AN OUTLINEOF SILOZI GRAMMAR
6EOR6EFORTUNE SerierEditor: MUBANGAE. KASHOKT
(nowtheInstitute ofEconomic FirstPublished ...
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AN OUTLINEOF SILOZI GRAMMAR
6EOR6EFORTUNE SerierEditor: MUBANGAE. KASHOKT
(nowtheInstitute ofEconomic FirstPublished in1977bytheìnslitute forAf canStudies inLarguage inZanbia; Grannaticel andSocialResearch), Univetsity oíZambia Sketches. ispublished byBookworld Publisherc Thisedition P0Box32581, Lusaka, Zambia. 2001 Research 1977 Copyright O Institule ofEconomic andSocial mayberepÍoduced, stored ina ret eval AllÍights reserved. Nopartofthispublication electronic, mechanical, system, ortmnsmitted, inanyfomorbyanymeans photocopying, wilhout thepdotpermission oíthepublìsher. recording orotherwise, tsBN9982 241591 Lusaka, Zambia. byFergan Limited, Typesetting Lusaka, Zambia. Prinied byPrintech Limiled,
FOREU,IORD Therehasbeena lack ofup to datedescriptivegrammalsofZambian languages suitablefor uso,eitherasteachingor as leaming aids,at all Ìevelsof úe Zambian educationsystem.This lack has beenkeenly felt by teache$ and leamersalike. Mâny of the grâÌÌnnals that are available could be said to be inadequateor inappropriateú severalrcspects.Theoldestoneswere$,.itten at a time whenLatin or Euopean languagesgenerally were consideredto be the protot)?e of all grâfimars, and úus they tendedto be pattemedin their anaÌìgement,description and úe terminology employedon Latin-basedgramrnaticaÌrules. Otherswere written in a stj,leandlanguagewhichpresentedseriousproblemsofcomprehension evento teachers.In a goodmany cases,the actual€xamplescited wereunnâtuÌal, forcedor not in accordwith accept€dusage.At úe presentmomentmarÌyofthese workshavelongbeenout ofprint-
In oÌder to put in the handsofúe teachersand leamersgÌaamatical descriptions which reflectedmorenearlythe shlctual factsofthefu laryuagq dudng 197071, the Suvey of LanguageUse and LanguageTeachingin Zambiaattemptedto proüde comprehmsiblegralÌúnaticaldescriptionsof the sevenZambian languagesofrcially prescribedfor usein education,broadcastingatrdliteracy programmes.The authon who volunteeredor werc approachedto wrìte tlìem were specificallyinstructedto employa comprehensiblesq,leandto keep techíical terminologyto the absoluteminimum. The geneÌalreaderwas cleaÍly m miod. It is hopedthat üth úe publishingnow ofúe graÍnmaticaloutlinesof iciBemb4 sil,ozi, ciNyanjaand iciTongathe original intentionofFoviditrg grammaticaldesüiptionsof appeâl
to âwide âudience,boú Ìayandprofessional,will havebeenachieved. As Òrigjnally conceived,sevengrammatjcalsketchesÍepresentingâ11úe seven ofËcially approvedZambianlanguages,plus sketchesof Town Bembaand Town Tonga,wereto havebeenpublishedasPartOneiÌì a proj€ctedthree-paÍvolumeof Languagein Zambiâ, incorporatingthe findingsofthe ZambiaLanguag..Sur,,,ey. In the event,it was found necessâryin the interestof ÍedÌrcingbulk and cost to abandonthe original plânandto arrangeto publishthe sketchesseparately.Tndeed, publìshìng them sepantely has the advantageof making them âvailable in a convenient,lessbulky size$ritablefoÌ boú teacherandstudenthandling. The Institute for AÊ:ican Studies(now the Institute of Economic and Social Research),Univelsiry of Zambiâ, published in 1977 Language in zambia: GÌammatical Sketches,Volume1, containìnggraÍÌÍÌÌaticalsketchesoÍ outlinesof iciBembaandkiKaondeby MichaelMânnandJL WÍight respectively,plusa sketch ofthe maìncharacteristicsofTown Bembaby MubangaE Kashokì.Theplan at the time was to publish sìrbseqÌrentÌytwo follo\ì,-up voiumes: fiÌst, Volume 2, to containsketchesofsiloá andLundaandLuvale andsecon4Volume3, to contain sketchesof ciNyanjaand iciTonga.ln the eventthis planwasnot adheredto. Only onevolume waspublishediì accordarcewith the original plan andúis hasbeen out ofprint for sometime now It ìs in part for thesereasonsthat it hasbeenconsid€rednecessaÍyto attendto theunfinishedbüsiness inìtiatedsometwo decâdes ago.Also,ândmore peÌlinently,úe needfor pedagogicâlandreferencegraÍÌìmarsof Zambian
t I
Èved.
languagescontinuesto be keenly felt. The matteÌhasnow beenmademore úgent
ling all the seven
following úe recent(1996) decisionofthe ZambiâDGoveÌìnent to rcveÍ to úe earÌierpolicyof usinglocaÌ(i.e.Zambian)languages plusEnglishâs a mealiaof
i B€mbaandTown l€e-paÍ volumeof llaguage Survey.
inshìrcdon. Asno$ re-arÍaÌged. in orderlo achiere whari. feltlo bea morelogicâl arangemmt, toul graÌÌÌmatical sketchesof iciBemba, sil-ozi, ciNyanja and iciTongaÌvill bepubÌishedsepamtelybeginningwith the first volumecontaininga
lE hrlk and cost to qrarateÌy. Indeed,
gÉmmaticaloutÌineof iciBemba.
a
Co-sponsored by the Institutefor Aftican Studies,(úe presentInstituteof EconomicandSocialResearch Universityofzambia),themainvolumeLanguag€
avaìlable in a
hdling.
