American Nation: Civil War to Present

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Author: Paul Boyer

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HOLT

Paul Boyer

Austin • New York • Orlando • Atlanta • San Francisco • Boston • Dallas • Toronto • London

Editorial Sue Miller, Director Steven L. Hayes, Executive Editor Robert Wehnke, Managing Editor Suzanne Hurley, Senior Editor Paul Rubinson, Associate Editor Sue Minkler, Assistant Editorial Coordinator TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES Rob Hrechko, Editor Annette Saunders, Editor FACT CHECKING Bob Fullilove, Editor Jenny Rose, Associate Editor COPY EDITING Julie Beckman, Senior Copy Editor Katelijne A. Lefevere, Copy Editor

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Paul Boyer

P

aul Boyer is the Merle Curti Professor of History at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, and former director of the university’s Institute for Research in the Humanities. He has also served on the executive board of the Organization of American Historians and the national advisory board of the PBS American Experience series, and is Editor-In-Chief of the Oxford Companion to United States History. Awarded a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1966, Dr. Boyer is the author of numerous articles and books. Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft, which he co-authored with Stephen Nissenbaum, won the John H. Dunning Prize of the American Historical Association.

EDITORIAL REVIEW BOARD DR. RONALD FOORE

DR. NAN E. WOODRUFF

Dr. Foore is the social studies department chair at Booker T. Washington Magnet High School in Tulsa, Oklahoma. In addition to teaching American history, he also serves on the International Baccalaureate Faculty. He has served on the National Council for the Social Studies, was a vice president for the American Society for History Education, and is president-elect of the Oklahoma Council for the Social Studies. Dr. Foore is a recipient of the Tulsa Teacher of the Year award.

Dr. Woodruff is an associate professor of history at Penn State University. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Tennessee. She specializes in 20th century southern history. Dr. Woodruff has published numerous articles as well as the book Right as Rain: The Great Southern Drought, 1930–31. She also served as an assistant editor for the Booker T. Washington Papers.

DR. YASUHIDE KAWASHIMA

DR. ALFRED YOUNG

Dr. Kawashima is a professor of history at the University of Texas at El Paso. He received his Ph.D. from the University of California at Santa Barbara, as well as advanced legal degrees from Keio University in Japan. He specializes in American legal history. Dr. Kawashima is the author of numerous articles and three books, including Puritan Justice and the American Indian. He is a past winner of the Webb-Smith Essay Prize from the University of Texas at Arlington.

Dr. Young is a professor of history at Georgia Southern University. He received his Ph.D. from Syracuse University. He specializes in African American history. Dr. Young has published numerous articles and is co-author of the book Education and the Black Experience. He is currently completing a biography of African American scholar John Hope Franklin. Dr. Young has served as an officer for the National Council for Black Studies and is a past recipient of the Black Student Union’s Teaching Excellence Award.

LUCINDA LUCERO SACHS Ms. Sachs recently retired after teaching American history and other social studies courses for 29 years in the Albuquerque School District in New Mexico. She holds Master’s degrees in both Secondary Education and in History. She is a past recipient of the Crossing Boundaries writing contest from the International Quarterly. She has also been awarded numerous fellowships, including writing fellowships from the Provincetown Fine Arts Work Center in Massachusetts and from the Vermont Studio Center.

iii

CONTRIBUTORS DR. PAUL HUTTON

Western History Association University of New Mexico Albuquerque, New Mexico

DR. RAYMOND HYSER

James Madison University Harrisonburg, Virginia

DR. OTEY SCRUGGS

Syracuse University Syracuse, New York

DR. MARY CARROLL JOHANSEN

The Ranney School Tinton Falls, New Jersey

CONTENT REVIEWERS DR. MARY C. BRENNAN

Southwest Texas State post–World War II, U.S. political DR. MAUREEN FLANAGAN

Michigan State University 20th century, urban, political, women DR. PAUL GILJE

University of Oklahoma U.S., 1492–1865

DR. JULIE GREENE

University of Colorado at Boulder U.S. labor, political DR. MELVIN HOLLI

University of Illinois at Chicago urban and ethnic

DR. F. DANIEL LARKIN

SUNY-Oneonta late 19th, early 20th century DR. CARL H. MONEYHON

University of Arkansas at Little Rock southern, Civil War, Reconstruction

DR. RAYMOND HYSER

James Madison University Gilded Age and Progressive Era

EDUCATIONAL REVIEWERS PEGGY ALTOFF, SUPERVISOR

Carroll County Public Schools Westminster, Maryland HELEN BRADLEY

Nimitz High School Irving, Texas DEAN BRINK

Roosevelt High School Seattle, Washington BARBARA HARBOUR

Lewis Cass Technical High School Detroit, Michigan RICHARD G. CHEPLICK

Nimitz 9th Grade School Houston, Texas DR. KAREN HOPPES

Lakeridge High School Lake Oswego, Oregon PAUL HORNE

A.C. Flora High School Columbia, South Carolina

JOEL G. MOSIER

Andress High School El Paso, Texas DOUG ODOM

El Dorado High School El Dorado, Kansas SUE REEDER

Winter Springs High School Winter Springs, Florida JACK ROUSSO

Roosevelt High School Seattle, Washington JENIFER ROWRAY

SE Polk High School Runnells, Iowa

MELISSA THOMAS

Austin High School El Paso, Texas ANDREW TURAY

Bronx High School Bronx, New York SUE WALLACE

Redlands East Valley High School Redlands, California GENNIE WESTBROOK

Calhoun High School Port Lavaca, Texas ROBERT ZEIGER

Johnston High School Austin, Texas

MADELEINE SCHMITT

St. Louis Public Schools St. Louis, Missouri DEANNA SPRING

Cincinnati Public Schools Cincinnati, Ohio

FIELD TEST TEACHERS MATT BERGLES

Rangeview High School Aurora, Colorado VINCE CASTELLANO

Arvada Senior High Arvada, Colorado MARIAN HALEY

Aqua Fria Union High School Avondale, Arizona

iv

KEVIN MCNAMARA

Horizon High School Thornton, Colorado GREGORY K. MILLER

Douglas High School Oklahoma City, Oklahoma GARY MINOR

Canyon de Oro High School Tucson, Arizona

ROBERTA MYRICKS

Clifford J. Scott High School East Orange, New Jersey ANNA PRONI

Miami Senior High School Miami, Florida TOM WORKMAN

Hobart High School Hobart, Indiana

Contents How to Use Your Textbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxx

Skills Handbook

Essential Elements of Geography. . . . . . . . xxxv

Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S1 Becoming a Strategic Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . S4 Standardized Test–Taking Strategies . . . . . S12

Why History Matters Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxvi

Atlas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1

Themes in American History . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiii

An astrolabe

U•• N•• I•• T

1

Beginnings Prehistory –1800 Unit 1 Preview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 CHAPTER

1

The World by 1500 Prehistory –1500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1 Early Peoples of the Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 AMERICAN LETTERS Native American Myths . . . . . . . . . . . 6 THEN AND NOW Sacred or Scientific Sites? . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2 Early World-Trading Kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Reading a Time Line . . . . . 15 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 3 Europe in the Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 TEEN LIFE Growing Up in the Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS Magna Carta . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 BIOGRAPHY Queen Isabella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 4 The Lure of Trade and Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 BIOGRAPHY Prince Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 THEN AND NOW The Lives of Sailors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 CHAPTER

