by Levine et al. [141. The reaction sequence taking place after the serum sample is mixed with sulphuric acid involves a colour change from red to violet (bis-cholestadienylmonosulphonlc green (bis-cholestadienyldisulphonic nm:

acid, BCDMSA) and then to

acid, BCDDSA), which i s monitored at 630

-

BCDMSA Cholesterol + HzS04 BCDMSA + H2SO4 -L BCDDSA Figure 14.3 depicts the manifold used by the SMAC. The reagent, sample and some air are aspirated by a peristaltic pump into a single channel. The abovementioned reaction takes place at reactor R'i. The heat released i n this exothermic reaction is absorbed by a heat exchanger located prior to the flowcell. Finally, the reaction product Is sent to waste by asplratlon.

The chlef


fi

437

moo

"

A

I

ooao

I

J

1 rnm 6.3mm

1

AIR SAMPLE

x

-

The enzymatic method f o r determination of cholesterol Is based on that o f Klose e t al. [15], as modified b y Leon and Stasiw [16]. It involves the use of cholesterol stearase t o hydrolyse the cholesterol esters In serum t o free cholesterol, which is oxidized t o H202 that in turn forms a quinoneimine dye. The reaction i s quantitative, so the concentratlon of the dye formed is directly proportional t o that of cholesterol In the sample. Figure 14.4 illustrates the function o f the SMAC channel used f o r the determination, in which the reagent stream (cholesterol oxidase, cholesterol stearase,

peroxidase,

phenol and 4-

aminophenazone), the sample and some air are asplrated by the pump and, after mixing i n reactor Ri, are Incubated f o r 4 mln i n a bath a t 37'C, after which the dye Is extracted into alcohol and sent t o the detector, where i t s absorbance Is measured a t 525 nm. The aqueous phase from the extractlon and the cell waste are aspirated by pump Pz. The method has fewer and less serious interferences than Its non-enzymatic counterpart. Radioimmunoassays (RIA)' can be implemented on some commercially available

1

I n R I A , the analyte i s the antigen i n the antigen-antibody reaction and there i s competition between a f i x e d concentration o f reactive labelled ant i g e n and non-labelled antigen i n the sample. The measured (counted) species can be the antibody (and the bound antigen, both radio-labelled and non-labelled) a f t e r separation o f the non-bound antigen or, a l t e r n a t i v e l y , the non-bound radio-labelled antigen. The r e s u l t s are obtained from the c a l i bration graph o f antigen concentration vs. bound ( o r f reel r a d i o a c t i v i t y .


438

automated segmented-flow analysers.such as the Technicon STAR, whose hydraulic system is controlled by a microprocessor as i n the SMAC. The method impiemented in the STAR is based on the automatic separation of the free and bound antigen through the covalent binding of the antibody molecules t o an organic polymer containing ferric oxide. A computer-controlled the solid-phase

magnetic field entraps

antibody, while the f r e e antigen is washed t o waste. As the

magnetic f i e l d is turned off, the solid-phase antibody particles wash through a flow

gamma counter,

where the antibody-bound

radio-labelied

antigen is

counted.

111 I 1-

-

PUMq

WORKING ENZYMATIC CHOLESTEROL

-

- -_'

bbb

-05mm

X

lOrnm

525 nm

A-

B u F F ER-V TO W A S T E

L-

Fig. 14.4 Simplified scheme o f the air-segmented manifold used f o r the enzymatic determination o f cholesterol. (Courtesy o f Technicon).

The method requires the addltion of labelled antibody and antigen to the stream containing the sample alone and the pumping and recycling of the buffer solution In the absence of the sample, which i s aspirated i n 1OO-pL volumes under the computer's pneumatic control at a rate of 60 sampies/h. The radiolabelled antigen and the solid-phase

antibody are linked t o the analytical

stream by two hydraulic circuits provided with pinch valves that r e t u r n the reagents t o their containers when not needed. Error detector assemblies f o r the sample and reagents allow convenlent checking. A f t e r mixing, the sample, radio-labelled

antigen and solid-phase antibody are circulated through a coll

at 37'C for 10 min. Completion of the Incubation time is detected by the LAS error-detector assembly, which monitors the analytical stream at the outlet of the incubator. The microprocessor actlvates the magnets and, as stated above, the solid-phase antibody i s trapped while the free antigen washes through. The pinch valve is

Automation in clinical chemistry

439

then activated, directing the f r e e antigen through a resistant coil to waste. A buffer solution flows into the analytical stream from above the f i r s t magnet

and washes the bound antigen. Then, the f i r s t magnet is switched off. The antibody then flows t o the second magnet, where it is trapped and washed agaln. When the second magnet is turned off, a vibrator is activated t o dislodge the antibody

particles.

The pinch valve

is activated t o direct the analytical

stream through the coil in the scintillation detector. The computer accumulates counts for 45 s. The calibration graph is fitted by a log-log linear regression. The calculated concentration for each standard is compared with i t s assigned value, the graph being rejected i f there is excessive divergence. Flow-injection analysis, whose foundation and applications are described in Chapter 6, i s of great relevance to clinical chemistry -both

to classical

continuous and batch methodologies. I t s potential In the determlnation of one [8] or two [17] components at a remarkably high rate with low consumption of sample and reagents has been demonstrated ever since the beginning of this revolutionary methodology. The variety of problems solved by FIA have been described in various revlews on the FIA-clinical

Chemistry association [18-20].

Current F I A trends i n this f i e l d point t o multi-analysis,

still in a develop-

ing stage but with such potential that it might t u r n FIA into the most suitable alternative t o existing methodologies on account of its inherent advantages commented on in preceding chapters. The methods -both non-enzymatic-

described

below

illustrate

its

simplicity

enzymatic and and

versatility.

The non-enzymatic determination of creatinine in urine and serum developed by van Staden [21] is based on JaffB’s reaction 122,231,

which involves the

formation of a red-orange compound on interaction of the analyte with picric acld in an alkaline medium. The manifold used is shown i n Fig. 14.5. The sample -deproteinized luted t o 1:lOO-

serum t o avoid the interference from proteins or urine di-

Is placed on a sampler from which it is injected into the car-

r i e r and merged with a basic stream of picric acid. The indicator reaction takes place along a reactor submerged in a bath thermostated at 35‘C, after which I t reaches the detector flow-cell,

where the absorbance is monitored at

520 nm. The results obtained by thls method are consistent with those found by the standard kinetic method [24,251. The sampling frequency i s 120 h-1. Urea can be determined enzymatically by two F I A methods with potentiometr i c detectlon and different concepts. The f i r s t of such methods was devised by Ruzicka e t a l . [26] and is based on the oxidation of the analyte with urease, which involves the exchange of protons with the medium. Provided that the carrier is continuously buffered, the pH measured and the urea content In the serum sample are linearly related. The stralghtforward manifold used i s de-


440

picted in Fig. 14.6. A buffer solution containing the enzyme is propelled continuously through the system by a peristaltic pump and receives the Injected serum sample. The reaction, taking place i n a reactor thermostated at 40’C, results in a pH change in the sample zone which i s detected upon passage through the glass ring electrode located i n series with the reactor. The calo-

mel electrode acting as a reference is located i n the waste cup, whose liquid level is maintained by aspiration. The sampllng rate is 60 samples/h and the enzyme consumption, normally 25 units per analysis, is substantially decreased by using the merging zones mode.

rnl /min

Water-bath 60cm

N ~ C ~ 250 solution

(valve(

---

Tube i d = 0 7 6 m r n

LOOfiI

-~

NaOH solution

35 C

l7LOcm

2Lcrn Tube i d 0 76 rnm

---

Spectrophotorneter 520nm 2Omm Hellma type flowcell

Recorder

c

P icric acid

!?I-

Waste Was te

F-. 14.5 Flow-injection configuration f o r the non-enzymatic determination o f creatinine i n b i o l o g i c a l f l u i d s . (Reproduced from [ 2 1 1 with permission o f Springer-Verlag).

The method developed by Gorton and Ogren [271 Is a representative example

of the use of an on-line separatlon technique (dialysis) and an Immobilized enzyme reactor (Flg. 14.7). The serum or urine sample Injected Into the donor stream Is transferred t o the acceptor stream on passing through the dlalyser. The reactlon takes place In the enzymatic reactor, and the ammonia formed Is sensed by a selective electrode. The lack of lnterferents, I t s wide

determlna-

tlon range, high sampling frequency (80 h-11, slmpllclty and low cost per analysls make this an lnterestlng method.

A ut oma t i on i n c l i n i c a l chemistry

44 1

Glass Electrode 7

S I

n

Fig. 14.6 Single-channel F I A system f o r enzymatic determination o f urea based on potentiometric (pH) measurements. (Reproduced from [26] w i t h permission o f the American Chemical Society).

The 'controlled-dispersion flow analysis' mode proposed b y Riley e t a l .

[9], the foundation of which was commented on i n Chapter 7, has been applied i n various methods used in the clinical field. The manifolds shown i n Fig. 14.8 were used i n developing determinative methods f o r triglycerides and theophyliine (Fig. 14.8a and b, respectively) [281. The determination of t r i g i y c erides i s based on t h e i r hydrolysis t o glycerol and f a t t y acids b y Iipase. The glycerol rieased is subjected t o a reaction sequence yielding a coloured compound ( Amrx=503 nm) as a result o f the oxidation o f p-iodonitrotetrazolium violet (INT) by the reduced form of NAD+ in the presence of the enzyme diaphorase:

-

lipase Triglycerides Glycerol

+

glycerol

+

G1P

NAD+

f a t t y acids

glycerol

ATP

kinase

G1P

+

-

glycerol-1-phosphate (G1P)

(1)

+

ADP

dihydroxyacetone-phosphate

dehydrogenase

diaphorase NADH + I N T * NAD+ colourless

+

(2)

+

NADH

(3)

INTH red

The sample and reagent probes are transferred from t h e i r respectlve ves-


442

sels to those of the carrier. The identical length of the sample and reagent tubes facilitates their simultaneous arrival at a T-junction.

When the react-

ing plug reaches the detector, the pump is stopped to measure the reaction rate and then re-started at a high rate t o flush the system with de-ionized water. The accurate control of the stop and go of the perlstaltic pump makes this technique suitable for the stopped-flow mode.

~h S

D

Buffer

_ - _ _ __ _ _ _ _ - - w, ~

UREASE REACTOR

1'00

Euffer

I-'-'

.".L.-'

'

I__

'

___

+w

Fig. 14.7

System f o r the enzymatic potentiometric determination o f urea including a dialyser and an immobilized-enzyme reactor. (Reproduced from [ 2 7 ] with permission o f Elsevier).

The manifold used for the determination of theophyliine i s similar, but includes another reagent channel. The immunoassay Invoives the presence of the coenzyme NAD*, the reduced form of which is used to monitor the reaction ('hnpx=340 nm). As the antibody and bound theophylline cannot be held i n the

same reservoir, both are mixed i n s i t u by means of a merging zones system. Figure 14.8b shows the sampling position; the probes are kept in the carrier solution during the rest of the cycle. The stopped-flow

mode is also applied

in this case. As i n the previous determination, 10 p L of sample and 120 p L of reagent are sufficient for each assay. The instruments wlth which contlnuous techniques of clinical analysis are carried out belong to the group of flexible analysers. Segmented-flow instruments used i n this fleld are multi-parameter and allow the simultaneous determination of the different species by means of systems splitting the asplrated sample into as many lines as parameters are t o be determined (see Chapter 5). The adaptation for analysis of a new parameter Is readily accomplished by slmply changing the corresponding analytlcal cartridge. Thanks t o I t s versatility, the FIA technique is adaptable t o any type of analysis, whether for one


443

o r several species, i n a simultaneous o r sequential manner. Adaptations are usually simple and only require replacement of the reactor f o r another of the appropriate length and increasing or decreasing the number of merging points, depending on the chemical systems involved --replacing and replaced. Finally, CCDF i s adaptable t o any t y p e of analysis, although it has only been applied

to f a i r l y simple determinations so far.

Fig. 14.8

Controlled-dispersion flow analysis manifolds f o r determination o f (a) t r i g l y c e r i d e s and (b) theophylline. (s: sample; R: reagent; c: c a r r i e r ; P: pump; T: connector; RC: reaction c o i l ; D: detect o r ; w: waste). (Reproduced from [281 w i t h permission o f the Royal Society o f Chemistry).

Continuous-flow

techniques o f f e r different advantages on application t o

clinical chemistry. The differences between one another are most evident when they are applied t o the determination of the same analyte. Thus, let us consider the determination o f albumin by all three techniques. The Bromocresol Green (BCG)

method proposed by Rodkey [29] is specific f o r t h i s substance. A t

pH 4.5, BCG blnds t o albumin t o form a stable complex which is monitored a t 630 nm. The corresponding SFA method i s f a l r l y fast (150 samples/h) and pre-

cise, and has few interferences - c h i e f l y from f e r r i i n and some proteins at high concentrations. The problem of the sample t u r b i d i t y or the presence of Iipaemic substances is minimized by Increasing the sample dilution t o 236:l. The manifold used f o r t h i s determination is shown in Fig. 14.9a. The FIA method proposed by Mlndegaard [30] f o r t h i s anaiyte uses the mergi n g zone mode (Fig. 14.9b), so t h a t t h e reagent p l u g completely merges wlth t h a t of sample if t h i s is used i n dlluted form or only with its t r a i l i n g portion if it Is used in concentrated form.

Hence, the same extent o f dilution


444

can be used f o r all samples without the r i s k of any falling outside the absorbance range yielding the minimum error. The sampling rate is 300 samples/h and the reagent consumption i s 15 pL per assay (i.e. needed i n the standard manual method). method

has

fewer

and

less

serious

barely 0.4% of the amount

Because of I t s kinetic nature, the interferences

than

its

equilibrium

counterpart. The CCDFA method f o r albumin involves the use of the manifold depicted i n Fig. 4 . 9 ~ . The reagent probe i s kept continuously i n the reagent reservoir

(R). A t the s t a r t of the cycle, the sample probe i s separated from the carrier solution (de-ionized

water), C , and taken t o the sample cup, S , by a t u r n of

i t s arm, thereby flushing the sample. The pump is then stopped and the probe returned t o the carrier solution. After re-starting the pump, the sample p l u g is transported t o the reaction coil, where it meets the reagent. The reaction mixture subsequently reaches the photometric detector, where i t i s monitored, and is sent t o waste. The method uses 240 nL of sample and 360 pL of reagent. I t features a sampling frequency of 120 h-i

and, like the FIA method de-

scribed above, has f e w interferences because of its kinetic nature.

a) R E AGENT AIR SAMPLE FROM RISER PUMP2 FLOWCE LL

To Wosle

b)

5

- 1

rnl/rnin

CS

U

C)

CR

-~

I

I I

I I

ki S R

Manifolds f o r the determination o f albumin by the Bromoc r e s o l Green method, c a r r i e d out by three d i f f e r e n t continuous-flow techniques: ( a ) SFA; ( b ) F I A and ( c ) CDFA. (Courtesy o f Technicon and reproduced from [30] and [28] w i t h permission o f Elsevier and the Royal Society o f Chemistry, respectively).

Fig. 14.9


445

I n short, F I A features the highest sampling rate and involves the least sample manipulation as no successive dilutions are required. On the other hand, CDFA uses the least amount of sample and reagents and SFA allows the simultaneous analysis for another 19 parameters -FIA

affords only 2-3 parameters

and CDFD only one. 14.3.2 Batch analysers

The essential feature distinguishing these analysers from their continuous counterparts i s the fact that the sample preserves i t s integrity during the process as a result of belng held In the reaction cup (also the measurement vessel i n analysers without final transfer), isolated from the rest of the system. To this group belong a variety of instruments, from the muiti-parame t e r analysers conceived for the analysis of a large number of samples and parameters i n a short time (e.9. Centrifichem, RA-1000) t o those affording the determination of a single species i n each sample (ICA 113). These analysers are less prone t o carry-over than continuous-flow

ana-

iysers. I n addition, the allow the use o f strong acids and/or organic solvents. However, they do not permlt the incorporatlon of continuous separation techniques. The existence or absence of transfer from the reagent addition vessel t o the measuring cell allows them to be classified into two large groups: with and without final transfer. 14.3.2.1 Batch analysers with final transfer

These, i n turn, can be classified into ’centrlfugal’ and ’non-centrifugal’ analysers. Centrifugal analysers comprise the so-called ’third generation’ of automatic analysers. The chief components of a centrlfugal analyser, namely the sample tray and the transfer disc, are depicted in Flgs 8.6 and B.7. The capaci t y of the sample tray

ranges between 15 (Rotochem 11) and 36 cups (Rotochem

I I a and Rotochem CFA 2000). The t r a y can be re-usable (e.g. the three abovementioned analysers plus the Centrichem 600 and the Gemsaec) o r disposable (Gemin, Flexlgem and Multistat).

The principal quality of centrifugal ana-

lysers is the slmuitaneous sensing of blanks, standards and samples by means of a single detection point. The detection techniques most frequently used by these analysers are photometry and turbidimetry -some, such as the Multlstat I11 FS/LS, also afford nephelometrlc and fluorlmetric sensing. The use of cen-

trifugal analysers has grown enormously over the last decade. They are usually applled t o klnetlc measurements, which are handled by a varlety of software, from programs includlng two-time

measurements t o multi-measurements

with

preselectable measurement times and Intervals. According t o the classlflcation established i n Table 14.1, these are flexible,

slngle-parameter

Instruments.


446 A representative example of a flexible,

single-parameter

final transfer i s the Vitatron Akes, depicted i n Fig. 8.5.

analyser with

I n the aspiration

position, the sample meets the reagent o r diluent stream and the reaction mixture is subsequently transferred t o the measuring cuvette, from which it i s flushed by the aspiration system after detection, the cuvette being suitably washed. The instrument includes a linear sample train, sample turntable, pling head, dilutor, reagent dispenser, data-input

sam-

keyboard, photometric detec-

tion system, computer, printer, evacuation pump and wash solution doser. It is prepared f o r klnetic measurements. Some of the

commercial Instruments available f o r enzyme-linked lmmunospec-

i f i c assays (EL1SA)Z fall i n t o t h i s group o f non-centrlfugal

analysers with

final transfer, while others belong t o the category of analysers without final transfer. Among the former are the Behring ELISA, a photometer marketed by Behringwerke, and the Allergo-zym

Atom-336 made by Biotron. Both require the

p r i o r incubation o f the microtitratlon plates until the formation of the rnonitored coloured product, the liquid on the plates then being transferred t o the

Fig. 14.10 Behring ELISA photometer. ( 1 ) Lamp p r o t e c t i v e cover; (2) flow-cell; ( 3 ) manual aspirator; (4) waste b o t t l e ; (5) cuvette holder; ( 6 ) display; ( 7 ) keyboard; ( 0 ) f i l t e r compartment. (Courtesy o f Behringwerke).

2

I n t h i s technique, the detection o f the

antigen (analytel-antibody complex

is c a r r i e d out through enzymes bound t o one o r the other component. T h e enzyme is sensed through the changes observed i n the substrate added. The enzymes commonly chosen induce colour changes i n the substrate.

Aut oma tion

i n clinical

chemistry

44 7

photometer cell for measurement of the absorbance. The measured absorbance is used t o calculate the concentratlon of the unknown protein, which is displayed on a screen. Figure 14.10 shows the appearance of the Behring ELISA photometer. It is a single-beam instrument with a halogen quartz lamp, interchangeable interference filters, keyboard and screen, which uses flow-cells of 1 cm light path. The assembly is controlled by a microprocessor and can work with or wlthout a printer and be optionally linked to a computer or a laboratory management system. The sample, after incubation on a plate, Is aspirated manually to the

flow-cell, where it Is measured and then sent to waste, the cell being washed before receiving a fresh sample. The sequence of events preceding the measurement is as follows: in the sandwich assay, the sample is placed on the plate and the free antigen contained in it reacts with the excess of antibody present on the tube walls. The non-specific components of the sample and the potential interferences are ellminated by washing, after which the peroxidase-conjugate antibody binds t o the free antigen determiners in a second reaction. The excess of conjugate anti-

body is then removed by washing and the activity of the bound enzyme is determlned. The enzymatic conversion of hydrogen peroxide is halted by adding dllute suiphuric acid, after which the colour Intensity, proportional to the antigen concentration In the sample, Is determined. I n the assay, the antigen and enzyme-conjugate antigen compete for the antibodles fixed to the tube walls. The free components are removed by washing. Then the enzymatic activity of the bound enzyme is determined. The antigen concentration i n the sample is inversely proportional t o the colour intensity. The concentratlon of the anaiyte In question is calculated on a polygonal callbration graph or by calibration wlth two points. The instrument affords k i net ic measurements. 14.3.2.2 Batch analysers without final transfer

There are a variety of instruments lnvolvlng the transfer of the sample to the measuring cell prior t o measurement. Such instruments are used to implement a variety of techniques, some of which are applied in situ, while others Involve the use of ordlnary cuvettes - - e i t h e r disposable o r not-

or prepared

supports such as reagents packed o r formlng d r y films. I n the so-called i n situ technlques, the sample, alone o r mixed with the reagent, is placed In the measuring cell by direct asplratlon o r addltlon. The overall analysls time Is the same as that of measurement Insofar as the preliminary separatlon,

incubatlon and transfer stages are all ellmlnated. The

Instruments used t o apply this type of technlque are partlcularly useful for

Automatic methods o f

448

emergencies. Their chief lirnltation

analysis

i s their inappiicabillty t o kinetic meth-

ods -especially the slower ones. Below are described some of the instruments

-

belonging to this group. fr

c

Reagent line

I

c-

r-7 Glucose oxidase

Filling

Pump

Levelling Pump

Preheating

Fig. 14.11 Manifold o f the ASTRA 8 single-parameter module. (Courtesy o f Beckman Instruments).

Typlcai representatives of I n situ operating Instruments without final transfer are those of the ASTRA (Automated STAT/Routlne Analyzer) series (Models 4 and

a),

marketed by Beckman and featurlng four o r eight mrasurlng cuv-

ettes. They allow programmlng of a sequence of up t o 80 samples with their corresponding identification

number and assay

required at a rate o f 70-85

samples/h and with a consumption of 8-50 pL of sample for the different assays. They use both photornetrlc and potentlometrlc detectors. Routine analyses


449

can be halted at any time t o perform emergency assays. Figures 14.11 and 14.12 show a single-parameter (glucose) and a two-parameter (Na and K ) module, respectively.

The

former

requires

the

use

of

three

single-line

perlstaltic

pumps. The one at the top of functions t o t r a n s p o r t the reagent, after heating, t o the reaction chamber; the other two level and evacuate the measuring chamber, where the sensing system (an oxygen electrode) i s located. The determination of Na or K requires the presence i n the measuring cell of both a buffer and a conditioner and hence a new pump t o propel the reagents t o the cell, at the inlet of which i s the reference electrode, while the indicator electrodes face each other at both sides of the cell. The levelling and evacuation lines coincide with those used i n the determination o f glucose. I n both In-

Fig. 14.12 Manifold o f the ASTRA (Courtesy o f Beckman Instruments).

8

two-parameter

(Na/K)

module.


450

stances, sample and reagents are mixed and homogenized by magnetic stirring. The sample is aspirated from the sampler into the measuring cell by means of a probe. The pumps used do not require perfectly reproducible functioning insofar as the reagent volume placed in the measuring cell is fixed by the levelling line; neither this nor the evacuation line requires accurate flow-rates. Blood gas analysers also belong t o this category of i n s i t u instruments and allow measurement of 2-4 different parameters in a blood sample by means

of electrodes and cells connected serially with the line where the sample (typically 65-120 pL) is aspirated or injected. The presence of a valve i n the line connecting the electrodes and cuvettes facilitates the calibration with gases for pCo2 and po2 electrodes and with buffers for pH electrodes. The microprocessors built into these analysers can calculate the concentration of gases in blood allowing for in v i t r o temperature changes -yet,

the accuracy

of these adjustments Is arguable on account of the lack of data on reference intervals or standard values of gas parameters in blood at temperatures other than 37°C or thereabouts. This type of instrument is represented by the I L System 1303 from Instrumentation Laboratory and the Models ABL 300, ABL 3, ABL 30 and ABL 4 (the last includes a potassium electrode for valinomycin),

mar-

keted by Radiometer.

The Radiometer I C A 113 is intended for the determination of ionic calcium. I t is a specific, single-parameter

batch analyser without final transfer oper-

ating i n situ. It consists of a reservoir and aspiration, equilibration and measurlng system, together with a washing and wasting system avoiding carryover between samples (serum or plasma). It has several sample trays, so that one can be in the measuring stage while others are prepared f o r analysls. Each sample is Identified on a print-out by the number of the tray where it is held and the number I t occupies In the tray. The aspiration system consists of a pick-up arm with a nozzle taking accurately measured portions of sample. The f i r s t few portions taken are used to flush the system. The equllibratlon unit bubbles 5.7% C&

through water; the gas diffuses t o the sample through the

thin walls of a sllicone tube. I n this way, the pCo2 of the sample is adjusted t o approximately 40 mmHg,

so that the resulting pH Is about 7.4. Both this

unit and the measurlng cell are thermostated at 37’C. The working electrode has a heterogeneous PVC membrane and is protected from protein contamination by a readily replaceable Cellophane membrane. The Instrument also features a reservoir, an aspiration probe and digital displays giving both the analyte concentration and the sample pH, a crltlcal factor insofar as I t Influences the ionic calcium concentration. The relatlonshlp between both parameters Is a key factor as normal lonlc calcium values may be accompanied by anomalous pHs, or vlce versa, and result In erroneous taneously.

diagnoses if not controlled slmul-


45 1

Unlike anlysers using i n s i t u techniques, those employing ordinary cuvettes usually have more than two cells, either disposable or not, i n which a given parameter can be measured simultaneously or sequentially in several samples. These are general multi-parameter

instruments adaptable t o particular

needs by introducing small changes, so that they are perfectly suitable f o r small laboratories requirlng automatic analyses but unable t o afford AutoAnalyzers. A typical example of batch analyser without final transfer using ordinary

cuvettes is the Technicon Model RA-1000.

As can be seen from Flg. 8.10, i t

consists of a central unit with 100 disposable cuvettes receivlng samples and reagents from two addltional trays. A computer controls all the instrument functions, acquires data and presents the final results once processed. This analyser is suitable for both kinetic and end-point measurements and can perform emergency analyses without significantly altering Its functloning. Another instrument in this group is the DACOS [31-331, equipped with eight movable spectrophotometric detectors located i n the centre of a carousel holding the measuring cuvettes, which is spun one t u r n every 6 s (Fig. 14.13). There is a tungsten lamp i n the centre of the carousel serving as the light source of each optical channel, also comprising an interference f i l t e r and a detector. The design allows for rapid measurements and increases the f l e x i b i l i t y of the analyser f o r adaptation t o a variety of analytical procedures. Blank absorbances can be obtained before adding the reagents, and a second reagent can be added 2 s after the first. The instrument Is suitable both for rapid end-point measurements and for slow kinetlc methods requiring up to 10 min t o monitor the absorbance change. The possibility of making measurements at up to eight

different wavelengths allows side-reactions

t o be monitored,

several analytes t o be determined In the same sample and blank measurements to be made. I n addition t o the central carousel, the Instrument has a sample and a reagent tray, in addition to a washing station, all of which are spun as programmed via the minicomputer used t o dispense the requlred amounts of sample, reagent o r wash solution into the appropriate cuvette by means of a probe. Once the reagent has been added, the probe vibrates in the reaction mixture t o ensure efflcient mixing. After measurement, the cuvette is drained and washed before the following analysls Is started. Only those measurements required f o r the type of analysis selected by the user are stored by the computer, which consists of two modules: the control unit and the processor. The former Includes the sampling, reagent dellvery, Incubation and measurlng modules, and the latter i s made up by the minicomputer, electronic circuitry and a prlnter. The sample cups are located on a carousel around that of the reaction cuvettes (32 cells i n a system thermostated

by means of a water


452

bath). The carousel takes 3.75 or 5.625 s for measurement of each sample, so that it turns around in 2 or 3 min as programmed. Sampling and the f i r s t reagent delivery are carried out by aspiration with a single probe that places both ingredients in the measuring cell. Addition of a second reagent requires an auxiliary probe programmed according to the method used t o perform the insertion in the f i r s t t u r n of the carousel or at a later stage. Detection is performed

by

bichromatic

photometry,

which

improves

the

reliability

of

measurements thanks to the blank self-measurement. End-point and reaction-rate measurements require a minimum of two o r three turns of the carousel, respectively. Calibration can be performed with up t o six different materials by linear regression for linear methods using multi-point calibration. Other mathematical routines are stored in the computer’s

memory for

non-linear

immunochemical methods or absorbance conversion factors i n enzyme activity units for enzymatic methods. SA MPL E

Fig. 14.13 Scheme o f the DACOS analyser. The rotary l i g h t source is located under the central cover. Around i t spin a t 0.6 rps eight i nterference f i l t e r s f o r measurements a t eight d i f f e r e n t wavelengths. (Courtesy o f Coulter Electronics).

There are batch analysers without final transfer suitable f o r immunoassays, such as the ELISA Processor 11, and the Behrlng Analyser Nephelometer, both manufactured by Behrlngwerke. The ELISA Processor I1 Is dispensing,

quantitative

an

instrument for automatic washlng, reagent

photometrlc determlnation and

result

analysis

in

enzyme immunassays with microtltratlon plates. As can be seen from Fig. 14.14, it consists of a dispensing unit,

reagent station,

photometer,

dosing station, transport system, keyboard, screen and printer.

washing and


453

Fig. 14.14 Front view o f the E L I S A Processor 11. ( 1 ) Dispensing u n i t ; ( 2 ) reagent station; ( 3 ) photometer; ( 4 ) washing and dosing u n i t ; ( 5 ) transport frame; ( 6 ) screen; ( 7 ) keyboard; ( 8 ) p r i n t e r ; (9) on; (10) o f f . (Courtesy o f Behringwerke).

