Antifouling Paint Biocides

The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Editor-in-Chief: O. Hutzinger Volume 5 Water Pollution Part O

Advisory Board: D. Barceló · P. Fabian · H. Fiedler · H. Frank · J. P. Giesy · R. A. Hites T. A. Kassim · M. A. K. Khalil · D. Mackay · A. H. Neilson J. Paasivirta · H. Parlar · S. H. Safe · P. J. Wangersky

The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Recently Published and Forthcoming Volumes

Environmental Specimen Banking Volume Editors: S. A. Wise and P. P. R. Becker Vol. 3/S, 2006 Polymers: Chances and Risks Volume Editors: P. Eyerer, M. Weller and C. Hübner Vol. 3/V, 2006 The Rhine Volume Editor: T. P. Knepper Vol. 5/L, 03.2006 Persistent Organic Pollutants in the Great Lakes Volume Editor: R. A. Hites Vol. 5/N, 2006 Antifouling Paint Biocides Volume Editor: I. Konstantinou Vol. 5/O, 2006 Estuaries Volume Editor: P. J. Wangersky Vol. 5/H, 2006 The Caspian Sea Environment Volume Editors: A. Kostianoy and A. Kosarev Vol. 5/P, 2005

Marine Organic Matter: Biomarkers, Isotopes and DNA Volume Editor: J. K. Volkman Vol. 2/N, 2005 Environmental Photochemistry Part II Volume Editors: P. Boule, D. Bahnemann and P. Robertson Vol. 2/M, 2005 Air Quality in Airplane Cabins and Similar Enclosed Spaces Volume Editor: M. B. Hocking Vol. 4/H, 2005 Environmental Effects of Marine Finfish Aquaculture Volume Editor: B. T. Hargrave Vol. 5/M, 2005 The Mediterranean Sea Volume Editor: A. Saliot Vol. 5/K, 2005 Environmental Impact Assessment of Recycled Wastes on Surface and Ground Waters Engineering Modeling and Sustainability Volume Editor: T. A. Kassim Vol. 5/F (3 Vols.), 2005 Oxidants and Antioxidant Defense Systems Volume Editor: T. Grune Vol. 2/O, 2005

Antifouling Paint Biocides Volume Editor: Ioannis K. Konstantinou

With contributions by T. A. Albanis · A. Baart · D. Barceló · J. Boon · C. Brunori · K. Fent A. R. Fernández-Alba · B. van Hattum · M. D. Hernando · I. Ipolyi I. K. Konstantinou · P. Massanisso · M. Mezcua · H. Mieno R. Morabito · H. Okamura · I. Omae · J. W. Readman V. A. Sakkas · N. Voulvoulis · H. Yamada

123

Environmental chemistry is a rather young and interdisciplinary field of science. Its aim is a complete description of the environment and of transformations occurring on a local or global scale. Environmental chemistry also gives an account of the impact of man’s activities on the natural environment by describing observed changes. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry provides the compilation of today’s knowledge. Contributions are written by leading experts with practical experience in their fields. The Handbook will grow with the increase in our scientific understanding and should provide a valuable source not only for scientists, but also for environmental managers and decision-makers. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry is published in a series of five volumes: Volume 1: The Natural Environment and the Biogeochemical Cycles Volume 2: Reactions and Processes Volume 3: Anthropogenic Compounds Volume 4: Air Pollution Volume 5: Water Pollution The series Volume 1 The Natural Environment and the Biogeochemical Cycles describes the natural environment and gives an account of the global cycles for elements and classes of natural compounds. The series Volume 2 Reactions and Processes is an account of physical transport, and chemical and biological transformations of chemicals in the environment. The series Volume 3 Anthropogenic Compounds describes synthetic compounds, and compound classes as well as elements and naturally occurring chemical entities which are mobilized by man’s activities. The series Volume 4 Air Pollution and Volume 5 Water Pollution deal with the description of civilization’s effects on the atmosphere and hydrosphere. Within the individual series articles do not appear in a predetermined sequence. Instead, we invite contributors as our knowledge matures enough to warrant a handbook article. Suggestions for new topics from the scientific community to members of the Advisory Board or to the Publisher are very welcome.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2005938925