2

Empires of the Americas

2 Conquest of the Mainland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Building Vocabulary . . . . . . 42 PRIMARY SOURCE The French View of Spanish America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3 The Spanish Settle the Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 CHANGING WAYS Hispanics in America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 BIOGRAPHY Juana Inés de la Cruz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 AMERICAN ARTS Spanish Architecture in the Southwest . . . 51 4 The English in North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 THE RELIGIOUS SPIRIT The Protestant Reformation . . . . . 54 BIOGRAPHY Pocahontas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 AMERICAN LETTERS The Early Colonial Experience . . . . . . 58 AMERICA’S GEOGRAPHY The Columbian Exchange . . . . . . 62

CHAPTER

3

The English Colonies 1620 –1763 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

1 The New England Colonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS The Mayflower Compact . . . . . 67 BIOGRAPHY Anne Hutchinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 HISTORY IN THE MAKING The Salem Witchcraft Trials . . . . 72 2 The Southern Colonies and Slavery . . . . . . . . . . . 73 CHANGING WAYS The Chesapeake Region . . . . . . . . . . . 75 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Crop Cultivation and Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 BIOGRAPHY Olaudah Equiano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

3 The Colonies During the Restoration . . . . . . . . . . 79 AMERICAN LETTERS Benjamin Franklin on Colonial Life . . . 83 THE RELIGIOUS SPIRIT Politics and the Great Awakening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 BIOGRAPHY Jonathan Edwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

1492 –1800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4 The Struggle for Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Reading Effectively . . . . . . . 87

1 First Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 BIOGRAPHY Christopher Columbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 GREAT DEBATES The Columbian Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

PRIMARY SOURCE A Soldier’s View of the French and Indian War . . . . . . . . 90

Unit 1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 v

U ••N ••I ••T

2

Creating a Nation 1763–1815

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Unit 2 Preview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 CHAPTER

4

Independence! 1763 –1783 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

1 The Seeds of Unrest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 BIOGRAPHY Samuel Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 TEEN LIFE Scots-Irish in the Backcountry . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 2 The Shot Heard Round the World . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 AMERICAN LETTERS Mercy Otis Warren’s Revolutionary Writings . . . . . . . . . 110 THEN AND NOW Revolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

3 Independence Declared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS Common Sense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 BIOGRAPHY Abigail Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 PRIMARY SOURCE A Loyalist’s View of the Colonists’ Actions . . . . . . . . . . 117

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

4 An American Victory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Identifying the Main Idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 GREAT DEBATES Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

CHAPTER

5

From Confederation to Federal Union 1776 –1789 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

1 The Articles of Confederation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS The Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom . . . . . . . . . . 135 BIOGRAPHY Benjamin Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Identifying Cause and Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

George Washington accepts the U.S. Constitution

2 Drafting and Ratifying the Constitution . . . . . . 142 BIOGRAPHY James Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 PRIMARY SOURCE A Farmer’s View of the New Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS The Federalist Papers . . . . . . 146

3 The Constitution: A Living Document . . . . . . . . 149 CHANGING WAYS The Federal Government . . . . . . . . . . 152 THEN AND NOW The Balance of Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 GREAT DEBATES The Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 CONSTITUTION HANDBOOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

CHAPTER

6

A Strong Start for the Nation 1789 –1815 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

1 A Federal Government is Established . . . . . . . . 190 THE RELIGIOUS SPIRIT Separation of Church and State . . 191 BIOGRAPHY Alexander Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES George Washington . . . . . . . . . . . 193 2 Dealing with a Dangerous World . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Taking a Test . . . . . . . . . . 200 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS Washington’s Farewell Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Building a Navy . . . . . . . . . . . 202

3 The Nation Expands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Thomas Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 AMERICAN LETTERS Uniquely American Literature . . . . . 206 4 War of 1812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Early U.S. coins

HISTORY IN THE MAKING Reasons for the War of 1812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 BIOGRAPHY Dolley Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 AMERICAN ARTS Patriotic Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

AMERICA’S GEOGRAPHY The American West . . . . . . . . . 218

Unit 2 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 vi

U ••N ••I ••T

3

Growth and Change 1790–1860

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Unit 3 Preview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 CHAPTER

7

Nationalism and Economic Growth

Richmond, Virginia, in the 1830s

1790 –1840 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

1 The Rise of Nationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES James Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS The Monroe Doctrine . . . . . . 230

A cotton gin

2 The Challenges of Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 BIOGRAPHY Henry Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Reviewing Map Basics . . . 233 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY The Canal System . . . . . . . . . 235

2 The Cotton Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY The Cotton Gin . . . . . . . . . . . 265 AMERICAN ARTS Southern Folk Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 AMERICAN LETTERS Southern Writers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

3 The Rise of Jacksonian Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . 238 THEN AND NOW Campaigning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Andrew Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

3 The Slave System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Interpreting Charts . . . . . . 275 THEN AND NOW African Culture and Traditions . . . . . . . 277 BIOGRAPHY Harriet Tubman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

4 Jackson’s Policies Define an Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 BIOGRAPHY Sequoya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 CHANGING WAYS Indian Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 GREAT DEBATES Jackson’s Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

AMERICA’S GEOGRAPHY Early Industrialization . . . . . . . . . 282

CHAPTER CHAPTER

8

Regional Societies 1793 –1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

1 The North and the Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 BIOGRAPHY Francis Cabot Lowell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 TEEN LIFE Lowell Girls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 PRIMARY SOURCE An Immigrant’s View of Industry . . . . . 258

Circuit rider

9

Working for Reform 1820 –1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

1 Religious Zeal and New Communities . . . . . . . 286 THE RELIGIOUS SPIRIT Circuit Riders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 AMERICAN LETTERS Transcendentalism and the Romantic Movement . . . . . 289

2 Movements for Social Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 BIOGRAPHY Catharine Beecher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 PRIMARY SOURCE French Views of American Prisons . . . 295 3 The Crusade for Abolition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Interpreting Graphs . . . . . 299 THEN AND NOW Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 4 The Cause of Women’s Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments . . . . . . BIOGRAPHY Elizabeth Cady Stanton . . . . . . . . . BIOGRAPHY Susan B. Anthony . . . . . . . . . . . . . GREAT DEBATES The Women’s Rights Movement

. . . . . . 305 . . . . . . 306 . . . . . . 306 . . . . . . 307

Unit 3 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 vii

U ••N ••I ••T

4

The burning of Atlanta

CHAPTER

War and Reunification 1820–1900

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312


10

Expansion and Conflict 1820 –1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

1 The Lure of the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Distinguishing Fact from Opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 TEEN LIFE Life for Teenage Immigrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 BIOGRAPHY Juan Seguín . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

2 American Expansionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES James K. Polk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 HISTORY IN THE MAKING The Mexican War . . . . . . . . . 326 3 The Far West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 BIOGRAPHY Narcissa Whitman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 CHANGING WAYS Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 THEN AND NOW Westward Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