in Zâmbiâ,waspublished in 1978by theInremationaÌAfÍjcanÌnsritute (IAl) pâÌ1ly i.mic and Social irge ir Zambia: bes oroutlinesof l'tÌy, plusa sketch li
Theplanat the
iÍ,
Volume 2, to
subsidisedby tunds from rhe Ford Foundation.The Institut€ gâtetully acknowledges the pemissiongrantedby the Foundâtion,the sponsorsof the langüàgesuNeyofwhich thematedalpublishedhereinis apartialoutcome,to have the sketchespublishedseparately. Gratitudeis aÌsodue to the authomof the sketchesfoí theiÌ co.tribution in afield in which muchremâinsto bedone.
aâdheredto. Only
f)lherâcLnowledgemcnls areduelo Bookuorldpubìi"her. forpublishtng rhe sketches in coÌlaboration with theInstitute;to theeditorsofLanguagein
led this hasbeen
Zâmbiâ,SiraÌli Ohannesssian andMubangaE Kashoki,for carying out th€
rhe 3, to contâin
buÌkofthe necessâry initial editoÍialwork; to Dr. TomCormanwho was Íy to attendto nd more ÍZaÍnbiúr
detailedto bringa generalstylisticconsjstency to úe sketches; andto úe secretarialInstìtutestaff for prepâringthe tlpescript. Above all. the eventüal publicationofthe sketchesowesmüch to the ZambiaÌÌGovernment,in partìcülaÌ the Ministry of Education,andto the University ofzambia for their interestand supporfand Íòr providing a condüciveenviÌorÌmentin which
fruitful Ìesearchwork could iake placedúing the life of the Surveyof LanguageLs: LangìrageTeâchingin Zambia. MubatrgaEKâshoki ProfessorofAfÌicân Lànguages INSTITUT[, OF ECONOMTCANDSOCIALRESEARCII UNIVERSITYOFZÀMBIA EDITOR
INTRODUCTION I Use ad
The homeof silozi is úe WestemPtovinceofzambia, but it is far fiom beingthe oÍly languagespokenúere. TheÍe are three gÌoups of laüguagesspokenìn tho provinceofmuch longerstândingúan sil-ozi, namelyLuyânâ,TongaandNkoya. Thesegroupsof languagesarc spokenin the east-centralandwest,in the souúwest ând souú, andin the noúheastofthe provincerespectively.Silozi is the la[guage ofthe centralplain. Odginally a form of SouthemSotho,it was broughtiÌlto the countryby theKololo conquerorswho,undeÍtheir chief, Sebitwane,oveÍcamethe Luyi in 1840.As a SotholangÌrageit mayhavebeensomewhatmodifiedby thetime úe invadersreachedtheZambeziowing to theirwandedngsandúeir contactswith the peoples on their way whom they met or absorbed.The Kololo we.e the dominanttribe in what is now the WestemProvincefor three successivereigns, those of theh chiefs Sebitwane,Sekeletuand Mbololo, but in 1864, Sipopa,a descendantofthe old Luyi chiefs,re-establishedhimself in power on the Barotse floodplain. In thercstoútion, mostofthe Kololo menwerekilled. TheyhadâlreadybeenÍnüch reducedin numberby fev€r aÍÌd civil strife. The womenand chilalrenbecaÌnethe propertyofthe Luyi chiefs,andii musthavebeendueto their inÍ]uence,andthdt of úe âdmìnishativechangesofthe precedingtwenty_fiveyears,that the languageof theKololo sun ived underthenameofsil-oá. Thoughmuchìnfluencedby Luyaa4 it is still corectìy classifiedâsa languageofthe SothogÍoup and is unde$toodiú neighbouringBotswana. Sil-ozi is spokenalmostexclüsivelyin úe centoalBarotseplain to the north and southofMongu, and on eithersideof the Zambezito a considerabledistance
inland. lt is also spokcn along the dver. in varying degrees,all the \ray to Livingstone,where it is the majn
langlagc in use.Ìn âddition. silozi is ^f.ican spoken as a linguâ lranca all over the Westernprovjnce and is thc languôgcof adminisÍation,cducationandgcnclal communicationwhereEnglish is notused.In the 1990 Census of Population, Housing and
the Lozispeúing ^grìcuhure populâtion was cnumelôtcd under the "Barotse Group" (\lhich included thc Nyengo. Lozi, Subiya,Nkova and others).Thc group iotâlled 527,410,ofwhich 447.852 constitutedthc numbel of speakerstermed "Lozi" in thc ccnsus-As a lÌnguafranca,siloziwas placcdin fourdl positionbehindiciBemba.ciNyanjaand iciTongâin the I9il0 Censusot' Popuìationand Housing.A decadelâtet the I990 CensusofPopulation showedthe situationâs remâìninglargely unchanged,oncc agajn silozi coming in Íourth place, thc applicableslatisticsbeing 29.9 percent (ìciBembà),I i peÌcent(iciTonga).7.8percent(ciNyanja)and 6.4 pcrccnt(siÌ-ozi)Ovcmli, to bc rcgardedas of lhe greâteslrelevânceis the Íàct that u'ithin ZambÌa siLoTi at presentis countedamongthe five major languages,along *,ith English. iciBembâ.ciNyanjâandiciTonga,which are spokenpredonìinantÌyby thc nâtional popunüon.