The dispensing unit functions t o deliver and drain wash solution and ensures the vacuum needed (approximately 0.6 bar) for aspiration. The reagent station holds all the flasks required for the Enzygnost (R) test, i n addition to a further reagent for specific assays. It can hold up t o six reagent flasks, of which at least two are for the conjugate an one is f o r distilled water. The transport system receives the microtitration plate (twelve rows of eight

small cups each) and drives I t linearly under the washing and dosing

unit, which consists of two combs of sixteenth teeth each (two rows of elght teeth) simultaneously filllng and emptying the cups in a row, and a moving reagent dispensing t i p consisting of a single-line system provided with a 2.5 mL syringe connected t o the different reagent flasks through a step valve. The photometer effects blcromatic measurements by the appropriate combination of two of the five filters available. The radiation from the light source (a halogen lamp with a reflector) is parallellzed almost completely and passed through the filter wheel, which splits I t Into eight

beams by means of an

eight-arm conductor. These beams traverse simultaneously the elght cups of one row in the plate from bottom t o top. Elght photodlodes located over the cups measure the transmitted light. The units controlling the two functional assemblies (washing and dosing on the one hand and detectlon on the other) are separated from each other and


454

linked via an internal interface. The reagent lack detector and the sensor acknowledging the units of a divisible plate work in an analogue fashion, as do the microtitration plate and the f i l t e r

wheel.

A l l the analogue signals,

in

addition t o that generated by the photometric detector, are converted into digital

signals

of

proportional

frequency.

The

result of

the

logarithmic

treatment of the data is delivered through a prlnter, as are occaslonal warnings (e.g. out-of-range measurements), malfunctions and errors. The operational sequence of the instrument is as follows:

during the

first incubation, the antibodies (or antigens) present In the sample bind to the antigens (or antibodies) fixed t o the cups of the microtitration plate. The enzyme conjugate is added after removal of unbound reactants by washing. A f t e r a second incubation the conjugate is eliminated and the substrate is

dosed. The enzyme actlvity

results in the appearance of a coloration,

the

development of which is halted by a braking solution after the substrate incubation has finished, after which the plate is taken t o a position close to that for measurement by the photometer and the cover is replaced. I n this position is measured a blank, from which the specific channel data are computed. Then the twelve rows of the plate are positioned to be measured and the eight

cups of each row are measured simultaneously. A f i r s t 'measurement In

the dark' performed by blocking the light beam allows the influence of stray light and the temperature on the instrument electronics t o be determined.

Fig. 14.15 Front view o f the Behring Nephelmeter Analyzer (sample analyser and computer terminal monitor). (Courtesy o f Behringwerke).

Automat i o n i n c l i n i c a l chemistry

455

A f t e r placing the specific interference filters required i n the beam traJec-

tory, measurements are taken t o calculate the correspondlng molar absorptivities, which are proportional t o the transmitted light intensltles and to the stored reference values. While the plate is still being measured, the results from the already measured cups are computed from the three measurements performed per cup and the speclfic correction factors f o r the channel obtained from the blank. The ELISA Processor 11 can store up to 30 different programs f o r ELISA tests. Programs 1-10 are reserved by the manufacturer for Enzygnost tests and should not be altered, but programs 11-30 are freely programmable by the user according to his needs. The Behring Nephelometer-Analyzer, deplcted i n Fig. 14.15, consists of a dilutor,

rack statlon, transfer arm, washing station for the dispensing t i p

and the cuvettes, cuvette rotor, buffer station, vacuum pump and tank, screen, keyboard, bar code reader and prlnter. The dilutor consists of two Hamilton syringes (2.5 mL and 25 pL) used t o dose the solvent and the sample, respectively. The rack station consists of four elements, corresponding to standard sera, samples, diiuent and antisera A motor moves the antiserum rack to the r i g h t of the rack statlon.

The other racks are moved jointly by means of

another motor. The control sera are introduced into the samples. The sample vessels are bar-coded i n order t o avoid mismatching. A l l movements are checked after execution by means of optical sensors. The transfer arm is furnished with a steel dispensing t i p and a mlcrostirrer. The dispensing t i p allows samples and standard sera to be diluted and pipetted into the measurlng cuvettes. The arm is moved by two step motors i n the vertical and horlzontal dlrectlons.

The dispensing tip, also serving as a

liquid level sensor, and the microstirrer are washed internally and externally between pipettings. The cuvette rotor recelves the reagent preparations of the samples, rotates the cuvettes for llght measurements and places them under the washing station. The rotor is furnlshed wlth 45 semi-mlcro cuvettes -the

odd number

allows for simultaneous filling, measurement and aspiration. Only every second cuvette is filled.

Every 8

s, each cuvette returns t o i t s inltial posltion

after two turns. The minimum analysis time i s therefore 6 min or a multiple of this. The washing station consists of four reservoirs holding dlluent, buffer-reagent, glyclne buffer and washlng solutlon.

The reservoirs are fltted with

steel tubes provided with iiquld level sensors. The screen, keyboard, bar-code reader and printer link the user wlth the


456

instrument. Thus, after introducing the data corresponding t o each sample [identification

number and parameter(s) t o be determined],

the instrument

gives the position of each sample, reagent and standard i n their corresponding rack, performs the required dilutions and mixes the sample and standard with the appropriate reagent, introducing them into a cuvette. The blank reading is taken 8 s after mixing and the final measurement is made after 6 min (fixedtime method) or 30 min (equilibrium method). The values of the different parameters are displayed on the screen and also delivered through the printer i f requested. The instrument is equipped with two memory devices: a Winchester hard disk and a floppy disk drlve. The antiserum rack admits a maximum of fourteen flasks (seven in the case of

protein determinations

as they

require complementary reagents).

Before

starting a protein assay, the user must compile a work sheet with the proteins to be anaiysed for. If the number of parameters to be determined exceeds the analyser's capacity,

i t deals with the f i r s t fourteen and then requests the

introduction of the remaining flasks via the screen. I n this way, the analyser can determine up to 70 different proteins; 32 of such determinations are stored in a program and the remainder can be programmed by the user. Batch analysers using packed reagents fill the gap left by automated analysers, most of which are of l i t t l e use for carrying out a variety of assays on a f e w samples in emergencies -they

are conceived f o r the use of reagents

prepared daily in large amounts and intended t o be added t o a host of samples. Generally, there is a starting sequence i n which each reagent must be pumped through the system until stabilization is attained; standards and references are used with each batch of samples, or each indlvidualiy assayed sample, so that a single urgent sample requires the same complete sequence followed for each batch involving a different assay, channel or even development time. Thls inadequacy for emergency cases Is also shared by manual assays, particularly when these are complex and laborious. The best solutlon t o this problem of analysing isolated samples is t o have measured reagents packed i n separate units prepared to be used in one-off assays of a single sample. The 'package' also acts as a cuvette for detection. These systems should ideaiiy be stable Indefinitely wlth time and preserve their degree of packing f o r a given reagent. The two alternatives most widely used In this respect are dlsposable reagents and dry reagent fllms. Du Pont market a series of automated analysers (ACA I, I1 and 111) using dlsposable pre-packed dry reagents. Each method and positlon within the system are identified by means of codes. Once the assay (reagent packet) has been selected and the sample has been positloned In the cup labelled wlth the patient requiring the particular analysis, the Instrument performs the sequence of


457

operations involving selection of the buffer and introduction into the reagent packet, heating at the required temperature, mixing with the sample, incubation, new mixing and measurement (end-point or kinetic). End-point methods use two wavelengths or two packets (sample and blank), while kinetic methods involve two measurements made at 17-s intervals. Absorbances are converted t o concentration

units

linear methods

pr

by

previously

stored

intercept and slope factors

for

by exponential functions for non-linear immunoassays. Final-

ly, the packet is discharged from the transport chain. The overall analysis

t i m e is less than 7 min. Checking the quality of the analytical packets and developing other assays are the user's reponsibility. Du Pont have marketed an ESI accessory directly linked to the microprocessor via an interface and requiring no special stage for operation. This unit allows the determination of Na and K and is prepared for application of six methods [341. The use of straightforward reagents on dry films resembling those f o r photographic purposes was f i r s t reported by Gurme e t al. 1341. The reagent s t r i p typically used is shown i n Fig. 14.16. The strip consists of a cellulose ma-

t r i x impregnated with the reagents required for a given clinical determination. A f t e r Impregnation, the matrix is d r i e d and stuck by a special adhesive coating to a plastic support, allowing i t s ready insertion In the measuring system. The matrices can be impregnated with the reagents needed for a series of coupled reactions, so that the chemical interactions involved do not take piace until the reagents have been hydrated. Thus, the reagent film for determination of triglycerides contains reagents for four

coupled enzymatic reac-

tions. The prlnciple behind these systems is the use of methods involving well-known

reactions. The films are normally stable for over 1 year at room

temperature -even

those containing NADH, which is unstable in wet m e d i a As

shown i n F i g .

14.16,

diffusion layer

Is deposited a 10-pL drop of the previously aspirated sample.

the f i l m comprises several layers.

On the outermost,

After incubation at 37"C, the colour development is proportional t o the analyte concentration i n the sample. It should be emphasized that the even passage of the fluid t o the reagent layer through the diffusion layer results i n the formation of an area in the centre of the f i l m whose concentration faithfully reflects the analyte concentration in the sample, i n spite of the variation i n the sample volume -a

10% change In the sample volume

results in only

a 1% change i n the concentration measured for the same sample. The colour is generally measured by densitometry, and the reflectance measured Is non-llnearl y related to the concentration.

This technology has been frequently applied

to clinlcal analysis: various methods have been reported f o r the determlnatlon of

glucose [35], urea [36], amylase [371, bilirubin

[%I,

trlglycerides

[39]


458

and cholesterol [40], and f o r the simultaneous determination of overall and dlrect b i l l r u b i n 1411.

TABLE 14.2 Possible uses o f u r i n e t e s t s t r i p s on other body f l u i d s Body f l u i d

Pa rameter

Spinal f l u i d

Glucose

Semi-quant i t a t i v e

Protein

Roughly semi-quantitative

Blood/Hb


Bilirubin

Qualitative

Leucocytes

Qualitative

Glucose

Semi-quantitative

Bilirubin

Semi-quant i t a t i v e

Ketones


Serum/plasma

Tears

Type o f r e s u l t

Glucose

Roughly semi-quant i t a t i v e

Ketones


F i s t u l a r discharge

Blood/Hb


Drainage f l u i d s

Protein


Aspirates

Amylase

Qualitative

Dialysates

Bilirubin

Qualitative

Urobilinogen

Qualitative

Blood


Bilirubin

Qualitative

Urobilinogen

Qualitative

D i l u t e d faeces

The measurement of a given biological parameter i n different biological f l u i d s normally

calls for

strlps

anaiysls o f other

for

the

various test

strlps.

blologlcal

Attempts flulds,

t o use u r i n e test

particularly

In emer-

gencles, gave unequal results, the most representatlve of which are llsted In Table

14.2.

(Reflotron

Boehrlnger

Mannhelm s t r l p s

R analyser) feature two

for

the

dlstinct zones:

analysls of one

with

whole

blood

a filter for

appllcation of the sample drop and another f o r measurement, towards which the sample dlffuses upon passing t h r o u g h the fllter.


459 Cellulose Matrix Containing Dried Reagents

/-

Plastic Support A d h e s i v e Layer

Plastic S u p p o r t

Solid-phase reagent s t r i p . (Reproduced from C431 w i t h permission o f Taylor & Francis).

Fig. 14.16

Figure 14.17 illustrates the foundation of reflectance measurements carried o u t with t h i s methodology. Figure 14.17b shows the simpler manner of carr y i n g out reflectance measurements. The sample surface is illuminated at a random angle and reflectance i s measured at another, also random, angle. This prccedure i s inappropriate in practice, so it Is normally replaced by the use of an integrating sphere (Fig. 14.17a) with a highly reflecting inner surface in which the sample is placed. reflected t o the detector;

The l i g h t falling on the sample i s not directly it experiences many

reflections u n t i l eventually

reaching the detector or is absorbed by the wall of the sphere. The reflected l i g h t intensity is proportional t o that of the colour formed on the strip surface. The complete scheme of the optical system of an instrument of t h i s type i s depicted in Fig. 14.18a. The source of the l i g h t reaching the integrating sphere i s a xenon-discharge tube producing a high-intensity

discharge which

generates radiation contai ni n g wavelengths throughout the spectrum, b u t largel y 340 nm. The s t r i p containing the sample i s placed on a thermostated plate which i n t u r n i s positioned inside the sphere, also temperature-controlled. The sphere also houses a collimator collecting l i g h t reflected by the plate and leading it t o an interference f i l t e r of the solid-state

detector, as well

as the entrance t o the reference detector, which directs the l i g h t reflected by the wall of the sphere t o the detector. The net reflectance is the difference between the sample and reference signals, and I t s use avoids reading err o r s arising from changes in the l i g h t intensity from discharge t o discharge. The saphire window covering the outlets of the reference and sample detectors mlnimlze evaporation from the plate surface. The Interference f i l t e r i s speci f i c t o each serum assay. The location of the detection system within the instrument Is illustrated i n Fig. 14.18b,

which Includes a microprocessor t h a t


460

acquires and processes the reflectance signals and allows programming of the number o f readings to be made on each plate and the interval between measurements [43].

Detector

__-

Sampler or s tandord -

Monochromatic

light

&:ompie

-

\Highly

or s t a n d a r d

reflecting coating

Basic instrumentation f o r reflectance I n t e g r a t i n g sphere; ( b ) simple r e f l e c t i o n .

Fig. 14.17

measurements. ( a )

The potentlometric technique has also been used with fllm methods [42-461. A

potentiometrlc film consists of a pair of electrodes in the form of t h i n

films o f Ag/AgCI deposited on a polyester base and covered with a hydrophilic polymer matrix containing salts; the entire system is covered with an ion-selective membrane. A concentration cell i s established in each film by means of two identical electrodes connected v i a a porous paper bridge,

so that a poten-

tial difference across the cell i s generated by placing a drop of sample on one electrode and another of blank on the other. Phosphorescence [47], fluorescence

[&I,

I R spectrometry [491 and photometry wlth optical f i b r e s [52]

have also been used, although less frequently,

as detection techniques in

monitoring the development of reactions t a k i n g place on d r y films. Kodak recently developed an instrument f o r implementation of the d r y film technology. The so-called Ektachem 40 is a microprocessor-controlled device capable o f performing up t o twelve assays simultaneously a t a rate of 300-500 analyses per hour. Spectrophotometrlc analyses require about 6 min, and potentiometric assays only 4 min. A typical example of fluorimetrlc determlnation on d r y reagent films is

that o f serum immunoglobulins reported by Wang e t a l .

[&I.

The method uses a

stabillzed solid-phase immunoadsorbent consisting o f an antigen lmmoblllzed on a cellulose nitrate-acetate

disc stuck t o a Stiq plastic sampler. The polymer

disc acts both as a substrate f o r immobillzatlon and as an even surface on whlch highly precise fluorimetric determinations can be conducted. The assay

Automa t i o n i n c l i n i c a l chemist r y

46 1

involves the reaction of an accurate, limited amount of a specific fluorescent antibody with the specific antigent present in the prepared sample. The fluorescence o f the bound labelled antibody is inversely proportional t o the amount of antigen present i n the measured sample and is measured with a F I A X solid fluorimeter.

The sequence of events involved i n the determination

i s illu-

strated i n Fig. 14.19. The culture tube contains the sample and the fluorescent antibody and the second tube holds the buffer. The fluorescent signal yielded i s logarithmically related to the antigen concentration in the sample. The instrument is capable of measuring about 60 Stiq samplers i n 5 min.

S4MPLE PHOTODE'

REFERENCE PHOTOOETE( :TOR

MICROPROCESSOR

\

INTERFERENCE FILTER

I

S A P P H I R E WINOOW

I

XENON FL4SH T U B E

,

.

XENON L4MP

/

/

REAGENT P 4 0

I

I

INSTRUMENT TABLE

Fig. 14.18 ( a ) Complex o p t i c a l system f o r reflectance measurements. (b) Location o f the detection system. (Reproduced from [ 4 3 ] w i t h permission o f Taylor & Francis).

14.4 I N VIVO MEASUREMENTS

I n contrast t o the subjects of other fields, biological systems always r u n the risk of being physiologically unbalanced as a result of sampling. The consequence of t h i s disturbance is that, however reliable the analysis may be, one never measures the actual value of the parameter of interest. This problem is lessened by performing

i n s i t u o r i n vivo measurements, which, however, I n vivo measurements can be classified

require sterilization and calibration.

according t o whether they are made under a static o r a dynamic flow. Static measurements are carried o u t on the blood stream, the heart-lung c i r c u i t or, post-operatively,

vein by-passes.

These measurements are effected

with ISEs in most instances; hence t h e i r main problem is t h e i r sterilization,

as the sensors rarely withstand temperatures above 50-1OO'C. Other problems related t o t h e i r use are (a) a lack of knowledge o f the toxicicty of the active


462

phases in the liquid ion exchangers making up the ISE membranes, ( b ) the deposits of albumin gathering on the surface of glass electrodes, which lengthen

measurement times

and

cause potential

derivatizations,

and

(c) the

formation of disturbing coagula.

STIQTY

....._..

Sampler

...-... '.. .

.. .:.

..

..

.C..

Patient Samplr or Conlrols Fluor omc tcr

0:oo

I

2

3

React

Wash

Read

0:20

0:40

0: 4 5

Fig. 14.19 Steps o f the F I A X T H instrument.

determination o f

serum proteins by use o f a

Home-made ISEs for i n v i v o measurements are usually constructed from micropipettes, the tips of which are broken under a microscope t o obtain tips 1-6 pm in diameter whose borders are flanged i n the flame t o avoid damage t o the

cells upon contact with the sensor (extracellular mesurements). These small sensing surfaces minimize one of the major sources of error i n this measurements, namely sample contamination through loss of saline from the bridge. On the other hand, their small surfaces make their handling rather cumbersome. Glass capillary electrodes for pH measurements are probably the commonest of

all commercially available sensors of this type.

That manufactured by

Radiometer is thermostated and allows the measurement of the pH i n 25 pL of capillary blood with a standard deviation of 0.006 pH unit. Although there are various sources of uncertainty common to the different ways of determining ionic actlvities, those involved i n pH measurements are more serious. This is a result of the most important biological buffer containing a gas, CO2.

In

vivo pH measurements have the advantage of eliminating the uncertainty arising from the random selection of a CO2 pressure with which t o balance the samples. This, in addition, avoids losses of COz to the atmosphere. The instrument marketed by Radiometer for transcutaneous measurements of pcO2 and PO;, consists of two separate portable units readily furnlshed with a


463

recorder. The sensing system has two parts: the electrode body, linked t o t h e connection lead, and a disposable, flexible attaching r i n g f o r easy and quick adhesion t o the skin. The liquid contact (a non-toxic

electrolyte causing no

damage t o the skin) is applied after attaching the ring, which i s applied dry. The r i n g should be periodically replaced i n long-term monitoring.

U

V ‘REF E RE N C

.E

Fig. 14.20

Y

t WASTE

F I A system f o r i n v i v o measurements.

The FIA-ISFET

association i s an alternative of great potential t o t h i s

type of measurement, b u t hardly exploited t o date. The advent of ISFETs (ionsensitive fieid-effect

transistors)

[52]

has resulted

In considerable

reduc-

tions in the size of potentiometric detectors based on t h i s principle, t o the point of being used i n hypodermic syringes o r probes f o r i n v i v o measurements. The influence o f the flow (rate and angle of impingement), adsorption and viscosity on the membrane can be determined with the aid of an FIA system such as t h a t depicted i n Fig. 14.20, i n which the detector i s continuously exposed t o a flowing stream. These experimental conditions mimic i n v i v o measurements, where the ISFET i s placed i n the blood stream. The problems derived from the flow-rate

can be minimized by selectlng a suitable electrode angle. The chief

shortcoming of the use of ISFETs f o r i n v i v o measurements is the adsorptlon of red cells b y the selective membrane and the consequent clogging o f i t s surface and gradual increase i n the signal

generated.

This problem could not be

avoided in i n v i v o measurements and has long been a common problem wlth the polymer membranes used f o r potentiometric detection. The combinatlon of FIA and ISFETs avoids t h i s drawback by simply using a b u f f e r or electrolyte as carrier and connecting the system’s Injection t o the blood stream v i a a suitable tube, so t h a t blood circulates continuously t h r o u g h the sample inlet and

is sampled a t regular intervals (e.g.

1 min) b y simply switching the sample


464

valve. I n this manner, the detector, and hence i t s membrane, Is only exposed t o the injected portion of blood (between 3 and 30 pL), and f o r only 10 s, while the

buffer solution Is exposed for

50 s prior t o injection of

the

following sample, thereby washing o f f the red cells from the membrane. The problem of the electrode calibration is also solved by connecting the channel carrying the calibration solution to the system, the sensor being calibrated at preset intervals by alternating its injection with that of the blood sample, thereby ensuring maximum precision [53]. The only problem posed by this F I A system is the need f o r the insertion of a small volume of carrier Into the

bloodstream when the injection valve is switched to i t s filling position. This problem can be readily overcome through a suitable modification of the injection system.

-

Llluminalm Bluc Fluorrsccnl Dyr Scnsilivc* 0 Oxygen Oucnc h ing

Hydrophobic Gas Pcrmca blc Envelope

.

Fluoresccncc -Green (I) Scallcrcd Bluc (b)

Fluorimetric probe f o r i n v i v o measurements o f p02 based on dry chemistry. (Reproduced from 1541 with permission o f the American Chemical Society).

Fig. 14.21

A new type of probe f o r i n v i v o measurements based on the used of solid

reagents and fluorimetric detection has been reported [54]. The Instrument affords pOz measurements and is based on the fluorescence quenching principle. It consists of two optical fibre leads of 250 pm ending i n a tubular section

of porous polymer about 3 mm In length and 0.6 mm In diameter. The tube i s filled with a dye absorbed on a support. It Is similar t o the pH electrode used with dry reagents, but requires solving three major problems encountered, namely: (a) it requires a dye whose measured property, fluorescence i n this instance, Is quenched by oxygen, which i s excited by vlslble llght and Is resistant to the loss of the aforesaid property; (b) I t requires the use of a hydrophobic wrapping that is highly permable to oxygen; (c) I t needs an adsorptive support activating the dye but insensitive t o moisture. The probe is de-


465

picted in Fig. 14.21. The dye supported on t h e adsorbent is contained in a porous propylene t u b e allowing

r a p i d equilibration with t h e s u r r o u n d i n g oxygen,

t h u s avoiding contamination of t h e dye. The blue exciting radiation is passed t h r o u g h an optical f i b r e t o excite t h e dye. The fluorescent radiation,

green,

is d r i v e n alongside t h e dispersed blue light to t h e measuring instrument v i a

another optical fibre.

REFERENCES P. M. Valdigui6, Quim. C l i n . , 5(1) (1986) 31. M. Luzzana, P. A. Bonini, B. C a r u l l i and F. C e r i o t t i , Quim. C l i n . , 5(1)

(1986) 39. P. Bonini, Quim. C l i n . , 5(1) (1986) 51. T. M. Craig, J. Autom. Chem., 5(4) (1983) 210. L. T. Skeegs, Am. J. P a t h o l . , 28 (1957) 311. W. B. Furman, Continuous flow analysis. Theory and practice, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1976. J. Ruzicka and E. H. Hansen, Flow i n j e c t i o n analysis, Wiley, New York,

1981. M. V a l c e r c e l and M. D. Luque de Castro, Flow-injection analysis: p r i n c i ples and applications, E l l i s Horwood, Chichester, 1987. C. R i l e y , L. H. A s l e t t , B. F. Rocks, R. A. Sherwood, J. D. McWatson and J. Morgon, C l i n . Chem., 29(2) (1983) 332. C. C. Garber and R. N. Carey, i n Automated stream analysis f o r process control, v o l 1, D. P. Manka (Ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1982, p.

226. C. Liebermann, Ber. Deut. Chem. Ges., 18 (1885) 1803. H. Burchard, Chem. Z e n t r . , 61 (1890) 25. C. C. Huan, V. Wefler and A. Raftery, Anal. Chem., 33 (1961) 1405. J. Levine, S. Morgenstern and D. V l a s t e l i c a , A u t m t i o n i n A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, Technicon Symposium 1967, White Plains, New York, Mediad. Inc., 1968, p. 25. S. Klose, H. G r i e f and H. Hagen, C l i n . Chem., 21 (1975) 942. L. P. Leon and R. 0. Stasiw, C l i n . Chem., 21 (1985) 942. M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valchrcel, Analyst, 109 (1984) 413. B. Rocks and C. R i l e y , C l i n . Chem., 28 (1982) 409. C. R i l e y , B. Rocks and R. A. Sherwood, Talanta, 31 (1984) 879. P. Linares, M. D. Luque de Castro and M . Valchrcel, Rev. Anal. Chem.,

VIII(3) (1985) 229. J. F. van Staden, Fresenius 2. Anal. Chem., 315 (1983) 141. M. J a f f 6 , Z. Physiol. Chem., 10 (1886) 391. 0. F o l i n , 1. Physiol. Chem., 41 (1904) 223. J. A. Lustgarten and R. E. Wenk, C l i n . Chem., 18 (1972) 1419. R. E. Watkins, C. S. Feldkamp, R. J. T h i b e r t and 8 . Zak, Microchem. J.,

21 (1976) 370. J. Ruzicka, E. H. Hansen and A. K. Ghose, Anal. Chem., 51 (1979) 199. L. Gorton and L. Ogren, Anal. Chim. Acta, 130 (1981) 45. B. F. Rocks, R. A. Sherwood and C. R i l e y , Analyst, 109 (1984) 847. F. L. Rodkey, C l i n . Chem., 1 1 (1965) 478. J. Mindegaard, Anal. Chim. Acta, 104 (1979) 185. M. Snook, A. Renshaw, J. M. Ridcout, D. J. Wright, J. Baker and J. Dickings, J. Autom. Chem., 1 (1979) 72. F. L. M i t c h e l l , i n Centrifugal analysis i n c l i n i c a l chemistry, C . P. P r i c e and K. Spencer (Eds), Praeger, New York, 1980, pp 311-323. D. T . M i l l e r , S. H. Martin, D. P. Lehane and R. J. Rossi, C l i n . Chem., 26

(1980) 1073.

466

Automatic methods of analysis

[ 3 4 ] H. G. Gurme, R. L. Columbus, G. M. Dapper, T . W. Eder, W. D. Fellows, J. Figueras, C. P. Glover, C. A. Goffe, D. E. H i l l , W. H. Lawton, E. J. Muka, J. E. Pinney, R. N. Rand, K. J. Sandford and T . W . Wu, C l i n . Chem., 24 (1978) 1135. [ 3 5 ] R. W. Spayd, B. Bruschi, B. A. Burdick, G. M. Dappen, J. N. Eikenberry, T. W. Esders, J. Figueras, C. T . Goddhue, D. D. LaRossa, R. W. Nelson, R. N. Rand and T. W. Wu, C l i n . Chem., 24 (1978) 1343. [ 3 6 ] N a t i o n a l Committee f o r C l i n i c a l Laboratory Standards (NCCLS), Protocol f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g performance claims f o r c l i n i c a l chemical methods i n t r o duction and performance check experiment, r e p l i c a t i o n experiment, and comparison o f methods experiment, EP2-P, EP3-P and EP4-P, V i l l a n o v a , Pensylvania, 1979. [ 3 7 ] K. Warren, N. P. Kubasik, B. B. Brody, H. E. Sine and J. P. D’Souza, C l i n . Chem., 26 (1980) 133. [ 3 8 ] J. C. Cate, R. Hendrik, M. Taylor and C. D. McGlothin, C l i n . Chem., 26 (1980) 266. [391 Z. L. Bandi, J. B. F u l l e r , D. E. Bee and G. P. James, C l i n . Chem., 27 (1981) 27. [ 4 0 ] G. G. G u i l b a u l t , J. Res., 6 (1972) 27A. [ 4 1 ] Z. L. Bandi, J. B. F u l l e r , 0. E. Bee and G. P. James, C l i n . Chem., 27 (1981) 480. [42] D. K u t t e r , Quim. C l i n . , 5 ( 1 ) (1186) 43. [ 4 3 ] A. Zipp, J. Autom. Chem., 3 ( 2 ) (1981) 71. [44] H. G. Curme, K. Babaoglu, B. E. Babb. C. J. B a t t a g l i a , D. J. Beavers, M. J. Bogdanowicz, J. C. Chang, D. S. Daniel, S. H. K i m , T . R. K i s s e l , J. R. Sandifer, P. N. Schnipelsky, R. Searle, 0. S. Secord and R. W. Spayd, C l i n . Chem., 25 (1979) 1115. [45] D. S. Daniel, B. E. Babb, C. J. B a t t a g l i a , M. J. Bodganowicz, J. C. Chang, S . tt. Kim, T. R. Sandifer, P. N. Schnipelsky, R. S e a r l e and 0. S. Secord, C f i n . Chem., 26 ( 1980) 990. [ 4 6 ] S. H. K i m , B. E. Babb, M. J. Bogdanowicz, J. C. Chang, D. S. Daniel, T. R. K i s s e l , M. W. P i p e l , J. R. Sandifer, P. N. Schnipelsky, R. Searle, R. W. Spayd and T. J. Steele, C l i n . Chem., 26 (1980) 997. [47] C. D. Ford and R. J. Hurtubise, Anal. Chem., 50 (1978) 610. [48] R. Wang, B. M e r r i l l and E. Maggio, C l i n . Chim. Acta, 102 (1980) 169. [ 4 9 ] D. L. Wentzel, Anal. Chem., 55 (1983) 1165A. [ 5 0 ] J. I. Peterson and R. V. F i t z g e r a l d , Anal. Chem., 56 (1984) 62. [511 8. F. Blake, W. A. Chapman, G. A. Lloyd and G. E. Teisteeg, C l i n . Chem., 26 (1980) 974. [ 5 2 ] J. Janata and R. J. Huber, Ion-sensitive Electrode Rev., 1 (1979) 31. [53] A. U. Ramsing and J. Ruzicka, Proc. I n t . Conf. Nijmegen, 1980, p. 134. [ 5 4 ] J. I. Peterson and R. V. F i t z g e r a l d , Anal. Chem., 56 (1984) 62.