12

The Civil War 1861–1865 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

1 The Union Dissolves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Abraham Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 BIOGRAPHY Robert E. Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 PRIMARY SOURCE Views of the Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Recognizing Fallacies in Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

2 The North and South Face Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 AMERICAN ARTS Mathew Brady’s Photographs . . . . . . . 377 BIOGRAPHY Mary Boykin Chesnut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 TEEN LIFE Growing Up During the Civil War . . . . . . . . . . 379 3 Fighting the War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS The Emancipation Proclamation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Weapons and War . . . . . . . . . 388

4 The Final Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS The Gettysburg Address . . . . 391 AMERICA’S GEOGRAPHY Regionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

4 The Rush to California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 PRIMARY SOURCE A Californio’s View of Forty-Niners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

A cowboy’s spur

CHAPTER

13

Reconstruction and the New South 1865 –1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

1 Presidential Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 THEN AND NOW Juneteenth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Comparing Points of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

2 Congressional Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 BIOGRAPHY Frederick Douglass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

CHAPTER

Sectional Conflict Increases 1845 –1861 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

PRIMARY SOURCE Reconstruction and Land Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Andrew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Ulysses S. Grant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

1 An Uneasy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

3 Reconstruction in the South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

11

SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Recognizing Propaganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 BIOGRAPHY John C. Calhoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

2 Compromise Comes to an End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 BIOGRAPHY Harriet Beecher Stowe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 AMERICAN LETTERS Slave Narratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 3 On the Brink of War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 BIOGRAPHY Stephen Douglas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 THEN AND NOW Balancing Political Interests . . . . . . . . . 360

viii

HISTORY IN THE MAKING Interpretations of Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 GREAT DEBATES Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

4 The New South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 CHANGING WAYS The South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 AMERICAN LETTERS Black Writers During the Late 1800s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 BIOGRAPHY Madame C. J. Walker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

Unit 4 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428

U ••N ••I ••T

5

A Nation Transformed 1860–1910

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430

Fan from the1800s


14

The Western Crossroads 1860 –1910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432

1 War in the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 BIOGRAPHY Sitting Bull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 HISTORY IN THE MAKING George Custer . . . . . . . . . . . 438 THE RELIGIOUS SPIRIT The Ghost Dance . . . . . . . . . . . 439 2 Western Farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 AMERICAN LETTERS The Western Novel . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 BIOGRAPHY Willa Cather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 3 The Cattle Boom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 AMERICAN ARTS Frontier Artists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 TEEN LIFE Ranch Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 4 The Mining Boom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Comparing and Contrasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 GREAT DEBATES The Old West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

CHAPTER

15

The Second Industrial Revolution

3 Labor Strives to Organize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 PRIMARY SOURCE A European View of U.S. Workers . . . 483 BIOGRAPHY Mary Harris Jones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 THEN AND NOW Labor Unions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485

CHAPTER

16

The Transformation of American Society 1865 –1910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490

1 The New Immigrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 CHANGING WAYS Immigration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 THE RELIGIOUS SPIRIT Orthodox Religions . . . . . . . . . . 495 2 The Urban World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 TEEN LIFE The Debutante Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 BIOGRAPHY Jane Addams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 3 Daily Life in the Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Analyzing Information . . . 506 THEN AND NOW Amusement Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 BIOGRAPHY Scott Joplin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 AMERICA’S GEOGRAPHY Conquering Distance . . . . . . . . . 514

1865 –1905 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 1 The Age of Invention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 CHANGING WAYS Technology in Daily Life . . . . . . . . . . 469 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 BIOGRAPHY Thomas Edison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 2 The Rise of Big Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 BIOGRAPHY Andrew Carnegie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475

THE GRANGER COLLECTION, NEW YORK

THE RELIGIOUS SPIRIT Philanthropy and the Gospel of Wealth . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Evaluating Historical Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478

Thomas Edison at Menlo Park

A telegraph

CHAPTER

17

Politics in the Gilded Age 1865 –1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516

1 Political Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Synthesizing . . . . . . . . . . 521 AMERICAN ARTS Thomas Nast’s Cartoons . . . . . . . . . . . 522

2 Restoring Honest Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 AMERICAN LETTERS Mark Twain’s Political Writings . . . . . 526 THEN AND NOW Civil Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Grover Cleveland . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529

3 The Populist Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531 CHANGING WAYS The American Farmer . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 BIOGRAPHY William Jennings Bryan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES William McKinley . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

Unit 5 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 ix

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6

U.S. forces in the Battle of Manila Bay

A World Power 1897–1920

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542

Unit 6 Preview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543

CHAPTER

18

CHAPTER

20

America and the World 1898 –1917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596

1 Expansion in the Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598

The Age of Reform 1897–1920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544

1 The Progressive Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546

THE RELIGIOUS SPIRIT The American Missionary Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599 BIOGRAPHY Liliuokalani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Interpreting Economic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603

THE RELIGIOUS SPIRIT The Social Gospel and Progressivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548 BIOGRAPHY Ida Tarbell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Interpreting the Visual Record: Photographs . . . . . . . . . 550

2 War with Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605 BIOGRAPHY José Martí . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605 BIOGRAPHY William Randolph Hearst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606

2 Reforming the New Industrial Order . . . . . . . . . 552 PRIMARY SOURCE Urban Life in the early 1900s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554

3 Expansion in Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY The Panama Canal . . . . . . . . 614 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS The Roosevelt Corollary . . . . . 615

3 Reforming Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 AMERICAN ARTS Shaping Public Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 BIOGRAPHY W. E. B. Du Bois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562

4 Conflict with Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 CHANGING WAYS Mexico and the United States . . . . . . 618

AMERICAN LETTERS Literature of the Spanish-American War . . . . . . . . . . . 609

AMERICA’S GEOGRAPHY The United States and the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

CHAPTER

19

Progressive Politicians 1900 –1920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568

1 Reforming Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 PRIMARY SOURCE Another View of Government Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Interpreting Political Cartoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573

2 Roosevelt and the Square Deal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Theodore Roosevelt . . . . . . . . . . . 576 AMERICAN LETTERS Progressive Literature . . . . . . . . . . 579 THEN AND NOW National Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 3 Reform Under Taft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582 HISTORY IN THE MAKING Views of Taft . . . . . . . . . . . . 583 4 Wilson’s “New Freedom” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Woodrow Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588 AMERICAN ARTS The Armory Show . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 BIOGRAPHY Carrie Chapman Catt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 GREAT DEBATES The Progressive Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . 592

x

CHAPTER

21

World War I 1914 –1920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626

1 World War I Breaks Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 THEN AND NOW Conflicts in Bosnia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629 2 The United States Goes to War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 PRIMARY SOURCE The Sinking of the Lusitania . . . . . . . 634 HISTORY IN THE MAKING The Doughboy’s Pack . . . . . . 637 BIOGRAPHY John J. Pershing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638 3 The War at Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 BIOGRAPHY Juliette Gordon Low . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 TEEN LIFE Mobilizing for the War Effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Deadly Influenza . . . . . . . . . . 644 4 The War’s End and Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Interpreting Literature as Historical Evidence . . . . . . . . 648 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS The Fourteen Points . . . . . . . 650