UNITSOF SOUNDAND UNTTSOF GMMMÂR SpokenÌanguages,likecoins.hâvc a twofold aspectândÌnâyb€ regârded,analysed and described from eìther side. They have t phanologk:al aspect àncl a notphologiutl aspcci.From the phonologjcâl aspectwe find that silozi hâs â certain inventory of sound units which a1c combined in ceftain regular and Iecunentways.The teÍn Lrsecl lbrtheseunitsolsotndisthcphonena. From the moryhoìogicalaspectwe flnd that silozi is also a structureol
"t-
glaÍÌmaticâl Ìmitswhich arealsocombinedin ceftainways.Thetelm usedfor these grammaticalLuìitsis themo?lrerxe. Underthe heâdingPllONOZOGtswe shall give a very condensedaccoÌmtof the phoneme. olsiLoziandoflherrcombinarions intoúe laÍgerunjlofúe syìlable. UndeÍ úeheadrJJg MORPHOLOGFWoshall give a somevr'hat more extended.but still very condense4accoÌmtofthe classesofmorphemein silozi andtheway they combineinto largerunitswhichwe shallcallgrammatìcalconstt ctíons.
ACKNOItI.EDGEMEITÍS In wdting this 'Outline" I have relied heavily on the works cited in the Bibliogaphy, paÍiculârly on úe two morphologicalstudiesby MÌ., now Dr., D.F. Gowlett. The examplescited have been checkedwith Mr. R. Sitali, a sil-ozispeakinginfomant whosehelp hasbeeninvaluable.The methodof presentation follows the constituentstÌucturemodelof analysisanddescription.fhe treabneDt of úe phonology is deficient in that tone and lengú of voweÌs have not been âdequatelytreated.Loüg and geminatevowels are spelt in the same way by dÌÌplicationofúe sameletter, but length has beenindicatedonly in the relative prcfixes. The cÌrrrent orthogÌaphymarks nejther letrgih nor tone. In MÌ. D.F. Gowlett's artìcles,I ,telectio oí Lozi Foltúalesand Riddtes,Aíric.rn Studíes,30, Nos. I and 2, long vowels w€rc maÍ_ked with a ÍÌÌacron.Iinally I am gatefirl to ProfessorMubangaE. Kashokifor additionsto this Introductionwhich bring it up to dâte.
Syltablesin sil-ozi normally consist of a oo[soÍrtr|. or a m]lt(,nâtrt chsteÌ, follolved by â vorel. Less oorÌunonly,syllablesmay çonsist ofa vo\tr'elalon€, oÍ ofa nâld coBo|||nt alone.Thesethreetlpes ofsyllablemay be syÍnbolised
asfollows: (D Consonant + vowel ConsonarÍt cluster+ vovrel (ii)
Vowelâlone
(iii) Nasalalone(only at tbebegiúing ôÍ êndofa EachsyllâblecâÍriesa unitof to.e andlengtb nornally by meansof its nuolear vowel.Syltabicnasalconsonants. beingÍesonantslike vowels.maycârry toDe ofa nuclear.vowel, andfeneÉ!il theabsence (lt is syllabically CV-CV e.g. rrr-tu (person) ,-r3 (whichone?) ( I) m-me \mollÊr)
(la)
"
-
N-CV
VOUrElrt ïhere are five vowêl phonemesin silozi. Two are high, one beinSarticulated wiú the fÌont ofthe tonguehigh up.in the ftoÍt ofthe mouth, and the other wiú the back of úe toncuehiú uo at the backof the mouth.The hrí is oronounced. with spr€âdlips and the secondwith round€dlips'These two vovels âre speh/i/
'A numb€r iÍì brâck€tsaÊeÍ a word refers to the class of that nom. Noun clâss€sâIe discuss€dorì pag€sl1-20. 'I
Two other voweÌs are of medium height, being articulatcd ìn the front and at the bâck of the mouth, and again with spreadand rounded ìjps Ìespectively. Thesevowels are spelt/e/ and/ol
Thefifth vowel is articuÌated with thetonguein a low andcentralposit;on,and with the lips heldneutrallybetwe€na spreadandrounded.position.This vowel ;s spelÍ/a/. e.g.
mtna
(you - plural) (we) (you) (it)
(3)
CONSONANTS The consorÌântphonemesof silozi aÌe listed in the following tâbie-Their mannerandplaceof articulationareindicatedby thetermsofthe horizontaland verticalcolumnsrespectively. Ltbial
P3lâtâl
GlottÂl Stops
c Spirânts
!
ny
,
The symbolsusedfor úe phonemesin the chaÍt are also úose employediú tlie stândardspefling of sil,o2i today s ve ú^t /ì/, wheÌr it oi:curs as a syllabic margin-is speltõ. tn this studyúe letter(r) v,ill be usedin ord€rlo spellúe /t/ whenil is a singlesyllabicmaÌgin. phoneme e.g.
te\i
(there)
or uhen/ilcluslerswiú 4,,. e.g.
Uúwi (one)
(C)
Vlhen A cÂcutsbefore the velar so{Js/k/ oÍ /g/, it úll
be spelt as in th€
standardspelling,that is as (nÈ)&!d (rA), e.g.
mìongu(ihorremically,lmìoiJgul)
(puúpkins)
(4)
The phoneme/ryl is also spelt (r) when it coÍnesbefore úe palatsl úopis /c/ or ,;, thâl is.as(nc)and(rrr. Thefollouing consonant cluíeÍs combinewiú vowelslo form syllables: (a)
Íasals + stops
:
/np, nt, nc, nl mb, nd, nj, ng/
(b)
nâsals+ spirants
:
/ns, MJ
(c)
srops+ Árl
|
/pw, tw, cw, kte,bt /
(d)
spirants+ Áí,/
i
/Í1r, sre,shw, hw, z
(e)
:
/nw, nw n w. rJw/
(0
+ /d 'rd'sa.ls nasâls+ stops+Árl
:
/trW ni| ncw nkri, mbw,hdy xjg ngw/
(g)
nasalsl- spinÍÌts + Á.r,/
a /nsw, izu,/
(h)
labials+ r/
:
(i)
J /y/t afveofarapproximaat
/py, by, tt4t,npy, mby/ 4y'
TONE AND LENGTH Syllables, which âre otlìerwis€ identicâl in regard to their consona.ÍÍtsând
vowels, may differ in two other different but Ìelated wâys. They may differ in tone, one being higJl indicatedas t! aúd the other low' indicatedas L. They may also differ in lengtll one being long and the otheÍ shoÍ Syllablesmay be either short or tong. ShoÌt sllabl€s carry only one tone which is eith€r high (marked( )) orlow (marked( )), e.g.
o)
mü4ü
(person,
nü1ú ìFf?