15 in envirrmmental pollutiol7 m l l n r i n g

A U -

15.1 INTRODUCTION

The environmental deterioration caused by human action in the last few decades i s alarming as demonstrated by the large number of laws aimed at environmental protection passed i n recent years,

so much so that legal historians

have come to call the 1970s "the great era of environmental

law". Among

others, these laws establish the need for extensive measurements intended t o detect the presence and concentration of a large variety of compounds, both organic and inorganic, in a pleiad of different samples. The major thrust behind the passage of new legislation has been the correlation of adverse health or ecological effects with measurements of the presence and concentration of a variety of pollutants. Such measurements are posslbla today thanks t o significant advances in analytical instrumentation and chemistry, electronics and computer science i n the last two decades. However, there is still a wide gap between the development of sophisticated automatic methods of analysis and their application t o routine measurements of environmental pollutants [l]. This is

no doubt the result of the high cost of automation and the lack of awareness of the real potential and limitatlons of these sophisticated methods. The large variety of pollutants that may in principle occur together in a given matrlx, whether gas, liquid o r solld, poses problems requiring speciflc solutions based on particular methods. The selection of a method for the solution of a given problem usually has two goals. The so-called 'target compounds' (TCs), whose concentrations are desired are usually contalned on a list submitted to the analytical laboratory. On the basls of this list, the laboratory optimizes sampling and the measurement method to be used. Detailed chemlcal instrumental procedures are designed t o isolate the target compounds from the sample matrix and known interferences, concentrate and measure them with various all-purpose or selective detectors. Laboratory control standards are usually employed t o establish that isolation does occur and t o optlmlze the procedure f o r maximum recovery of the desired components and minimum interference from other components. The gas chromatographic electron-capture

detector

for

chlorinated

pesticides are

procedures with examples of

the


468

optimized

TC

approach.

However,

the

justification

for

the selection

of

a

specific method requires more information than the decision t o measure target compounds. The broad spectrum (BS) approach i s In sharp contrast to the T C approach. The idea behind the former is t o seek a broad spectrum picture of whatever i s present i n a sample as a major o r minor component. This k i n d o f analysis i s not guided by a predetermined list of compounds t o be measured. The BS approach has existed ever since the beginning of chemical analysis. However, the practical and economic p u r s u i t of t h i s goal was often not possible I n the past. The development of computerized gas chromatography/mass spectrometry systems and other similar technologies

has made t h i s goal a feasible and

desirable alternative f o r many types of samples. With the BS approach, sample preparation i s designed t o be as simple as possible t o preclude losses of significant sample components and t o minimize the possibility of sample contamination. The idea is t o divide the sample Into broad classes of compounds and t o apply all-purpose

chromatographic methods f o r the separation of the

compounds i n each group. Literally hundreds of thousands of compounds can be potentially included i n a broad class, b u t it i s usually safe t o assume t h a t only a f e w compounds are present i n each class i n most samples. The most beneficial result of the BS approach is the frequent discovery of significant b u t previous1 y unrecognized pol I utants. I f the decision is made t o use the BS approach, method selection is re-

stricted. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry may be a viable choice. On the other hand, if the decision is made t o use the T C approach, careful consideration of the sample type is needed before a method is selected. Environmental systems can be divided i n t o three broad categories: Type 1 systems are relatively closed, i.e.

there Is some control of the

e n t r y of components into the system and all components are well deflned. A n example i s the output from a chemical plant t h a t uses raw materials of know composition, processes them according t o a particular procedure and generates we1I-defi ned products and by-products. Type 2 systems are somewhat open i n that e n t r y of new components i s pos-

sible b u t not frequent o r likely, and components are tentatively defined. An example is the output from a d r i n k i n g water treatment plant t h a uses an uncontaminated ground water source and Chlorinates it t o produce a more o r less constant variety of halogenated methanes. Type 3 systems are wide open t o e n t r y of almost anything a t any time and

components are poorly

defined.

An example Is the Mississippi River at St

Louis, MO. Table 15.1 lists the princlpal specles and parameters controlled In the en-

A u t oma t i on i n envi ronment a l pol 1u t i on moni t o r i n g

469

vironmental field, as well as the techniques used f o r t h e i r detection and quantitation, described In detail in the different sections of t h i s chapter,

TABLE 15.1 Species and parameters most frequently determined and techniques most commonly used i n environmental analysis Species/parameter

Technique

Metals: Hg, Pb, Cd, Ca, Hg

Flame and cold-vapour atomic absorption. I C P

Fe, Mn, A 1

atomic emission spectrometry. Graphite furnace. Zeeman e f f e c t . Anodic s t r i p p i n g voltamnetry. X-ray fluorescence.

ISEs. Colorimetry

Colorimetry. ISEs. Laser Raman spectroscopy.

Oxides/Acids :

S o n , NOx, HzS

Fluorimetry. Coulometry. Colorimetry. LIDAR.

Other compounds: NH3,

NHnNHn, O n , C l n

Colorimetry. Chemiluminescence. ISEs.

Oxygen demand:

BOD, TOD, COD

ICP-AES.

Colorimetry.

Organic cwnpounds:

Pesticides, PCBs'.

Gas chromatography. HPLC.

PAHs2, detergents,

sludge digesters, CO2,

CH4

Other parameters: pH, temperature,

Potentiometry. D i g i t a l thermometer. Thermistor

t u r b i d i t y , conduc-

Thermocouple. Turbidimetry. Nephelometry. Con-

tivity

ductimetry

1

Polychlorinated biphenyls

2

.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons


4 70

The availability and preparation of standards is a major problem in the environmental field. There are standards for many relatively stable constituents such as metals, nutrients or parameters such as turbidity or alkalinity t o name but a few. However, there is a demand for standards for dissolved oxygen, suspended solids. chlorlne, biochemical oxygen demand, oils and fats. It would also be a great aid t o have pH standards containing

some of the

organic substances commonly present In water and introducing errors in the determi nations. The analysis of samples at the trace or ultratrace level poses special problems. As a rule, dilute standard solutions are unstable and readily contaminated. I t is therefore essential t o have a variety of independent, accurate standards over a wide range of trace concentrations. A t present, the National Bureau of Standards has only a few Standard Reference Materials (SRMs) suitable for the analysis of plant, animal and soil materials, none of which is usable in the trace or ultratrace range. The analysis for metal ultratraces requires extremely clean laboratories [2].

This, i n turn, requires the use of a carefully filtered air supply. A l l

reagents used must be certifledly ultrapure and their purity be preserved. Deionized water should be carefully controlled to ascertain the absence of contaminating traces -this

requires all technicians t o exercise care to avoid

contamination by their hair, skin, cosmetics, excretions or even the exhaled air. A strict control of the analytical blank [31 Is obviously another must i n this type of analysis t o avold spurious results i n the determination of some trace or ultratrace analytes.

15.2 SAMPLING 15.2.1 General considerations

Sample collection -and

transport and storage-

represents one of the

chlef problems with which the envlronmental analyst Is confronted. The inherent difficulties posed by the analysis of some types of materlals are augmented by the specific problems presented by the environmental field. The sampling operatlon may disturb the target system t o the point of obtaining a flnal sample irrepresentative of the unaltered system. This may not be too much of a problem with atmospheric measurements, but I t can pose serlous difficultles with biospheric samples. Thus, collection of an air sample f o r analy-

sls i s not bound t o cause much dlsturbance t o the surrounding alr; however, the measurement of the glucogen level In a rat’s liver w l l l lnevltably result In a great disturbance t o the animal’s organlsm. These examples are lllustratlve of one of the major features of environmental samples: their heterogene-

Automation i n environmental p o l l u t i o n monitoring

471

ity. The glucogen measurement is t r u l y representative insofar as the entire organ is exposed. Conversely, atmospheric measurements are hardly representative of even a limited volume Inasmuch as the homogeneity of the sampling field

depends on the stratification in the vertical plane and, to a lesser

extent, on the possible variations in the composition i n the horizontal plane. This entails carrying out multiple samplings t o ensure reliable and representative measurements. Time is another key variable in environmental sampling, not only as regards the sampling frequency, which should be high enough to show any changes in the sampled material (e.g. tidal variations in estuary water), but also as regards the interval elapsed between sample collection and analysis, which should be short enough t o ensure that no essential information is lost through the s a m l e deterioration. Time is also a crucial factor when the results of the analysis are the basis for decisions on the envlronment -particularly

the

working environment. The accessibility of the sampling spot i s also highly influencial in the procedure to be employed in collecting samples [4,5]. The pleiad of problems associated with sampllng have led t o the development of speciflc instrumentation for environmental analysis avoiding this preliminary step (e.g.

chemical sensors capable of performing i n s i t u measure-

ments). The most significant developments in this respect have been aimed at the area poslng the greatest problems in sampllng, namely the biosphere.

In

fact, i n v i v o measurements of some parameters such as alkali-metal and alkaline-earth activities, pH, dissolved oxygen, etc. are by now affordable [6-81. 15.2.2 Sample storage

Unfortunately, not many substances remain unaltered after sampllng. The chief causes of deterioration of collected samples are losses of trace elements by adsorption, particle segregation In heterogeneous powders, dehydration, bacterlal growth i n blological samples, decomposition of the sample mat r i x and formation of volatile compounds from trace elements. Most of these problems can be addressed with speclflc techniques which, however, may introduce some contamination. The potential Occurrence of changes In the sample during storage is closely related to the storage temperature and time. Plastlcs -particularly

PTFE and polyethylene [9,10]-

are the best material for stor-

age of the collected samples, which can also be preserved by cryostorage. This reduces the sample activity t o such an extent that deterioration and interaction tact with the container are kept to a minimum. Acidification is a common resource for

sample stabilization;

however,

it may be contra-Indicated

In

speciation studies [ill. The absorption tubes used i n air sampling are sultable for storage of gas samples as described In Section 15.2.5.


4 72

15.2.3 Sample clean-up The nature of environmental samples often requires a clean-up step between sampling and the appllcation of the analytical method. There are a variety of clean-up procedures available, most of which can be implemented i n an automated fashion (see Chapters 3 and 41, in both segmented and unsegmented flowmethods, robotic methods and HPLC. Liquid-liquid [12-141,

filtration

114,151,

dialysis [12,15],

and solid-liquid extraction

evaporation [12,13],

ature precipitation of lipids and column-switching

low-temper-

methods [16] are all clean-

up methodologies of proven efficiency with environmental samples. 15.2.4 Liquid sampling Water and liquid effluent samples possess the major disadvantage of appearIng to be very easy t o obtain compared wlth solid or gaseous materials: a flask tied t o the end of a string and a bottle to collect the sample seem t o be all the equipment required. For comparison, a factory processing 100 t of coal a day w i l l have to devote much endeavour t o organize its appropriate sampling; a faecal water-treatment

plant dealing with 20 OOO t of material daily

would require an individual inspecting the input and output of materlal at certain intervals by using a small flask to collect samples from each stream and pour them into a larger container from which samples would be anaiysed at the end of the day. Alternatlvely, a river inspector would make a monthly inspection along the river, collecting samples that would also be analysed at the end of the day. The results obtained would provide a pollution contour of the r i v e r in question. Taking into account, f o r instance, that the flow-rate of the Thames at Teddington weir is stated t o be 277 200 t / h and that of the Trent at Colwlck is 2 160 OOO t / h [17], ing sampling t o a r i v e r flow-rate.

there is a great difficulty i n relat-

From these examples it follows that (a) the

significance of the analysis Is limited by the suitability of the sampling program and (b) the chief requirement f o r a satisfactory sampling is the representativeness of the collected samples. The automatic sampling of liquids can be carried out w l t h off-line and online samplers. Off-line

assemblies consist essentially of an suction pump, a

serles of flasks and microprocessor allowlng programming of the intervals between successive samplings. An example of this type of set-up i s the porta-

bl e automatic sampler S-4OOO of the Philips Environmental Protection Series, a scheme of which is depicted In Fig. 15.la. The operatlonal sequence involved the following events: (a) The sampling cycle control ( 1 ) Initiates the sequence by means of an internal quartz-crystal-controller

timer with accuracy of better than 0.03% or

an external slgnal. Cycle Intervals can be set between 3.75 min and 24 h. The

Automation in environmental pollution monitoring

4 73

purges the Intake

P

Fig. 15.1 Portable Automatic Sampler S-4000. ( b ) Control system. (Courtesy o f P h i l i p s ) .

( a ) Operational diagram.


4 74

(b)The solenoid valve (3) Inverts the compressor lines t o evacuate the metering chamber (4). The sample is aspirated from (4) into the chamber. (c) Once the sample has been collected, pinch valve ( 8 ) compels the sample t o circulate through the rotary union (9) and pours I t into the sample bottle (10). (d)Pinch valve (2) is closed and the purge of the intake hose is continued. (e) The compressor shuts off, steeping motor (11) advances t o spout t o the next bottle and the system is made ready f o r the next cycle. The control unit (Fig. 15.lb) Is located at the top of the system. The mode switch (1) selects the type of control of the cycle. I n the 'flow'

posi-

tion, the sampling cycle and the timer are controlled by the quartz-crystal clock, intervals being selected through the sample interval switch (6). The sample volume is selected by adjusting the height of the sample used t o introduce the sample into the metering chamber, scaled i n volume units. The bottle advance push-button (3) moves the bottle forward and the manual cycle (4) pushbutton (4) initiates one complete cycle to test the unit. The purge push-button starts the purge cycle and stops it when released. The optional controls for multiple samples (7) and multiple bottles ( 8 ) allow 1-5 placed in a single bottle and up t o four

samples to be

consecutive bottles t o be filled

with the same sample, respectively. On-line sampling systems are simpler than their off-line counterparts and normally consist of a floating piston housed i n a cylinder, generally plastlc, which provldes a flow of adjustable rate. Such a rate should not be too low in order to avoid sedimentation. The plastic cylinder Is used In variable lengths and diameters and is pierced and surrounded by a mesh preventing the entry of large particles that might obstruct the pump. The cylinder is thermally isolated to avoid solar radiation or temperature variations that might result i n erroneous measurements. Whitby e t a l . and off-line

[la]

have designed a sampler that can be used with on-line

systems. It was conceived for the sampling of effluents whose

composition varies with time or which contain solids heavier or lighter than the fluid itself, volatlle solutes or other immiscible liquids. The design is based on the use of a loop of fairly narrow-bore pipework, which is fed from the body of water to be sampled. A mono pump Is used to force the sample continuously

through the

loop (Fig.

15.2a)

at a rate sufficiently

hlgh (500

gal/h) t o promote turbulent flow and also t o prevent the settlement of highdensity sollds by maintaining a high linear flow

velocity.

This stream of

llquid then passes downward through a small closed interceptor chamber which has a limlted retention volume (2-3 L ) and the liquor then flows under gravity


4 75

a)

L? b)

Inlet

C)

Sample ocqulslt ion point

I Bi

Return t o loop

PLAN

(a) General layout o f the loop-interceptor system f o r studi e s on a simulated e f f l u e n t . ( 1 ) Thirty-gallon drum holding the eff l u e n t ; ( 2 ) l i g n i n mixer; ( 3 ) mono pump; ( 4 ) outward and return l i n e s o f loop; ( 5 ) interceptor; ( 6 ) sample point. I n the r e a l situations, points A and C are located i n the flow o f l i q u i d e f f l u e n t . (b) I n t e r ceptor vessel (early design). Shaded areas indicate the area i n which suspended solids b u i l d up. ( c ) F i n a l design o f the interceptor vessel. ( 1 ) Swivelling sample-acquisition arm; ( 2 ) K i n e t r o l actuator; ( 3 ) sample delivery tube -represents sample point B. (Reproduced from [18] w i t h permission o f Pergamon Press Ltd).

Fig. 15.2

and i s discharged near the point from which the orlginai sample was drawn. Thls assembly can be used t o promote vigorous agitatlon at the initial sample point, so that the llquld drawn b y the pump is representative o f the -possibly heterogeneous-

effluent stream. The interceptor vessel can be placed a t

a posltion that Is convenient for the coliectlon o f sub-samples and may also be used t o house pH o r ion-selective electrodes t o give a continuous record of the chemical characteristics o f the effluent. The interceptor provides a means


4 76

for diverting a sample from the loop system into a suitable sample container. However, b y suitable electronic or pneumatic timlng arrangements, the pneumatically

operated

sampling arm may

be arranged to automatlcally

collect

samples of the following types: (a) snap or grab samples at chosen time intervals;

(b) composite samples;

(c) flow-proportional

samples;

(d) continuous

samples. The arrangement of the loop system is shown i n Fig. 15.2a. The outward loop feeds the interceptor vessel from which samples may be withdrawn (Fig. 15.2b) or which, in improved form (Fig. 15.2~1, permits removal of sample and also insertion of monitoring probes into the continuously

updated

sample. The sample Imp is completed via a pipe which returns the sample close to the pump intake point, thus providing turbulence under real operating conditions. The instruments with on-line sampling units used i n surveillance stations can also include a programmed systert: for emergency samplings, allowing samples to be collected as Soon as sny of the controlled parameters exceeds a preset limit. This aI!ows samples to be obtained in cases of transient or unexpected pol I ution. 15.2.5 A i r sampling

Most of the sampling carrled out in the atmosphere is intended f o r the determination of

pollutants or their

effects i n localized

industrial areas or

areas devoted t o global environmental studies. Only massionally (e.9. measurements of boron [19] or nitrogen oxides in air [20]) are these studles aimed at the Identification of the geochemical cycle of some species i n the atmosphere. Systems for sampling of airborne pollutants usually conslsts of three parts: (a) a means of collecting the air sample; (b) a devlce to trap the pollutant; and (c) a means of measuring the amount of air sampled. The sampling methods frequently used for this purpose are sedimentation [21,22], tion

[23],

[24,25],

impaction,

filtration

the commonest of

and

thermal

or

which are flltration,

electrostatic

centrifugaprecipitation

impaction and electrostatic

precipitation. The size of the collected particles depends on the partlcular method used. Filtration Is the sampling method most frequently used in industrial hygiene work (personal monitors) on account of i t s operational simplicity. A filt e r assembly typically conslsts of a sampllng head and a f l l t e r (passive atmospheric samplers) or a sampling head, f i l t e r and pump (actlve samplers), ali of which are constructed In a materlal introducing no contaminatlon i n the samples. The different types of filters (depth, membrane) and materials (glass fibre, quartz, cellulose esters, PFTE, sllver) used can be readlly adapted t o the unknown analyte.

A utoma ti o n i n en v i rontnent a l pol 1uti o n moni t o r i n g

477

The control of working atmospheres requlres a special type of sampling. I n fact, the level of pollutants t o whlch the individual workers are exposed is more representative than that found in the working place. Obviously, in a petrol station, the individual actually dispensing the fuel w i l l be more exposed t o organic vapours than the cashier, even if the latter is only a few metres away from the former. A common method for sampling i n these 'microenvironments" requires the workers t o carry a badge wlth adsorptive material -typically a charcoal disc pressed into a f i l t e r backlng-

during the working hours

(passive sampling), at the end of which the badge is sent t o the laboratory, where carbon is extracted with an organic solvent (generally CSz) and an aliquot i s injected into a gas chromatograph f o r analysis. This simple method has some disadvantages: (a) the uptake rate of the disc when worn w i l l be affected by the air flow across it and it w i l l perform p w r l y i n still air; (b) the most effective solvents are themselves a health and safety hazard; and (c) the many handling and extraction steps Involved do not lend themselves to a fully automatic system of analysis. Perkin-Elmer have developed a sampler that can be used both for the adsorption of samples by diffusion -as

a badge sampler-

and f o r the introduction

of a controlled alr stream by means of a portable battery-operated suction pump, which allows for spot sampling or the measurement of very low pollutant concentrations.

The sampler is subsequently heated i n a flow of carrier gas

and the vapours are fed directly into a gas chromatographlc column. The monit o r consists of

stainless steel tubes (90 mm x 5.0 mm I.D.)

(Fig. 15.3) that

can be readily removed with a clip. The tubes are supplied with press-on storage caps and gauzes which retain the sample inside f o r months if necessary. I n the sampling mode, the tube Is fitted with a diffusion cap constructed so that the diffusion path length is set precisely t o 15 mm. Diffusion caps are available with semipermeable membranes t o minimize water uptake during sampling, without affectlng component diffusivity. These caps have a gold-anodized

finish for easy ldentlflcation and are also available

membranes f o r non-moisture sensltlve materials -these analysis Is carried out on the Perkln-Elmer

without

have a silver cap. The

Automatic Thermal Desorption

System (ATD 50) and then analytlcal end caps are fltted. These malntaln the sample sealed In the ATD unit and enable the sample t o be dispensed t o the chromatograph without loss o r contamlnatlon. The ATD 50 automatlcally processes up t o 50 sample tubes wlthout attention. Complete control o f all desorptlon parameters coupled with an extensive systems check before each tube Is desorbed ensures that each sample Is subjected t o an optlrnum desorptlon cycle and cannot be lost due t o system o r tube fallure. The desorbed sample passes along a temperature-controlled transfer line which may be attached t o any gas


4 78

chromatograph

or vapour-phase analytical system. An interesting feature of

these tubes i s their reusability.

'0' R\ING

'0'R I N G M E M B l? A N E

STAINLESS STEEL GAUZE

/

ADSORBENT

S T A I N L E S S S T E E L TUBE

\

CAP

GAUZE

N CAP

Fig. 15.3 Re-usable sampling tube (active or passive). Analyses are carried out on an Automatic Thermal Desorption System f i t t e d t o a gas chromatograph. (Courtesy o f Perkin-Elmer Ltd.).

A pump i s usually employed t o transport the air sample along the sampling

device, where the air stream Impinges on a solid surface (Impactors or adsorption tubes) or a solution (impingers) where the particles or gases settle. The solid use for impaction or adsorptlon and the absorbing solution are suited t o the type of compound t o be determined and t o the nature of the sampled atmosphere. Electrostatic precipitation is specific f o r suspended partlcles and is thus widely used in this type of sampllng 126,271. The collection of gas samples, both organic and Inorganic, f o r analytical purposes has been approached by various authors. Thus, Smith and Murdcck [30] have developed a devlce capable of simultaneously collecting eight equivalent particulate diesel exhaust samples t o study the effect of the type o f filter, extraction solvent and storage conditions used on the measurement of the concentration of five polyhalogenated hydrocarbons. The devlce consists o f a conlcal sampling chamber (18.5 cm diameter, 15 cm height) on whlch ere placed eight cassettes of two 37-mm pieces each, a vacuum manifold containing the critical orifices which control the flow through the 37-mm cassettes, and a sample line f o r attaching the conical sampling chamber t o the diesel exhaust dilution chamber. A 16.5-mm

diameter by 26.5-cm

long Plexiglas6 tube i s used

t o support the sampling chamber and t o separate It from the manifold. A threaded rod wlth wlng nuts Is used t o hold the sampllng chamber, vacuum manlfold and Piexiglass tube rigidly together. The sampling line, a 2.54-cm

Automation i n environment a1 pol 1u t i o n moni t o r i n g

a)

4MPLE LINE

CASSETTES

\

\

SIDE VIEW

37rnm

CASSETTES

(8)

LEFT

SIDE

T O P V I E W ( w i t h top o f f ) Fig. 15.4 Multi-sampler f o r collection o f polyhalogenated hydrocarbons i n diesel exhaust. (a) Side view. (b) Top view. (Reproduced from [30] with permission o f Marcel Dekker, I n c . ) .

4 79


480 aluminium tube

is inserted into the diesel exhaust dilution

chamber.

The

37-mm cassettes are arranged i n the sampling chamber as shown in Fig. 15.4a. The pattern is divided into a r i g h t and a l e f t section, and each position is numbered individually (Fig.

15.4b).

Slmilar studies of collection

efficiency,

blank values and elutlon efficiency of lead sprays collected over four d i f f e r ent solid sorbent packing sampling tubes (silica gel, alumina, Chromosorb and Tenax-GC) in various pore sizes, which showed the suitability of Tenax-GC, have been recently reported [311. Tenax-GC was also used by Lewis et al. [321 to develop a passive sampler for short-term, flow-level air monitoring applications. The small, stainless steel device is straightforward and inexpensive and has a high equivalent sampllng rate, is reusable and rechargeable and is conceived for thermal desorptlon. I t s performance was scrutinized under controlled test chamber atmospheres and in actual outdoor and indoor situations. Sampling rates were calculated f o r several volatile organic chemicals. This design

excels

in

performance

over

other

commercially

available

passive

monitors. Sample collection as a means of avoiding a given interference and determining other analytes has materialized in the development of a K I ring denuder for the collection of N02 [33] as a means of separating this oxide prior to the sampling of airborne particulate matter on filter media such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons liable to undergo oxidation or nitration in the filtration step [34,351. A representative example on account of i t s capacity and performance is the

commercial on-line

gas sampler DS 210 dry-alr-operated

sample-condltioning

probe manufactured by Columbia Scientific Industries. This sampler effects i n a precise manner all the functions involved i n the preparation of the in-stack sample f o r transport and measurement. The sample i s f i r s t filtered and metered to an exact volume by a critical orifice. The measured sample is then diluted with dry eduction air, reducing the relative humldity t o a dew point below that of the ambient operating temperature. A vacuum is drawn on the stack continuously through a f i l t e r and a critical orifice by a newly developed small ejector pump which Is mounted inslde a stack probe. The main air stream (pressurized air) wlth an adjustable flow creates a vacuum I n the space between the primary and secondary nozzle of the ejector pump (Fig. 15.5). The vacuum is used to transport the stack gas through a critical orifice mounted inslde the stack

probe.

The crltlcal orifice determines the stack sample flow

at all

pressures below the critical value. Figure 15.5 shows a detail of the construction of the ejector pump, which Is mounted inside the stack probe inside a steel tube of highly corrosion-resistant steel which forms part of the stack probe. Between the ejector and this outer steel tube a heat exchanger serves to preheat the dilution alr before entering the pump so as to compensate for

Automat i o n i n environmental pol 1u t i o n moni t o r i n g

48 1

changes i n the dilution ratio at v a r y i n g temperatures of the dilution air. The second p a r t of the probe consists of a corrosion-resistant steel mantle which i s screwed on t o the ejector pump end. On the f r o n t end of t h i s mantle is mounted a coarse filter. Inside t h i s ’ p a r t of the probe is mounted the critical orifice with a fine quartz filter.

Both can be exchanged f o r other sample

flows. The CL/PA (calibration/purge a i r ) connection o f the probe consists of a 1/8-in steel tube which ends i n the f r o n t compartment. This tube is used t o supply the critical orifice inlet with calibration gas supplied via the umbilical cord o r t o apply p u r g e a i r at a high flow-rate t o clean the coarse filter. The air stream blowing i n t o the stack removes the dust particles remaining a t the outside of the coarse filter. The diluted sample volume i s approxlmately 5 L o r more -sufficient

t o meet the sample needs (simultaneously) f o r several

analytes, such as total sulphur, SOz, NOx, C02 and hydrocarbons.

,BORE

DILUTION A I R 01 TO VACUUM GAUGE

LITRESiMIY

SE CQNDARY

/ / S T A C K GAS

CRISICAL ORIFICE

C A L t B R A T I 9 N LINE

C A L LINE

Fig. 15.5 Cross-sections of the DS 210 dry-air-operated sample-condit i o n i n g probe. (Courtesy of Columbia S c i e n t i f i c I n d u s t r i e s ) .

15.3 WATER ANALYSERS

Water, the universal solvent, i s everywhere around us. Whlle additives can actually improve water quality f o r some uses, water impurities can cause corrosion and fouling of equipment and be a source of disease and pollution. Automated analysis i s the key t o solving critical water quality problems. Fast detection and correction of abnormalities are also important steps towards c u t t i n g treatment costs and keeping a plant i n compliance w l t h regulatory stat Utes. Table 15.2 lists the different types of Water most CmmOnlY used by humans and the processes typically applied t o t h e i r purification. The parameters t o

TABLE 15.2

Types o f water, f e a t u r e s , processes t o which they a r e subjected and parameters determined

Type o f water

Features

Process

Parameters

Ground: h i g h 02 and sediment contents Deep: h i g h COZ and s o l i d contents; h i g h hardness Varying t u r b i d i t y which determines treatment

Coagulation, c l a r i f i c a t i o n (chlorination)

pH, t u r b i d i t y ,

Chlorination (fluorination)

Process

One-quarter o f t o t a l i n d u s t r i a l water

Chlorination

Feed

Higher b o i l e r pressure. Higher puri t y required

Elimination o f corrosivity and contaminants pH/phosphate program, chel a t i n g agents, 0 2 t r a p p e r s

Transparency, t a s t e , odour, hardness, b a c t e r i o l o g i c a l act i v i t y (Fe, Mn) pH, hardness, c o r r o s i v i t y , l i t m u s f o r m a t i o n (Fe, Mn) Variable

Untreated

Drinking

Boiler

Condensation

Drainage balance: s e c u r i t y s o l i d l e v e l s / h e a t and chemical l o s s e s Dependent on t h e c o n t r o l r e s u l t s

Drainage-recovery o f chemical levels Variable

Cooling

Recirculated

Waste

Non-recirculated Two c o n t r o l l i n e s : i n f l u e n t and effluent

Acidification, addition of phosphates, chromates and molybdates Chlorination Variable

Purge

chlorine

pH, Ca, Mg, Si032-, (S032-, N 2 H 4 , c h e l a t i n g agents, phosphate, e t c . ) S i O z , N 2H 4, phosphates, pH, conductivity hardness, c o n d u c t i v i t y , t u r b i d i t y , Na+, Si032Hardness, pH, a d d i t i v e s

pH, c o n d u c t i v i t y , phosphates, c h l o r i n e , d i s s o l v e d 0 2 , alkalinity


483

be controlled in these waters (shown i n parentheses) are determined partly by

the nature of the water and partly by the treatment to whlch it has been subjected. There are other types of water and determinations not included in the table than require special solutions and are beyond the scope of this chapter. Nevertheless, some standard practices such as the determination of oxygen in its different possible forms and the speciation of elements are worth considering here. The large-scale surveiliance of waterways as the starting point for the accomplishment of satisfactory levels o f quality i n drinking and industrial waters and the preservation of aquatic fauna Is of utmost importance. Automated water surveillance stations are no doubt the best alternative for the realization of this task. 15.3.1 Off-line water analysers

The range of off-line instruments available for water analysis is wide. I n fact, any analyser with optical o r electrochemical detection can be adapted for this purpose. The use of llquid chromatography for the detectlon and quantitation of detergents or non-volatile organic compounds, of atomic absorptlon spectrometry f o r the analysis for heavy metal traces and of UV spectrophotometry for the determination of phosphates, nitrates and nitrites are representative examples of

the

potential

utilization

of

conventional

analysers for

water analysis. A common practice i n water analysis is the indirect measurement of pollu-

tion from organic matter carried out by means of autoanalysers based on different principles. The PW 9525 total oxygen demand (TOD) meter manufactured by Philips allows the measurement of TOD i n about 2.5 min by burning all the oxidlzable matter and expressing the amount of oxygen consumed i n mg Oz/L. As can be seen from Fig. 15.6, the instrument consists of three essentlal parts: (a) the oxygen dosing and measurlng system (two ZrCh cells); ( b ) the combustlon system (an oven heated at 900'C); and (c) the injection system. A carrler gas (N2) flows through the f l r s t Zr02 cell, which adds oxygen to the nitrogen stream at a constant rate, thereby providing a fixed 02 concentration between 35 and 4OOO ppm. The gas mixture is passed through an oven heated at 9oo'C and contalning a special combustion tube furnished wlth a platinum catalyst. The gas Is then passed through the second ZrOz cell, whlch has a measuring and dosing function. When a known volume of sample Is injected into the oven, the water evaporates and the oxldlzable matter is burnt by the oxygen In the &/Nz

mixture.