Unit 6 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656

U ••N ••I ••T THE GRANGER COLLECTION, NEW YORK

7

Prosperity and Crisis 1919–1939

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658

Unit 7 Preview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659 An effect of the 1929 stock market crash

CHAPTER

22

A Turbulent Decade 1919 –1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660

CHAPTER

24

The Great Depression 1929 –1933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712

1 Postwar Troubles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662 BIOGRAPHY John L. Lewis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Evaluating News Stories . . . 667

1 Prosperity Shattered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714 PRIMARY SOURCE The Global Depression . . . . . . . . . . . 717

2 The Republicans in Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 THEN AND NOW The Free Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670

2 Hard Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 BIOGRAPHY Josefina Fierro de Bright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724

3 A Nation Divided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675

SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Evaluating Artifacts as Historical Evidence . . . . . . . . . . 725 THEN AND NOW Baseball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726

PRIMARY SOURCE The Back-to-Africa Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679

CHAPTER

23

The Jazz Age

3 Hoover’s Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 THE RELIGIOUS SPIRIT The Salvation Army . . . . . . . . . . 729 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Herbert Hoover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731 TEEN LIFE Riding the Rails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732

1920 –1930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684

1 Boom Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY The Model T . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688 BIOGRAPHY Henry Ford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Using Primary and Secondary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . 691

2 Life in the Twenties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694 THEN AND NOW Censorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697 THE RELIGIOUS SPIRIT Pentecostalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 3 A Creative Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 AMERICAN LETTERS Harlem Renaissance Writers . . . . . . 705 BIOGRAPHY James Weldon Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706 King Oliver’s Creole Jazz Band

CHAPTER

25

The New Deal 1933 –1939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738

1 Restoring Hope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS Roosevelt’s First Inaugural Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741

2 New Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Franklin D. Roosevelt . . . . . . . . . . 748 BIOGRAPHY Mary McLeod Bethune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749 THEN AND NOW Social Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749 3 Life in the New Deal Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754 AMERICAN ARTS Woody Guthrie and American Folk Music . . . . . . . . . . 755 BIOGRAPHY Dorothea Lange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756

4 The New Deal and the Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759 AMERICAN LETTERS Literature of the Great Depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Evaluating Art as Historical Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762

AMERICA’S GEOGRAPHY Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766

Unit 7 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768 xi

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World Conflicts 1921–1960

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770

Unit 8 Preview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771 CHAPTER

26

1921–1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772

2 Relations with Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779 PRIMARY SOURCE Latin American Views of Foreign Investment . . . . . . . . 781 CHANGING WAYS Investments in Latin America . . . . . . . 782

3 The Rise of Militarism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Using Oral Histories . . . . . 787 AMERICAN LETTERS Ernest Hemingway and War . . . . . . 788 4 War Breaks Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790 BIOGRAPHY Winston Churchill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793

27

3 Victory in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Preparing Questions . . . . . 817 4 Victory in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Harry S Truman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825 GREAT DEBATES The Atomic Bomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826

The Road to War

1 The Search for Peace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774 BIOGRAPHY Charles Evans Hughes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 THEN AND NOW Peace Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775

CHAPTER

2 The Home Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS The Four Freedoms . . . . . . . 808 AMERICAN ARTS Norman Rockwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809 BIOGRAPHY Norman Mineta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813

Americans in World War II 1941–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798

1 Early Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800 PRIMARY SOURCE Japanese View of World War II . . . . . 801 BIOGRAPHY Douglas MacArthur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803 TEEN LIFE The Navajo Code Talkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804

CHAPTER

28

The Cold War 1945 –1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830

1 Healing the Wounds of War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS The Charter of the United Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 BIOGRAPHY Eleanor Roosevelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 THE RELIGIOUS SPIRIT American Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . 836

2 The Cold War Begins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Taking Notes . . . . . . . . . . 839 THEN AND NOW Extending Economic Aid Abroad . . . . . 841 BIOGRAPHY George C. Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 3 The Cold War Turns Hot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Dwight D. Eisenhower . . . . . . . . . 848 4 The Cold War at Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851 AMERICAN LETTERS Science Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853 TEEN LIFE “Duck and Cover” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855 AMERICA’S GEOGRAPHY Defenses of the Cold War . . . . 860

CHAPTER

29

Society After World War II 1945 –1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862

1 The Challenges of Peace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 CHANGING WAYS Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Conducting an Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867

2 The Affluent Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Jonas Salk’s Polio Vaccine . . . . 875 TEEN LIFE Teenagers as Consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877 BIOGRAPHY Elvis Presley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877 Eisenhower campaign button

3 Voices of Dissent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879 BIOGRAPHY Rosa Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881 AMERICAN LETTERS Voices of the Fifties . . . . . . . . . . . . 886

Unit 8 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 xii

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A Changing Home Front 1954–1978

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892


30

Women’s rights march and civil rights button

The New Frontier and the Great Society 1961–1969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894

1 Kennedy and the Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896 CHANGING WAYS The Peace Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY The Space Program . . . . . . . . 900 PRIMARY SOURCE Soviet View of the Cuban Missile Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . 902

2 The Kennedy White House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES John F. Kennedy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 BIOGRAPHY Donna Shalala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS Kennedy’s Inaugural Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905

3 Johnson’s Great Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Lyndon B. Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . 911 TEEN LIFE Vista Volunteers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 BIOGRAPHY Rachel Carson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Using the Library . . . . . . . 915

CHAPTER

32

31

The Civil Rights Movement 1960 –1978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920

1 Freedom Now! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS Letter from Birmingham Jail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925 BIOGRAPHY Martin Luther King Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926

2 Voting Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928 TEEN LIFE Freedom Summer Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930 3 Challenges for the Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933 PRIMARY SOURCE A Civil Rights Worker’s View of Malcolm X . . . . . . . . . . 934 BIOGRAPHY Malcolm X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934

4 The Movement Continues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Using Multimedia Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942

1963 –1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946

1 Women’s Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948 BIOGRAPHY Gloria Steinem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951 THEN AND NOW Women and Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952 2 The Chicano Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954 BIOGRAPHY César Chávez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954 THE RELIGIOUS SPIRIT The Ideal of Nonviolence . . . . . . 955 3 More Groups Mobilize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961 THEN AND NOW Education and Deaf Americans . . . . . . 963 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Evaluating Web Sites on the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964

4 A Cultural Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966 AMERICAN ARTS Pop Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969 AMERICA’S GEOGRAPHY Urban America . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974

CHAPTER CHAPTER

Struggles for Change

33

War in Vietnam 1954 –1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976

1 Background to Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978 PRIMARY SOURCE Asian View of French Colonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Evaluating Sources . . . . . 982

2 The War Escalates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984 AMERICAN LETTERS Views of Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS The Port Huron Statement . . . 990 3 A Turning Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992 TEEN LIFE The Generation Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994 BIOGRAPHY Henry Kissinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 4 The War Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998 BIOGRAPHY Le Ly Hayslip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 THEN AND NOW No More Vietnams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002

Unit 9 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006 xiii

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10

John Glenn (waving) and the space shuttle crew

Modern Times 1968–Present

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008

Unit 10 Preview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009

CH AP TER

36 C H A PT ER

34

From Nixon to Carter 1968 –1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010