(which person?)(Ì)
Long syllables carry a sequenceof two tones which may be either both high both low, or highJow. Tftesesequencesmay be symbolisedas HH, LL and HL. Syllablescarrying HH may contrastwith similar syllablescarrying HL so these sequencesmuí be regardedas phoíemically distinct dld, further, not simply as two variantsof H linked to th€ occuÌrenceof long vowels.where it is necessary to mark tones on Ìvords the thÌee s€quelìcescan be indicated as follows: lÌH as /'/, HL as /"/ and LL as f/. Tone v,iill not be markedon the examplesin the sectionsdealingrvith úe morphology. oftones in úe following conlortsi Syllablesacquirelellgth arìdsequences i)
Wlen a nominal (oÍ noun) stem beginnbg úth a vowel occuÍs with a of the Cw_ or prefix consisting of a consoÍanl (C) or a colìsonant_cluster Cy- tlpe, usüallyas ar âltemativeto a poÉsibleCV- prefix, the initial vowel ofúe stem is lengthenedaíd caÌries a sequ€nceof tones. These may be either LL or fIlI, the sequenceLH becomingHH, e.g.
l-'ìba
(dove) (5)
cp-'
nò-ìbà
(doves)
(6)
n-únà
(úom)
cp.
nì-útwa
(thoms)
(4)
(l)
ii) Wh€n foÍms with initiâl syllabic nasals are initially infl€ct€d by an
inflecti.g morpheÍne with a short vowel' the vowel of the laú€Í È lengthenedand assumesúe tone ofúe syllabic nasal The nasalwhich is otherwise syllâbic, b€com€spaÍ of úe syllabic Ínargin of the following syllable. Suchforms may be either nominal oÍ verbal e.g.
ttí- + -rtjà
ní-njà
(with a dog)
t,ì- + -/ìàl kü-+ -úgd
nì-rrâ
(l am taking out)
ki-ngà
(to take)
iii) The sameeffect is broughtabout when suchforms ocour in the middle ofa phrasee.g.asan objeo complemmtin a verbphrase e.g.
àúìlàtí + ìjà
anìlàtì - nià (I don't want a dog)
>
ofidenticalshape. i!) Syllâbicnasalsoccurringin sequences ,t nè (motheD (la) e.g.
ìnà
0)
disappearin thesecoÍÌtextsbut neverthelesspasstheir tôn€ to the Feceding syllable. e.g.
(it is mother)
kí + nìüè
kí-mè
nìlà + rìnè
nil atâ-ntè (Í lov e molhú)
Long vowels rcsult from contÍaction of vovr'els.This happensuden vowels without consonantalmargins follow one another in the bÍìeclion of v€íb phÌases.Opportunities for contraction are ÍlumeÍous as severalof the subject prefixes, object prefixes.aúl tense signs arc V in form and many of the verb radicals are vowel-commencing.Contracted and úeÍefor€ long vowels with formsl usuallyhavealtemalivesin uncontracted lonesequences e.g.
Njàì,Ìè íhükilà
-
ìne'hüúlà
(the dog was baÌking)'
I This s€ctionon tone üld lüìgth is a $mmâry of the clearaeatn€nt ofihe Èexldnena oftone ard lengú in Silozi in Govrlett 1964,pp. &9; 1967,pp 5-ll' 88-98-
MORPHOLOGY The grammatical conshuctions of silozi are of thÌee kinds, sübstâütivâI, verbal and ideophonic. They are eachbasedupon a specific t'?e of baseor nucleus.In the case of the substantivalconstructionsúis nucleusis the substântivalstem- i e.g.
-lu in /mu-tu/
(person)
(r)
lrÌ the caseofthe verbal constructionsthe nucleusis the verb râdicâ! (or verb root, €.9.
-lat- ]n /a-ni-lat-il
(I don'twant)
In the caseofúe ideophonic constructions thenucleusis the ideophone itseÌf,
e.e.
(beingsoür,of liquids)
The substantivestems, the verb radicals and the ideophonesbetween them accountfor most ofïhe entries in the lexicon or dictioÍrary. A good numbeÌ of the remainder are class or affix morphemes,i.e. prefixes, sufiixes or infixes, which aÌe neededto form constructionswith úe stemsandradicals.
e.g,
Ír''u-irr/mu-tu/
(person)
a-, ,ti-, -i jt ld-nïlaí-ì
(I don,t want)
(Ì)
Chapter I SUBSTANTIVALCONSTRUCTIONS The nÌaìn types of substantiv€are the nouns,the pronouns,the demonstratives, the enumemtives,the selectorsand the relatives.In this study the morphology
of síLozi is presentedas three hierarchiesof constructio.s based,as alr€ady state4 on each of the thÌee t)?es of root morpheme,substantival,verbal and ideophonic. For €xample the description of the subíantival hierarchy commences with the simplest constnrctions formed by combining alïx morphemes with substantival stems as constituents. These constructions, nâmelythe substantiv€s,representthe first level of sübstânlival constructions. e.g.