ISSN 1433-6863 ISBN-10 3-540-31404-0 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York ISBN-13 978-3-540-31404-2 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York DOI 10.1007/11555148 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law. Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media springer.com c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2006
Printed in Germany The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover design: E. Kirchner, Springer-Verlag Typesetting and Production: LE-TEX Jelonek, Schmidt & Vöckler GbR, Leipzig Printed on acid-free paper 02/3141 YL – 5 4 3 2 1 0

Editor-in-Chief Prof. em. Dr. Otto Hutzinger Universität Bayreuth c/o Bad Ischl Office Grenzweg 22 5351 Aigen-Vogelhub, Austria [email protected]

Volume Editor Dr. Ioannis K. Konstantinou Department of Environmental and Natural Resources Management University of Ioannina Seferi 2 30100, Agrinio, Greece [email protected]

Advisory Board Prof. Dr. D. Barceló

Prof. Dr. J. P. Giesy

Dept. of Environmental Chemistry IIQAB-CSIC JordiGirona, 18–26 08034 Barcelona, Spain [email protected]

Department of Zoology Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 48824-1115, USA [email protected]

Prof. Dr. P. Fabian Lehrstuhl für Bioklimatologie und Immissionsforschung der Universität München Hohenbachernstraße 22 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany

Dr. H. Fiedler Scientific Affairs Office UNEP Chemicals 11–13, chemin des Anémones 1219 Châteleine (GE), Switzerland hfi[email protected]

Prof. Dr. H. Frank Lehrstuhl für Umwelttechnik und Ökotoxikologie Universität Bayreuth Postfach 10 12 51 95440 Bayreuth, Germany

Prof. Dr. R. A. Hites Indiana University School of Public and Environmental Affairs Bloomington, IN 47405, USA [email protected]

Dr. T. A. Kassim Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering College of Science and Engineering Seattle University 901 12th Avenue Seattle, WA 98122-1090, USA [email protected]

Prof. Dr. M. A. K. Khalil Department of Physics Portland State University Science Building II, Room 410 P.O. Box 751 Portland, OR 97207-0751, USA [email protected]

VI

Prof. Dr. D. Mackay

Prof. Dr. Dr. H. Parlar

Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry University of Toronto Toronto, ON, M5S 1A4, Canada

Institut für Lebensmitteltechnologie und Analytische Chemie Technische Universität München 85350 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany

Prof. Dr. A. H. Neilson

Prof. Dr. S. H. Safe

Swedish Environmental Research Institute P.O. Box 21060 10031 Stockholm, Sweden [email protected]

Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology College of Veterinary Medicine Texas A & M University College Station, TX 77843-4466, USA [email protected]

Prof. Dr. J. Paasivirta Department of Chemistry University of Jyväskylä Survontie 9 P.O. Box 35 40351 Jyväskylä, Finland

Prof. P. J. Wangersky University of Victoria Centre for Earth and Ocean Research P.O. Box 1700 Victoria, BC, V8W 3P6, Canada [email protected]

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Preface

Environmental Chemistry is a relatively young science. Interest in this subject, however, is growing very rapidly and, although no agreement has been reached as yet about the exact content and limits of this interdisciplinary discipline, there appears to be increasing interest in seeing environmental topics which are based on chemistry embodied in this subject. One of the first objectives of Environmental Chemistry must be the study of the environment and of natural chemical processes which occur in the environment. A major purpose of this series on Environmental Chemistry, therefore, is to present a reasonably uniform view of various aspects of the chemistry of the environment and chemical reactions occurring in the environment. The industrial activities of man have given a new dimension to Environmental Chemistry. We have now synthesized and described over five million chemical compounds and chemical industry produces about hundred and fifty million tons of synthetic chemicals annually. We ship billions of tons of oil per year and through mining operations and other geophysical modifications, large quantities of inorganic and organic materials are released from their natural deposits. Cities and metropolitan areas of up to 15 million inhabitants produce large quantities of waste in relatively small and confined areas. Much of the chemical products and waste products of modern society are released into the environment either during production, storage, transport, use or ultimate disposal. These released materials participate in natural cycles and reactions and frequently lead to interference and disturbance of natural systems. Environmental Chemistry is concerned with reactions in the environment. It is about distribution and equilibria between environmental compartments. It is about reactions, pathways, thermodynamics and kinetics. An important purpose of this Handbook, is to aid understanding of the basic distribution and chemical reaction processes which occur in the environment. Laws regulating toxic substances in various countries are designed to assess and control risk of chemicals to man and his environment. Science can contribute in two areas to this assessment; firstly in the area of toxicology and secondly in the area of chemical exposure. The available concentration (“environmental exposure concentration”) depends on the fate of chemical compounds in the environment and thus their distribution and reaction behaviour in the environment. One very important contribution of Environmental Chemistry to