Launching the New Millennium 1990 – Present . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068

1 Clinton’s First Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Bill Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS Contract with America . . . . . 1073

1 The Nixon Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Richard M. Nixon . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013 CHANGING WAYS Gasoline Consumption . . . . . . . . . . 1015

2 Clinton’s Second Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076 AMERICAN LETTERS Reflecting America in Literature . . 1079 BIOGRAPHY Madeleine Albright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081

PRIMARY SOURCE Chinese Views of Nixon’s Visit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017

3 Society in the 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082 BIOGRAPHY John Glenn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082 HISTORY IN THE MAKING DNA Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083 RELIGIOUS SPIRIT Growing Religious Diversity . . . . . . . 1085

2 From Watergate to Ford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Formulating a Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020 BIOGRAPHY Barbara Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022 GREAT DEBATES Watergate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023

3 Carter: The Outsider as President . . . . . . . . . . 1026 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Solar Power . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Jimmy Carter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029 4 Life in the 1970s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032 BIOGRAPHY Steven Spielberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035 TEEN LIFE The Disco Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036

C H A PT ER

35

The Republican Revolution 1980 –1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040

1 Reagan Comes to Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042 THE RELIGIOUS SPIRIT A Return to Conservative Churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044 PRESIDENTIAL LIVES Ronald Reagan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046

2 Reagan’s Second Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048 BIOGRAPHY Sandra Day O’Connor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Creating an Outline . . . . 1053 3 Bush and Life in the 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055 BIOGRAPHY Colin Powell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060 PRIMARY SOURCE A View of the Persian Gulf War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061

AMERICA’S GEOGRAPHY The Natural Environment . . . . 1066

xiv

4 George W. Bush’s Presidency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087 SKILL-BUILDING STRATEGIES Writing a Research Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090

5 September 11, 2001: A Day That Changed the World . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092 BIOGRAPHY George Howard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093 BIOGRAPHY Rudolph Giuliani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1094 HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS Bush’s Address to the Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096

Unit 10 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100 Special Feature: The War on Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1102

Reference Section Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R1 Facts About the States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R2 Presidents of The United States . . . . . . . R3 The American Flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R8 Leading Supreme Court Cases . . . . . . . .R10 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R18 Spanish Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R33 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R50 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R75

Primary Sources

Native American myth, The Giant Tortoise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 al-Muqaddasi, Egyptian Trading Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Charlemagne, The Roman Empire. . . . . . . 19 Sir John Mandeville, A Strange New World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Christopher Columbus, The Wonders of the New World . . . . . . . 34 Christopher Columbus, Announcement of His Discovery . . . . . . . 40 Antonio de Herrera, The Naming of Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 King Henry VII, Commission of John Cabot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 William Bradford, The Mayflower Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Southern colonists, Using Slaves . . . . . . . 73 William Hilton, New Settlement in Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Olaudah Equiano, Attack on Louisburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Charles Gravier, Predicting the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Jemima Condict Harrison, Troublesome Times. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 John Adams, Declaring Independence . . 114 James Wilkinson, National Spirit . . . . . . 124 John Adams, Making a New Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Benjamin Franklin, A Rising Sun . . . . . . 142 Barbara Jordan, Constitutional Flexibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Elias Boudinot, Welcoming President-Elect Washington . . . . . . . . . . 190 Philip Freneau, A System of Finance. . . . 197 Margaret Bayard Smith, Description of Thomas Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Thomas Jefferson, The Barbary Pirates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Anonymous British observer, American Pride Soars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Nathan Appleton, Potential for Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Rufus King, Opposition to Slavery in Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Speckled Snake, “A Little Land”. . . . . . . . 243 U.S. visitor, “One Gigantic Workshop”. . . 254 Mrs. Isaac H. Hilliard, Plantation Mistress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 J. W. Loguen, The Experience of Slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Alexis de Tocqueville, “The Souls of Men”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Lyman Beecher, Second Great Awakening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Theodore Weld, “Slavery is a Curse” . . . 297 Angelina Grimké, Presenting the Massachusetts Legislature. . . . . . . . . . . 303 General Manuel Mier y Téran, The Disappearance of French and Spanish Lands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Ethan Allen Hitchcock, Tension Between the United States and Mexico . . . . . . . . 323 Martha Ann Morrison, Westward by Covered Wagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Louise Smith Clappe, California Gold Rush. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 John Quincy Adams, The Gag Rule . . . . 344 Boston Christian Register, Fugitive Slaves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

The Homecoming by Norman Rockwell James Buchanan, “The Voice of the Majority” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Mary Ashton Livermore, Northerners Volunteer to Fight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 An Alabama soldier, A Prediction of Victory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Ulysses S. Grant, Civil War Service . . . . . 382 Robert E. Lee, Praise for Troops . . . . . . . . 390 Sarah Morgan, Southern Hostility . . . . . 402 Thaddeus Stevens, Reconstruction Proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 New Orleans Tribune, Reconstruction Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 Anonymous white farmer, Freedpeople and Land. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 Cochise, American Settlers on Indian Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Annie Green, Westward Move . . . . . . . . . 442 Joseph McCoy, Description of Abilene . . 449

J. N. Flint, Economic Boom in Mining . . . 455 New York Tribune reporter, A Curious Device. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 Andrew Carnegie, Profits from Investments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Henry George, Progress for the Wealthy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 Esther Gidiwicz, Immigrants . . . . . . . . . . 492 Henry Blake Fuller, Multistory Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 Caspar W. Whitney, Changing View of Leisure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Anonymous city worker, Defense of Political Corruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 William McElroy, Government for Politicians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Washington Gladden, Farmers’ Plight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531 Henry George, Progress and Poverty . . . 546 Samuel Gompers, Mining Company Employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 Henry Moscowitz, Tenement Living . . . . 558 Oliver McClintock, The Reformer’s Tragedy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 Julian Hawthorne, Exposition Tower. . . . 575 John Morley, On Theodore Roosevelt . . . 582 Woodrow Wilson, Spirit of Reform . . . . . 587 Washington Post, Growing American Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 Henry Cabot Lodge, Call for Intervention in Cuba. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605 Charles Elliot Norton, Opposition to Annexation of Philippines . . . . . . . . . 612 Francisco Madero, Revolution in Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 William Howard Taft, Europe at War. . . 628 Joseph Smith, War Erupts Neutrality. . . . 633 Florence Woolston, “One Hundred Percent Patriotic” . . . . . 640 Coningsby Dawson, Soldier’s Letter . . . . 647 Malcolm Cowley, War Victory Celebration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662 Boies Penrose, Harding’s Campaign . . . 669 Alabama minister, Plight of African Americans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675 Charles Merz, First Glimpse of the Ford Model A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686 Albert Sindlinger, Early Radio Broadcasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694 Langston Hughes, Harlem Renaissance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 Gordon Parks, Depression Begins. . . . . . 714 Clara Hancox, Poverty in the Great Depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 Herbert Hoover, A Good Laugh. . . . . . . . 728 Will Rogers, Just Do Something. . . . . . . . 740