(person)
mu-,u
(r)
The nounprefix of class I is one constihrentand the noun stem/-ttrl is another. Comparethe following all ftom Class I. Each exemplifies â diffflent q?e of substantive,butall sharea similaÌ constructionalpattem,namely affL. lkl e.g. -ïkabel- (apportionto on€selDcp. -aóel(shareout)
\o examplesof the object prefix and the reflexive prefix occurring together \rere acceptabÌeto informants.
THE INFLECTEDVERB PHRASE Tie inflected verb phrase is the verbal construction at the tlìird level of -'onstruction.Its constauctionâlpattemìs as follows: Inflection+ \?
present The structure of the \? has alÌeâdy be€ntreatedon pages61-71 The and section is conceÍnedwith the coníiíÌelrt classesof iúflecting morphomes the system whereby membels of these constituent classesare combined into inflections.' CAÍEGORIES OF INFLECTION
Finite and Non-Finite Inflections Finite inflectionsincludea subjectprefix; non-finiteinflectionsdo not The latterincludethe infinitiveandimp€rativeinflections, e-g.
ku-bes-anana
(to Íoast meat) (Roastmeatl)
PÍimary and tecondary Finite lnflectiont Finite iÍìÍlections may b€ alivid€dinlo two classes,primâry and s€condery ln prinary inflections there is referenceto time' conveyedby tensesigns' Pnmary inflectionshavethreecorrespondingl-orms, (i) pÍiÍcipú usedfor the predicatesofmain claìrses; (The rnanfights)
e.s.
Munna w-alwan-a
(iD
participial, usedfor the predicat€sof subordinateclaus€s;
e.g.
Ha munnaa-lwan-a... (tfth€ Íún fights...)
(iiD
r€lâtive, used for prcdicates which ffe secondarymembers of the
e.g.
constituentclassesof substantiveilr SPs. (A man who fights). Seepp 3l-34 Munnaya-lwan-a
t In úe following sectionúe inflection in examplesis in bold to distiÍguiú it fiom the \ry whicb is inflected
Secondaryinflectionsalso havethÌee correspondingforms, (i)
hoúâtive;
e.g.
Ha-aJwan-e
(ii)
"pÌesent" sübjuncÍive;
e.g.
ftulí) alwan-e
(iiì
'past" sübjünctive or cons€cutive. (hdìtela) a-lwan-a ((until) he foughr)
e.g.
(Let him Íight)
((so that) he shouldfight)
Secondary inflections do not of úemselves .efer to time. The "present" subjmctive occurs in subordinateor consecutiveclausesin sentenceswhere pr€sentoÌ future tenseshave been usedwhile the "past" subjunctiveoccurs in @nsecütivecÌauseswher,eth€ pastor poteÍÍial tens€shaveLìeenused. Thesesix inflections,thÌe€ primary and three secondary,are sometiÍnesref€rred to as moodsor modalforms.
Áfirmative atrd negative itrf,ectfuB. lÍflections are aÍïirmative unlessthey üe mark€dby a negativemorpheme.This is úe preÍx /ha- - aJ in the caseof Fincipal inflections and l-si- - -sa-l inthe caseof others.In generaltheÌe is a cqrespondingnegativeinflection for every affirÍìative one. Hectint
Morphcfier
of VPr
rIÉ inflecting morphemesexist in classesfÌom which membersare drawn and Ecmbinein a regularorder. The following classesof inÍlecting morphemescan Le distinguished:prefxal morphemes,subject prefixes, negative signs, terse
signs,aspectsignsand terminals. Prefixal MorPhemes in the In fiÌìite inJlections the subject prefix is the first constituent except morphemes negative pdncipal ând hortative. In th€se inflections, preflxal Fecedethe subjectplefix. (a) Íhe ÍrcF;ativePÍefix /ha- - rt-l e.g. . (b) the hortativePrefix lha- - aJ e.g.
Ha-ni-lwan-i
(I don't fight)
Ea-lü-bon-e
(Ìet us see)
Subject PreÍirer ía)
In all finite infle{tions, one memberof the constituentclass of subject pÌefix (sp) appearsas a constituentofthe inflection The function ofthe sp is lo relaleÌhe predìcate(inÍected \eÍb phÌase)o[ a clauselo ils subjectwhich, as an optional constituerÌtof the clause,may either be presentor merely reÍèÍed to.
e.g-
Bdtu b.r-bon-amililo
(The peopleseethe fires)
cp.
Ba-bon-a mìlilo
(They seethe fires)
(b)
js The relation of subj€ctand pÌedicâte one of agÌeement iÍ personand number or class. Non_agreemenlis allovred and indeed, preferred' where a noun subjectolher than of classes1,2' ta and 2a indicatesa personor p€rsons.lÍ this case,the subjectpreflx of the inÍlection is of classesI or 2 thoughthe subjectdo€snot belongto thoseclasses
e.g.
Lisole u-lwona kalitümo
(The soldiet fights úú spears)
cp.
Liìba li-Íí-a kamofa
(The doveflies thÌough úe air)
74
j
Thereare two forms ofth€ spsfoÍ the Ist and IInd personsand thÌee for
(c)
eachcÌassof th€ Ilhd person.The secondof the two folms in eachcase is of C or CC shapeand occursbeforeúe tensesignscoísisti.g of the vowel lal (vn. the sign ol úe "long" pr6en! and that of the past sübjünctive).Th€ thfudofthe thr€e fornrs in eâchcaseis úsedin relativ€ inflections. As appears from inspectioq the sps of s€ries (iii) are coÍnplex and reflect an earlier constrüction coÍrsisting of, a demonstrâtive,fiIst positio4 andthe subj€ctprefix, e.g.