X

Preface

the above mentioned toxic substances laws is to develop laboratory test methods, or mathematical correlations and models that predict the environmental fate of new chemical compounds. The third purpose of this Handbook is to help in the basic understanding and development of such test methods and models. The last explicit purpose of the Handbook is to present, in concise form, the most important properties relating to environmental chemistry and hazard assessment for the most important series of chemical compounds. At the moment three volumes of the Handbook are planned. Volume 1 deals with the natural environment and the biogeochemical cycles therein, including some background information such as energetics and ecology. Volume 2 is concerned with reactions and processes in the environment and deals with physical factors such as transport and adsorption, and chemical, photochemical and biochemical reactions in the environment, as well as some aspects of pharmacokinetics and metabolism within organisms. Volume 3 deals with anthropogenic compounds, their chemical backgrounds, production methods and information about their use, their environmental behaviour, analytical methodology and some important aspects of their toxic effects. The material for volume 1, 2 and 3 was each more than could easily be fitted into a single volume, and for this reason, as well as for the purpose of rapid publication of available manuscripts, all three volumes were divided in the parts A and B. Part A of all three volumes is now being published and the second part of each of these volumes should appear about six months thereafter. Publisher and editor hope to keep materials of the volumes one to three up to date and to extend coverage in the subject areas by publishing further parts in the future. Plans also exist for volumes dealing with different subject matter such as analysis, chemical technology and toxicology, and readers are encouraged to offer suggestions and advice as to future editions of “The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry”. Most chapters in the Handbook are written to a fairly advanced level and should be of interest to the graduate student and practising scientist. I also hope that the subject matter treated will be of interest to people outside chemistry and to scientists in industry as well as government and regulatory bodies. It would be very satisfying for me to see the books used as a basis for developing graduate courses in Environmental Chemistry. Due to the breadth of the subject matter, it was not easy to edit this Handbook. Specialists had to be found in quite different areas of science who were willing to contribute a chapter within the prescribed schedule. It is with great satisfaction that I thank all 52 authors from 8 countries for their understanding and for devoting their time to this effort. Special thanks are due to Dr. F. Boschke of Springer for his advice and discussions throughout all stages of preparation of the Handbook. Mrs. A. Heinrich of Springer has significantly contributed to the technical development of the book through her conscientious and efficient work. Finally I like to thank my family, students and colleagues for being so patient with me during several critical phases of preparation for the Handbook, and to some colleagues and the secretaries for technical help.

Preface

XI

I consider it a privilege to see my chosen subject grow. My interest in Environmental Chemistry dates back to my early college days in Vienna. I received significant impulses during my postdoctoral period at the University of California and my interest slowly developed during my time with the National Research Council of Canada, before I could devote my full time of Environmental Chemistry, here in Amsterdam. I hope this Handbook may help deepen the interest of other scientists in this subject. Amsterdam, May 1980

O. Hutzinger

Twenty-one years have now passed since the appearance of the first volumes of the Handbook. Although the basic concept has remained the same changes and adjustments were necessary. Some years ago publishers and editors agreed to expand the Handbook by two new open-end volume series: Air Pollution and Water Pollution. These broad topics could not be fitted easily into the headings of the first three volumes. All five volume series are integrated through the choice of topics and by a system of cross referencing. The outline of the Handbook is thus as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The Natural Environment and the Biochemical Cycles, Reaction and Processes, Anthropogenic Compounds, Air Pollution, Water Pollution.