xv

Primary Sources continued

continued Huey Long, “Roosevelt’s Ruin” . . . . . . . . . 747 Billboard message, “No Jobs”. . . . . . . . . 754 Ann Rivington, The Arts During the Depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759 William E. Borah, Opposition to the League of Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774 Burton K. Wheeler, American Interests in Latin America. . . . . . . . . . . . 779 Franklin D. Roosevelt, The Restoration of Peace . . . . . . . . . . . . 784 Orson Welles, Martian Landing. . . . . . . . 790 U.S. sailor, The Bombing of Pearl Harbor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800 Mary Speir, Life on the Home Front . . . . 807 Ernie Pyle, The Realities of War . . . . . . . . 814 Eugene B. Sledge, Fighting in the Pacific Theater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821 Anne O’Hare McCormick, Creating the Postwar World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832 Anonymous, The Cold War Standoff. . . . 838 John F. Kennedy, The Communist Threat in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844 Captain America, Communists Beware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851 Harold Toliver, After World War II . . . . . . 864 Norman Vincent Peale, Achieving Happiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870 Bernice Johnson, Challenging Limits . . . 879 Todd Gitlin, The Cuban Missile Crisis . . . 896 Norman Mailer, The Kennedy Charm . . . 903 Dean Rusk, A New President . . . . . . . . . . 910

U.S. troops in Vietnam Joseph McNeil, Direct Action . . . . . . . . . . 922 Anne Moody, African Americans in Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928 Huey Newton, Forming the Black Panthers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933 Ralph David Abernathy, After the Movement’s Peak . . . . . . . . . . 939 Cathy Tuley, Awareness of the Women’s Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948 Cesar Caballero, Discrimination Against Mexican Americans . . . . . . . . . 954 Shirley Keith, New Alternatives . . . . . . . . 961 Charles Kaiser, Airwaves of Equality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966 Trieu Au, The Vietnamese Revolutionary Spirit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978 Lyndon B. Johnson, Response to the Gulf of Tonkin Incident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984 Myron Harrington, Determination in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992

George McGovern, “Vietnam Thinking” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998 Richard Nixon, The Misguided 1960s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012 Henry Kissinger, Nixon’s Fall . . . . . . . . . 1019 Richard Reeves, A New Perspective . . . 1026 Edward W. Brooke, Celebrating the American Dream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032 Chicago homemaker, A Bleak Future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042 Ronald Reagan campaign ad, Morning in America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048 Sugar Rautbord, Feeling Better About the Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055 Bill Clinton, American Renewal . . . . . . . 1070 Bob Dole, Looking to the Past . . . . . . . . 1076 Al Gore, Uniting the World Through Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082 Robert E. Hunter, Advice to the Bush Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087

Incan observer, Atahualpa. . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Pueblo captive, Pueblo Revolt . . . . . . . . . . 47 John Campbell, Spanish Riches . . . . . . . . . 55 John Winthrop, A City Upon a Hill . . . . . . 68 John Harrower, Indentured Servitude. . . . 74 Olaudah Equiano, The Middle Passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Gottlieb Mittelberg, The Horrors of Sea Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Miantonomo, American Indian Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 George Washington, English Cowardice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 George Croghan, Exploring the Western Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Thomas Whately, “Burdens upon the Mother Country” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Samuel Adams, Colonial Discontent. . . . 104 John Adams, The Right to Legal Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 George Hewes, Boston Tea Party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Amos Farnsworth, The Battle of Bunker Hill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Patrick Henry, Give Me Liberty . . . . . . . . 114 Abigail Adams, “Remember the Ladies” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 James Thacher, Hardships at Valley Forge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Joseph Hodgkins, This Glorious Cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Thomas Paine, The Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Thomas Rodney, Crossing the Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

History Makers Speak Maidu myth, Kulsu the Creator . . . . . . . . . . 5 Bernardino de Sahagún, Ball Game . . . . . 8 Marco Polo, Kublai Khan’s Capital . . . . . . 13 Roger Bacon, Ships of the Future . . . . . . . 21 Queen Isabella, Battle for the Kingdom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Richard Braithwait, Life as a Sailor . . . . . 26 Gomes Eanes de Zurara, The Horrors of the Slave Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Bartolomé de Las Casas, Respect for Indians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Cakchiqul Mayas, Effects of the Epidemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Bartolomé de Las Casas, The Bravery of Magellan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Aztec poet, The Spanish Conquest of Tenochtitlán . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

xvi


History Makers Speak

continued

Judith Sargent Murray, Republican Motherhood . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 George Washington, Secrets of the Constitutional Convention . . . . . . . . 142 James Madison, Recording the Constitutional Convention . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Jonathan Smith, Cured by the Consitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Cato, A Warning about the New Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Amos Singletary, The Right to Tax . . . . . 147 James Madison, The Difficulties of Framing a Government . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Farmer, Opposition to Hamilton’s Proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Little Turtle, A Plea for Peace. . . . . . . . . . 196 Catharine Macauley Graham, The French Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, Journal Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 John Lane Jones, Jefferson’s Embargo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Hezekiah Niles, Growth of the Republic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Henry Clay, Defense of the American System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Fanny Kemble, Unpleasant Traveling . . . 234 Thomas Jefferson, “A Fire-bell in the Night”. . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Margaret Bayard Smith, Jackson Inaugural Party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Osceola, Resisting Removal . . . . . . . . . . . 244 American Indian, Trail of Tears . . . . . . . . 246 George Fisher, An Ingenious Little Marchine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Robert Smith, Travel in Steerage. . . . . . . 259 James Hammond, “Cotton is King”. . . . . 263 Bennet H. Barrow, Plantation Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Frederick Douglass, Contract Labor . . . . 272 Roper, Slave Reunion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 James Finley, Religious Revivals . . . . . . . 286 Carolyn M. Nichols, Temperance . . . . . . 291 Catharine Beecher, Women’s Refining Influence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Peter Williams, African American Reaction to Colonization . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 William Lloyd Garrison, Immediate Abolition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Angelina Grimké, Emancipation for Slaves and Women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Sojourner Truth, “Ain’t I a Woman?”. . . . 304 John L. O’Sullivan, Manifest Destiny. . . . 316 William Travis, Siege at the Alamo. . . . . 319 Ferdinand Roemer, Crowded Conditions in Texas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Juan Séguin, Conflicts with Tejanos. . . . . 321

Manuel Cresencio Rejón, View of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . . . . . 326 Juan Cortina, Tejano Rebellion . . . . . . . . 327 Narcissa Whitman, Orphans on the Oregon Trail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 Lucy Deady, Hazards of Travel on the Oregon Trail. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Julian Rolph, Mining Camps . . . . . . . . . . 337 John C. Calhoun, Saving the Union. . . . . 349 Caroline Seabury, Catching Escaped Slaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Charles Sumner, Opposing the Kansas-Nebraska Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Robert Purvis, Reaction to the Dred Scott Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Abraham Lincoln, Half Slave and Half Free. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 John Copeland, Attack on Harpers Ferry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Abner Doubleday, Siege of Fort Sumter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Robert E. Lee, Leaving the U.S. Army . . . 372