The decrease in the 02 concentration In the gas stream resulting from the combustion In the oven Is detected and compensated for by the second cell. The


484

amount of oxygen required t o restore the original 02 level i s the sought TOD of the injected sample. The two ZrOn cells are no doubt the key p a r t s of the instrument. They are fitted with two internal porous P t electrodes and two external ring-shaped

electrodes of the same material. The cells are heated at

about 600"C, at which ZrOn i s a solid electrolyte. As an electrical c u r r e n t passes from the inner t o the outer electrodes, the oxygen is transported t h r o u g h the wall of the zirconium tube. The amount of oxygen transported i s proportional t o the magnitude of the current. The oxygen concentration can be measured

by

using

another

property

of

electrolytlc

zirconium,

v i z . the

difference between the On concentration inside and outside the zirconium tube results

in

a

voltage

across

the

electrodes

dependent

on

the

partial

On

pressure inside and outside the tube. I n the f i r s t zirconium tube, the On is dosed i n the carrier gas, while the second takes advantage of the two abovementioned properties of Zr@. The change in the p02 is measured as the voltage drop across the measuring electrodes.

Deviations from the preset p02 are

compensated for by a feedback system that doses o r withdraws the carrier gas in the second cell until the original concentration i s restored. required f o r the dosing

Electronic measuring a n d feedback

i s directly Constant

The c u r r e n t

proportional t o the amount of oxygen

Platinum catalyst Combustion oven

Fig. 15.6 Scheme o f the PW (Courtesy o f P h i l i p s ) .

9525

total

oxygen demand

(TOD) meter.

Automation i n environmental p o l l u t i o n m o n i t o r i n g

485

consumed i n the combustion process. The instrument normally operates with manual injection of discrete samples, although it can be automated by means of a pump and an automatic injection device. Another way of expressing the amount of chemically oxidizable matter is the so-called ’chemical oxygen demand’ (COD), measurement of which can be carried out in an automatic fashion with the Aqua rator marketed by Precision Scientific. This instrument measures COD by causing organic materials to be oxidized on a platinum catalyst at 9OO’C by reduction of COz to CO, yielding a mixture of both gases equalling the number of oxygen atoms required f o r the chemical ox y dat ion:

Hence, the CO readouts of the instrument are proportional to the COD and are safer when the number of oxygen atoms in the organic compound is equal to onehalf of the number of hydrogen atoms. The samples (20 pL) are injected on t o the catalyst and the oxidation products are carried along the Instrument by means of a purified COz stream. The Metrohm 676 COD sample changer is based on the standard procedure for measurement of the amount of KzCr207 required t o oxidize the oxidizable matter present i n 1 L of water, so that the water sample is treated with excess Cr(V1) i n a concentrated sulphurlc acid medium containing AgzSO4 as catalyst and heated at 175’C. The excess of Cr(V1) is determined by back-titration with Fe(I1). The end-point i s detected potentiometrically by means of a metal -ideally gold-

electrode. The tltrated solution Is removed by suction and the ti-

tration vessel is washed with distilled water t o make lt ready for a new sample from the sampler, capable of holding up t o sixteen pretreated samples. Cnobloch e t a l . [36] have designed a relatively simple instrument f o r the analysls of groups of metal ions in natural and waste water based on electrolytic preconcentratlon and subsequent couiometric determination. The scheme of the instrument Is shown i n Fig. 15.7. The measuring cell contains two platinum electrodes and a s t i r r e r whlch creates a thin, well-defined

diffusion layer

around the electrode, resulting in large response signals and hence in high sensitlvity

and

reproducibility.

The

operational

sequence

Is

as

follows.

First, the measuring cell is filled with the waste water sample (pH 3.5); the metals are deposited on the cathode on application of a constant d.c. Voltage and the cell Is emptied. The cell i s then filled with pure electrolyte (buffer solution of pH 3.5) and the metals are passed on t o the solution by applying an Inverse d.c.

voltage. The electric charge consumed is a measure of the

metal concentration In the waste water. The oxidation process Is carried out


486

in pure water t o avoid false response signals yielded by other oxidizable substances -particularly

organic matter-

potentially present i n the sample.

The polarity of the electrodes i s reversed after each measurement, thereby ensuring their thorough washing. The number of metal ions that can be detected can be varied by selecting the appropriate deposition voltage, and so can the detection l i m i t by changing the deposition time.

The method developed by

Cnobloch e t a l . is not intended for the accurate determination

of

heavy

metals, but for that of groups. The apparatus acts chiefly as a control activating an alarm when a preset limit is exceeded. The plant operator is then in a position t o take immediate counter-steps to avoid greater perturbations. The method does not replace other accurate methods for the determination of heavy metals in water; however, it limits the number of analyses to be carried out to those instances where critical values are reached or surDassed.

sample collector

Fig. 15.7 Schematic diagram o f a heavy m e t a l ion duced from [361 with permission o f Elsevier).

The automatic off-line

detector. (Repro-

speciation of elements i n water has been imple-

mented in a straightforward manner by flow-injection analysis with the aid of configurations adapted t o the characteristics of the systems under study. Chromium has been speciated upon reaction between Cr(V1) and 1,5-dlphenylcarbazide (DPC), which yields a coloured compound absorbing at 540 nm and f r e e from interference from Cr(II1). The manlfolds used for this purpose allow the simultaneous o r sequential determination of Cr(V1) and total chromlum after oxidation of Cr(II1) with Ce(1V) by use of a single- or dual-beam spectrophotometer. The configuration i n Fig. 1 5 . a uses a single sample injection that is split Into two channels reaching the sample and reference flow-cell,

respec-


tively, of a dual-beam

spectrophotometer

(Fig.

48 7

15.8al).

The upper channel

merges with a DPC c u r r e n t and yields a signal proportional t o the Cr(V1) concentration i n the sample upon passage t h r o u g h the flow-cell. The lower channel also merges with a Ce(1V) solution

which oxidizes Cr(II1) t o Cr(V1) after

merging with an indicator reagent; hence the signal obtained from the cell corresponds t o the contribution of the two oxidation states Initially present i n the sample. A similar configuration with two flow-cells aligned with the l i g h t path of a single-beam

spectrophotometer i s shown In Fig. 15.8a2,

while Fig.

15.8a3 depicts a configuratlon with merging p r i o r t o a single flow-cell,

The

sequential speciation of chromium can be carried o u t with the aid of a selecti n g valve (V2) which allows o r prevents the passage of a Ce(1V) stream, thereby facilitating the determination o f Cr(V1) o r total chromium by using two sample injections (Fig.

15.8b).

All

these configurations o f f e r

good mixture

resolution with excellent reproducibility and determination ranges, which show the effectiveness of the methods used [37]. A configuration similar t o t h a t i n

a) DPC WATER SAMPLE

Hz

TZ 1.I5

so4

ox

DPC

1.33

0.59

q ( m L . min-1)

b) DPC ox HzS04 WAT E R SAMPL

Fig. 15.8

lw

F I A configurations f o r the o f f - l i n e speciation o f chromium. (a) With a s p l i t t i n g p o i n t ( A ) and a dual-beam detector (a.1): w i t h two c e l l s aligned w i t h the l i g h t path (a.2); w i t h a merging p o i n t p r i o r t o a s i n g l e f l o w - c e l l (a.3). (b) Sequential determination w i t h the a i d o f a selecting valve. DPC: diphenylcarbazide; Ox: oxidant [Ce(IV)]; q: flow-rate; V i : i n j e c t i o n valve: L and 0: reactor length and inner diameter; V 2 : s e l e c t i n g valve; W: waste. (Reproduced from [37] w i t h permission o f Elsevier).


488

Fig. 15.8b has been used for the speciation or arsenlc (as arsenite and arsenate) by use of the Molybdenum Blue reaction after complexation of A s ( V ) with Mo(V1). A KIOJ solution is used to oxidize As@- in this case. The calibration garphs are linear in the range 106-10-4M for both ions and mixtures in ratios up to 20:l can be readily resolved [381. 15.3.2 On-llne water analysers

This type of system features a number of advantages over off-line analysers, namely sampling Is more representative, the risk of contamination by the containers or changes in the sample composition by storage is minimal and the evolution of the system under study can be continuously monltored, which results in more useful information.

15.3.2.1 Single-parameter analysers There are a host of commercially instruments available for the monitoring of a single parameter in both industrial and domestic water. All these instruments are very similar and only differ signiflcantly

in the sensing system

used, which is suited to the analyte (parameter) to be determined. Colorimetric analysers. The generic scheme of this type of instrument

IS

depicted i n Fig. 15.9a. The water sample i s introduced into the analyser b y means of the sample pump and mixed with a measured amount of reagent which

IS

introduced by its corresponding pump. The mixture then flows along the system to the cell, where the colour development Is monitored. The cell is the cylinder of the photometer pump and from i t the sample-reagent mixture Is pumped through some delay loops around the mixing spool and out of the drain. As the volumes delivered by the sample and reagent pumps are smaller than the capacity of the photometer pump, some of the solution expelled by the photometer piston’s previous stroke Is drawn back into the sample cell. A pinch valve assembly functions to control the direction of the flow through the analyser. This is accomplished by opening and closing tubes at the appropriate times i n relation to movements of the pump pistons. A flush system prevents the buildup of reagent crystals In the upper part of the photometer block cylinder and piston. Demineralized water, placed i n the reagent compartment, is pumped through the area of the sample cell that is above the photometer piston seal, rinsing the area with each pump cycle (Fig. 15.9b). Also rinsed are the front sectlons of the other pumps where the flush system water carries away any salt that would Increase the wear of the seal. Two flush pumps are mounted on the pump panel t o provide the energy t o move the demineralized water through the system. The inlet flush pump on the left side of the panel moves the rinse water to the point where It enters the Photometer block and the outlet pump of the r i g h t draws It from the photometer block and pumps It out of the draln.

489


a)

DRAIN

STANDARD SAMPLE

SAMPLE

FLUSH OUTLET PUMP

REAGENT PUMPISI

FLUSH !NLET PUMP

Fig. 15.9 Sample and reagent flow diagrams ( a ) and f l u s h ( b ) o f a single-parameter water analyser w i t h c o l o r i m e t r i c detection. (Courtesy o f Hach Co.).

Hach manufacture a serles of single-parameter analysers with the above-mentioned features

f o r the determination

of copper (Model 61 7001, hexavalent

chromium (Model 31700), permanganate (Model 314001, high-range silica (Model

61500), phosphate (Model 31500), ozone (Model 32000), f r e e chlorine (Model 61 loo), chlorine dioxide (Model 316001, hydrazine (Model 321001, phenolphthalein alkalinity

(Model 614001, total alkalinlty (Model 612001, chelant (Model

61300), hardness (Models 31000 and 610001, etc. On the other hand, the trace analysers marketed by Hach are gravity-based and control the sample-to-reagent ratio by means of precisely selected capillaries located i n the sample and reagent flow paths (Fig. 15.10). The temperature of sample and reagents i s controlled d u r i n g the mixing and reaction phase i n o r d e r t o ensure reproducibllity. The temperature control Is maintained because the head regulator and delay blocks are secured t o a mounting plate t h a t Is an integral p a r t of the sample heater. I t i s important,

however, t h a t the sample flow be relatively

constant because wide fluctuations w l l l affect temperature control. The water sample entering the analyser flows f i r s t t h r o u g h the sample heater, where It


4 90

is heated at 50"C, and then enters the head regulator, constant head above the water capillary a t 5 mL/min.

which

provides a

As it leaves, it mixes

with reagent 1 and drops i n t o t h e f l r s t delay block, where a delay allows the f i r s t step of the reaction t o take place. This mixture then drops Into the second delay

block, where it Is mixed with reagent 2, which produces the

monitored product. This final mixture is detained i n the second delay block f o r several minutes t o ensure t h a t the colour can develop f u l l y

before it

flows on the sample cell f o r measurement. This i s the operational

basis f o r

the trace silica (Models 651C and 1234D) and trace phosphate (Model 2359C) anal ysers.

ig-

Ti;

Healed

Drain Block

F h . 15.10 Scheme o f c o l o r i m e t r i c gravity-flow tesy o f Hach Co.).

autoanalyser.

(Cour-

A colorimetric analyser f o r t h e determination of phenol in waste water in-

volving p r i o r distillation of the sample b y means of a home-made device has been reported by Goodwing and Marton [39]. lation unit and Fig.

15.11b

Flgure 15.11a shows the distil-

i t s connection t o the analyser.

The distillation

assembly consists of a distlllatlon coil, a condenser and a heat exchanger.


The

distillation

coil

has an expansion chamber

49 f partially

filled

with

1-mm

glass beads, a bottoms draw t o remove hot acid and an overhead draw t o remove vapours. The cycle time includes 1 min f o r sampling and 3 min f o r washing.

E

5

Fig. 15.11 Colorimetric phenol analyser. (a) D e t a i l s o f the d i s t i l l a t i o n u n i t , condenser and heat exchanger. ( b ) General scheme o f the i n strument. A, sampler; B, heating bath w i t h heating rod; C, d i s t i l l a t i o n head; D, condenser; E, heat exchanger; F, s t r i p - c h a r t recorder; G, colorimeter; H, c o i l ; J, s i n g l e bead-string reactor; K, p e r i s t a l t i c pump; ( 1 ) wash water; ( 2 ) sample; ( 3 1 , a i r ; ( 4 ) phosphoric acid; (5) overhead condensate; ( 6 ) 4-AAP reagent; ( 7 ) F e ( I I 1 ) reagent; ( 8 ) a i r ; ( 9 ) l e v e l control; (10) bottoms draw; (11) debubbler draw. (Reproduced from [391 w i t h permission o f Elsevier).

Turbidimetric There are two basic types of on-llne water turbldimeters: surface scatter and flow-through. I n turbidimeters of the former t y p e the sample flows i n t o a constant-level

well. The l i g h t beam i s dlrected t o the sur-


492

face of the cup and the radiation scattered by the particles i n the liquid surface is measured at a specific incidence angle. This t y p e of instrument has the advantage that the optical elements are never in contact with the sample. I n the latter type of instrument, the sample flows through a tube and the l i g h t impinges on it through an optical window located i n a lake o r at the end of the tube, after which the scattered l i g h t i s measured. The Model 5 surface

scatter

turbidimeter and the Model 17208 flow-range

process turbidimeter

marketed by Hach are representative examples of each type of turbidimetric on-line water analyser. Dissolved oxygen detectors. These consist essentially o f an electrochemi-

cal cell with a gold cathode and a silver anode immersed in an electrolyte solution separated from that of the sample by a chemically resistant polymer membrane permeable t o the gas, so t h a t p a r t of the dissolved oxygen i n the sample proportional t o i t s partial pressure diffuses across t h e membrane and i s reduced i n the cathode, giving rise t o a c u r r e n t proportional t o the oxygen concentration i n the sample. The PW 9600 dissolved oxygen transmitter and PW 9610 dissolved oxygen sensor manufactured by Philips include a transmitter

unit which accommodates two printed circuit boards --one of which provides the measuring circuitry-

with solid-state components. Both instruments have alter-

native housings f o r the sensing element. The immersion probe o r flow assembly used depends on the particular requirements of each Installation. The two instruments provide continuous automatic measurements of dissolved oxygen i n water, f u l l y compensated f o r the sample temperature. Organic carbon a n a l y s e r s A variety of procedures have been reported f o r

the automated determination of carbon-containing compounds in water b y oxidation with peroxydisulphate and the aid o f UV radiation o r Ag as catalyst. I n 1969, Erhardt E401 proposed an automated procedure f o r the analysis of sea

water by oxidation with peroxydisulphate under UV light. The COz produced was absorbed by an alkaline solution and the resulting change I n conductivity was a measure of the concentration of dissolved COz. Another method, developed by Goulden and Brooksbank 11411, used UV irradlation o r an. A g catalyst t o effect the oxidation of the samples and measured the Co2 generated b y means of an I R analyser. Princz e t a l . [42] also developed a less common method f o r the determination of COD based on potentiometric measurements. The instrument, depicted i n Fig. 15.12, has an autosampler with alternate samples and blanks, a UV tube reactor, a peristaltic pump and a flow-cell with a CO., gas electrode. The practical procedure involves the prior separation of inorganic carbon b y addition of HzS04 t o the sample u p t o pH 2-3, followed by s t r i p p i n g of the evolved COz with

COz-free

air.

The

pretreated

solutlon

is reacted

with

the

oxidant

(KzSZQ) and introduced I n t o the sampler, from which It i s passed t h r o u g h the

A utoma t ion

in en v i ronmen tal pol 1u tion moni tor i n g

493

reactor tube, where organic carbon is oxidized and measured i n the controlledThe generated emf is recorded analogically by the log-

temperature flow-cell. graph device.

co2 ELECTRODE

uv

AUTO

Fig. 15.12 Potentiometric COD permission o f Elsevier).

analyser. (Reproduced

from

[ 4 2 ] with

The Technicon Monitor I V i s a segmented-flow analyser for the continuous on-line monitoring of COD, TOD and TC. For the determination of TOD and COD, the sample Is acidlfed and sparged t o remove organic carbon, and later mixed with HzS04 and KzS208 and subjected to UV light in a UV digester. The COz generated is isolated from the matrix by means of a dlalyser with a gas-permeable silicone rubber membrane. The acceptor stream contains phenolphthalein dissolved i n a carbonate-hydrogen carbonate buffer, the change of colour resultIng from the absorption of COZ being monitored by a colorimeter. The reaction sequence f o r 15.13a.

the

determination

of

each

parameter

is

illustrated i n

Fig.

The sparging step is omitted i n the determination of total carbon,

which is measured i n a direct manner. The sparging of the samples for removal of inorganic material may cause some organic compounds t o be lost, particularly when volatile or water-insoluble

substances are present. These losses can

be evaluated by comparing the readings obtained with and without sparging i n an acidic medium -the

acldified samples w i l l provlde a lower concentration

f o r the inorganlc carbon than that actually present. As a rule, waste Water rarely contains volatile or very insoluble materials, which are more likely t o be found i n other types of water. The essential components of the instrument, shown i n Flg. 15.13b, are : (1) overflow sampler; (2) solenoid valve,

which

facilitates the introduction of the sample or the reference solution into the manifold; (3) proportioning pump; (4) UV digester; (5) manifold assembly, with

494


W

G

DETECTOR

b) LIQUID STREAM

OVERFLOW

SOLENOID

REFERENCE SOLUTION

+SPARGINGH M A N IFOLD A S S EM BLY

uv

OIGESTiONW

CONTAINER S RECORDER

DETECTOR

Fig. 15.13 Monitor I V system. ( a ) Reaction sequence. (b) Block diagram o f the interchangeable module design. (Courtesy o f Technicon).

A u t oma t i o n i n en v i ronmen tal pol 1u t i o n moni t o r i n g

495

the required glassware, tubing, heating baths, dialysers and fittings -this unit is intended to facilitate manifold changeover for the analysis of different analytes-;

(6) detectors -the

analyser can use an IS€ or colorimeter

depending on the parameter t o be assayed-;

(7) recorder (the Monitor I V

provides d i r e c t analogue data output and strip-chart printouts for permanent record of the analytical values; and (8) sparging system, consisting of an impingement pump, sparging coil and an additional gas-liquid separator. The sparging air is supplied by an air pump and purified from organic contaminants by passage through an active carbon f i l t e r . The sparging coil is by-passed for total carbon measurements. The instrument optionally allows: (a) Dual sample analysis. A timer and a programmable valve permit the aiternate analysis of two streams with auto-correction (standardization) at preset intervals. An auto-correction feature is provided for monitoring of applications involving d r i f t s arising from system changes such as reagent degradation or pump tube delivery changes, and electronic long-term drifts. Depending on the expected nature of the drift, the auto-correction unit may be set t o correct f o r either the baseline d r i f t or sensitivity drift. (b)Use of high-low alarms. This module warns the operator about any abnormal change i n the concentration of the parameter being determined. (c) Use of a continuous water clarifier. A module which provides samples from which particles with diameters greater than 0.5 pm have been f i l t e r e d out for samDle streams. 15.3.2.2 Uulti-parameter

analysers

The legislation on water pollution and quality control necessitates analyses for an increaslngly larger number of parameters. These demands have been

met by commercial firms with the manufacture of multi-parameter analysers. The Phllips Environmental Protection range Is representative of this type of instrument. The PW 9835 Automatic Water Monitor allows the measurement of up t o six water

quality

parameters (pH,

pCI, redox potentlal,

conductivlty,

dissolved

oxygen and temperature) i n ground waters i n a continuous automatlc fashion. The period of unattended, maintenance-free operation may be as long as 1 month or more, depending on local conditions. Two Important features contributing t o accurate, unattended operatlon are automatic sensor cleaning and automatic callbration of the instrument. The sensors can be kept from fouling by algae and other materials normally present i n ground water by an optionally available automatic ultrasonic cleanlng unit, which operates periodically at preset time intervals. Automatic calibration provides proof that the automatic water monitor Is working properly. Reliable reference values are given daily and


496

t r u l y correct measuring data over the full unattended period are assured. A turbidimeter can be optionally included. The autoanalyser consists of two distinct parts, an upper electronic section and a lower wet section. The electronic section consists of three potentiometric systems for measurement of pH, pC1 and redox potential, a conductimetric detector, a voltammetric system for measurement of dissolved oxygen, a temperature transmitter and a control unit effecting the following functions: (a) Control of the sequence for the calibration process.

This

includes

timing the motion of the slides in the measuring block, filling the individual compartments

i n the measuring block

with fluid and flushing.

The

calibration cycle takes 41 min. (b)Generation of electrical and visible status signals (0 o r 15 V ) and acceptance of incoming signals for remote control. (c) Control of the sampling pump and hence of the sample stream. through the monitor. (e) Supply of +24 and -24 V d.c. power for the measuring transmitters. ( f ) Thumbwheei adjustment t o allow the user t o select the time at which a calibration cycle should start automatlcaliy.

This i s adjustable from 0 t o 16

h subsequent t o setting. (9) Fault detection i n case the water pressure inside the measuring block becomes too high, i n which event the sample pump is turned off; the air pressure for

pneumatic operation is too low, in

which event the monitor

is

switched off; power consumption by the sampling pump is too high, in which event it is switched off; or the sliding valves i n the measuring block are positioned imprope rly

.

The electronic unit is completed by recordlng equipment which can be from a multi-channel

recorder t o up to four dual-line

recorders. Data transmission

is achieved by mounting the appropriate equipment In the recorder section. It Is also possible to mount a microcomputer-based pollution data reductor.

The wet section includes: ( 1 ) a PW 9825 flow-through measuring block into which the appropriate sensors are mounted; (2) bottles containing electrolyte for

replenishing the contents of

double-junction

reference electrodes;

(3)

pneumatic devices consisting of pressure-reducing valve tubing and pneumatic valves; and (4) a number of 5-L containers for calibration liquids, placed i n the bottom of the cabinet. I n the measuring step, the PW 9825 block functions as an ordinary pipe through which the sample flows at a rate of 1-2 m/s. I f an ultrasonic transducer is needed, it is placed before the electrodes, which are also mounted i n the

block.

During calibration,

the

block

i s flushed

and

drained, and the water supply i s switched off. The sliding valves mounted i n the block are pushed upwards

so that the pipe is divided into measuring cham-


497

bers. The calibration liquids are then dosed pneumatically into these chambers. Overflow

pipes allow f o r the elimination of a i r and excess calibration

liquid, After 20 min, the sliding valves are pushed downwards, the pump i s switched on and the block i s flushed. A second calibration i s performed i n the same manner, with the second calibration liquid dosed t o the chambers by means of their respective pneumatically operated valves. After the second callbration, t h e water dissolved oxygen

monitor is switched t o the measuring cycle. i s carried

Calibration of

o u t by exposing the sensor t o air.

D i r t and

superfluous water on the membrane are removed b y an a i r stream d u r l n g the f i r s t f e w seconds of both calibration cycles. A l l positions and modes o f the measuring block are indicated by small semiconductor lamps on the control panel. Comber and Nicholson [431 reported a home-made design f o r the continuous monitoring of r i v e r s and estuaries. The instrument allows the detection and electrochemical quantitation of cyanide, sulphide, ammonia and p H (ISEs), as

well as salinity,

dissolved oxygen and temperature (Fig.

15.14).

The sample

$-) Logger

U

Fig. 15.14 Flow diagram o f continuous,water monitor. Electrodes: 1, cyanide; 2 , sulphide; 3, ammonia; 4 , pH; 5 , reference; 6, s a l i n i t y ; 7 , oxygen; 8 , temperature. V : valve; P: pump. (Reproduced from [ 4 3 ] w i t h permission o f the Royal Society o f Chemistry).


498

intake can either be mounted on a metal pole fixed t o the bow of a vessel -approximately

1 m below the surface-

f o r use i n horizontal profiling of a

r i v e r course, o r it can be lowered t h r o u g h the water column for depth profiling. The dissolved oxygen and salinity probes are mounted alongside the sample intake and are calibrated i n the laboratory. The water is pumped on the boat at a rate of approximately 500 gal/h by using an on-board pump (Pz). The power f o r t h i s pump and the remainder of the equipment is derived from the vessel's accumulator, either directly o r via an electronic inverter t o provide 240 V and 50 Hz. Later developments extended the scope of t h i s instrument t o analyses f o r metals by anodic stripping voltammetry and ion exchange, the determination of n i t r i t e s and nitrates by

FIA and on-line research on organic compounds

with the aid of a fast-scan monochromator. The principle behind the FIA technique (reversed mode) has been exploited t o develop a completely automated

instrument [44] (Fig. 15.15) i n which the

sample i s continuously pumped along the system and In which different injection valves [45] o r a single injection valve aided by a selecting valve [46] are used t o introduce the reagents required for the determination of each anaiyte i n the appropriate sequence and at the required time intervals. The reacting plug is driven t o the flow-cell

ttt

of a photometric detector,

and the

1

t

Injection and

Reaction Detector

I Waste Water

a Printer

Fig. 15.15 Completely automated instrument f o r the p o l l u t a n t s , based on the reversed F I A p r i n c i p l e .

determination o f

Waste

499


signal yielded is recorded o r acquired by a microcomputer through a passive interface and later processed. The active interface also used allows actuation of the pump and the injection valve(s), so that, by use of a suitable program, the instrument is started at the required time intervals, injects reagents according t o the preset sequence, collects data provided by the detector and compares them with the calibration graph f o r each analyte stored in the program. A tolerated limit i s also stored f o r each analyte, so t h a t if the concentration of any of them surpasses the limit, an alarm system warns the operator. This analyser allows the quantitation of anions (CN-, NOz-, S2-) and cations

Fe,

(Al,

Cu)

[46].

The

Incorporation

of

a

glass-calomel

electrode

p r i o r t o the injection system along the sample channel allows the determination of pH [47]. The reversed FIA (rFIA) mode also allows f o r the on-line

speciation of

elements. Thus, different rFIA configurations (Fig. 15.16) have been used f o r the speciation of chromium based on the indicator reaction between Cr(V1) and 1,5-diphenylcarbazide

(DPC). Figure 15.16a shows the configuration used f o r

the completely continuous monitoring of Cr(V1) and periodic measurement of Cr(II1). The sample circulates continuously along the system and merges with an acidic DPC stream, i t s evolution i n the water being continuously monitored. A t time intervals dependent on the required frequency, Ce(1V) is injected t o

oxidize Cr(II1) t o Cr(VI), which yields a signal concentration initially

present i n the sample

15.16b consists of two sub-systems total chromium (2).

The selecting

proportional t o the Cr(II1)

[a]. The

configuration in Fig.

f o r the determination of Cr(V1) (1) and valve,

SV, allows the arrival of one o r

another stream t o the detector and hence the obtainment of the Cr(V1) o r total chromium concentration, the Cr(II1) concentration being calculated by difference

[el.

The configuration i n Fig. 15.16~ uses both rFIA and the asynchro-

nous merging zones mode f o r the speciation. The dual injection valve used simultaneously volume

of

inserts i n t o the system a large volume of DPC and a small

Cr(VI),

so t h a t the latter merges at point A with the tailing

portion of the DPC plug, yielding a f l r s t signal corresponding t o the reaction of Cr(V1) alone in the heading portion o f the DPC p l u g and a second, larger signal corresponding t o the tailing portion of the plug, where Cr(II1) has been oxidized and therefore contributes t o the analytical signal [49]. An rFIA-asynchronous merging zones conflguration has be used f o r the speciation of up t o nine different chromlum forms -aquo tetrahydroxylated

Cr(II1) and molecular, anionic and

cludes a glass-calomel

complex, mono-, di- and dlmerlc Cr(V1).