(a dovewhich flies)
Liíba leü-M-.t
In class€s1, 3, 4, 6 and 9 the vov,'elsof the sps of series(iii) are lo.g, refleotingthe coalescerìce oftwo vowels at an earlier stage'. c.g.
yo:- < yo- + aoi.
wo r r-
(1) (3)
e i lal. : h tlÌis sectionth€ aìrxilìsÌy veÍb phrasesâre in bold in exâmpÌes. 93
(!ii)
(He hasjust arrived)
U-sà-zo-f,Ía
not The inflection of auxitiaíy VPs with the above auxiliary radicals is uniform. It is statedin gr€at dçtail ií\ Gowlât' The SpecíalConjugntìonal Series.(1967) (b) Auxiliary radical followed by an infinitive itÍlected VP' (do often; as non-auxiliary - iÍcrease) l-atb-l viz. O (ir)
l-bat-/
(do neoÌly;
- seelqwant)
(iiD
l-buel-l
(do agin;
- return)
(iv)
l-ekez-l
(do again;
- augment)
(v)
l-padsJ
(do quickìY;
(vD
l-ntdl-l
(keepon doing;
hurry) - seize)
âÌe followed Ofthese auxiliary radicalsall büt /-ariJ_/'and sorúetimesit as well' with meaning by afirmative participial presentcomplemeÍts as altemaúves' equivalentto the infinitive coÍìplemeíts. (ì) Nì-alít-a futaha bea ü e.g.
(t often comehere) (We nearly died)
(ri)
NeJu-bd-ílehüshva
(iii)
Ne-ba'b.t -ile baltela mtrLn lra (They ne€Ìly fell into the rivor) (I may fell sick again) Nì-ktt-buela nikula
(i'r)
(\.)
Mutlr -b@zi htYema
(The persongot uP agam)
Ne-ba-ekezahrbulela
(They spokeagain)
Ne'ba-ekez'abdbuleld
(Ihey spokeagain)
U-pokis-izekuiesa
(He did it quickl9
U-Pakis-ízeaieza
(He did it quickÌY)
Ni-ía-Pokis-aniieza
(l shall do it sôon)
94
(vi\
Bahìmaí ba+weli tukaruna
(The boys keepon discusshg)
Bashimaniba-swelibakarltwl
(The boys ke€pon discussing)
(c) Auxiliary verbsfollowed by participial inflectedVPs of all tens€s, \iz.
(\)
l-bal
(be)
(ii)
l-nel
oo
(ìii)
/-se/
(do no4 do already)
(D Auxilìary VPs with /-rel
as auxiliary verb aÌe inflected only to the
€xtent of prefixing of vowel subjectprefix€s: to the aÌuxiliaryl'nel plus, of coursg the full pârticipial inÍlection of the compìementary VP. The tenseis past. Ne-nígt rraya
(I was walking)
Ne-nisazanayi
(Ì ,flas noÌ walking)
Ne-niutmyile
C had ,ir'alked) (l had not walked)
Ne-4isikazat&ya
0 was aboutto wslk) (I wâs not aboutto ]vaÌk)
Ne-nitazorrúy(l Ne-níkosikenazanala
(il) Auxiliary verb /-sel is followed only by affllmative- participial
complements.It is not normally infleatedsavewben it is itself part of a paúicipial complementfollowing /'rel c.9
Se-nizattar')Ìa
(Now I am walking)
Se-lusilile tubele
(ìVe have alrcady gound the corD)
Se-lutaÍtla
(W€ will soonarrive)
Ne-ni4e nizaneya
(l was alrcâdywalking)
95
Ba-se balile l tãnú
(fiey havealreadycomehere)
Ne-t i-settibaboní
(Ì had alr€adyseeÍ them)
Nise niya líúmtiena
(I am now goiíg to the chief)
(iii)Auxiliary VPs wiú l-ba - -bel arc irfifr,l,ed in the fulüÌe (l shall be walking) Ni-ta-be nizonatta
e.g.
(I shall havevr'alked)etc.
Nïta-be nízanoYile
(d) Auxiliary radioalsandverbs followed by presentparticiPialiníl€ctedVPs' (untiì; as noíFauxiliary - aírive at) l-frtel-l viz.(i)
Ulalìbeleziku-frtel-alufrta
e.g.
(He wait€d for us unül we should aÌrive)
(iì
l-tut-l
Nita-l la nimuborr.l
e.g. (iiD I ì
e.g.
(agam;
l-líl
(while;
as non-auxiliary
- retum)
(I shall s€eyou agên)
ssnon-auxiliary
- sâY,do)
A-li asabulela,kwaíaha
(While he was stil sp€aking his chiÌd
mw(m'ahae
came)
Ni-Ii ttisab;ahupula, níse
(Whilê I was still thinkiúg oftheín, I
nibdbonabalìta
sawthem coming)
B.t-li bahohãmukolo,
(They werepushingúe canoeand it
baupalelua
wastoo much for them)
Ni-sa-li niba mu14
(Ever sinceI becamea man,I have
hanisikasieza
not donethis)
Ni-sa-li nikena mrtaldu,
(Ever sinceI cameinto the housg I
hatlìsikamuboru
havenot seenhim)
96
(You will aÍÍive, or, vr'henyou a. ve,
Uaa-lì ufiÍa hwahorayani,
at that tl€e, you will seethe river) (iv)
/-na/
(keepon doing)
(v)
l-mel
(continìÌe)
e.g.
Nì-nzenisebez.,
(I go on working)
Ne-ni-nzenisebeul ÍJ-nzoumuluta?
0 went on workitrg) (Do you still teâchhim?)