Robert E. Lee Andrew Porter, Northern Troops Retreat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Kate Cumming, Tending to Wounded Soldiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 John B. Gordon, Civil War Casualties . . . 385 Frederick Douglass, African Americans’ Right to Citizenship. . . . . . . 387 William T. Sherman, Defense of Total War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

Robert E. Lee, Surrendering the Troops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Parke Johnston, Poverty Among Former Slaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Abraham Lincoln, Reconstruction Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Chicago Tribune, Response to Black Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Mary Jones, Planters and Former Slaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 White Democrat, Economic Threats to African Americans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 North Carolina freedman, Ku Klux Klan Demands . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 Charles Harris, Demand for Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Madame C. J. Walker, Economic Advancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Ida B. Wells, Response to Lynching . . . . 425 Chief Joseph, Surrender to U.S. Army . . . 439 Sarah Winnemucca, American Indians’ Complaints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Indiana editor, Fine Farming Country. . . 443 Kansas settler, Cleaning a Sod House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Susan and Samuel Newcomb, Ranch Life Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 William Parsons, A Race for Wealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Orville Wright, First Plane Flight . . . . . . . 468 “Pilgrim’s Progress in a Telephone Exchange,” Working the Telephones . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Thomas Edison, Invention Process . . . . . 471 Andrew Carnegie admirer, Vertical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 Andrew Carnegie, “Gospel of Wealth”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 George Rice, Rockefeller’s Business Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Mary Harris Jones, Labor Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 Eugene V. Debs, Worker’s Rights . . . . . . . 487 Carla Martinelli, Reasons for Immigrating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 Sadie Frowne, Factory Work. . . . . . . . . . . 496 Jane Addams, Services to the Needy . . . 503 Anonymous immigrant, Aid from a Political Boss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 New York resident, Election Fraud . . . . . 520 George Washington Plunkitt, “Honest Graft” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 Julius Bing, Civil Service Exams . . . . . . . . 528 Democratic Congressmember, Defense of Spoils System. . . . . . . . . . . . 530 Minnesota farmer, Farmers’ Bitterness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531

xvii



continued

Mary Elizabeth Lease, Farmers’ Alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 William Jennings Bryan, “Cross of Gold” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 Ida Tarbell, Standard Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 Ray Stannard Baker, Lynching . . . . . . . . 550 Rose Schneiderman, Hazards to Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 William “Big Bill” Haywood, Working-class Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . 556 William Dean Howells, Moviegoing. . . . 561 W. E. B. Du Bois, African Americans’ Dual Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 Eugene Lyons, Becoming American . . . . 565 David Graham Phillips, Special Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 William Allen White, State Primaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571 Samuel Hopkins Adams, Drug Industry Abuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 Theodore Roosevelt, New Nationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Woodrow Wilson, Governmental Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 Mary Harris Jones, Child Labor Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589 Rose Schneiderman, Demand Suffrage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 Henry Cabot Lodge, Support for Colonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 Alfred Thayer Mahan, The Need for Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599

W. E. B. Du Bois

xviii

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Mary Elizabeth Lease Anonymous visitor, Hawaiian Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599 Queen Liliuokalani, Surrendering the Throne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 William Randolph Hearst, The Power of Newspapers. . . . . . . . . . . 606 Jacob Judson, Soldier’s Life in Cuba . . . . 608 Anti-Imperialist League, Opposition to Imperialism . . . . . . . . . . . 611 Theodore Roosevelt, Roosevelt Corollary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 Admiral Mayo, Apology Demand . . . . . . 619 Pancho Villa, Revenge on Americans . . . 620 Baron Conrad von Hötzendorf, Conflict Ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629 Woodrow Wilson, Declaration of War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 Harry R. Richmond, Training Camp . . . . 637 Emily Vuagniaux, Battlefield Hospital . . . 639 Norma B. Kastl, Women’s War Work . . . 642 Oliver Wendell Holmes, Espionage and Sedition Acts Ruling . . . . . . . . . . . . 646 German soldier, Hungry for Peace . . . . . 649 John Maynard Keynes, Europe in Ruins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 William Allen White, Violence in Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 Judge Thayer, Sacco and Vanzetti Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668 Mary Anderson, Labor Laws for Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 Herbert Hoover, The End of Poverty . . . . 674 Minister, Mexican Immigrants’ Labor Camp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 Member of the American Indian Defense Organization, Bursum Bill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681 Wife of Ford Worker, The Pain of the Assembly Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689

Frank E. Brimmer, Auto-touring Promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 Robert and Helen Lynd, The Freedom of the Automobile . . . . . . 690 Car dealer, Installment Plan . . . . . . . . . . . 692 Lloyd Lewis, Mass Appeal of Movie Theaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697 William Jennings Bryan, Scopes Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701 Ernest Hemingway, Soldier’s View of War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707 Herbert Hoover, A Bright Future . . . . . . . 714 New York Times, The Crash. . . . . . . . . . . 716 Ella Baker and Marvel Cooke, “Bronx Slave Market” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721 Gracie Turner, Tenant Farmer’s Hardships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723 Elsa Ponselle, Social Effects of Depression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725 Herbert Hoover, Rejection of Government Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 Walter Lippmann, An End to Easy Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732 Wife of Bonus Army member, Bonus Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734 Franklin D. Roosevelt, “A New Deal”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735 Hugh S. Johnson, The National Recovery Administration. . . . . . . . . . . . . 743 Dorothy Thompson, Opposition to Court Packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 Texas farmer, The Dust Bowl . . . . . . . . . . 754 Helen Farmer, The National Youth Administration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757 Mahalia Jackson, Gospel Music . . . . . . . 762 Charles Evans Hughes, The United States in the Postwar World. . . . . . . . . . 776 Kato Tomosaburo, International Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776 David Lloyd George, Argument for the Cancellation of War Debts . . . . . . . 777 Ernest Hemingway, Inflation in Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778 Franklin D. Roosevelt, The Good Neighbor Policy. . . . . . . . . . . 780 A. R. Harris, Class Inequality in El Salvador. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783 Julio Alvarez del Vayo, The Spanish Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787 Viscount Inoue, Reasons for Japanese Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789 Winston Churchill, Britain’s Finest Hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793 Eunice Hatchitt, Battlefield Hospital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803 German officer, The Battle of Stalingrad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806