Rapid developments in Environmental Chemistry and the increasing breadth of the subject matter covered made it necessary to establish volume-editors. Each subject is now supervised by specialists in their respective fields. A recent development is the accessibility of all new volumes of the Handbook from 1990 onwards, available via the Springer Homepage springeronline.com or springerlink.com. During the last 5 to 10 years there was a growing tendency to include subject matters of societal relevance into a broad view of Environmental Chemistry. Topics include LCA (Life Cycle Analysis), Environmental Management, Sustainable Development and others. Whilst these topics are of great importance for the development and acceptance of Environmental Chemistry Publishers and Editors have decided to keep the Handbook essentially a source of information on “hard sciences”. With books in press and in preparation we have now well over 40 volumes available. Authors, volume-editors and editor-in-chief are rewarded by the broad acceptance of the “Handbook” in the scientific community. Bayreuth, July 2001

Otto Hutzinger

Contents

Development, Occurrence and Regulation of Antifouling Paint Biocides: Historical Review and Future Trends J. W. Readman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

Chemistry and Fate of Organotin Antifouling Biocides in the Environment I. Omae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

New Trends in Sample Preparation Methods for the Determination of Organotin Compounds in Marine Matrices C. Brunori · I. Ipolyi · P. Massanisso · R. Morabito . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

Worldwide Occurrence of Organotins from Antifouling Paints and Effects in the Aquatic Environment K. Fent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

Emission Estimation and Chemical Fate Modelling of Antifoulants B. van Hattum · A. Baart · J. Boon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Evaluation of Antifouling Booster Biocides in Marine Water and Sediments Based on Mass Spectrometric Techniques M. D. Hernando · M. Mezcua · D. Barceló · A. R. Fernández-Alba . . . . 121 Antifouling Paint Booster Biocides: Occurrence and Partitioning in Water and Sediments N. Voulvoulis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Photochemical Fate of Organic Booster Biocides in the Aquatic Environment V. A. Sakkas · I. K. Konstantinou · T. A. Albanis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Present Status of Antifouling Systems in Japan: Tributyltin Substitutes in Japan H. Okamura · H. Mieno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

XIV

Contents

Toxicity and Preliminary Risk Assessment of Alternative Antifouling Biocides to Aquatic Organisms H. Yamada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 General Aspects of Natural Products Antifoulants in the Environment I. Omae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Foreword

The need for effective antifoulants, which prevent the settlement and growth of marine organisms on submerged structures, such as ship’s hulls, oil rig supports, buoys and fish cages is recognised worldwide as being of significant economic importance. Tributyltin (TBT)-based antifouling paints have been widely acclaimed as the most effective antifoulants ever devised and consequently were the most widely used active ingredients in paint formulations for many years. However, since 1990 they have been internationally regulated due to their severe impact on the aquatic ecosystem. Although much research has been performed in the field of TBT monitoring, environmental fate and effects, a large number of environmental scientists around the world continue to engage in this issue since ongoing sources of TBT remain. The ecotoxicological problems associated with the use of TBT have led to policy actions. Legislation in many countries banned the application of TBT-based paints to small vessels (< 25 m) and the International Maritime Organization (IMO), Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) endorsed the ban on the use of TBT as an antifouling agent on ships by January 2003 and the presence of such paints on vessel hulls by January 2008. This imminent ban of the TBT-based paints has been the cause of a major change in the antifouling paint industry and led to an increase in vessels using alternative TBT-free coatings containing copper combined with organic booster biocides, the majority of which are already used in agriculture. Biocidecontaining coatings are already used and applied to the hulls of ships and boats in order to prevent the growth of marine species. Worldwide around 18 compounds like Irgarol 1051, sea-nine 211, dichlofluanid, chlorothalonil, zinc pyrithione, diuron, TCMS pyridine, TCMTB, zineb, etc., are currently used as antifouling biocides. These biocides are also the most frequently used in many countries. As a result, important levels of contamination have been observed in the aquatic environment worldwide, especially in coastal areas with high yachting activity, particularly in marinas and sportive harbours. Since these alternatives to TBT are also toxic and their putative impact on non-target organisms is poorly known in some cases, their contamination in the aquatic environment has been a topic of increasing importance over the last few years. Already, many countries have reached on agreement on the restriction of biocides such as Irgarol 1051 and diuron.