U-sa-azeaanrurya
(He is still walking)
(vi)
/-s\|tÌ -l
(p€rhaps; as non-auxiliâry
Pizi ìka-s$,ar,aisaba (viD
/-tol-/(iee)
be like)
(The horsemay run away)
(notagâin; as non-auxilìary
- sp€ndúe day)
Ha-ní-sa-lol-aniezahape
(I shall nevermore do it again)
Halty'rol-i nieza
(I neverdo it any more)
(viil)
l-tuh-/
(soon.probably:as non-au\iliaí,
sÌaí)
Kifokauft, nitatuh-a niloJìta
Qt is ne2LI shall soonarrive)
U-taiuh-a alolupotela
(ÌIe will soonvisit us)
{c) Auxiìiary verbsfollowed by pre€entsubjunctiveinfleúed VPs. (i) l-bel (until) .iz (ii) /-ke/
(potentiality)
(ìú) /-lil
(intedtion)
(iv) /-te/
(untiÌ)
97
('r\ /-buel-/
(again)
(i) Auxiliary \rPs with /-áel as auxiliary verb aÌe normally inflected in the prcsentsubjunctive e.g.
Lumsebezaa-beafte
(we shall work until he ariiv€s)
(ii) VPs as complelnents lo l-kel as auxiliary verb arc normally
e.g.
inflectedin the affirmative PeÍfect (I could do it) Nïke níaze Ne-ni-henieze
(I could havedoneiD
(iii)Auxiliary VPs vr'ith /-/r7 as auxiliary are widely inflected and require a oomplementaryVP in the pr€sentsubjunctive infl€ction'
e.g.
The auxiliary \? conveysaction aimedat or attempted' (I walk in orderúat I may aÌrive) Nizanaya ku-li núle Ne-nìzomayaku-li nfite
(I was walking in oÌder üat I might arrive)
Ne-ní-li nisile Lononapaleâra (I wâs intending to cross but I was unable) Ne-ba-li bahoherutÉolo
(They were endeavouringto movethe
kono baupalelwa
canoebut they wereunâble)
Lumulibelezihr-li de
(We waited for him to come)
(iv)Auxiliary VPs with /-t-l as auxiliary €dical are inflected in the presentsubjunctiveto form a firhrÍÊsubjunctiveofthe auúliary \?' e.8.
Ba.sebez-i Ie k1ií ba-t-e
(They worked until üeY eventualÌY
baztnaye lwahae
weÍÌt home)
Zamayauyomubulelahií
(Go and tell him that he shouldgo to
4-14 alobale
sleep)
(v) /-büel-/ Nita-bael-a nilose
(I will get it rÃÌongagain)
(f) Auxiliary radicalfollowed by paÍ subjunctiveiÍúlected\rPs, ,tiz-
(i) /-t@/
(negativepotentiality)
(ii) t-tit
(iÍÌtention)
(iii) /^tw\ÍtJ
(possibility; as
non-auxiliary -
resemble) (i) Auxiliary VPs with /-f€l as auxiliaÌy radical are iÍflected in úe negativeprincipal potential and participial futurg as well as irÌ the negativesubjunctive. e.g.
Ha-ni-kn-l@naiezs
(I could not havedoneit)
Ni-ka-sïke nahalfa
(I will not, would/ not get angry)
Nìha ba-si-kebahalíía..
(Although they will rot g€t angry..)
Ne-ba-sïke bahaliÍa..
(They would ÍIot havegot angry)
..kuliii-sì-ke naziúa
(..so that I mighJnot know)
(ii) Auxiliary VPs üth /-/r7 as auxiliary râdical .are iníected in Ìh€ pr€sent. Ni-ü naqirfrla
(l am aboutto go. hlendingto go)
Ne-nïli rmzanqìa
(l wason thepoiol ofgoing)
(iii)Auxiliary VPs vr'ithl-swan-l are lnílated ìn úe poteútial. Lu-ka-swan-alwamubona
(We are likely to s€€him)
99
A-ktt-stean-aalubona
(H€ is likely to seeus)
(g) Auxiliary radical fqllowed by "occasional"subjunctiveinÍì€ctedVPs, vì2.
(i\ l4rel
(sometimes,occasiotìally)
\ii) tli - -tel
(occasionally)
Auxiliary VPs wìth l-nel al,d l-ti ' -te/ as auxiliary radicals are inflected in the present. e.g.
(1) I- e iaeli Nja ine ilxmí bapoíi (1i\ Ni-ti nibulelí siFaÌo
(It occasionallyratuts) (The dog sometimesbitesúsitors) (I som€timesspeâkFrench)
Th€seconstructionsdo not se€ÍÌrto be g€trerâllyrecognis€d.
THE VERBÀL CTÁU'E AND SENTENCÉ The clause as a constr'uotionconsists of a subject and â predicate. The constituentof subject is optional but that of pÍedicateis compulsory.ln verbal clausesthe predicateis eitheran inflectêd\rP oÌ an inflectedauxiliary VP. Th€re are as many t'?es of claus€as theíe are major t]?€s of inflection. Thus theÍe aÌe principâL participial, relative, hor{âtive, subjunctive, infinitive âíd imperativeclâusesdiff€ting from eâchoiher ií infleotion. Sentences,the units of utterencg are úade up of combinations of claus€s. Statemeotsand questionsno.mally contain principal claus€sas their íucleus and this nucleus is often exlended by paúicipial or subjunctive clauses. HoÍative and imperative sentencescodâin clauseswith these inflectioÍs âs their nucleusand they arc often extendedby subjutrctiveclaus€s.
100
(âd Sentencesmay consistofprincipal claus€sjoined by the conjuÍÌctiYes/t" t}Len),lkonal (b.uit),líed Out), /Éap.t/(oÌ) andothers' e.g.
UÍelizemusebeziN,ahae
(He finished his wo* in the fields and
,nwanmsiml mi ukúeü
Ìr'enthom€)
kí,ahae Niufi,ile kono haniurwítíti
(I haveheardbut I do not undêrstaÍÌd)
Neniboni tapi íela
(I savr'the fish but I did not catchit)
nenítihoisteola Lrkayaha ndu kaPa
íAre we to build th€ houseor go to till
Itrksyolirrro?
the Ìaíd?)