It in-

mlcroelectrode inserted in the sample stream p r i o r t o

the merging with the reagents, and a microcomputer whlch acqulres the measured pH and chromium concentratlons -Cr(VI)

and total Cr. These data are pro-

cesssed by a computation program In which the equillbrium constants of the


500

1

CCL'

12

Sample DPC

q

im L rnin-'1

LI = 6 0 0 c m

L2 = 6 0 c m 5 L O nm

-i

tl. Alw t

A I

0

W

22

2 2

n PC

Fig. 15.16

W

rFIA c o n f i g u r a t i o n s f o r t h e s p e c i a t i o n o f Cr(V1) and Cr(II1). ( a ) Completely continuous determination o f Cr(V1) and p e r i o d i c measurement o f C r ( I I 1 ) . ( b ) Sequential method f o r t h i s s p e c i a t i o n by use o f a s e l e c t i n g v a l v e f o r determinatlon o f C r l V I ) (channel 1 ) and t o t a l chromium (channel 2 ) . ( c ) Asynchronous merging zones f o r simultaneous determination o f b o t h species. q: flow-rate; V i , VI and V z , i n j e c t i o n valves; S: s e l e c t i n g valve; W: waste. The recordings obtained a r e shown t o t h e r i g h t . (Reproduced from [481 w i t h permission o f Springer Verlag).

Au t m a t i o n i n envi ronmentsl pol 1u t i o n moni t oring

50 7

nine above-mentioned species are stored and which yields the concentration of each [501.

15.4 A I R ANALYSERS

Atmospheric pollution, on account of its special features, is the most important aspect of environmental pollution.

The most recent trends i n this

field point t o atomic absorption and emission techniques (metals) 1511, the use of GC and HPLC for organic compounds [52-551 and the development of new electrochemical sensors [56-601 facllitating off and on-line

measurements. I n

s i t u measurements, carried out by remote sensors [60,611, aiiow the detection and quantitation of air volumes i n the atmosphere at a distance from the instrument without the need for sample collection. Measurements are mostly based on the optical properties of matter (light absorption, emission or scattering) and the instruments used can be located in a fixed position or on a moving platform, either on the ground or i n the atmosphere (planes, balloons, satellites). Two general types of light sources can be distinguished depending on whether they use passive or active sensors. Passive sensors use natural light and depend on the intensity, spectral distribution, etc. of the source -light coming from the sky or from the sun itself after passing through the atmosphere. They are often used in the limb sounding configuration, looking at sunrise or sunset through the whole atmosphere t o increase the integrated signal over very long paths. I n that case, they measure a quantity which Is the product of a concentration and a distance. Passive Sensors can be classif ied

into

radiometers,

ultraviolet

vidicons,

spectrometers,

i nterferometers,

Fourier transform analysers and laser heterodyne amplifiers of spectral lines. Active sensors have built-in light sources -generally

tasers-

and are obvi-

ously more complicated and expensive than passive sensors. The source can be at a long distance from the detector (hundreds or thousands of metres), and the llght collected

by the telescope allows the measurement of the total

amount of a gas along the light path rather than Its concentration.

Most

passive detectors can be used as active detectors by f i t t i n g them with a light source. The commonest are laser absorption spectrometers and LIDARs (monowavelength, differentlal, Raman or fluorescence).

Active and passive sensors are

Intended for different appllcations. Passlve Instruments are better suited t o stratospheric observation In balloons or satellites because of thelr compactness and low energy consumptlon. A t ground they can provide a huge amount of information on the nature of chemical compounds. Active sensors have a much hlgher spatial resolution and should be more useful f o r studying the atmospheric phenomena from the ground t o a distance of about 5-10 km. The chief


502

drawbacks of these instruments arise from the difficulties In interpreting the complete information provided by the data; not only are the spectral data often confusing, especially i n the lower frequency

region (infrared, micro-

wave), but also the atmospheric parameters are changing so much and so quickly i n space and i n time that very great care is necessary not to adopt simplistic assumptions causing large errors [621. The problems associated with the sampling and automation of this stage

were dealt with i n their corresponding sections, so this section is exclusively devoted to the automated instrumentation available for this type of sensor.

As with water analysers, air analysers are classified into off- and on-line anaiysers, and the latter i n t u r n Into single-parameter

and multiparameter.

15.4.1 Off-line alr analysers

Off-line systems are typically used for the detection of the metal analytes occurring in the atmosphere as particulates or fumes which, after collection by an appropriate f i l t e r , are subjected to dry ashing followed by acid decomposition f.631 or, more commonly, ICP-AES

wet ashing [63], and quantltation by

[641, flame AAS [65], normal or furnace A A S [66,67], or X-ray fluor-

escence spectroscopy [68]. Oguma and van Loon [69] reported a method for the

a)

F

P

C

M

%T A

W Fig. 15.17 Assembly f o r determination o f vepour Sampling apparatus: (b) measuring instruments.

mercury i n a i r . (a)

Automa t i o n i n environmental p o l l u t i o n moni t o r i n g

503

determination of total mercury vapour in air by AAS using the apparatus depicted in Fig. 15.17a for sample collection. Air is pumped through a 0.45-pm Millipore f i l t e r (B), the moisture traps (M) and the collection tube (C), in this order, at a rate of 2 L/min, checked by the passage of the air through a flow-meter

(F) by turning the three-way

stopcock ( K ) at 10-mln intervals.

A f t e r an appropriate sampling time, the collection tube is dislodged from the

system and installed in the measuring system (Fig. 15.17b), where I t is warmed t o room temperature and then heated at 100-115'C for 5 min. During these two

stages, a nitrogen stream is passed through the collection tube, the pyroiyser

(N), the cooling coil

( G ) and the amalgamation tube (HI,

in this order, at a

flow-rate of 0.5 mL/min. Then stopcocks K and L are shut off and the amalgamation tube is heated at 500°C for 30 s. The mercury vapour thus released is swept into an open-ended glass tube (20 cm x 1.5 cm I.D.) with a 5 mm I.D. inlet tube fused in the middle that is placed i n the burner head of a Perkin Elmer 3058 atomic absorption spectrometer and aligned in the usual manner t o

allow maximum light from the hollow-cathode lamp t o reach the detector. The height of the recorded peaks is used t o determine mercury. The analytical system is standardized at a known temperature by means of a septum inserted between the cooling coil (Gi) and the stopcock (K). 15.4.2 On-line alr analysars 15.4.2.1 Single-paramter analysers

The on-line

single-parameter

instrumentation for the determination of

gases employs a variety of detection systems. Good proof of concern about the pollution caused by sulphur dioxlde Is the large number of analysers developed for the continuous monitoring of this parameter. The literature review by Hoilowell et a l . [70] on the instrumentation for continuous monitoring of S0.r deals with the different detection techniques used for this purpose, namely conductimetry, colorimetry, coulometry, electrochemical transducing, flame photometry alone or in conjuction with gas chromatography , non-d Ispersi ve and dispersive absorption and condensation nuclei formation. Recent studles were oriented t o the resolution of the prob-

lem of real-time on-line analysis for S0.r at low concentratlons [71] by means of a dispersive infrared detector or a coated piezoelectric mass transducer [72].

The device used In the latter case, Fig. 15.18, allows the rapid varia-

tion of the crystal environment i n terms of the gas composition, temperature and water composition of the gas stream. The oscillator and frequency meter board of the Interference rack are controlled by a microcomputer. Most commercial instruments available f o r the determination of So;, are based on the UV light excitation of the So;, molecules In gas mlxtures [731 and


504

the measurement of the resultant fluorescence (e.9. Model SA700 Fluorescence SO;! analyser from Columbia Scientific Industries Corporation) or of the light

emitted b y the sulphur species in passing through a hydrogen-rich flame (Sul-

phur Dioxide analyser from the same company).

Water b o t h

C r y s tal driving circuit

F M board interface

Water- bath

Microcomputer

plotter

Fig. 15.18 Scheme o f experimental instrument f o r on-line measurement o f SO2 with detection by a piezoelectric c r y s t a l sensor. (Reproduced from [72] with permission o f the Royal Society o f Chemistry).

On the other hand, the single-parameter

gas analysers manufactured by

Philips (PW 9755 So2 monitor, PW 9780 HIS monitor, PW 9775 CO monitor, PW 9760

NO monitor and PW 9765 N02 monitor) are based on continuous coulometric titrations (Fig. 15.19). The air Is aspirated from the atmosphere via an air sampler and dust f i l t e r and i s then pumped at a constant flow-rate through the monitor where the analyte concentration is measured. On entering the monitor, the air is f i r s t passed through a chemical scrubber t o f i l t e r out unwanted components that might affect the analyte reading.

The filtered air is then

passed at a constant rate through an aqueous solution of KBr, Br2 and HzSO4 in the thermostated cell. By use of the two electrodes immersed in the electrolyte, the free bromlne concentration Is converted t o a redox potential which Is compared with a known reference potential. A control amplifier senses


the difference

505

between these two voltages and sets u p a flow of electric

c u r r e n t i n the electrolyte via two more electrodes.

This electric c u r r e n t

converts bromide ions t o free bromine, whose concentration i n the electrolyte is therefore restored. As the extent of reduction depends on the amount of analyte (SOz o r HzS) passing t h r o u g h the electrolyte, the electric c u r r e n t used w i l l be directly proportional t o the amount of analyte present in the sample. By keeping the air flow-rate constant with the aid of a vacuum pump and a thermostatically controlled

critical

i n the air can be readily calculated. i s passed t h r o u g h a convection-cooled

orifice,

After

the analyte concentration

leaving the electrolyte, the a i r

Peltier cooler.

The water evaporated

from the electrolyte solution i s carried by the a i r stream and i s condensed i n the cooler, falling on the electrolyte solution, the level of which is therefore kept constant. The measurement, zero-checking and span-checking functions can be automatically selected by means o f a three-way operated

under

remote control.

motor-driven

valve

I n the measurement position, a i r from the

sampling system (and dust f i l t e r ) passes only t h r o u g h the chemical scrubber on i t s way to the measuring cell. When the valve i s set t o the zero-checking position, the a i r i s sucked t h r o u g h an active charcoal f i l t e r t o remove the analyte before reaching the chemical scrubber. The purified a i r then enters

Fig. 15.19 Block diagram o f gas analyser w i t h coulometric detection. (Courtesy o f P h i l i p s ) .


506

the measuring cell and gives rise t o an output signal which defines the zero level. With the valve in the span position, the above-described

procedure is

the same as that between the zero-filter and the chemical scrubber, the air passing through a standard source where it i s dosed with a known amount of analyte. The standard source consists of a permeation tube with liquid SO2 and HzS thermostatically maintained at a constant temperature.

I n the CO monitor, the air, after passing the scrubber, enters a column where i t reacts with 120s at 160°C to yield f r e e iodine. This reaction is necessary on account of the electrochemical inertia of CO. I n this manner, as the reaction efficiency is constant, the amount of 12 formed will be directly proportional to the CO concentration i n the air. The I z vapour is passed through a measuring ceil with two electrodes which contains the electrolyte and is kept at 37'C.

On entering the cell, the vapour is passed through a

graphite cathode, where iodine is reduced to iodide and an electric current proportional to the amount of iodine and hence t o that of CO in the air is generated. The current flow causes a potential difference between the two electrodes which is measured by a potential amplifier. A l l other stages of the process are the same as those taking place i n the So;! and HzS analysers. The Philips NO and NOz monitors

also correspond t o the scheme in Fig. 15.19.

A f t e r isolation from potential interferents, NO must be oxidized t o NOz. The

air stream is passed through a K I solution which reacts with the No;! to yield iodine, which gives the measured current upon reduction. A home-made analyser with a seif-scanned photodiode array as a multiplex

sensor has been used f o r laboratory detection and measurement by dispersive spectroscopy of trace amounts of polluting NOz. The on-line

data acquisition

and numerical analysis system allows the elimination of some systematic errors and d r i f t s (Taylor filtering) and the noise associated with high spatial f r e quencies (low-pass filtering). The experimental set-up 15.20.

The

white

light source,

S,

illuminates slit

used is shown i n Fig. Fi

homogeneously. Two

spherical mirrors Mi and Mz with a focal distance of 15 cm for the image of F i on the slit (Fz) giving access to the dispersion system (an array of 1200 lines/mm). Tube T, f i l l e d wlth No;!

at different partial pressures, intercepts

the beam betwen Mi and Mz. Lens Li, diaphragmed by D, forms the image of Fz onto the microphotodiodes (pPh). A cylindrical lens, Lz, allows the light to

be concentrated by a factor of 10 in the direction perpendicular t o the line. The 1728 photodiodes (15 pm spatial period and 16 pm length) are cooled by a Dewar vessel

containing a mixture of methanol and d r y ice. The electric sig-

nals from the detection system are acquired by a computer. The gathered data allow the calculation i n real time and for each diode the mean and variance of n steps and eliminates the unevenness of the photodiode responses, defective

A u t oma t i o n i n en v i ronmen t a1 pol 1u t i o n moni t o r i n g

50 7

transmission from the optical system and the unvenness of the spectral source by carrying out a delayed homogenization. The analyser compares favourably with commercially available instruments with a single detector [741.

S

-1

I

DE WAR

Fig. 15.20 Experimental set-up f o r determination o f NO;! by means o f a photodiode system and dispersive spectroscopy with computerized data acquisition and treatment. (Reproduced from [741 wih permission o f the N a t u r a l Research Council o f Canada).

Chemiluminescence techniques have been used for the determination of a variety or atmospheric pollutants [751, particularly ozone. Most the commercial instruments available for the determination of 03 are based on chemiluminscent reactions and use the Nederbragt e t al. method [76], which utilizes the light emitted upon reaction of ozone with ethylene gas (Meloy OA 325-2R and OA 350-2R ozone anaiysers) or that between 03 and Rhodamine [77,78]

o r a disc with this

reagent and galllc acid

B over silica gel

(Philips PW 9771 03

Monitor). Ray e t al. have developed a chemiluminescence analyser for the measurement of atmospheric ozone using Eosin Y in ethylene glycol (Fig. 15.21). The sample gas is drawn through the detection cell at 1-7 L h i n by a diaphragm pump. Fluid and air are separated at the reservoir, and the dye solution is recircuiated. The sample gas flows across a paper or glass-fibre pad

mat that

is saturated with the organic dye dissolved i n an alcohol solvent. The cell design allows the separate entry of air and dye solution through the upper inlet and their joint evacuation through the lower outlet. The response of the instrument, which compares favourably

with that of commercial instruments

(e.g. TECO Model 48P) i s linear i n the range 0.2-400 ppb [79].


508

,

air in d e t e c t o r 3

a1 r out

PU J P

I fluid tank

Fig. 15.21 Scheme o f chemiluminscence ozone analyser. PTM: photom u l t i p l i e r tube. (Reproduced from [791 with permission o f the American Chemical Society).

The determination of hydrogen peroxide in the atmosphere has attracted much interest since it was acknowledged to promote the oxidation processes converting So;! t o HzSO4 i n the clouds below pH 4.5. The chief source of H202 dissolved i n the clouds i s that formed photochemlcally

in the atmosphere.

Vapour H202 concentrations i n the range 4 pptv t o 6 ppbv can be determined by an automatic fluorlmetrlc method developed by Lazrus e t a l . [80] and based on the selective peroxidase-catalysed

decomposition of H202 by (p-hydroxyphenyi)

acetic acid (POPHA), which yields a dimer of the latter that absorbs at 320 nm and emlts at 400 nm. Peroxidase also catalyses the formation of fluorescent dimers by hydroperoxides, so that i n order t o be able t o distinguish H202 from organic peroxides a dual-channel

flow system with a dual-cell

fluorimeter is

used. The above-mentioned reaction yields a measure of ail peroxides i n one channel, while the other is treated with the enzyme catalase, which destroys H202 selectively prior t o the cataiysed oxidation, so that the second channel provides an analytical blank for measurement of the H a . An example of an autornatlc analyser f o r the determinatlon of organic pollutants is the Meloy HC 500-2c self-contained

from Columbia Sclentlfic Industries. It is a

system f o r monitoring ambient concentrations of non-methane

hydrocarbons (NMHC), methane and total hydrocarbons. Sample air is f i r s t introduced directly into the flame ionization detector t o yield a total hydrocarbon reading whlch Is stored In an electrlcal circult. The pneumatic system is automatically switched

so that the sample air passes through a catalytic

converter before it i s introduced into the detector, which converts ali the NMHC Into a non-detectable specks. Hence, only the methane i n the sample i s


sensed and

its reading is stored

509

in another electrical

holding circuit.

A

differential amplifier subtracts the methane reading from the total hydrocarbon reading to provide an NMHC reading as the output signal. Automatic dust meters are essentially based on two principles: light scattering and adsorption. Beta absorption is probably the most reliable means of making measurements insofar as these are independent of the phyiscal, chemical and optical properties of the monitored dust. Such is the technique used in the PW 9790 Dust Monitor from the Philips Environmental Protection Series. The instrument consists of three major parts: the measuring and control units and the vacuum pump, The measuring unit, shown i n Fig. 15.22, consists of a filter tape drive system, a beta source and detector and a heated air sampling gate. Heating the air sampling gate eliminates condensation on the f i l t e r tape. A i r is drawn through the section of the filter in the sampling gate by the vacuum pump. As the flow-rate of the pump is kept constant, by operating the pump for a preset time the volume of the air sample is accurately determined. The control

unit regulates the overall timing of the dust monitor. It also contains

the electronics used for the up-down counter, for derivation of output signals and for generation of the required d.c. power supplies. Plug-in wire links on one of the printed circuit boards enable a wide choice of counting (10 s to 4 min) and sampling periods (10 s to 14 h ) to be preset.

UPPER TAPE TENSION CONTROL LOOP

FILTER TAPE SUPPLY REEL

-t--t

TAPE BETA SOURCE

A I R SAMPLE I N L E T FROM AMBIENT AIR

-

I

DETECTOR COUNT. PULSES TAKEN V I P

GEIGER-MULLER DETEC TOR OPERATIVE DURING COUNTING PERIODS

M

I

/ I

AIR OUTLET TO PUMP ICONSTANT FLOW- RATE)

DUST DEPOSITED DURIG SAMPLING PERIOD

LOWER TAPE TENSION CONTROL LOOP

TAPE - FILTER TAKE-UP REEL

Physical arrangement o f the Philips PW 9770 Dust Monitor. (Courtesy o f Philips).

Fig. 15.22


510

Radiation from a low-level beta source is passed through the clean glassfibre f i l t e r and measured with a Geiger-Milller detector. The output pulses of the detector are counted by an electronic up-down counter over a preset counting period. A known volume of air is then passed through the same section of the filter, upon which dust from the air is deposited. The f i l t e r Is exposed to the beta radiation, but this tlme the output pulses of the detector are used to count down from the number attalned with the clean tape towards zero. Because of the dust f i l m on the f i l t e r , however, more of the radiation is absorbed and the count rate is lower than before. The time taken t o count down to zero is therefore longer than the preset counting period. The difference in time between the up and down-counting periods, which is accurately measured, bears a direct relationship to the mass of dust and, as the volume of the air sample is known, the result can be expressed as a concentration (pg/mJ). No repetitive calibration is required because the long-term d r i f t is compensated by setting the zero level for each measurement -the to the beta count achieved through the clean tape-

zero level is equivalent and the short-term d r i f t

occurring durlng the sampling period Is negligible thanks t o the extremely high stability of the instrument. The dust monitor can be operated contlnuously

or started by remote control. The output signal is also suitable for on-

line transmission t o a remote data-handling ments can be logged on-site

centre.

Alternatively,

measure-

by uslng a recorder connected to the recorder

output, or the analogue or digital slgnals can be used when the results are to be transmitted over a distance. The dust monitor can be used f o r more than

measuring dust concentrations. further

As the f i l t e r

collects actual

studies are possible for completion, colour,

shape,

dust samples, etc.

An X-ray

fluorescence spectrometer, f o r instance, can provide an elemental analysis of the sample for lead and iron.

15.4.2.2 nulti-paramter analysers There are many Instances i n which the control of the composition of the atmosphere o r that of gases dumped into it requires the automatic rnonitorlng of more than one parameter. Multi-parameter

air analysers can be classified

according to the characteristics of the analytes t o be determlned into: (a) those in which only one product need be monitored (e.g.

nitrogen oxides

analyser) thanks to the interconvertibility of the sample components; (b) those using a single detection system responding t o two different species (e.g. I R analyser for the determination of CO and COz); (c) those requiring a detector per analyte to be determlned -these

generally consist of a set of

single-parameter analysers or of single- and multi-parameter analysers used in conjunction.


51 1

The functional principle behind nitrogen oxldes analysers is generally the reaction of nitric oxide with ozone to yield exclted

nitrogen dioxide and

water. The transition of the excited molecule t o the ground state is accompanied by the release of radiant energy, which is suitably measured: NO + &-,NOz* + 02 NOz*+NOz + hv

The radiation intensity is proportional t o the rate of mass flow of NO i n the reaction chamber, where it is mixed with ozone. The radlant energy Is converted to an electric output by means of a photomultiplier tube and i t s associated electronics.

A converter transforms the NOz initlally present i n the

sample t o NO, so that, by means of a solenoid valve, the incoming air sample i s alternately passed through a converter by-pass

t o sense NO alone and

through the converter to detect the sum of NO and N G , defined as NOx. An electric subtraction circuit provides the NOz concentration as the difference between NOx and NO. Figure 15.23 shows a block diagram of an analyser of t h i s type, namely the Model 1600 NO/NOz/NOx Analyser from Columbia Scientific Industries. As can be seen on the left, the Instrument consists of an ozone generator and a reaction chamber where the 03 i s mixed with the sample, which is passed

or not through the oxide converter through the action of the motor-

ized three-way

valve. The right-hand side of Fig. 15.23 depicts the sensing,

discrimlnation and data delivery systems, namely an optical f l l t e r collecting the emission from the reaction chamber, a photomultiplier tube (PT) and an electronic circuit that allows the arrival at each recorder and/or microcomputer of the slgnal corresponding to the sum of the concentrations of the analytes or of each of them separately. The panel meter can display the value of any of the three signals without the need t o interrupt the instrument's operation. The three-way

valve works at a rate of 480 cycles/h,

which sub-

stanclally reduces the errors associated with the rapid change in the NOx levels i n the surrounding environment. Gas flow-rates are kept within 21% of the initial settlng by means of orifices kept at 50'C

and protected by stain-

less 7-pm steel filters. The photomultplier photocathode is kept refrigerated at 1wO.l'C

t o reduce background noise and achieve a detection l i m i t of 0.002

ppm. I n order t o avoid the contribution of ammonia to the NOx measurement, the converter operates below 4OO'C.

The chemlcal/catalyst cartridge Is designed so

that the air sample must pass through a packed column t o ensure intimate contact between the air and the catalyst, and so guarantee 99% conversion. Infrared spectrometers are the best alternative t o the contlnuous monitoring of CO and COz. An autoanalyser of thls type i s depicted schematically i n

HEATED AND

ORIFICE FLclW

FLQW METER

u

n

>

v

n

>

v

o

>

;;-O_ 0

F i g . 15.23

0

"

a

>

U

a

>

V

n

>

n n ,,,

o

E ; C "c

z s :

0

c

0

-+I

o

0

Block diagram o f nitrogen oxides analyser. (Courtesy o f Columbia S c i e n t i f i c Indust r i e s

Corporation).

a t-.

cn


513

Fig. 15.24a. A portion of the gas from the atmosphere o r an industrial chimney is sucked by a pump and passed through a f i l t e r with a pore size ensuring retention of unwanted particles -this

i s t h e sampling step, which may include

the measurement of the moisture i n the collected gas. I n the measuring stage, the sample i s passed t h r o u g h a solenoid valve, a pressure gauge and the I R analyser, which measures the absorption of both analytes at their characteristic wavelengths. The data generated and the sample pressure are acquired by recorders and/or a computer which allows the determination of the atmospheric concentration of both analytes. The solenoid valve allows the a r r i v a l of CO and COZ standards at the detector t o r u n the pertinent calibrations. The j o i n t use of single- and multi-parameter t o r i n g of a variety

of analytes.

analysers permits the moni-

The instrument depicted i n Fig. 15.24b i s

used f o r monitoring blast furnace processes. D i r t y gas i s extracted from the duct and pulled t h r o u g h the f i l t e r by a pump. A small portion of the clean wet gas after the pump is fed t o the moisture analyser, b u t the major portion is cooled

i n a refrigerator t o remove the bulk of the moisture

pumped t o the analysers.

before it is

The relatively d r y gas flows approximately 150 ft

from the pump shed to the analyser room. By means of a by-pass valve the second pump boosts the gas pressure sufficiently t o force the gas t h r o u g h a final d r i e r and i n t o the analyser. A major portion of the gas extracted from the plant duct is passed t h r o u g h the by-pass valve. Only a small portion of the total volume i s used f o r analysis. A large volume of gas i s pumped t o decrease the residence time i n the cleaning system because the analysers are located at a distance of about 300 ft from the plant duct. The volume of the gas apportioned f o r analysis i s dried t o a moisture concentration of a few ppm. A solenoid

valve

system

automatically

or

manually

allows the

selection

of

blast

furnace gas o r any of three calibrating gases t o flow t h r o u g h t h e pressure controller

and i n t o the analysers.

cell,

CCz cell

the

atmosphere.

and,

finally,

All the gas flows t h r o u g h the hydrogen the

CO cell

before

it i s vented

to

the

Signal lines are connected from each analyser t o the respectlve

recorders, which are equipped with transmitting slide wires t h a t f u r n i s h a signal t o the computer terminal and then t o the main computer. With f e w exceptions, a well-designed

analyser system meets the requirements o f several

processes. However, a sampling system is not predictable. Although the same raw material is used, the particulate matter i n the gas from one furnace may vary significantly enough from the dust i n a second furnace t o require redesign o f the f i l t e r i n g media. The difference is not i n the amount of dust, b u t i n i t s composition and physical characteristlcs. Figure 15.24~ shows the scheme of an analyser f o r basic oxygen processes (BOP).

The gas flows from the plant duct t h r o u g h the f i l t e r s t o t h e pump.


514

Solenoid Conlral

a)

." Almosphcre

TOP

I

Gas Flaw

Solcn o l d

Anolyrrr

c;3 Pump

Anolyr Room Calibrating Gosrs

C)

Soirnoid Control

S l g n o l s To C o m p u t e r

Fig. 15.24 ( a ) Analyser w i t h I R d e t e c t o r f o r t h e determination o f CO and Con. Analyser w i t h single- and multi-parameter detectors f o r b l a s t furnace ( b ) and basic oxygen process ( c ) . (Reproduced w i t h permission o f Academic Press).

Automat i o n i n environmental pol 1u t i o n monitoring

515

A f t e r the pump, a portion of the clean wet gas is diverted t o the moisture

analyser. The major portion flows through a refrigerator to remove moisture to approximately 0.8% V/V. The gas pressure is boosted by a pump and diverted to the paramagnetic oxygen analyser and the C02 infrared analyser. I f CO i s also present in the process gas, both CO and C02 cells are included in the same analyser cabinet. The recorders are equipped with transmitting wires which furnish signals to the computer located approximately 500 f t from the analysers. A response time of 20 s is critical in the BOP process,

so that the

sampler must be located in the dirty gas stream after the f i r s t thorough mixing. The composition and physical characteristics of the dust particles fer

considerably from those i n the blast furnace.

dif-

The selection of filter

media is based on the dust characteristics. The anaiysers can be calibrated manually or automatically. The CO and C02 analysers are standardized at two points on the concentration curve, one in the neighbourhmd of the low end and another in that of the maximum concentration in the process gas. The 02 analyser is also checked at the high and low ends with calibrating gases. Analyses f o r pollutants i n open atmospheres are more useful on account of their versatility, the use of single-parameter modules or analysers making up multi-component monitoring stations adaptable t o the requirements of the area to be monltored. A typical scheme of one such station, namely a multi-component monitoring system marketed by Philips, is depicted i n Fig. 15.25. The oper-

ational principle behind each of the measuring systems (coulometry for SOZ,

HzS, NO and N02, and chemiluminescence for G) was dealt with i n describing single-parameter

analysers.

A

pollutant analyser performs the functions of

sampling, analysis and calibration. The actual pollutant analysis and calibration take place in the monltor. This contains the essential items such as filters, standard source, valve (which controls the zero-checklng,

span-setting

and measurement sequences), detector and air-flow controller. The supply cabinet houses the air suction pump (suitable for use with up t o three monitors except for the 03 monitor) and a pre-wired, position can accommodate one plug-in,

three-position module rack. Each

electrical supply unit, and the number

of supply units fitted (up t o three) depends on the number of monitors used. The remaining module positions can be fitted

with accessories such as a

transmission frame (two positions) o r a control clock (one position). The a i r sampling, can be carried out i n two ways: (a) by means of a sampler with a bullt-in dust f i l t e r which can serve up t o three monitors depending on the ambient dust concentration In the atmosphere, and ( b ) by use of a multl-component monitoring station, often much better for drawing a large air sample through a large-bore pipe. Both methods ensure the removal of water, insects and large dust particles from the sampled air. Regardlng data transmission, In

I

I

2

Ambient

1 Sampling

I

I

I

c

i=l

h

1

1

for m a x . 3 n a i t w s . depending on dust load

I

II

I I I I

I

h C

H rt

~~

I I I

CLOCK W975011

/I '

Supply cabnet PW 9750100

PW 9750100

-G

S U D D ~ Vcabinet P W 9 7 5 0 / 0 0

a

I I I

1-

k.

0

3

x

3. 0

9 0 -+I

k

Fig. 15.25

Scheme o f a multi-component a i r pollution monitoring system. (Courtesy o f Philips).

2c1 v,

Automa tion i n

envi runment a l pol 1tit i o n moni t o r i n g

a simple installation where a visual

517

indication of the analysis i s sufficient,

t h e direct o u t p u t signal o f t h e monitor can be logged b y a recorder. When it i s necessary, however, t o transmit the output signal t o a remote data-handling centre, the signal must be converted i n t o a form suitable f o r transmission over switched o r leased telephone wires, o r via radio links -see

the next

section.