XVI

Foreword

Therefore, environmentally safe biocidal additives that will perform equally as well or even better than the currently used substances are sought. This search led investigators to study natural products. The development of antifoulants containing environmentally safe natural products has anticipated the conservation of the marine environment. This volume represents a comprehensive coverage of the antifouling biocides field and addresses a broad spectrum of the environmental issues. It reviews systematically the currently available data, results and discussion on topics such as the occurrence of TBT-based and alternative antifouling biocides in the aquatic environment, trace analytical techniques for the determination of biocide residues in various matrices, the environmental fate and behaviour, inputs estimation, the toxic effects and the risk assessment, with an emphasis on the last 10-year period. It also highlights the gaps in scientific knowledge where more research and monitoring efforts are needed, especially in the fields of ecotoxicology and long-term risk assessment. I would like to thank all the contributors to this volume and all experts in the field, who have shared their expertise and experience with the reader. I greatly appreciate their efforts and believe that they will be rewarded by the production of such an interesting volume. In particular, I would like to extend my thanks to Prof. O. Hutzinger for inviting me to coordinate the preparation of this book and to Springer for their advice and assistance. Finally, it is my hope that readers will enjoy the reading of this book and the content will constitute an important resource for researchers, students, environmental managers and professionals interested in this interdisciplinary field. Ioannina, July 2005

Ioannis K. Konstantinou

Development, Occurrence and Regulation of Antifouling Paint Biocides: Historical Review and Future Trends James W. Readman Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Prospect Place, The Hoe, Plymouth PL1 3DH, UK [email protected] 1

Background and Historical Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

2

Usage of Antifouling Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4

3

Extent of Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5

4

Fates, Effects and Environmental Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

5

Recent Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

6

Future Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

7

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

Abstract Antifouling agents have been used on ships since the ancient Roman and Greek civilizations. A brief history is provided through to the demise of tributyltin (TBT) and the introduction of organic “booster” biocides. It is upon these latter compounds that the chapter is focused. A broad description of published data and of work undertaken through the Assessment of Antifouling Agents in Coastal Environments (ACE) project is provided to afford an overview of levels, behaviours and potential threats posed by the compounds. Legislative measures that influence and control usage are described. Finally, options for antifouling measures projected into the future are described and discussed. Keywords Antifouling · Booster biocides · Environmental behaviour · History · Regulations

1 Background and Historical Perspectives Antifouling of boats and ships is not a new concept. The history of antifouling has recently been reviewed [1]. The ancient civilizations of the Romans and the Greeks coated their vessels with lead sheathing secured by cooper nails. Columbus’ ships are thought to have been coated with pitch and tallow. In the UK, lead sheathing was abandoned by the Navy in the late 1600s

2

J.W. Readman

and antifouling paints containing tar, grease, sulphur pitch and brimstone were developed. One hundred years later, copper sheathing was used, which prevented fouling through dissolution of the toxic metal ions. It was in the mid-1800s that antifouling paints really began to develop. This was attributed to the introduction of iron ships on which copper sheathing caused corrosion of the iron. Paints were prepared by adding toxicants such as copper oxide, arsenic, and mercury oxide to resin binders. These proved to be effective. Following the Second World War, the introduction of petroleum-based resins and health and safety concerns relating to organo-arsenicals and mercurials meant that synthetic copper based paints became most popular. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, a new formulation using tributyltin (TBT) proved to be excellent in the prevention of fouling. This is where our story begins. The efficiency of TBT, especially in “self-polishing” formulations, was remarkable, and the application of TBT-based paints rapidly expanded. Added bonuses also included the fact that it did not cause galvanic corrosion on aluminium hulls, it was colourless, and periods between dry-docking were extended. Whilst this appears ideal, unfortunately, the use of the compound had environmental consequences. As the popularity of TBT grew, oyster producers in France were reporting shell malformations, which rendered their produce worthless. This effect was traced to TBT in the water. In Arcachon Bay (France) alone, it has been estimated that TBT provoked a loss in revenue of 147 million US dollars through reduced oyster production [2]. Wild populations of other mollusc species were also found to be affected at very low concentrations (< 10 ng L–1 ) [3]. Female dog whelks (Nucella sp.) were shown to develop male characteristics (termed imposex) at these levels [4]. Imposex was also reported in the open North Sea [5]. Although dealt with in more detail in a later section, national and international legislation was introduced to restrict the use of TBT. In 1989, the European Community introduced a directive to prevent the use of TBT on boats under 25 m [6]. This provoked paint manufacturers and chemical companies to develop and sell a range of agents for new antifouling paints for the “small boat” market. Although usually added to copper-based formulations, they were also added to TBT-based paints to enhance efficacy for larger vessels. These compounds have since been termed “booster biocides”. Examples of the types of compounds that were used or promoted for use included: • 2-methylthio-4-tertiary-butylamino-6-cyclopropylamino-s-triazine (Irgarol 1051); • 1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-3,3-dimethylurea (diuron); • 4,5-dichloro-2-n-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one (SeaNine 211); • N-dichlorofluoromethylthio-N
, N
-dimethyl-N-phenylsulphamide (dichlofluanid);