Haasebai kuzwaíohaltkoni
(He doesnot work andther€fore
kuíepa luboti lwahae
cannotsuppoÍthis family)
and Sent€ncesmây consist of combinationsof pdncipal or imperativeclauses participial cìauses.The latter aÌe often introduced and linked to the principal (iÍ)' clausesby conjunctivessuchas the following: /'a-l (if'wha), lhaibal lnihal (altlnugh), lnihaibal (although),/pttil (while), lkahal (beause) Ha rrhazibí nüakubuIeIela
(lfl do not know how can I tell You?)
crra|i? Kaha n lihoni dnitusizÀ,
(Becauseyour fiiend h€lPedme, I
úilalsflrsa níweno
shall help you also)
s-
Pìli asozaíraya,ubotutni
(Wlile shewas still walkin& shem€t
!s
úìyena
him)
s.
Niha huli otalo, usakona
(Although tl|at is the casq he is still
t5
* usebezamasebazi wahíte
ableto do his work)
IJsikewaeu lilúa, ha
(Do not makea nois€whil€ he is
asabalela
speaking)
Sentencesmay consist of combinationsof principaÌ or imperativeclausesand suqiuncliveclauses.These combinationsoften con\el, conseculiveaclion Present subiunctive inJlection follows prcsent tense signs. Past subjunctive infìectiongeneÌalì)lollowspaslândpotenliaìformsì Iíuíe. utalife ha usali tommca (Study and be educatedwhile you are e.g. still young) Utalunolela
(He will [Tite 1ous and inform us
al uzibìsebuoilo bwabahesu
aboul our relativ€s' health)
Utalunolelalinolo
(He will write lettersto us andwe
Iute lutabe huliamahela
will be gladto getthem)
Nikakuma|ìsanil svjale
(I can chaseand catchyou)
Haihd noha ilubona.
(lf the snakeseesus, it couÌd swim ío
ikatapela lcwanu.ralaluma
us andbiteus)
Wasebeza
(He works until he finish€shis woÌk)
,fidneafezefiusebezivahae (lna asebeza
(He workeduntil hefinishedhis work)
maneafezamusebezìYtdhae Nive ele monefiite nikute
(Wâit for me until Ì retum)
LInaanívemezimanenakuta
(I-[ewaited for me üntil I retumed)
Folofoto iboni íau
(The buck sâwthe lion andthen rân
cwalelasaba
away)
rnaking up the 'Each clâuseis underlinedto show the djtrerflt cÌauses line. úe second on new clause begins up t\{o lines a tâkes a sentence 102
.
Chapter 3
IDEOPHONICCON'TRUCTIONS Not many sil-ozi ideophoneshave been re€ordednor do the conshuctionsin which ideophonesoccur âs constituentsfigure in th€ literature. The following are somerandomexamplesof ideophones,in somecasesÍeduplicated. cupw. ngumbwLttpwi
(falling into water) (going awayfor good) (walking in water) (being sour, of liquids)
mbílu
(paddlingfast)
nga tlga hga
(shivering)
ngaa
(biting)
tlgo, tuü, twi
(keepingquiet)
nyamenyame
(disappearing)
pululu
(beinggrey in coloü) (looking round speechless) (beingbright)
wiukaht
Oeing dark) (falling down)
yaht
(seizing)
yubu
(splashingof water)
h appearsthat ideophonicpkas€s analogousto inflected v6Ìb phns€s but very üfferent from them in style are conshuctedaccordingto the following pattern: ideophone+/- complemen(s)+/- adjÌrnc(s)
culu kwahuhMa
(going off for good to the white man's counlry, (falling iíto the riv€r)
Ideophonicplrases are normally found as constituentsof auxiüary veó phrases with radicaÌ /Jil. Theseauxiliary \?s are inÍlected aÍÌd form the predicatesof claus€s. e.g.
Licwe neli-ü tup$,i nnrana*4r (The stonefell into the rivei) Naaile a-li cah kwaúulít ttd
(He had goneoff for good to the white man'scountry)
Bazanaya mwamezìba-ri
(TÏey are walking in the water,
cupwa cupwa
splashingalong)
Mabisi a-li 4,aa
(Th€ milk is sour)
Uhaize a-ü tua
(He kept quiet)
Kuza a-li ,tgo!
(Keep quiet!)
Naalrettimu,anduakuzaa-ri Íri (He aameiÍÍo the room and kept quite qulet) Naakeniuwandu. Kiha ase
(He cameinto the house.That is when
aina, alit*i
he satdown quietÌY)
Naamulurnilea-li ngaa
(He bit him)
Foloíoto neinmtai-Ii nyantc
(The buck ran awaS disappearinginto
,rydnte
the distance)
Naawile a-li wuluktltü inge
(He fell dowÌÌ,heavilylike a tree)
kota Mukalo noumatauJi mbilu
Q{e was paddlingthe canõestrongly) (l hecanoewasgoing very fâstì
Lizazi li-li ôraa
(The sun is bright)
NaaJuluhamukoloa-linãilr
' TheauxiliaryveÈ phrasesconsislingoflJil ãìd ideophonicptrasesascornplernens in úis secÍion. aÌein bold in €xamples t04
Btcihu bu-ü wi
(The night is dark)
Mezi ã-li yubu mxtapiza
(The water is splashirìgout of the pot)
Nja neikenifiú,ondu,yafta
(The dog enteredth€ house!drew near
íanarna,ya-li yakü harreno
to úe m€at, and seized it with his teeth)
Ideophonicphrasesmay, however,function as predicatesin ideophonicclauses. e.g.
Mwtn'aka culu kwabakuwa
(My child went off for good to úe white mân's countrv)