15.5 DATA ACQUISITION, TRANSMISSION AND PROCESSING. SURVEY NETWORKS The need f o r the rapid acquisition of the results of an environmental analysis i s of outmost importance insofar as such results may indicate the need t o take drastic and urgent steps in cases where some danger o r damage may be otherwise expected. Hence, the rapid acquisition of data by means of an A/D converter i s virtually indispensable in environmental analyses t o complete the achievements of automatic sampling and analysis [81-841 -the

automatic sam-

p l i n g of pollutants in water and a i r i s beyond the already broad scope of t h i s chapter [47]. An instrument specially designed f o r t h i s purpose is the microprocessor-based

Pol I ution Data-Red uctor (micro-PDR)

from

Phi I i ps, conceived

f o r f u l l y automatic pollution monitoring and p r o v i d i n g a straightforward and

I n t c rconnrctron bu I 3

f---T-T

4

Random Acccss Memory (RAM) Temporory dola storagc

I

Progrommablc Read only Memory (PROM1 Pcrmancnl program slwagr

I1

Punched Paprr Tape Control

Rimate

0UlP"t Connrctlon

Fig. 15.26 Block diagram o f a microprocessor-based p o l l u t i o n data reductor. (Courtesy o f P h i l i p s ) .


518

efficient means of automatically acquiring, processing and recording the data from a series of pollution monitors. I n addition, the system can start calibration cycles and use the results to correct the data from the analysis of the samples. The output data can be recorded in a variety of supports: magnetic tape cassettes, numeric or alphanumeric print-outs and punched paper tape. Remote printing and connection to a larger processing system are also possible. A block diagram of the micro-PDR is shown in Fig. 15.26. The primary functions of the system are data acquisition and processing, output of control signals to monitors, timing and data output. Data c o l l e c t i o n . Analogue input signals (0-5 V or 0-20 mA) are received

either direct from a local monitor or via the supervision multi-tonal (MDF) equipment when coming from remote monitors. The data inputs are switched serially b y the solid-state

multiplexer, under the control of the microprocessor,

to the A/D converter. Here, the analogue signals are converted t o digital form and then taken, together with up t o eight digital signals, via an interconnection bus to the microprocessor and the temporary data store (the RAM). A l l monitors are sampled once per minute. Data processing. The microprocessor functions according to the program

stored in the programmable read-only memory (PROM), a solid-state data-storage device whose contents is virtually indestructible. The main tasks of the 8-bit microprocessor are: (a) control of the input multiplexer; (b) start and control of the calibration cycle; (c) correction of measured values according to the results of the calibration cycle; ( d ) computation of periodic averages; (e) calculation of output data; ( f ) output of data and (9) control of perip herals. Output of c o n t r o l s i g n a l s t o t h e monitor. Up t o three control signals can

be sent to the pollution monitors via the digital output control. One of these signals is the calibration cycle control signal. Timing.

An accurate,

real-time

digital

clock

Is used for

timing all

events. A t the heart of the digital clock is a crystal whose output is used t o derive the minute, hour and day signals. From these, the microprocessor obtains the months and years. Data output. Ouput information is taken via appropriate control units to

the respective output peripherals, as shown i n the block diagram in Fig. 15.26. The modem output can be used either to connect a remote teletypewriter

to the micro-PDR,

or t o connect this to a central station.

connections are achieved

over

either

leased or

(dlalled link). During normal automatic operation,

switched

These remote telephone

lines

the following output data

are registered: (1) station identification, (2) status message, (3) date and time, (4) 1/2-h average, (5) 24-h average, (6) all data or functions manually entered into the system.

Automation i n environmental p o l l u t i o n m o n i t o r i n g Protection against

519

loss of data due t o power f a i l u r e . The microprocessor

and digital clock are provided with reserve power supplies, which ensures that, if the normal mains supply should fail, the timing continues uninterrupted and there is no loss of data from the RAM. A f t e r restoration of the normal supply following a power failure, the time, date and stored data are recorded by the output equipment and normal automatic operation is resumed. Recharging of the reserve power-pack also takes place when the operation from the mains supply is restored. No reserve supply is required by the PROM, whose memory contents are unaffected by disturbances t o the mains. The most complex fashlon of performing environmental sampllng, analysis and control is probably that used by automatic water and atmospheric pollution survey networks. A survey network consists of a series of stations, each of which has a modular multi-parameter anaiyser transmitting data to and receiving commands from a central computer that controls and organizes all the stations making up the network. The scheme of one such network for water control is depicted i n Fig. 15.27.

Fig. 15.27 Philips).

Scheme o f

river

water

survey

station.

(Courtesy

of

The site of a survey station must be in accordance wlth t h e pursued objec-


520

tives: in the case of water survey, the site should be as close as possible to the drainage point, where collected samples will be more representative than those taken at points where the waste waters would have merged throroughly with those of the river and the results obtained would be representative of the water quality of the river itself. Dual sampling can be carried out at the confluence of two water-ways to separately measure, record and transmit the data correspond i ng t o both. The overall functioning of a survey station involves three basic operations: data transmission and communication, data reduction and data recording. Data transmission by means of varlous systems such as the multitonal survey system (MDF) allows slgnals t o be sent i n both directions between the stations and the central unit by means of private or hired telephone lines. A single telephone lines enables transmission of up t o 25 data channels according to the recommendations from CCITT.

Digital transmission

(MDT), based on the

time-division multiplex principle, can prove economical i n sending large volumes of measurement, status or remote control signals, which must be converted to digital form prior t o transmission. Switched telephone lines shared with other users are of use when great distances are to be covered and hired lines are too expensive. I n this case, stations require a self-contained control and memory system t o collect and store information. This "Intelligent station" device sends information to the pollution data reductor i n the network centre when requested by this, so that the telephone line Is not continuously engaged. Normal transmission/reception units (radio links operating i n the VHF or UHF bands) can also be used for this purpose. This method allows up to 16 survey stations to be linked to the data reductor on the same carrier f r e quency, which is accompllshed by using a simplex radlo-link

with selective

calls t o each station in the network. The so-called 'pollution data reductor' (PDR) is the unit where data are processed. Depending on the size and purpose of the network, it can be as simple as an analogue tape recorder or as compllcatad as a programmable computer with various output readouts and the capability t o carry out alarm functions in real time. This information can be used t o warn those industrles causing pollution or being on the verge of suffering i t s consequences. The PDR can be of one of two types: fixed-program (without computer) and stored-program (wlth computer). Fixed-program PDRs are chiefly used in uncomplicated networks whose principal aim is to record data, whether instant concentrations i n analogue form or average concentrations In digltal form. Stored-program

PDRs are em-

ployed when on-line calculation and recording are required. The typical functions performed by this processing system are as follows: (a) estlmatlon of short-term pollution predictions; (b) checking of the functioning of the sta-

Automat ion i n envi ronment a1 pol 1ution moni t o r i n g

52 1

tions, transmission network and PDR; (c) recording of data on punched paper o r magnetic tape for batch processes; ( d ) data concentration and line connection t o a central pollution processor (CPP). The key u n i t in a stored-program PDR is the programmable mini-processor,

whose software consists of (a) a monitor

program r u n n i n g i n real time and governing the remainder of the programs, equipment and peripherals; ( b ) a program f o r handling of messages (errors, warnings, recordings of pollution data); (c) a program controlling data acquisition throughout the network every minute, hour, fraction of hour o r day; ( d ) a calibration program controlling the calibration cycle and the interpretation of the calibration data; (e) a keyboard function program controlling the communication between the user and the machine, and between the control centre and the stations i n the network. As a rule, it i s more convenient t o transmit measurements t o a control

centre, laboratory o r office, where they can be immediately read from the teletypewriter, from punched paper o r magnetic tape. The on-site recording of data i n the station is also of use f o r field research, although more limited as regards long-term information. A data reductor can also be installed in t h e station o r be connected t o it by remote control f o r averaging of some parameters (recording of integrated values).

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522


[21] 8. Linsky, Report on design o f the D e t r o i t dust f a l l c o l l e c t o r , Bureau o f Smoke I n s p e c t i o n and Abatement, D e t r o i t , 1952. [22] M. Sachs and M. Munroe, S t a t e control o f a i r p o l l u t i o n , Symposium on A i r P o l l u t i o n , Wagner College, S t a t e n I s l a n d , New York, March 1954. [23] C. V. Kanter, R. G. Lunche and A. 0. Fudrich, Air Poll. Control Assoc. Meeting, B u f f a l o , 1956. [24] M. T. Gordon and C. Orr, A i r P o l l . Control Assoc. Meeting, Chattanooga, 1954. [25] J. Y. Hwang. Anal. Chem., 44 (1972) 20A. [26] A. L. Richards and D. V. Badamli, Nature, 234 (1971) 93. [271 G. T o r s i , E. Desimoni, F. Palmisano and L. Sabbatini, Analyst, 107 (1982) 96. [28] G. T o r s i and E. Desimoni, Anal. L e t t . , 12 (1179) 1361. [291 S. J. Long, J. C. Suggs and J. F. Walling, J. A i r Poll. Control Assoc., 29 (1979) 28. [301 J. P. Smith and D. J. Murdock, Anal. L e t t . , 16 (1983) 1595. 1311 L. R. Betz and R. L. Grob, Anal. L e t t . , 17 (1984) 701. [32] R. G. Lewis, J. D. Mulik, R. W. Coutant, G. W. Wooten and C. R. M c M i l l i n , Anal. Chem., 57 (1985) 214. [33] M. Possanzini, A. Febo and F. Cecchini, Anal. L e t t . , 17 (1984) 887. [34] E. Brostrom, P. G r e n n f e l t and A. Lindskog, Atmos. Envirun., 17 (1983) 601. [35] H. Tokiwa, R. Nakagawa, K. M o r i t a and Y. O i h n i s h i , Mutation Res., 85 (1981) 195. [36] H. Cnobloch, W. Kellerman, D. Kuhl, H. Nischik, K. P a n t e l and H. Poppa, Anal. Chim. Acta, 114 (1980) 303. [37] J. Ruz, A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valchrcel, Anal. Chim. Acta, 186 (1986) 139. [38] P. Linares, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valchrcel, Anal. Chem., 58 (1986) 120. [39] A. E. Goodwing and J. L. Marton, Anal. Chim. Acta, 152 (1983) 295. [40] M. Erhardt, Deep-sea Res., 16 (1969) 393. [41] P. D. Goirlden and P. Brooksbank, Anal. Chem., 47 ( 1 1 7 5 ) 1943. [42] P. Princz, P. Gelencser and S. K O V ~ C S , Modern trends in a n a l y t i c a l chemi s t r y , Symposia Series, v o l . 18, 1984, pp 375-384. [43] M. H. I. Comber and P. J. D. Nicholson, Anal. Proc., 21 (1184) 474. [44] M. Valchrcel, M. D. Luque de Castro and A. Rios, Spanish Patent No. 535.820, 1984. [45] A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valchrcel, Analyst, 109 (1984) 1487. [46] A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valchrcel, Analyst, 110 (1985) 277. [47] M. Valchrcel, M. D. Luque de Castro and A. Rios, 3rd I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress on Analytical Techniques i n Environmental Chemistry, Barcelona, Spain, 1984. [48] J. Ruz, A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valchrcel, Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem. , 322 ( 1985) 499. ralanta, 33 [49] J. Ruz, A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valchrcel, (1986) 199. [50] J. Ruz, A. Torres, A. Rios, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valchrcel, J. A u t m . Chem., 8 ( 2 ) (1986) 7 0 . [51] J. L. Lindgren, H. J. Krauss and J. S. Mgebroff, Anal. Chem., 52 (1980) 1074A. [52] M. L. Lee, M. Novothy and K. D. B a r t l e , Analytical chemistry o f p o l y c y c l i c a r m t i c cmpounds, Academic Press, New York, 1981, p. 462. [531 A. Bjorseth, Ed. , Handbook o f p o l y c y c l i c a r m a t i c hydrocarbons, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1983, p. 727. [541 K. D. B a r t l e , M. L. Lee and S . A. Wise, Chem. SOC. Rev., 10 (1981) 113. [55] W. E. May and S. A. Wise, Anal. Cem., 56 (1984) 225. I 5 6 1 1. F a t t , Polarographic oxygen sensors, CRC Press, Cleveland, 1976, p. 278.


523

[57] V. Z. A l p e r i n , E. I. Konnik and A. A. Kuzmin, Sovremennye elektrokhimicheskie metody i apparatura dlya a n a l i z a gazov v zhidkostyakh i gazovykh smesyakh, Khimiya, Moscow, 1975, p. 182. [581 Metody Opredeleniya Gazzobraznykh Soedineniy v Atmosphere Nauka, Moscow, 1979, p. 264. [591 U. Palm, i n Modern t r e n d s i n a n a l y t i c a l chemistry, A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry Symposia Series, v o l . 18, New York, 1984, p. 121. 1601 J. Adler and J. I. Trombka, Anal. Chem., 44 (1972) 28A. [611 S. A. Borman, Anal. Chem., 52 (1980) 1531A. [621 P. G u i l l o t , Spectrochim. Acta, 386(11/12) (1983) 1457-1464. [631 J. Y. Hwang, Anal. Chem., 44 (1972) 20A. [641 A. Brezezinska and J. C. van Loon, i n t e r n a l l a b o r a t o r y procedure (1983). [65] R. E. Byrne, Anal. Chim. Acta, 153 (1983) 313. [661 P. Gelady and F. Adam, Anal. Chim. Acta, 98 (1978) 229. [671 P. N. V i j a n , J. A. Pimenta and A. C. Rayner, A i r q u a l i t y laboratory procedure, O n t a r i o M i n i s t r y o f t h e Environment, Toronto, Ontario, 1978. [681 J. R. Rhodes, Am. Lab., 7 (1973) 57. [69] K. Oguma and J. C. van Loon, i n t e r n a l l a b o r a t o r y procedure (1980). [70] C. D. H o l l o w e l l , G. Y. Gee and R. D. McLaughlin, Anal. Chem., 45 (19 3 ) 63A.

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R. D. Snook and P. E. Z a f t , Anal. Proc., 22 (1985) 300. J. F. Alder and J. J. McCallum, Analyst, 108 (1983) 1169. A. J. Senzel, Anal. Chem., 44 (1972) 65A. J. Bures, F. Leonard and J. P. Monchalin, Can. J. Phys., 61 (1183) 301 J. A. Hodgeson, W. A. McClenny and R. K. Stevens, Analytical methods app l i e d t o a i r p o l l u t i o n measurements, R. K. Stevens and W. F. Herget (Eds), Ann Arbor Science: Ann Arbor, M I , 1974, p. 43. G. W. Nederbragt, A. van der Horst and J. van Duijn, Nature (London), 208 (1965) 87. V. H. J. Regner, Geophys. Res., 65 (1960) 3975. V. H. J. Regner, Geophys. Res., 89 (1964) 3795. J. D. Ray, D. H. Stedman and 0 . J. Wendel, Anal. Chem., 58 1986) 598. A. L. Lazrus, G. L. Kok, J. A. Lind, S. N. G i t l i n , B. G. He kes and R. E. Shetter, Anal. Chem., 58 (1986) 594. D. Ph. Z o l l i n g e r and M. Bos, TrAC, 9 (1985) 112. J. H i l t o n , Water Res., 18 (1984) 1195. M. P. Bertenshaw and K. C. Wheatstone, J. Autm. Chem., 7 ( 985) 192. J. H. Krieger, Chem. Eng. News, August, 12 (1985) 30.

16 Process analysers

16.1 INTRODUCTION

Process analysers are automatic devices adapted to their environment and conceived for the continuous or periodical measurement of one or more physical or chemical parameters along an industrial process line. I n addition, they deliver results in a suitable manner and ailow for correction o f the operational conditions of the process on the basis of such results. They are automatic insofar as they require no human intervention and must be adapted to their environment because of the generally adverse environments prevailing i n industry. Results must be delivered in the appropriate form and units. There are still relatively f e w analysers capable of taking direct and active part i n the industrial process which they are meant t o control; however, the gradual incorporation of microprocessors will no doubt endow process analysers with greater reliability, which will result in higher degrees of automation at lower cost. Until the recent advent of robot stations, analysers furnished with samplers and systems for data treatment and output represented the highest degree of automation, even though the operator treated the sample and placed I t in the analyser. Industrial process analysers are generally equipped with sampling systems that prepare the sample and transfer i t under the optimum conditions and i n the shortest tlme possible t o the analyser. I n addltlon to performing the analyses, a f e w analysers are programmed t o make decisions about the operational condltlons suited t o the process line according to the results obtained. This is therefore one more step in the automation of the analytical process, imposed by necesslty rather than by a desire to Increase the sophlsticatlon of analysers. I n fact, some Industries Involve environmental condltions resulting in hazardous sample collection and treatment which are best l e f t to a process analyser for safety reasons; others are b e t t e r off by devoting the personnel

requlred for sample collection,

transfer and treatment to other

tasks. Another strong reason f o r the use of these analysers i s the need for rapfd analyses. Hence, the t e r m 'analyser'

is more accurate here than other

alternatlves for referring t o these Instruments Insofar as they take part in all three stages of the analytlcal process (see Chapter 1).

Process analysers

525

Process analysers are continuous i n nature (see Chapter 11, i.e. they continuously extract sample from the line of the process they control; there i s no physical separation between samples i n individual containers. I n addition, the analyses they c a r r y out can be continuous when the sample is monitored u n i nt e r r u p t e d I y

(e. g.

infrared

anal ysers,

conductimetric

and

h y g rometric

probes) o r periodic when the sample i s analysed a t preset intervals (e.g. gas and I iqui d chromatog rap hs).

16.2 FEATURES OF PROCESS ANALYSERS 16.2.1 The optimum analyser

There are more marked differences between process analysers than there are between laboratory analysers owing t o the greater variety of requirements and experimental conditions involved i n different industries. Despite t h e i r diversity,

every

process analyser should

have a number of

desirable features,

namely:

(a) The chemical method applied should be as simple as possible with regard t o the number o f reagents,

diluents,

transfer gases, reference f l u i d s

and temperature and pressure conditions used t o reduce control and maintenance t o a minimum. I n addition, accessible and affordable reagents rather than special, high-purity chemicals should be used. Methods involving excessive corrosion should be avoided at any rate. ( b ) Continuous anaiysers are generally t o be preferred t o their batch count e r p a r t s because the greater the number of different operations involved i n the analyses, the lower i s the reliability of the analyser. (c) Measurements should be sufficiently

accurate and precise t o ensure

efficient control of the process line. I n additlon,

the system should c a r r y

out the analyses and deliver results i n the shortest possible time in order not t o alter the sample and t o facilitate rapid correction of the operational conditions if the results make it advisable. ( d ) The analyser should be easy t o operate by relatively unskilled workers. I t should require no special attention or maintenance f o r long periods

so as t o save time and money. The Instrumental design should facllltate Its maintenance wlthout disturbance t o the process line. Ideally, the Instrument should be capable o f performing autocalibrations o r require only Occasional adJ ustment. ( e l The system should have the means t o prevent deterioration of and keep d i r t from the sensing element resulting from the occurrence of suspended solids o r chemical attack. This w l l l result I n a longer analyser lifetime and reduce maintenance. Moreover, t h e analyser should be protected from i t s en-


526

vironment and the reagents used in order t o avoid mechanical failures that might have drastic consequences. ( f ) Process analysers devoted to control industrlal safety or waste need no economic justification as they are imposed by current laws. However, analysers meant to control industrial process lines should be purchased with ail the above requirements plus their economy in mind. This involves carrying out an economic study, weighing production (or sales) increases against different factors such as purchasing, installation and operating costs (depreciation, maintenance and utilities) 111. I n practice, process analysers do not have all of the above desirable features; instead, they are a compromise between the requirements of the process to be controlled and affordability. 16.2.2 Relationship between pmcess and laboratory analysers

With few exceptions, the development of process analysers Is one generation behind that of laboratory analysers. I t i s significant that many process plants are still

controlled

by

pressure, temperature,

flow

or

fluid

level

meters, easy to instal, calibrate and maintain. There are various reasons accounting for the long delay involved i n the adaptation of well-known

laboratory techniques to the control of industrial

processes: (a) The conservativism of employers and technicians,

who generally are

reluctant t o change elementary techniques that provide acceptable results by new anal y tical tec hni ques. (b) The physicists and chemists who develop new laboratory techniques are not concerned with thelr application t o industrial processes. This is rather a task for engineers, who are aware of the needs involved and difficulties posed by industrial plants. Unfortunately, there are many f e w e r engineers lnterested i n process analysis than physlclsts and chemists doing laboratory research. (c) An appropriate system for sample collection and condltioning allowing the extraction of

a representative sample from the process line and i t s

transfer t o the analyser In a short time and without signiflcant alterations is as vital as o r even more

so than the analyser itself, so much so that such

a sampling system Is sometimes more expensive than the analyser proper. ( d ) A process analyser controlling the inflow of raw materials In an industrial plant can save large sums of money I f it works properly; otherwise it can result in economic losses putting the viabllity of the plant at stake.

However, errors i n the functlonlng of analysers controlling the level of toxlc species in the atmosphere of an industrial plant may even give rise to the

loss of human lives. This responsibility seldom affects manufacturers of labor-

Process anal ysers

52 7

atory analysers. This is therefore one of the reasons accounting for the conservatism of process analyser manufacturers and the long study of and experimentation with pilot plants needed before an analyser prototype is launched with the expected safety and reliability warranties. 16.2.3

Laboratory analysers adapted to industrlal processes Occasionally, process analysers are chosen for a given type of analysis

on the grounds of i t s proven efficiency i n the laboratory rather than i t s suitability for the process in question. This reasoning is unwise because the fact that a given method or technique is suited t o laboratory requirements does not necessarily

imply that it is fit f o r application t o an industrial

process on account of the differences between both extremes. I n fact, there are

four

basic

differences

between

laboratory

and

industrial

conditions,

namely: (a) I n the purpose. Laboratory analysers are designed t o be flexible, both i n the species that can be analysed and in the operational conditions, whlch makes them more complex and delicate than process analysers. These are conceived t o perform a specific analysis under clearly established experimental conditions and are therefore simpler, cheaper and more solid. (b) I n the performance. Process analysers are expected to have longer times than laboratory analysers as they work non-stop 24 h a day, 7 days a week instead of periodically 8 h a day. Thus, a laboratory HPLC column is no longer reliable after ca. 1000 injectlons -a

few months for a laboratory but

as l l t t l e as 1 week i n an industrial plant, which w i l l therefore require MIumns lasting at least ten times longer. Laboratory Instruments are usually well attended to. Their operation and maintenance are entrusted t o skilled personnel. They are calibrated prior t o each series of analyses and are cleaned thoroughly afterwards. Process analysers should not require much attention as this detracts from economy: the personnel in charge of the analyser are generally unskilled and have a secondary interest i n it -they

are rather concerned with the process Ilne. Maintenance

should be kept t o a minimum and the instrument should be designed

so as to

avoid d r i f t s resulting In the need for frequent callbration or, alternatively, be equipped wlth an autocalibration mechanism. (c) I n the accessory elements. As stated above, process analysers have automatic systems for sample collection and conditioning, allowing the sample t o be transferred from the analyser without human intervention and be treated appropriately t o make it as l i t t l e corroslve t o the analyser as possible i n order t o ensure the reliability of the analyses. These sampling systems are often more complex and expenslve than the analysers themselves. As i s widely


528

known, most laboratory processes involve the manual treatment of the sample prior to its manual or automatic introduction into the analyser. On the other hand, process analysers must include a means of transmitting signals from the analyser site to the control room of the industrial plant, which often involves selection of the appropriate lines and interfaces, transmission

lines from the effect of electromagnetic

protection of the

radiation and voltage

spikes, in addition t o grounding. Laboratory instruments do not require this ancillary equipment since the analyst and the analyser are usually In the same room and complement each other: the analyst places the samples i n the analyser and this provides the former with the results. Finally, it should be emphasized that process analysers usually operate under extreme temperature, humidi t y and corrosion conditions, in contrast to laboratory instruments, working environment i s much safer.

Hence they

whose

require special protection

against aggressive agents and therefore conditioning of potentially hazardous samples, i n addition to appropriate construction materials and the instailation of malfunction alarms. Moreover, they must comply with s t r i c t safety rules of Class 1, groups C and D, divisions 1 and 2 of the National Electrical Code [2]. (d) I n t h e manufacture. The liability of manufacturers of process analysers is much greater than that of laboratory analyser manufacturers. This is understandable taking into account that the instrument malfunction may result in a build-up of unsatisfactory product or i n the unjustified halting of the process with resultant economic losses. Process analysers must therefore be designed t o offer the maximum security t o the potential purchaser. On the other hand, laboratory analysers are sold in isolation, with no further compromise on the part of the manufacturer; yet, whoever buys a process analyser also purchases the engineering study required to perform a specific analysis on a given process line. 16.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of process analysers

Because of the differences between laboratory and process analysers, the latter are better suited to the control of process lines, a field in which they possess they followlng advantages over the former: (a) Rapidity. Because of the closeness between the analyser and the process line, analyses are carrled out much faster than with laboratory analysers, usually located at some distance from the process line. Thls results i n five significant advantages:

-

The possibility of performing fast analyses allows the chemical engineer

t o introduce appropriate changes i n the operational conditlons of the process line as soon as i t s optimum performance is altered.

529

Process analysers

- The quality of the resultant products i s more uniform. - Thanks t o the rapidity with which analyses can be performed, unstable samples undergo no significant changes i n composition, which i s a great asset i f samples must be transported t o a distant laboratory.

-

The time p e r analysis i s shorter in process analysers, which are t h u s

ideal whenever fast and frequent measurements are compelled by rapid and appreciable changes i n the composition of the process stream.

- Transient changes in the process which otherwise would go unnoticed are readily detected.

-

The analysis and control of the process line can b e readily automated.

( b ) Economy. The use of a process analyser also offers a series of savings, namely:

-

I n laboratory staff, who are not required.

- I n cost per analysis, as a result of the high degree of automation. - I n energy consumption and hence i n production costs. - I n the re-processing of materials not conforming t o the specifications. Some other advantages are characteristic of particular areas such as the oil industry, where process analysers allow the lifetime of catalysts t o be lengthened and coking and distillation flooding t o be reduced. (c) Improved sampling as a result of:

- The elimination of the sampling e r r o r s and labelling involved in human intervention.

- The need f o r no special containers f o r the analysis of gases.

-

The capability t o analyse toxic o r radioactive samples that are hazard-

ous to humans. Laboratory analysers i n t u r n have some advantages over process analysers. Thus, (a) they allow the analysis of solids o r samples r e q u i r i n g complex pretreatments of d i f f l c u l t automation -this i n g advances in robotics;

( b ) they

will no doubt be solved by the growrequire less protection from hazardous

environments and allow f o r frequent calibration and maintenance; and (c) they are fit f o r the analysis of various samples from different process lines.

16.3 CLASSIFICATION OF PROCESS ANALYSERS

Because of the large variety of industries and the different needs of industrial plants, there i s a vast range of process analysers i n use, which can be classified according t o different criteria, namely: 18.3.1 According to the location with respect to the process line As pointed out by Frant and Oliver [3], process analysers can be classi-

530

AUtOmdtlC

methods o f analysis

fied i n t o three types according t o t h e i r location with respect t o the process line:

'off-line',

'on-line'

and

'in-line'

in

Increasing

order

of

closeness

between the instrument and the process line. O f f - l i n e analysers are those t o which samples extracted from the process lines are taken f o r analysis -their advantages and disadvantages were discussed i n the preceding section. I n - l i n e analysers have t h e i r sensors inserted directly i n t o the process line. Finally, on-line analysers are located close t o the process line b u t do not have t h e i r

sensors inserted into the process stream; instead, they have a system f o r cotlection and conditioning of samples -which sensor and freed from interferenceslyser. However, non-invasive

are prepared not t o damage the

and f o r transporting them t o the ana-

analysers are representative of c u r r e n t trends,

although they are not yet commercially available 141. Like in-line analysers, they are characterized by the fact t h a t the analyte Is determined without extracting the sample from the process line; however, at no time does the sensor come i n t o contact with the sample as it does in the former, so that they have all the advantages of In-line analysers b u t none of t h e i r disadvantages. The sole difference between on-line and In-line analysers lies i n the location of the sensor, which involves different designs and suitability f o r diff e r e n t situations.

In-line

analysers are simpler than t h e i r on-line

counter-

p a r t s insofar as they require no sampling system f o r extraction of the sample from the process sream; it i s rather the sensor which goes t o the sample. Because of this, they can only be used t o control process lines c a r r y i n g components not liable t o damage the sensor, i n t e r f e r i n g with the analysis o r d i r t y i n g the sensor appreciably - o t h e r w i s e they w i l l require an automatic cleaning system; i n addltlon, they should require l i t t l e maintenance and recalibration as these involve stopplng the process stream, which is a great disadvantage. Examples of t h i s t y p e of analyser are pH and dissolved oxygen meters, and conductlmetrlc and hygroscopic probes. However, they are uncommon because the samples generally require conditioning p r i o r t o performing the measurements so that they are free from Interferences and the analyser has t o undergo as l i t t l e sample attack as posslble. For t h l s reason, on-line

analysers are

commoner at present. 18.3.2 Accordlng to purpose Depending on t h e l r objective, industrial analysers can be classlfied into safety o r protection analysers,

deslgned f o r t h e measurement of pollutants,

and production l i n e controllers, intended f o r the analysls f o r one o r more components In a process line. The former in turn can be classifled accordlng t o whether they are meant t o control lndustrlal waste (gases o r llquid efflu-

Process analysers

53 1

ents) o r the p u r i t y of the working atmosphere i n an industrial plant. The use of these analysers i s compelled by laws f o r protection of the environment and industrial safety and hygiene i n those industries producing polluting species. Because of t h e i r very nature they require no economic justificatlon and must be accurate,

as t h e i r chief purpose i s t o determine the concentration of

noxious species i n the analysed fluid.