Development, Occurrence and Regulation of Antifouling Paint Biocides

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

3

2,4,5,6-tetrachloro iso phthalo nitrile (chlorothalonil); bis(1hydroxy-2(1H)-pyridethionato-O,S)-T-4zinc (zinc pyrithione); 2-(thiocyanomethyl thio)benzthiazole (TCMBT); 2,3,5,6-tetrachloro-4-(methyl sulphonyl) pyridine (TCMS pyridine); cuprous thiocyanate; 4-chloro-meta-cresol; arsenic trioxide; cis1-(3-chloroallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-1-azonia adamantane chloride; zineb; folpet; thiram; oxy tetracycline hydrochloride; ziram; maneb.

Many of these compounds were known to be highly toxic. Negligible data, at that time, was, however, available concerning contamination, and (potential) effects/risks of these compounds in coastal and marine environments. Towards the end of the 1990s, this lack of information was addressed through the “Assessment of Antifouling Agents in Coastal Environments (ACE)” project of the European Commission (MAS3-CT98-0178) (1999–2002). This project was designed to provide: • information on usage and geographical differences in usage of antifouling agents and products in Europe; • suitably sensitive analytical (chemical) techniques for quantifying antifouling “booster” biocides; • an assessment of the extent of contamination of European harbours and marinas and coastal waters through chemical surveys; • information concerning the dissipation, transport and ecotoxicological effects of “booster” biocides (through experimentation under laboratory and field conditions); • models that predict environmental concentration and impact; • a critical comparison of products regarding environmental impact. Partners in the project were: J.W. Readman (Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK); B. van Hattum, and M. L’Amoree (Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, Netherlands); D. Barcelo (CID-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain); T.A. Albanis (University of Ioannina, Greece); B. Riemann (National Environmental Research Institute, Denmark); H. Blanck and F. Gronvall (Botanical Institute, Göteborg University, Sweden); K. Gustavson (DHI Water & Environment, Denmark); J. Tronczynski and C. Munschy (IFREMER, Centre de Nantes, France); A. Jacobson (Rohm & Haas). Full details of the ACE project (including reports) are available at www.pml.ac.uk/ace. Much of the data briefly summarised in the present

4

J.W. Readman

chapter relate to the substantial efforts of all partners within the ACE project.

2 Usage of Antifouling Agents Usage of antifouling paints differs regionally according to legislation, location of the manufacturer, marketing and consumer preferences. Whilst the list of potential booster biocides provided above is substantial, not all compounds are marketed. For example in the UK, although recent legislative changes have occurred (as discussed in Sect. 5), during the last decade usage of antifouling agents was massively dominated by copper(1)oxide followed by (in order of usage) diuron, Irgarol 1051, zinc pyrithione and dichlofluanid [7]. This will change with the newly introduced legislation (see Sect. 5). Within ACE, similar investigations on usage were undertaken in all the partner’s member states. Table 1 summarises the booster biocides that are permitted on yachts less than 25 m in length. Investigations revealed that of these products, Table 1 Usage of booster biocides: ingredients permitted for use on yachts < 25 m

Copper(1) oxide Copper thiocyanate Cu powder Chromium trioxide Diuron Irgarol 1051 Zinc pyrithione Dichlofluanid TCMTB Chlorothalonil TCMS pyridine Sea-Nine 211 Ziram Zineb Folpet Total (booster biocides) a b c d e

UK a France b Greece b Spain b

Sweden

Denmark c Neth a,c

+ +

+ +

+

+

+d +d +d

+ + +

– – + + – – – –

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ –

– – +

+

+ +e

+ +

5b

+ 7b

+ + + +

+ +

+ 3

+ +

5b

1

UK = United Kingdom and Neth = The Netherlands very limited/no approval scheme (in principle, all can be used) regulations currently under debate leach rate regulated on west coast; banned on east coast although approved, product not used on pleasure craft

2

5

Development, Occurrence and Regulation of Antifouling Paint Biocides

5

booster biocides that were the most used were diuron, Irgarol 1051, dichlofluanid, chlorothalonil and SeaNine 211. For this reason, research within ACE was focused on these compounds. Whilst zinc pyrithione was also considered to be of emerging importance, usage, then, was comparatively low. In addition the compound is difficult to analyse. For these reasons, very little data is available for this biocide.

3 Extent of Contamination Concentrations of booster biocides in coastal environments are a function of the inputs from vessels, dilution/flushing of the systems, and degradation of the compounds. The first reported contamination of coastal waters by booster biocides was for Irgarol 1051 on the Cote d’Azur [8]. Substantial concentrations (up to approximately 1700 ng L–1 ) were recorded in marinas of the region. Subsequent papers confirmed broad contamination in other areas of high boating activity in Europe. More recently, booster biocide contamination has been reported in waters from Japan, the United States, Singapore, Australia and Bermuda. Several reviews have described and compared the extent of contamination (e.g. [9–12]) (see also other chapters within this book). Critical to monitoring of the extent of contamination is the development of suitably sensitive analytical techniques. This topic is dealt with in detail in the chapter by Barcelo and Fernandez-Alba. Within ACE, several highly sensitive chromatographic methods for the analysis of the selected booster biocides and their metabolites in environmental waters and sediments were developed. Methods were directed towards: Irgarol 1051, its metabolite 2-methylthio-4-tert-butylamino-s-triazine; diuron and its byproducts dimethyl diuron and 1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)urea; chlorothalonil; vinclozolin; dichlofluanid; and SeaNine 211. Extractions employed on-line and off-line solid-phase extraction (SPE) cartridges and disks, solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME), headspace-SPME, XAD-2 resin and liquid-liquid techniques. Sediment analyses used an ultrasonication extraction protocol. A comparative ELISA method was also developed for trace level determinations. Quantification was carried out by gas chromatography (GC) with electron capture (ECD), nitrogen phosphorus (NPD), flame photometric (FPD) and mass spectrometric (MS) (including ion-trap tandem MS) detection. High-performance liquid chromatography was also used in quantification with detection using electrospray MS/MS and atmospheric chemical ionization mass spectrometry (HPLC-ACPI-MS). Approximately 800 water samples (and sediments from some areas) were collected within ACE from the areas shown in Fig. 1. These included marinas, harbours, estuaries and coastal waters and covered diverse European

6

J.W. Readman

Fig. 1 Location of sampling areas (indicated by squares) investigated during the ACE Project

Fig. 2 Mean concentrations (ng L–1 ) of diuron in samples taken from marinas and ports

coastal systems. Results from analyses are summarised in Table 2. They indicate that of the major booster biocides, highest mean concentrations of diuron were encountered. The distribution of this compound is shown in Fig. 2 and indicates highest levels in North Western Europe. Irgarol 1051 tended to be present at lower mean concentrations than diuron, although for

Netherlands

26

12

Coastal

3

Ports

Marinas

21

19

Coastal

Marinas

8

Ports

Denmark

10

Marinas

Sweden

range mean median range mean median range mean median range mean median range mean median range mean median range mean median

No. of samples analysed

Site Description

Country

0 4–9 2 0 < 1–68 23 0 < 1–87 20 17 < 1–39 4 0

2–364 61 16 < 1–6 2 1 < 1–36

Irgarol 1051 < 1–35 5 3 < 1–3 1 0 < 1–7 2 2 37–174 27 0 < 1–628 209 0 < 1–1129 328 233 < 1–282 51 19

Diuron

n/a

n/a

n/a