They are therefore sophisticated and

delicate instruments r e q u i r i n g highly specialized technical support and maintenance. Analysers devoted t o the control of production lines can be classified i n t o those determining the quality of the end product and those controll i n g one o r more species representative of the efficiency of a process. Obviously they require an economlc study of t h e i r viability t o be performed p r i o r t o purchase. Those used f o r quality control should be as accurate as safety analysers,

while those intended f o r the determination of process efficiency

should be precise rather than accurate because the technicians controlling the process are often more interested i n changes than in absolute values, as they usually correlate the instrument output with the process efficiency without bothering about the real meaning of the output.

16.3.3 According to t h e r e s u l t interpreter As stated above, some process analysers are almost completely automated as they have not only an automatic system f o r sample collection and treatment, b u t also a computer processing the data received from the analyser proper and acting on the process line according t o a program; there i s no human intervention in any stage of the measuring process, only i n t h e i r maintenance. These, the so-called

'indirect

control process analysers',

their high sophistication.

Their 'direct'

are uncommon because of

counterparts require no processing

of t h e i r outputs, which are readily interpreted by a technician acting on the operating conditions of the process line depending on the results. 16.3.4 According to t h e t y p e of parameter determlned

I n d u s t r i a l analysers can control physical o r chemical parameters. Physical parameter analysers (conductimeters, viscometers, refractometers, pressure and temperature meters) frequently measure and control only one property of the fluid, the variation of which generally depends on a single component that Is controlled i n an Indirect fashion. Chemical parameter analysers directly measure the concentration of one o r more species in a fluid. They can be specific f o r a given specles (e.g.

pH-meters,

potentiometers wlth Ion-selective

elec-

trodes, oxygen meters) o r control several species simultaneously (e.g. gas o r Ii qul d ch romatographs) o r successl vel y (photometers) w Ith mi nimum alterations.


532 16.4 COMPONENTS OF A PROCESS ANALYSER

As stated above, there i s a large variety o f process analysers adapted t o particular needs; however, most of them have the following elements i n common: (a) a sampling system; ( b ) the analyser proper; (c) t h e result delivery system and ( d ) the analyser protection. Experience has shown that the sampling system of a process analyser i s as important as or even more so than the analyser itself. On the other hand, the analyser must be duly protected t o ensure smooth functioning and a reasonably long lifetime with consequent

reliability

and profitability. Hence, both ele-

ments are commented on here i n greater detail. 16.4.1 Sampling system I n practice, choosing the appropriate process analyser is only p a r t of the problem faced when t r y i n g t o perform analyses on a process line i n a reliable manner; moreover, the selection of the analyser i s greatly influenced by the possibility of obtaining a suitable sample. The conditioning of the extracted sample is generally of utmost importance, so much so that it has given rise t o the assertion that "an analyser

is as accurate as the sample i t receives"

(i.e. problems with the analysis are bound t o arise from inappropriate samples rather than from malfunctioning of the analyser). For t h i s reason, i t is not unreasonable to spend as much or even more time and money on the design and construction of the sampling system than on the analyser itself. The design of the sampling system and selection of the analyser should therefore receive great attention material,

In order t o avoid

the client's

unnecessary

dissatisfaction and

expense i n terms of

maintenance problems.

Thus,

ures i n a transfer analyser controlling the quality of massive-produced

waste failgoods

i n a given species may result i n enormous losses f o r the manufacturer or the purchaser; an analyser that fails t o provide an accurate measure of the level of oxygen or a toxic species i n an industrlal plant may cause a tragedy involving the loss of human lives [ 5 ] . Process analysers, like computers,

can only provide accurate results i f

they are fed with appropriate s t a r t i n g materials -samples

and information.

Sophisticated electronics cannot compensate f o r erroneous designs. As stated above,

each

process

unit

requires

a specially

designed

sampling

system.

However, most sampling systems have ,a series of common features and specifications, namely: (a) The sampling system should operate in a reliable way and require minimum maintenance for weeks o r even months. This desirable feature i s also extended t o the entire process analyser. One such system r e q u i r i n g daily maintenance would be uneconomic.

Process

anal ysers

533

( b ) The sampling system should b e f u l l y automated, including sample collection, pretreatment and introduction into the analyser, stages which are often carried out manually in the laboratory. A l l t h i s demands an appropriate initial design as there is no subjective judgement o r human intervention i n the process, unlike i n laboratory work. (c) The time taken t o transport and condition the sample should be kept t o a minimum. A very accurate and precise, although slow, analyser can hardly be of much use. The analyser system should be faster than the potential changes t a k i n g place d u r i n g the process so that the technician i n charge may act effectively on the operating conditions. ( d ) The constituent materials of the sampling system should be carefully

chosen so as t o avoid contamination from the sample and damage t o the whole system. The material used f o r each p a r t of the system should be suited t o the experimental

conditions t h a t

i t is meant t o withstand.

Stainless steel and

special alloys such as Hastelloy C are typical construction materials here, while PTFE, chemical elastomers and stainless steel are commonly used as sealing materials -the

use of materials such as copper, brass o r carbon steel

should be avoided because of t h e i r poor chemical consistency. Every sampling system has two distinct parts: the sample conditioning system and the system f o r sample collection, t r a n s p o r t and removal. The sample conditioning system functions t o change the nature of the sample extracted from the process line t o adapt it t o the analyser requirements. This i s equivalent t o the "sample pretreatment" carried out in the laboratory and involves the following steps: (a) F i l t r a t i o n o f the sample. Samples from an industrial process usually contain

particulates

such

as

boiler

scales,

tars

from

columns and reactors, catalyst particles from fluidized-bed

organic

distillation

reactors and salt

crystals. Their presence is undesirable from the point of view of maintenance and measurement reliability, and can give rise t o background noise in photome-

ters and short-circuits

i n electroanal ytical

instruments.

These particulates

are generally eliminated by means of f i l t e r s o f Increasing mesh size located close t o the sampling point. As with most o f the components of the sampling system, i t i s usual t o use several parallel sets and keep one working while the others are being maintained. ( b ) Elimination o f the corrosiveness o r aggressiveness of the sample whenever

possible,

either

chemically

(acidity,

alkalinity,

inappropriate

sol-

vents) o r physically (temperature, pressure). ( c ) Homogenization of the sample so t h a t It enters the analyser as a single phase, either the same as o r dlfferent from t h a t carried along the process line. This stage may involve: ( 1 ) vaporization o f the sample by uslng


534

suitable pressures and temperatures; (2) separation of gases dissolved in a liquid by means of strippers (the sample may be either of the two phases); (3) separation of undissolved water from samples such as liquid hydrocarbons. ( d ) B u f f e r i n g . The addition of buffer solutions t o the samples is often required in order to obtain a suitable medium for the chemical reaction on which

the analysis is based t o take place. Obviously,

the buffer should

contain no species that alter the measurement of the substance of interest. (e) I n t e r f e r e n c e removal. This is carried out by chemical conversion o r masking. This step is usually Imposed by the complexity of the samples extracted from process lines or waste effluents, which contain species disturbing the analysis or the analyser sensor. ( f ) Control o f t h e sample pressure and temperature. As a rule, the temper-

ature and pressure of the freshly extracted sample are inadequate for introduction into the analyser and may alter the analysis or cause damage t o the instrument; hence the need to control both variables, sometimes i n a very precise manner. The sample pressure can be controlled with needle valves reducing the input pressure, followed by pressure regulators, which reduce the pressure to a given value irrespective of the input pressure - e a c h pressure regulator

must be followed b y a pressure gauge. Keeping the sample at a constant temperature is generally more important than knowing i t s exact temperature. This can be accomplished by heating with electric heating coils or steam tracing -the production of steam and Its use for this purpose are common in process plants where electrlcity is dangerous t o use-

or by cooling with cooling tower water

or refrigerated brine In jacketed heat exchangers, common i n process plants. However, there are cases where the temperature must be strictly controlled (e.g.

to keep condensable liquids as vapour o r volatile liquids as liquids).

The use of heat conductors or isolators in each instance contrlbutes in a passive way to the control of temperature. (9) Control o f t h e f l o w - r a t e and s i z e of the sample enterlng the analyser. The control of the sample flow-rate t o process analysers Is as important as the control of i t s pressure, although easier t o regulate on account of the simplicity of the Instrument. Rotameters consist basically of a needle valve followed by a float in an uprlght transparent tube calibrated accordlng t o the fluid density.

A pump is the best alternative whenever the pressure of a

flowing stream is t o be raised t o a given value or a preset flow-rate Is to be accurately fixed. (h) P a r t i a l o r c m p l e t e removal o f water from the sample, depending on the analyser requirements. The water content In a process line can vary between a

f e w parts per million t o the occurrence of an actual aqueous phase i n nonpolar currents. The sample moisture can interfere with the analysts by masking

Process anal ysers

535

or modifying some adsorption bands in infrared spectroscopy or photometry, or exhaust a chromatographic column prematurely. It can also foster corrosion of w e t parts through the absorption of gaseous acids. The sample moisture can be removed b y use of desiccating substances if the water content is low, or with coalescers if it is so high as to form a true second phase. ( i ) Sample d i l u t i o n , if required. On the other hand, the system f o r sample collection, transport and removal is intended to extract the sample from the process line, transport it along the conditioning system t o the anaiyser and evacuating back t o the process line or to a waste container. A l l these operations require human intervention when carried out in the laboratory. The selection of a suitable design relies on several premises, namely: (a) The sampling point should be appropriately chosen. It should never be

the bottom of a pipe, where the settled matter may cause damage t o the sampling system o r the analyser, which would therefore require frequent maintenance. Neither should it be close t o zones of high turbulence, high particulate levels, mixed liquid-vapour phases, pollutants or high temperatures or pressures. Under laminar flow conditions, the centre of the tubing is the point where the fluid circulates at the greatest velocity and hence the ideal sampling point. (b) The extracted sample should be representative of the process stream, leaving aside undissolved water, suspended matter and other undesirable materials commonly present. Even the best designed analyser is bound t o fail if it is not fed with a sample representative of the process t o be controlled. This b

is achieved by: (1) choosing a sampling point not subject t o turbulence and where only one phase is present; (2) taking the sample from the centre of the pipe in order not t o include gases from the top o r sediments from the bottom; (3) taking various samples at different points along the process line and, if

necessary, mix the collected samples according t o a known distribution. A l l these conditions can be fulfilled by a properly designed sampling probe. (c) The sample composltion should not change durlng i t s transport. Any vaporization or condensation during the transport should be avoided by controlling the sample temperature and pressure, as should the use of constituent materials fostering selective adsorption on their surface or degradation of key components of the sample. Rapid flows, short transport lines, wide dlameters and inert materials contribute t o minimizlng these undesirable phenomena. (d) Ideally, the sampling should involve various streams not subject t o cross-contamination between one another, the use of standards f o r calibration of the instrument or "zeroing" -the

use of blanks. Cross-contamlnation

be-

tween streams can be prevented by using block and bleed stream-switchlng sys-


536

tems, viz. sets of valves allowing the introduction of a glven stream into the analyser as required. The need to control a given number of sampling points without continuous monltoring or the use of several analysers (e.9. the determination o f the oxygen profile i n a furnace) can be met by performing automatic sequential samplings by means of systems with several modes or the complex systems developed by various manufacturers. (e) The analysed sample and its non-analysed excess can be returned t o the process line from which they were extracted or alternatively be expelled to a waste zone. However, samples containing noxious or hazardous species cannot be released without pretreatment if the laws on safety and environmental protectlon are to be complied with. On the other hand, some samples are best recovered for economic reasons. 16.4.2 Protectlon o f the analyser equipment

Analyser systems are expensive and should therefore be adequately protected from their environment and the process streams that they control. Every analyser is liable to malfunction upon contact with rain, snow, ice, wlnd, sand, dust and so forth. A f t e r some time, alternate hot-cold

or humid-dry

periods cause expansions and compresslons that results in eroslon and corrosion of the analyser. On the other hand, industrlal environments are particularly severe as the rain and atmospheric humidity react with traces of hydrocarbons, sulphurlzed products and nitrogen oxides t o form acids which accelerate corrosion. A l l these reasons recommend protecting the analyser t o an extent depending on the potential hazards of the area where the analyser is based, as well as on its robustness.

*

The analyser protection should comply wlth safety regulations, especially strict for hazardous areas, whlch involve protection of the workers, emergency actions, ldentificatlon and handling of radloactive, toxlc o r inflammable products,

protection against fire,

control of the industrlal envlronment,

etc.

On-ilne analysers are usually placed In purpose-built houses [7]. These provlde a suitable environment for the analyser, operators and maintenance personnel alike, a conditioned atmosphere ensurlng the stablllty of the analyser, and the Ideal way to llnk and allocate additlonal supplies such as electricity, air, water, vacuum, etc. Large houses are sometimes built with bricks or of concrete. The average area of a typical house is 20x40 ft. A recent innovatlon Is the installatlon of

prefabricated

steel

panels

with

Integral

Isolation

similar

to

that

of

portable steel bulldlngs, greatly accepted among bullders. A major advantage

of these houses Is that the analysers can be Installed long after the plant has been started with much less effort.

Process analysers

53 7

Small houses (6x8 f t ) are often b u i l t with 2-in

thick walls filled with

foam inserted between reinforced plastic panels -similarly

t o modern r e f r i g e r -

ators. The plastic material used should be non-flammable

and non-toxic

if it

i s t o be exposed t o fire. I n addition, the construction should withstand winds of up to 200 km/h. Houses located i n hazardous areas should comply with the electrical regulations i n force. I n some cases, the whole house must be pressurized by using a source of fresh air i n non-hazardous automatically fail.

turn

off

the

electrical

Even i f the a i r is efficiently

areas and an air-sensitive switch to

power

if

the aeration

renewed, explosion-proof

system

should

switches should

be used f o r all electrical apparatus. Fume detectors should be employed t o detect leaks from the sampling system, especially when the fumes are toxic o r flammable.

Another advantage of placing the analyser house at a strategic point is t h a t the lines of the sampling system can be kept short and ancillary elements such as taps o r stopcocks can be mounted outside the house -their

right

place. I n some cases, the analyser house can be partitioned into two o r three compartments, which can house the sampling system and the electronics (i.e. the analyser proper) and provide a space f o r repairs (Fig. 16.1).

s t r e a m l r O m p r o c e s s lines

Sample condit8oners

All doors n o w I

plasllc

ViridOWS

-

Cal~brnt~an QarPs

i n s u l a t e d duct l o r heating and 011

conditioning

open outwards

Sampling s y l l e m loon'

Fig. 16.1

Analyrer

Typical analyser house.

room

W o r k room


538

The sampling system compartment should be isolated from the others by means of sealed conduits and fume barriers as it is the most likely origin of leaks. I t should contain alarms warning of the presence of fumes or failures i n the aeration system and hence of the safety inside the analyser house for the technicians devoted to the analyser operation and maintenance. Each compartment should have two doors opening to both sides except for the external doors, which should open outwards and only from the inside. Ail doors should ideally be f i t t e d with plastic or glass windows -the

larger they

are, the easier is the observation of the equipment. Detachable panels are of great help in cases of emergency. Figure 16.1 shows the scheme of a typical anal y ser house.

16.5 SCOPE OF APPLICATION

There are as many fields of application of process analysers as there are kinds of industrial plants. Their purposes vary with the plant i n question: in oil refineries and nutrition industries they are intended to control product purity, either t o meet scheduled specifications o r so as not to cause detriment to the consumer’s health. I n other instances (e.9.

power piants), they

are meant to avoid corrosion of the materials making up the production plant, while

i n most cases -particularly

blast furnaces-

in chemical industries,

paper

mills or

they are intended t o control gas and liquid wastes to comply

with social regulations. Process analysers use a variety of detection techniques such as photometry,

potentiometry, conductimetry and infrared spectrometry.

cording to Villalobos

[a],

However, ac-

gas chromatographs are by far the commonest detec-

tors in thls context (24% of all analysers currently i n use), followed at a great distance by oxygen analysers and pH-meters. This Is the result of the search for techniques with a high separation power (gas chromatography) or that are almost specific (oxygen analysis, action of

the

potentlal

pH measurements), avoiding the

interferents that commonly occur

i n the samples

usually analysed. The variety of analytes monltored by process analysers can be determined on the basis of their physical or chemical properties. (a) Physicel properties such as those fluid properties formerly used to control processes and currently used t o condition the sample extracted from the process line:

pressure, temperature,

flow-rate.

The physical properties

most commonly controlled in thls regard are conductivity, pressure,

refractive index,

etc.,

which

density, vapour

are properties of the fluid

as a

whole. Thelr changes i n a process stream are caused by a single specles which can thus be controlled indirectly.

Process analysers (b) cal

539

Chemical properties. Industrial process lines c a r r y a variety of chemi-

species;

both organic substances

(hydrocarbons,

carbohydrates,

acids, phenols, nitrosamines) and inorganic ions (Cl-,

(Co2,

02,

H2).

I n all instances, the sample can be solid,

Because of the above-mentioned

amino-

Na+, H+) o r molecules liquid o r gaseous.

diversity, a comprehensive description of the

applications of process analysers i s beyond the scope of t h i s chapter, which deals only with a number of representative examples.

O i l refineries involve a large number of different processes that require exhaustive control t o meet product specifications imposed by the market. Below are discussed some aspects of the treatment of crude oils, f o r which the use of process analysers is mandatory [9]. Oil plants handle saline water, known as "formation water" and containing about 20% of salts, together with the product. This i s an undesirable phenomenon which compels diversion of the well j e t from the main stream to be refined. As a rule, 5-10 wells feed each gas-oil

separation

unit, intended t o

remove gas from the oil in three o r f o u r stages. I t would be uneconomic t o place one analyser i n each well stream, so that analysers are placed only i n the unloading line of each gas-oil used here are salt-in-crude

separation

unit.

The analysers typically

analysers and densitometers f o r low and high

concentratlons, respectively, of water in the oil. I n refining the oil it is necessary t o stabilize the crude by removing the liquefied petroleum gases (LPG), generally

containing substantial amounts of

HzS and other sulphurized compounds that must be eliminated. to protect the LPG

plant and produce propane and butane suitable f o r sale. A Reid vapour-pressure analyser monitors whether the crude has been properly stabilized. The hydrocarbon desu I p h u r i zation process i IIustrates two different p u rposes of these analysers: process control and control of wastes dumped i n t o the atmosphere.

The

desulphurlzation

process Involves two stages.

I n the

f i r s t , sulphur is removed from the hydrocarbons by catalytic hydrogenation (Fig. 16.2): R-SH

+ HZ

+

H2S + RH

Then the H2S i s .removed from the hydrocarbon by selective absorption with triethanolamlne. The feeding of hydrocarbons t o the desulphurizatlon u n i t i s controlled automatically b y means of an analyser accordlng t o the u n i t yield. For economlc and environmental monitoring reasons, the amlne stream Is passed through a sulphur recovery plant based on the Claus process. This involves oxidation of hydrogen sulphlde to sulphur t o a extent of 90% and storage of the sulpur. The hlgh yield Is achieved I n two steps controlled by an HzS analyser (a gas chromatograph with a flame photometric detector) ensurlng the produc-


540

tion of an adequate HzS/SOz mixture. The hydrocarbon concentration entering t h e Claus plant shoud be kept t o a minimum i n order t o avoid deposition of carbon on the catalyst surface -this

is controlled by a gas chromatograph.

The gas emerging from the Claus plant usually contains too much HzS (roughly 10%) t o be released t o the atmosphere, so that it i s passed t h r o u g h oxidation furnaces and absorbers t o reduce the H2S concentration t o about 10 ppm (m L/m3).

To atmosphere

I

treatment system

_ ti28 10%

I

I

-

Claus plant I

F l o w r o t e controller

Feed

-

-

Cotolytic desulphLrizing

t -

Absorber

unil

Fig. 16.2 S i m p l i f i e d process o f desulphurization and recovery o f sulphur i n a r e f i n e r y . ( H 2 S , An) and (HC, An) denote the H 2 S and hydrocarbon analysers, respectively.

Hydrogen analysers are frequently employed i n t h i s t y p e of I n d u s t r y as a result of the usual hydrogenation of petroleum derivatlves (naphthas, acetylenes). These instruments are based on the measurement of the gas density or thermal conductivity. They are typically employed i n the reforming of naphthas. These compounds are hydrogenated p r i o r t o mixlng with other petroleum derlvatives i n the production o f gasollnes.

I n Fig.. 16.3 Is shown a typical

assembly for reforming of naphthas including an automatic system f o r control of the temperature of the naphtha enterlng the reformer based on the measurement of the octane number o f the reformed product. Figure 16.3 also shows a

Process anal ysers

54 7

simplified system f o r regeneration of the catalyst used i n the hydrogenation. This type of catalyst must be regenerated when the hydrogen concentration i n the recycled gas falls below 55% by passing a hot a i r stream over the catalyst. This oxidizes the deposited carbon t o COz and is controlled by an oxygen analyser located at the hot a i r outlet. Heat air

i

5 t a b 1 l i z e dnaphta

Heater

Reformer

F r a c t i o n a t or

Reformate to gasoline blender

Recycled gas number

Hz i n light hydrocarbons

Fuel gas

Fig. 16.3

Reformer u n i t c o n t r o l based on reformate product octane r a t i n g s e t t i n g the temperature o f the reactor feed, and c a t a l y s t regeneration system. (02, An), (H, An) and ( O . N . , An) are the oxygen, hydrogen and octane number analysers, respectively.

As stated above, gas chromatographs used in Process control are the analy-

sers most commonly used i n the industrial field. This is particularly t r u e of oil

refineries and

petrochemical

industries as a result of

the versatility,

selectivity and suitability with respect t o the products t o be analysed, i . e . gases or volatile liquids. These instruments have been used f o r a variety of applications:

control

of

ambient

air

in

industry

(determination

of

vinyl

chloride), of reagent p u r i t y (determination of traces of water i n xylenes) and o f processes (determination of the products obtained in the hydrogenation of acetylenes). These instruments are widely used in the fractionation of LPGs (Fig. 16.4) i n controlling fractionators t o ensure t h e i r optimum and economic operation with acceptable impurity levels. Process analysers less commonly used are employed In lube oil and wax treatment

plants (Fig.

16.5).

I n a f i r s t stage differential

refractive Index


542

analysers are used t o control the viscosity in order to ensure the efficient separation of aromatic oils from the feed. I n a second stage, the feed is cooled until the wax crystallizes and can be separated from the oil b y filtering. The plant operation is controlled by a pour-point analyser. The

oils

are then treated for acceptable coloration and the wax is purified, thereby obtaining refined products suitable for sale. Colour and

melting point ana-

lysers are employed for these purposes.

overheads products PGC

-

C

!

Feed

fuel gas system

F

p

Propane in e t h a n e

Ethane in propane

0

n

1 I

Isobutane to alkylation plant

I

r C

- b

Butane in isobutane

n t

P r o p a n e in bottoms

?

Fig. 16.4 Location o f p e t r o l gas chromatographs i n a t y p i c a l LPG fractionation plant f o r l i g h t hydrocarbons.

The power consumption In the i r o n and s t e e l industries amounts to 20% of the total energy used by the USA, most of which is obtained from coal [lo]. The conversion of coal t o coke can be explolted In three ways: (a) coke Is a source of heat and a blast furnace fuel f o r the production of pig iron; (b) one-third of the coke oven gas (COG) is used as fuel for underfiring coke furnaces; (c) the other two-thirds of the COG is used for reheating of furnaces in steel production plants. These reasons make necessary the analysis of COG and the fumes from blast furnaces and steel production plants - m a i n l y Hz, CH4, CO, COz and 02). Prior t o analysis, the samples must be conditioned (Fig. 16.6) by removing tar, water and light oils. Hydrogen Is normally measured by

Process anal ysers

*

543

unit

I

oils and waxes

lube oil

Aromatic oils

Waxes 1'

Me1ting

b

Fig. 16.5 Block diagram o f a lube o i l and wax treatment plant. (n, An), (pp, An), ( C , An) and (mp, An) are the refractive index, pour point, colour and melting point analysers, respectively.

a thermal conductivity detector and methane is determined b y gas chromatography. Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are determined by I R spectroscopy, while oxygen i s sensed by a paramagnetic analyser. The control of the oxygen content of COG Is important Insofar as the inflow of air t o the furnace increases the volume of gas t o be processed, causes the cornbustion of carbon rather than the formation of coke and, especially at concentrations above 5%, may cause the formation of explosive mixtures (55-60%) with the hydrogen present i n the COG. Oxygen analysers are commonly used In most industrial processes, where

oxygen

occurs as a gas or dissolved i n a llquld phase. Gas analysers are used

with a variety of detectors: ZrOz and TI cells, thermomagnetic and paramagnetic. Analysers f o r oxygen in liquids can be galvanic or polarographic. Those used t o determine oxygen In gases are employed f o r a variety of purposes: (a) i n systems f o r the control of combustion air with the a h of optimizing the combustion efficiency and hence decreasing fuel consumption and the production of unwanted gases; (b) In controlling stack gas; (c) i n controlllng air ieak-


544

COG

I_

Tar and water separators

I

Coke oven

C

L

7 -

Glass wool filter

Dryer

L

System f o r conditioning o f coke oven gas. On the l e f t a r e depicted the hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxygen analysers.

Fig. 16.6

age; (d) for control of oxygen i n non-ventilated

industrial areas; (e) for

control of inert gas purges to prevent oxygen from degrading or contaminating the contents of storage tanks; ( f ) in controlling catalytic regeneration systems in petrochemical industries. Dissolved oxygen analysers have completely different uses, namely: (a) In controlling pollution in rivers, lakes, streams and industrial plant effluents; (b) in controlling and improving the efficiency of aeration systems; (c) for the control of water treatment plants to ensure the oxygen levels required for adequate bacterial growth; (d) f o r the control of beverage and food processing plants - o x y g e n can detract from the quality of foods and drlnks--;

(e) in controlling fermentation processes f r e -

quently involving certain amounts of oxygen. I n addition to m e components such as tar, ammonia, naphthalene and aromatics, which are removed during the gas scrubblng, coke oven gas contains a significant concentrations of HCN, HzS and other sulphurlzed compounds. As COG is employed as a fuel i n various production processes in the iron and steel industry, it must be purified as the gases released to the atmosphere would exceed the permlssible levels. Hydrogen cyanide Is ellmlnated by catalytic degradation and HzS is removed by treatment with an aqueous solution of monoethanolamine or ammonia, or by the Thylox process. Prior t o their release, the fumes are measured for thelr HCN and HzS contents by means of a gas chromatograph with a thermal conductivity detector. The use of process analysers In the food industries i s not

so common,

Process anal ysers

545

probably because of their traditionalism and attachment to conventional systems. Thus, in breweries, processes are chiefly controlled by measuring physical properties such as the temperature, flow-rate,

liquid level or pressure,

while the quality of the end product is controlled almost entirely in the laboratory. However, there are many points along the process where analysers are used (Fig. 16.7).

Beer production involves three essential stages: wort

production, fermentation and filtering, and storage. During the f i r s t stage, malt starches and proteins and the adjuncts are hydrolysed to simpler substances such as sugars and amino-acids. The water required for wort production must be very pure, so i t is treated with active carbon or ozonized to make it odourless and microbiologically

sterile -the

last treatment involves the use

of an ozone analyser to ensure that the ozone concentration is not so low as to detract from its biocidal power, or so high as t o corrode the piping. During wort production, some brewers determine the oxygen content, although this phase is generally controlled b y measuring the temperature and density -known

as "original gravity". The fermentation process basically involves the

anaerobic degradation of maltose to ethanol and Co2. This process must be carefully controlled so that, In addition t o thermometers and densitometers, instruments for measurement of the yeast concentration (electronic particle counters), the oxygen content, which should be minimum as the process is meant to be as anaerobic as possible, and the Co2 concentration, which is useful not only to control the fermentation

but also to indicate the purity of the gas

produced i n this phase, which is stored, are required. Finally, time should be allowed for the deposition of suspended solids, after which the product is filtered under nephelometric control to ensure a proper appearance. Prior to bottling, an accurately measured amount of the stored Co;! is added t o improve the odour, flavour and frothing of the product. Carbon dioxide analysers, based on heat capacity, electrical conductivity or partial pressure measurements, but especially on I R light absorption, are therefore

used at various points i n industrial processes. Carbon monoxide and

dioxide are the species most commonly analysed for by the last of the abovementioned detection techniques, which i s also employed i n a variety of processes [6], namely: (a) control of the hydrogenation of plant oils i n order to avoid production of unwanted trans isomers; ( b ) measurement of sugars and COz in soft drinks; (c) measurement of moisture; ( d ) determination of COz i n industrial environments; (e) determination of isocyanates in the production of polyurethane; ( f ) determination of methane i n argon "from nuclear plants; (9) control of the efflciency of solvent clean-up and recovery systems. Power plants use various types of process anaiysers. One of thelr pur-

poses is the control of boiler scales. These pose two major problems: (a) high

546

c

v

i70

a

L . m

alc

> x

> w

o x

L

m w .

a r

l

m o w

a

c s E

al&L

L

+-'a5

u .,-I

( u s

al

Q C t -

- x.

a-


r 1 u -

-+m

.-!K O

aloal +-'NU

+al& v-c, .,-I 0 m U K mu,

s--

m c

.,-I N

u4J

3 0 4 0 0 w -c-> m .,-I

u,

E C V

m m m L a

m-

m a c mL .,-I

'0

Fig. 16.7 Block diagram showing t h e d i f f e r e n t steps i n v o l v e d i n brewing. ( 0 3 , An), (02. An), (d, An), ( Y , An), ( t , An) and (COz, An) denote t h e ozone, oxygen, d e n s i t y , yeast, t u r b i d i t y and carbon d i o x i d e analysers, r e s p e c t i v e l y . ( T ) i s a thermometer.

Process analysers

54 7

chloride concentrations attack stainless-steel

parts of the system, thereby

fostering their corrosion; (b) the presence of scales lowers the heating efficiency of the water boiler. As an enormous amount of water is evaporated from the boiler, the solids concentration must be very low - o f the order of a f e w pg/L--,

so that very sensitive analysers are required. The steam production

system is usually furnished with unlts t o help reduce solid deposition and corrosion of the boiler and condensers (Fig. 16.8), either by means of chemical additives such as NazHPO4, which inhibits the precipitation of calcium and magnesium and coats and passivates the tubing surface, and NazSCh, which removes excess oxygen from the boiler water and hence prevents corrosion by piercing of the boiler tubes, or by use of condensate polishing systems or mixed-bed demineralization systems, which decrease the amount of condensed solids, without

laborious elimination. The analysers most commonly used i n this

f i e l d are conductimeters and sodium-selective electrodes. I n some cases, when the analyser detects a salt concentration above a preset value, the unit is halted automatically -this

obviously calls for conductlmeters, which are more

reliable than ISEs. Conductimeters located downstream of the condenser allow the system t o be stopped as a valve is opened t o expel contaminants -which are therefore prevented from reaching the water tank-

and an alarm is

triggered f o r the failure t o be remedied.

I I

j

Boiler water storage

c-

.

polishing system

Boiler

I

Block diagram o f a steam condensate return or dump based on conductivity measurements (c, An) i n a power plant.

Fig. 16.8

Conductimeters used for process analysis are as simple as those using a

Wheatstone bridge as a detector or as sophistlcated as electrodeless conduct i v i t y systems. I n additlon t o those described above, they are employed f o r a


548

host of purposes, namely: (a) for measuring the conductivity of the fluids from cooling towers with a view t o controlling evaporation losses and unnecessarily increased amounts of dissolved solids; (b) for the detection of dripping corrosive materials through process heat exchangers; (c) for controlling waste water, filtration of saline water to springs, ponds or wells; (d) for controlling the efficiency of the production of distilled or de-ionized

water;

( e l for the determination of the concentration of acids, bases or salts in various chemical processes i n brine o r caustic degreasing baths, anodizing solutions, etc. Other functions served by process analysers include the analysis of gases produced at different points in nuclear reactors. Among such gases are hydrogen, methane and other hydrocarbons formed as lube oil drips into the COZ heat exchanger and is cracked at the high temperatures reached within the reactor. The control of contamination by H2 and CCk of the condenser when using graphite moderators is also important. Finally, the vapour pressure at the boiler outlet is much higher than that of CCk i n the condenser, so that some vapour may find its way into it. The use of a gas chromatograph i n the f i r s t two cases and a moisture meter in the last allows the detection of the corresponding anomaly. As a rule, water traces are difficult t o measure because of the very na-

t u r e of water and of Its high content i n the atmosphere. I n addition, water tends to be adsorbed on almost any type of surface and to build up i n all crevices of the system. Moisture has an adverse effect in many respects: it can degrade stored food, lower the quality of end products, damage electronic components, decrease the efficiency of catalysts and, i n many cases, considerably

reduce the lifetime expectations of many elements or process plants.

There are several types of hygrometers: electrolytic, suitable for measuring low moisture contents in corrosive gases; those based on Impedance o r steam pressure measurements,

usable as in-line

analysers i n

non-corrosive

gas

streams and non-polar liquids; and those based on I R light absorption; those using hygroscopically coated quartz crystals and oscillatlng circuits.

They

have a variety of applications: (a) measurement of moisture i n anhydrous gases with the aim of keeping I t t o a minimum in order to avoid corrosion of piping and process containers; (b) control of humidity In rooms housing electronic material; (c) control of moisture In tempering furnaces and filling or isolation gases; ( d ) control of moisture In catalytlc reforming operations to avoid catalyst passivation; (e) control of moisture i n hydrocarbon streams obtained by cryogenic fractlonation or distillation t o avoid the formation of ice or llquid water that might block the conduits; ( f ) control of moisture In effluent gases from dryers and condensers i n order to determine the process

Process analysers efficiency;

549

( 9 ) control of moisture i n gases with a view t o augmenting the

efficiency of

combustion of

hydrocarbons -water

is one of the

products

generated i n t h i s process. A recent application of graphite-furnace atomic absorption spectrometry in

nuclear plants i s the p u r i t y control of primary-side

water, necessary because

some species occurring In water, such as aluminium, calcium, magnesium and silica, can contribute to the formation of undesirable crude deposits on the nuclear fuel cladding and should therefore be reduced t o very low levels (a few pg/L) i n the primary water. Process analysers are widely applied t o the c o n t r o l o f p o l l u t a n t s . Some of the applications (e.9. the removal of HCN and HzS from coke oven gas and the control of CCz in breweries) were commented on above, and a few others are discussed below. Sunlight causes the reaction of atmospheric hydrocarbons with nitrogen oxides t o form photochemical smog; i n addition, such as CO,

C02,

the noxious effects o f gases

NO and NO2 are well known. One of the principal sources of

emission of these gases t o the atmosphere i s internal combustion engines, so they must be tested t o ensure t h a t they do not emit more than the maximum allowable

concentrations of various pollutants. The motor vehicle is tested

on a roller brake with a programmed cycle of idling, acceleration, running, gear changing and

E x haus t

deceleration.

Figure 16.9 shows the analyser

f o r gases

water

_c

gas

condenser I

Zero

and callbrat ion gases

kK3

Fig. 16.9 S i m p l i f i e d diagram o f a system f o r analysis f o r exhaust. ( F ) and ( P ) denote flow-meter and pressure gauge, respectively. (CO, An), ( C o n , An), (HC, An), (NO, An) and (NOz, An) are analysers f o r CO, CO2, hydrocarbons, NO and NOz.

emitted by motor vehicles. The gas pretreatment includes condensation of the


550

water produced i n the combustion, f i l t e r i n g and pressure control. The analyser possesses a system f o r zero-setting

and calibration o f each detector. Normal-

ly, NO, CO and Co2 are measured by I R spectrometry, as are hydrocarbons, which can also be determined by gas chromatography. Nitrogen dioxide i s determined by UV spectrometry. The pulp and paper industries produces three types of pollution: foetid gases and particulates, polluted water used i n various processes and noise. The chief gas pollutants produced in brewing are reduced sulphurized compounds [HzS,

CHBSH, (CH3)zS,

(CH3)zSzI commonly

(TRS), and sulphur oxides (So2, S o d ,

known

as 'total

reduced sulphur'

nitrogen oxides (NO,

NOZ) and other

organic compounds such as terpenes, hydrocarbons, alcohols and fenols released by wood pulp. The large amounts of pollutants produced necessltate the use of systems f o r t h e i r elimination and analysers t o measure t h e i r concentrations i n the gases dumped into the atmosphere, which must be kept within the limits established

by legislation. The analysers typically used t o control sulphur-

ized compounds (gas chromatographs with flame photometric detectors), CO, Con, NO ( I R analysers) and NO2 (UV analysers), w e r e commented on above, so that

only the systems f o r collection and conditioning of TRSs are described here.

;

probe

---L-

-

502 scrubber

O x idat ion

furnace

Duct’ wall Moisture trap

To

waste

Fig. 16.10 Sampling and conditioning system f o r analysis o f t o t a l reduced sulphur (TRS) compounds. (F) and (SOz, An) denote the flow-meter and the SO2 analyser, respectively.

The system depicted In Flg. 16.10 consists o f a sample probe with a glass fibre

fllter

followed

for

the elimination

by another f i l t e r f o r

of coarse

particles from the

retention o f f i n e r partlcles.

gas stream,

This last f i l t e r

i s heated, as are all the sample t r a n s p o r t lines in o r d e r t o avoid steam

Process a n a l y s e r s

55 1

condensation, which might result in clogging. The SO2 is removed by bubbling the sample through

potassium hydrogen phthalate, which also retains excess

steam and particles that may remain i n the gas and cools the gas t o ambient temperature. Subsequently, the compounds in the TRS fraction are oxidized in a furnace

as the

potentially

interfering terpenes and aromatic and olefinic

compounds are eliminated by degradation to C02 and HzO. The resulting SO2 is determined by means of an appropriate detector. The particulate concentration i n stack fuel gases must be determined to comply

with

current

legislation on

environmental

pollution,

which

places

emphasis on the particle size. By "particulate matter" is understood any solid or

liquid material emitted t o the atmosphere, including dust,

soot, tar and droplets.

fumes, ash,

These "analytes" can be monitored continuously by

means of detectors based on the absorption of light or R-radiation or on the transfer of charge between particles. Water-treatment p l a n t s still use process analysers fairly infrequently; however, the water chlorination process is an exception t o this rule. Chlorination is the commonest water sterilization method. The speed of addition of chlorine at a given moment depends on the water demand, the pH and the amount of organic matter and bacteria present. On the other hand, the residual chlorine level i n the sterilized water should be sufficiently high (0.2-0.3

pg/mL)

t o ensure that the water is effectively sterilized and that bacteria subsequently contaminating it are destroyed. However, excess residual chlorine is a waste and endows the water with unpleasant odour and taste. This compels to appropriate control of the treatment.

Figure 16.11 depicts a typical water

chlorination system In which the chlorinator adds chlorlne t o the water; the water is sterilized for about 30 min and then measured for i t s content of residual chlorine. I f such a content is too low, more chlorine is added; if i t is too high, the ammoniator dispenses the amount of ammonia required to counteract the excess chlorlne by formation of chloramines, which are odourless and have less bactericidal power, although they are more persistent, than chlorine. I n this case, a pH-meter Is used to measure and set the pH of the water to a slightly acidic level where the bacterlcidal action of chlorine is the strongest. The use of pH-meters Is common because of the strong influence of pH on any kind of reaction [ll]. Thus, they are used: (a) t o measure the pH of heat exchanger liqulds In order t o detect possible stream leaks t o the Inside of the exchanger, as excessive acldity fosters corroslon of the system while excesslve alkalinity favours scallng; (b) t o measure the pH of plant effluents returned t o the ecosystem as industrlal waste treatment effluents and waste hold pond outlets, whose acceptable pH is usually between 6 and 9; (c) t o


552

control

electrolytic

processes; (d) to

neutralize

electroplating

wastes;

(e)

to control fermentation processes i n pharmaceutical industries; ( f ) t o perform studies on high-purity

water; (9) to control the operational conditions i n a

variety of processes in the paper, brewing, soap and chemical manufacturing in d ustries.

Chlorinator

r

I

---I

rC- Hz

0

1'

-

Untreated

Fig. 16.11

Ammoniator

Sterilized

-

Conventional water chlorination system.

Corrosion meters are not used t o determine the concentration of a given

species or the value of a certain physical property In controlling a process, but to give a measure of the aggressiveness of the environment t o equipment carrying out a given process. Corrosion is a continuous, natural process that can be slowed, although not stopped. I n fact, it cost the process industry over 1 billion dollars per annum. Reducing the corrosion rate as f a r as possible minimizes this cost, increases the equipment's useful lifetime and saves energy, natural resources and maintenance. There are two chief types of corrosion meters: those measuring the instantaneous corrosion rate (ICR), also known as 'linear

polarization resistance'

(LPR), which are only

used with

polar o r highly conductive liquids, and those measuring the electrical resistance (ER), employed with gases and non-polar liquids. The former are used in many

circumstances,

namely:

(a) In oil field

evaluations o f

inhibitors to

control water, oxygen, Co;! and brine, thereby allowing the determination of the efficiency of Inhibitor formulae, their continuous or dlscrete dosing and the minimum level of

Inhibitor required;

(b)

i n checking water

injection

systems to evaluate blocldes, oxygen scavengers and filming inhibitors; (c) in measuring corrosion i n process equipment and connecting pipe systems; ( d ) for

Process a n a l y s e r s

553

the determination of the corrosion resistance of metals and alloys i n chemical manufacturing flow-rate

influence of

pH, temperature,

and various pollutants on the corrosion speed;

plants;

(e)

for

studying

the

(f) for studying

passivation film building and the anodic protection technique;

( 9 ) f o r the

selection of materials f o r construction of industrial equipment;

( h ) f o r the

optimization of de-aeration

processes and the composition and temperature of

the feed stream in o r d e r t o minimize corrosion i n brine evaporators;

(i) in

controlling the removal of acidic gases from natural gas production plants. Electrical resistance

analysers are often used i n oil refineries and chemical

processing plants. They are also useful f o r the determination of the effect of polluted air on electronic equipment and i n controlling air renovation systems i n closed spaces.

16.6 MICROPROCESSORS I N PROCESS ANALYSERS. TRENDS

The incorporation of digital systems i n process analysers i s relatively recent owing t o t h e i r

former

high cost;

however,

continuous technological

breakthroughs have favourably influenced the optimization of these systems and contributed t o t h e i r c u r r e n t affordabiiity and presence in analysers. Formerly, a computer was economic only if i t was used t o control several analysers -at

least seven in the case of gas chromatographs. A central compu-

t e r dealt sequentially with the programs of the analysers according t o preset

p r i o r i t y c r i t e r i a ( t i m e - s h a r i n g systems). The usual case today is t h a t a more o r less powerful microprocessor controls a single instrument and i t s associated

peripherals ( d e d i c a t e d computer

systems). I n large industrial facilities

such as oil refineries, the microprocessors controlling the analysers should be interconnected, making up computer networks. I n t h i s way, i f a computer should fail, only the plant that i t controls rather than the whole system will be affected; on the other hand, through one o f the microprocessors, the plant technician can obtain information from any of the computers i n the remainder of the plants without the need t o be physically present there, thereby saving time and improving the control of the plant as a whole. The data obtained by the analyser are supplied t o the technician through a terminal provided t h a t f o u r requirements are met: (a) the analyser should be suitably

linked t o the computer via an interface;

transmit

signals

'understood'

by the

interface;

( b ) the analyser

(c) the computer

should program

should be capable of collecting the data sent by the analyser and s t o r i n g them i n bulk memory; ( d ) the computer should have a program f o r the retrieval, treatment and delivery of stored data. Figure 16.12 shows a simplified scheme o f a computer-controlled

process


554

analyser. The key t o the microprocessor i s the central processing u n i t (CPU), which controls both the analysers and i t s peripherals. By means o f a keyboard the

analyser’s

operating

conditions

are

controlled

and

modified

via

the

analyser control and the interface. Likewise, the CPU receives data from the analyser t h r o u g h the interface and stores them if required. Then it processes the data and delivers results through a visual display (CRT), a p r i n t e r o r a continuous recorder, If the results are considered hazardous by the microprocessor, i t t r i g g e r s the pertinent alarm(s) and displays a warning on screen. Alternatively,

a faulty

analyser

only communicates the computer’s

failures.

f r o m p r o c e s s line

Storing

Recorder

Printer

unit

-

Inter-

Analyser

c

1

face

A nalyser

Central Processor Unit

Alarm Analyser

Fig. 16.12 computer.

Block

diagram

of

analyser

controlled

Keyboard

by

a

dedicated

Microprocessors can serve a variety of functions i n process analysers, namely; (a) improvement of data acquisition t h r o u g h rapid collection and storage f o r subsequent retrleval when needed; (b) data treatment according t o the detection technique used -this

ensures t h e faster and more convenient obtain-

ment of more accurate results by avoiding human intervention; (c) result delive r y as required b y the plant technician ( i n digital o r printed form, as a listing on a screen, on a continuous recorder permitting control of the signal evolution, etc.);

( d ) programming of the analyser operation -this

allows the

Process analysers

555

elimination of the mechanical elements formerly used and enables the user t o know and alter the operating conditions as and when required from the control room without the need t o move t o the analyser site; depending on the t y p e of analyser, the system programming can be f a i r l y simple (pH-meters) or complex (gas chromatographs);

( e l automatic

baseline correction t o avoid excessive

d r i f t and decrease the background noise, and hence increase the precision; ( f ) calibration and recalibration of the instrument according t o preprogrammed cycles which allow the accuracy o f measurements t o

be maintained; ( 9 ) trouble-

shooting b y means of sensors, electronic units and other accessories -this, together with the improved alarm systems c u r r e n t l y i n use, considerably increases the control of the technician in charge of the plant; ( h ) interpretation of data and acting on the process line, which represents almost complete automation of the plant control. A large variety of analysers such as ion chromatographs, mass spectrome-

ters,

digital

titrators,

calorimeters,

specific

ion analysers,

gas and

liquid

chromatographs and octane number analysers are manufactured with built-in microprocessors.

Current developments i n the field o f process anaiysers seem to point t o clear targets,

namely: (a) increasingly larger memory storage capacity

and

speed with the advent of 32-bit microprocessors; ( b ) the development of a universal data highway t h a t will facilitate the complete automation of Industrial plants

-robotization

and

artificial-intelligence

analysers

are

longer-term

objectives; (c) the Increasing use o f I R spectrometry and liquid chromatography i n contrast t o the prevailing gas chromatography; ( d ) the minlaturization of analyser elements,

particularly sensors

nents; (e) the increasing use of flow-injection

[12]

and electronic compo-

analysis, a novel technique

f o r the analysis of liquid samples characterized by I t s economy of sample, reagent and instrumentation, and its ready automation [13,14].

REFERENCES [l]J. R . Davies and S. Hughes, Managerial economics, MacDonald and Evans, London, 1977. [ 2 ] National E l e c t r i c a l Code, National F i r e Protection Association, Boston, Massachusetts, NFPA no. 70-1978, 347-364. [ 3 ] M. S. Frant and R . T. O l i v e r , Anal. Chem., 52 (1980) 1252A-1262A. 241 J. B. C a l l i s , D. L. I l l m a r and 8. R. Kowalski, Anal. Chem., 59 (1987) 624A-637A. [ 5 ] G . D. Nichols, Anal. Chem., 53 (1981) 489A-500A. [61 E. A. Houser, P r i n c i p l e s o f sample handling and sampling system design f o r process analysis, Instrument Society o f America, Pittsburgh, 1972. [I] P. E. M i x , The design and a p p l i c a t i o n o f process analyzer systems, John Wiley (1 Sons, New York, 1984. 181 R. Villalobos, Anal. Chem., 47 (1975) 983A-1004A. [ 9 ] D. J. Huskins, General handbook o f on-line process analysers, E l l i s Horwood Ltd., Chichester, 1981.

556


[ l o ] D. P. Manka, Automated stream analysis f o r process c o n t r o l , v o l s 1 and 2, Academic Press, New York, 1982. [ l l ] P. L . B a i l e y , Anal. Cbem., 50 (1978) 698A-706A. [12] J. Haggin, Cbem. Eng. News, June 4 1984, 7-13. [13] C. 8. Ranger, F l o w i n j e c t i o n analysis: a new approach t o near-real-time process monitoring, i n Automated stream a n a l y s i s f o r process c o n t r o l , v o l . 1, D. P. Manka ( E d . ) , Academic Press, New York, 1982, 39-68. [14] W. E. van der Linden, Anal. Chim. Acta, 179 (1986) 91.

Index

a c q u i s i t i o n , d a t a , 32-37 a i r a n a l y s e r s , 501, 517 o f f - l i n e , 502, 503 on-line, 503-517 air-segmented, continuous analysers, 123-157

a p p l i c a t i o n s , 143-149 basic concepts, 127-135 debubblers, 138, 139 detection systems, 139-141 dispersion, 134 general scheme, 126,127 multi-channel configurations, 141-143

propelling u n i t s , 137 reaction and separation u n i t s , 137, 138 recent advances, 149-156 sampling systems, 136,137 s t a b i l i t y , 135-136 analysers, 9 batch, 9, 227-248 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , 9-13 c l i n i c a l , 436-465 continuous, 9, 123-226 definition, 9 environmental, 501-521 i n process c o n t r o l , 524-556 robotic, 11 a n a l y t i c a l procedure, d e f i n i t i o n , 5 a n a l y t i c a l process, d e f i n i t i o n , 4, 13 a n a l y t i c a l technique, d e f i n i t i o n , 4 atomic spectrometers, control o f , 283-287

automated devices, d e f i n i t i o n , 7 automatic devices, d e f i n i t i o n , 6 automatic t i t r a t o r s , 393-421 computer-controlled, 408-425 hardware-controlled, 400-405 microprocessor-controlled, 405-408 automation, 2 d e f i n i t i o n s , 4-7 degrees o f , 13 disadvantages, 25, 26 importance, 26-28, 249-272 i n c l i n i c a l chemistry, 428-466 i n environmental c o n t r o l , 467-523 i n process c o n t r o l , 524-526 o b j e c t i v e s , 2-4 of chromatographic processes, 355392

o f e l e c t r o a n a l y t i c a l techniques, 31 2-354 o f sampling, 59-81

of spectrometric techniques, 27331 1

of t i t r a t i o n s , 393-427 r e l a t i o n s h i p t o a n a l y t i c a l techniques, 23-25 batch automatic analysers, 227-248 advantages, 2 2 7 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , 229-233 disadvantages, 228, 229 i n c l i n i c a l a n a l y s i s , 445-461 w i t h automatic sampling, 233-241 without automatic sampling, 2412 48

car ry-over, 76-79 i n air-segmented analysers, 129133

c e n t r a l i z e d computerized systems, 50 c e n t r i f u g a l analysers, 233-237 c e n t r i f u g a t i o n by robots, 260, 261 chromatograph, 356 automation o f , 356 column furnace, 375-377 data a c q u i s i t i o n and treatment, 382-386 degrees of automation, 356-359 detection systems, 378-382 mobile phase, 360-363 post-column d e r i v a t i z a t i o n systems, 377-378 sample c o l l e c t i o n and treatment, 364-375

sample i n j e c t i o n , 363, 364 chromatographic techniques, automation o f , 355-392 c l i n i c a l analysers, 436-465 batch, 445-461 continuous, 436-445 i n vivo, 461-465 c l i n i c a l chemistry, automation i n , 428-466 s t a g e s of c l i n i c a l a n a l y s i s , 431444

closed-loop F I A configurations, 173, 174

558

closed-open F I A c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , 174 column furnace, c o n t r o l i n chromatography, 375-377 computers, 29 c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , 50-53 i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n t r o l by, 45-50 r o l e i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y , 29-57 s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n , 54-55 continuous analysers, 9, 123-226 air-segmented, 123-157 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , 123-125 f l o w - i n j e c t i o n analysis, 158-195 i n c l i n i c a l a n a l y s i s , 436-445 o t h e r unsegmented f l o w methods, 196-226 continuous m i x i n g methods, 198, 211 continuous i n t r o d u c t i o n o f sample, 198-205 intermittent introduction o f sample, 205-211 controlled-dispersion flow analysis, 212, 213 cross-contamination, 76-79 data, a c q u i s i t i o n , 32-37 processing, 37-44 storage, 36-37 data banks i n spectrometric techniques, 305-308 a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e systems, 306-308 s p e c t r a l l i b r a r y searching systems, 305, 306 dedicated computerized systems, 50 degree o f automation, 13-23 d e l i v e r y system i n automatic tit r a t o r s , 396-399 d e t e c t i o n i n chromatography, 378-382 d i a l y s i s , automatic, 105 d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n automatic methods, 197, 198 d i s c r e t e automatic analysers, 227248 d i s s o l u t i o n , automatic, 84-87 d i s t i l l a t i o n , automatic, 90-95 o f f - l i n e systems, 90, 91 on-line systems, 91-95 e l e c t r o a n a l y t i c a l techniques, automation o f , 312-354 potentiometry, 314-324 spectroelectrochemistry, 349-351 s t r i p p i n g a n a l y s i s , 343-349 voltamnetry, 324-343 environmental p o l l u t i o n monitoring, a i r analysers, 501-517 automation o f , 467-523 sampling, 470-481

Index

survey networks, 517-521 water analysers, 481-501 e r r o r s , 41, 74-81 i n automatic sampling, 74-81 i n data processing, 41, 42 expert systems, 53, 54, 307, 308 e x t r a c t i o n , automatic, 108-122 by robots, 261 l i q u i d - l i q u i d , 112-122 s o l i d - l i q u i d , 108-112 f i l t r a t i o n , automatic, 95-98 f l o w - i n j e c t i o n analysis, 158-195 a p p l i c a t i o n s , 185-191 basic concepts, 158-166 d e t e c t i o n systems, 170, 171 F I A modes, 171-182 general features, 182-195 i n j e c t i o n systems, 167-169 p r o p e l l i n g systems, 167 t r a n s p o r t and r e a c t i o n systems, 169, 170 trends, 191, 192 gas d i f f u s i o n , automatic, 106, 107 gases, automatic sampling o f , 72-74 g r a d i e n t techniques i n F I A , 177, 178 hierarchical, computerized systems, 50-52 view o f a n a l y t i c a l chemistry, 5, 6 hydride generation, continuous method, 93-94 hyphenated methods, 386-389 information, s c i e n t i f i c , computerized access, 54, 55 instrument , computerized c o n t r o l , 45-50 instrumentation, automation o f , 273-392 definition, 6 i n chromatographic processes, 355392 i n e l e c t r o a n a l y t i c a l techniques, 312-354 i n spectrometric techniques, 273312 i o n exchange, automatic separations by, 101-104 K j e l d a h l , automatic method, 91 l i g h t source, c o n t r o l o f , 274, 275

Index

l i q u i d a d d i t i o n by robots, 258, 259 l i q u i d - l i q u i d e x t r a c t i o n , automatic,

112-122 l i q u i d s , automatic sampling o f , 64-72 l i q u i d t r a n s f e r by robots, 259 l i x i v i a t i o n , see " s o l i d - l i q u i d ext r a c tion"

mechanization, d e f i n i t i o n , 6 membrane, automatic separations through, 104-108 d i a l y s i s , 105 gas d i f f u s i o n , 106, 107 merging zones, FIA mode, 175 m i n i a t u r i z e d FIA, 176 c a p i l l a r y FIA, 176 i n t e g r a t e d microconduits, 176 mobile phase, c o n t r o l i n chromatography, 360-363 m o n i t o r i n g o f automatic t i t r a t o r s ,

399, 400 monochromator, c o n t r o l o f , 275, 276 m u l t i p l e x spectrometric methods,

295-305 w i t h a s i n g l e detector, 297 w i t h m u l t i p l e detectors, 298-305 open-closed FIA c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , 174 o p t i c a l instruments, automation o f ,

283-287 c o n t r o l o f t h e l i g h t source, 273-

287 c o n t r o l o f t h e monochromator, 275,

276 c o n t r o l o f t h e sample compartment,

277, 278 o v e r a l l c o n t r o l o f t h e instrument,

278-287 o p t i m i z a t i o n o f chromatographic sepa r a t ions, 389-39 1

55Y

trends, 553-555 process c o n t r o l , automation o f , 524-

556 processing, data, 37-44 e r r o r s i n , 41-42 reagent carry-over, 78, 79 r e s u l t s , d e l i v e r y o f , 44, 45 reversed FIA, 172, 173 robots i n l a b o r a t o r y , 249-272 a p p l i c a t i o n s , 262-271 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 250-255 robot s t a t i o n s , 256-258 u n i t operations, 258-262 sample, carry-over, 77-78 compartment, c o n t r o l of, 277, 278 i n j e c t i o n i n chromatography, 363,

364 preparation, 59- I22 treatment, 82-122, 364-375 sampling, automation o f , 60-81 e r r o r s , 75-81 fundamentals, 60-62 o f gases, 72-74 o f l i q u i d s , 64-72 o f s o l i d s , 62-64 separation techniques i n F I A , 180,

181 software, 38-44 s o l i d - l i q u i d e x t r a c t i o n , automatic,

108-1 12 s o l i d s , automatic sampling o f , 62-64 s o r p t i o n , automatic, 98-101 o f f - l i n e systems, 99, 100 on-line systems, 100, 101 s p e c t r a l l i b r a r y searching systems,

305, 306 spect r o e l e c t rochemist r y , automat i o n Of,

packed reagents i n c l i n i c a l anal y s i s , 456-461 p a t t e r n r e c o g n i t i o n , 306, 307 p r e c i p i t a t i o n , automatic, 96-98 post-column d e r i v a t i z a t i o n systems,

377, 378 potentiometry, automation o f , 314-

324 commercial instruments, 314-317 home-made instruments, 317-324 process analysers, 524-556 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , 529-532 components, 532-538 features, 525-529 microprocessors i n , 553-555 scope o f a p p l i c a t i o n , 538-553

349-351

s p e c t r o f l u o r i m e t e r , c o n t r o l o f , 281-283 spectrometric techniques, automation Of,

273-311

spectrophotometer, c o n t r o l o f , 279-282 spectroscopic data, automated acquis i t i o n and treatment o f , 287-305 conventional spectrometric methods, 289-295 m u l t i p l e x spectrometric methods,

285-305 s t i r r i n g by robots, 259, 260 stopped-flow continuous m i x i n g methods, 211-219 s t r i p p i n g analysis, automation o f ,

343-349 survey networks i n environmental c o n t r o l , 517-521

Index

560

t i t r a t i o n s , automation o f , i n batch systems, 393-427 i n continuous flow systems, 219226 t i t r a t o r s , automatic, 393-427 components, 396-400 degrees o f automation, 400-425 vaporization, automatic, 94, 95 v o l a t i l i z a t i o n , automatic, 87-89 voltammetry, automation o f , 324-343 data a c q u i s i t i o n and treatment, 329-333

working electrode, 325-329 water analysers, 481-504 o f f - l i n e , 483-488 on-line, 488-501 weighing by robots, 258 workstations, 52, 53 zone manipulation i n FIA, 175, 176 merging zones, 175 zone sampling, 175 zone trapping, 175, 176

Automatic Methods of Analysis

Automatic Methods of Analysis

Automatic Autocorrelation and Spectral Analysis

Automatic Autocorrelation and Spectral Analysis

Automatic Chemical Analysis: Second Edition

Automatic Autocorrelation and Spectral Analysis

Automatic Autocorrelation and Spectral Analysis

Methods of nonlinear analysis,

Analysis of Numerical Methods

Methods of Real Analysis

Methods of Multivariate Analysis

Methods of nonconvex analysis

Methods of Multivariate Analysis

Analysis of Numerical Methods

Methods of Multivariate Analysis

Methods of multivariate analysis

Methods of nonlinear analysis,

Methods of real analysis

Methods Of Nonconvex Analysis

Methods of nonlinear analysis,

Methods of Seawater Analysis

State Variable Methods in Automatic Control

Design of Automatic Machinery

Numerical analysis of spectral methods

Approximate methods of higher analysis

Optical Methods of Engineering Analysis

Numerical Analysis of Wavelet Methods

Numerical analysis of wavelet methods

Matrix methods of structural analysis

Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis

Numerical analysis of wavelet methods

Automatic Methods of Analysis