continued

Martha Wood, Growing a Victory Garden. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808 Female aircraft worker, Worker Pride . . . 810 Samuel Fuller, Omaha Beach . . . . . . . . . 816 Elie Wiesel, Holocaust Survivor . . . . . . . . 818 Ted Allenby, The Battle of Iwo Jima . . . . 824 Junji Sarashina, Hiroshima Destroyed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826 Marie Vaillant, Nuremberg Testimony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834 Eleanor Roosevelt, Justice and Security for All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836 George Kennan, Containment . . . . . . . . . 839 Berlin resident, Berlin Airlift. . . . . . . . . . . 843 Raymond Remp, Combat in Korea . . . . . 845 Jou En-lai, China Enters the Korean War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846 Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, Hollywood Hearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852 Margaret Chase Smith, Challenging McCarthyism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854 J. Robert Oppenheimer, “Scorpions in a Bottle” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855 Nelson Poynter, The GI Bill . . . . . . . . . . . 864 NAACP advertisement, Civil Rights and the Democratic Party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868 Mrs. Townsend, Life as a Homemaker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874 Elizabeth Eckford, School Terror. . . . . . . 880 Gerald One Feather, Indian Relocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884 John F. Kennedy, New Frontiers. . . . . . . . 897 Víctor Alba, An Alliance for the Few . . . . 898 Michael Harrington, A Nation Within a Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908 Donna Shalala, Learning to Grow Up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908 Clark Clifford, Kennedy as President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909 LaDonna Harris, Office of Economic Opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 Lyndon B. Johnson, The Great Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 Lyndon B. Johnson, A Chance to Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913 Diane Nash, Violence and the Freedom Rides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923 Ralph Abernathy, Winning in Birmingham . . . . . . . . . . . . 925 Martin Luther King Jr., “I Have a Dream” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927 Hollis Watkins, Taking Risks . . . . . . . . . . 929 Unita Blackwell, Freedom Summer . . . . 930 Victoria Gray, A Refusal to Compromise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931 Malcolm X, Beginning to Fight. . . . . . . . . 934

Elaine Brown, Joining the Black Panthers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937 Rachel Twymon, Integration and Obligations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941 Geraldine Williams, Movement Success During the 1970s . . . . . . . . . . . 942 Betty Friedan, The Unspoken Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948 Sonia Pressman, Absence of a Women’s Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950 Gloria Steinem, Born into Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952 Eliseo Medina, Seeing César Chávez . . . 955 Reies López Tijerina, Reclaiming the Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956 María Varela, The People’s Roar . . . . . . . 959 Anonymous American Indians, A Call for Unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962 Maggie Kuhn, The Gray Panthers . . . . . . 965 Nancy Biberman, The Student Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967 Bob Dylan, “Blowin’ in the Wind” . . . . . . 970 Ho Chi Minh, The Elephant and the Tiger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980 Henry Cabot Lodge, “No Turning Back” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983 Edie Meeks, Receiving the Purple Heart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985 Martin Luther King Jr., The Madness of Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990 Tran Do, The Tet Offensive . . . . . . . . . . . . 993 Richard Nixon, The Madman Theory . . . 997 Le Ly Hayslip, Ghosts on Television. . . . 1000 Ron Kovic, Spurned by the People . . . . 1002 Bruce Weigl, The Wall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003

Richard Nixon, Peace and Power . . . . . 1017 Barbara Jordan, Protecting the Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022 Dee Knight, The Insult of Clemency . . . 1023 Jimmy Carter, American Malaise. . . . . . 1028 Jimmy Carter, Morality and Foreign Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029 Tom Bender, Freedom from Needs . . . . 1034 Steven Spielberg, Filmmaking . . . . . . . 1035 Ronald Reagan, A Call for Smaller Government. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044 Ronald Reagan, Nuclear Weapons for Peace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045 Geraldine Ferraro, Women in Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048 Sandra Day O’Connor, Gender and Objectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049 Chris Burke, Wall Street Culture . . . . . . 1050 Daniel Inouye, Following Orders. . . . . . 1052 Mikhail Gorbachev, Renouncing the Use of Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054 Christa McAuliffe, The Wonders of Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056 Colin Powell, The Persian Gulf War . . . 1061 George Bush, A Kinder Nation. . . . . . . . 1062 Newt Gingrich, Moving to the Right . . . 1073 David Wyss, The Booming Economy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076 Jamaican journalist, America Seen from Jamaica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085 Bruce W. Nelan, Global Economics. . . . 1087 George W. Bush, Citizens, Not Subjects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091 James Earl Jones, American Spirit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1094

Former Texas governor George W. Bush is sworn as president.

xix


PRIMARY SOURCE The French View of Spanish America . . . . . 44 Juana Inés de la Cruz, “World, in Hounding Me” . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Anne Bradstreet, “The Tenth Muse”. . . . . . . 70 A Soldier’s View of the French and Indian War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 The Virginia Resolves, House of Burgesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Declaration of Independence. . . . . . . . . . . 115 Independence Resolution of the Malden, Massachusetts, Town Meeting. . . . . . . . 134 A Farmer’s View of the New Nation . . . . . 144 Federalist Paper, “No. 78”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 U.S. Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 House Foreign Relations Committee, Declaration of War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Boston Advertiser, Liberties of the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 An Immigrant’s View of Industry . . . . . . . . 258 French Views of American Prisons . . . . . . 295

San Francisco newspaper, Gold in California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 A Californio’s View of Forty-niners. . . . . . . 336 Views of the Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Reconstruction and Land Reform . . . . . . . 408 “The Old Chisholm Trail”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 “Cherry Creek Emigrant’s Song” . . . . . . . . 455 A European View of U.S. Workers . . . . . 483 Urban Life in the early 1900s . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Another View of Government Reform. . . . 571 The New York Post, Packing House Jingle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 The Sinking of the Lusitania. . . . . . . . . . . . 634 The Back-to-Africa Movement . . . . . . . . . . 679 Claude McKay, “If We Must Die” . . . . . . . . 706 The Global Depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717 New York Times, Conference on the Economic Crisis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730 Washington Post, Relief for the Needy . . . 741 “Ev’ry Man a King” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747

Mr. Smith Goes to Washington . . . . . . . . . 760 Pablo Neruda, “The United Fruit Co.”. . . . . 781 Latin American Views of Foreign Investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781 Japanese View of World War II. . . . . . . . . . 801 Survival Under Atomic Attack. . . . . . . . . . . 856 G. Mennen Williams, Sputnik . . . . . . . . . . . 857 Joe Glazer, “Automation”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871 The Coasters, “Yakety Yak” . . . . . . . . . . . . . 878 Soviet View of the Cuban Missile Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902 A Civil Rights Worker’s View of Malcolm X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934 Asian View of French Colonization . . . . . . 980 Chinese Views of Nixon’s Visit . . . . . . . . . 1017 A View of the Persian Gulf War . . . . . . . . 1061 Maya Angelou, “On the Pulse of Morning”. . . . . . . . . . 1072 A View of Operation Iraqi Freedom. . . . . 1109

H ISTORICAL D OCUMENTS Magna Carta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 The Mayflower Compact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Common Sense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 The Declaration of Independence . . . . . . . 120 The Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 The Federalist Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 The Constitution of the United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Washington’s Farewell Address . . . . . . . . . 201 The Monroe Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments . . 305

The Emancipation Proclamation . . . . . . . . 386 The Gettysburg Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 The Roosevelt Corollary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 The Fourteen Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 Roosevelt’s First Inaugural Address . . . . . . 741 The Four Freedoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808 The Charter of the United Nations . . . . . . 835 Kennedy’s Inaugural Address. . . . . . . . . . . 905 Letter from Birmingham Jail. . . . . . . . . . . . 925 The Port Huron Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990 Contract with America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073 Bush’s Address to the Nation. . . . . . . . . . 1096

The Emancipation Proclamation

INTERPRETING POLITICAL CARTOONS National Bank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 “War! Or No War”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 “Congressional Scales” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Copperheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Carpetbaggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 Lady Liberty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 U.S. Political Parties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 Tweed Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 Corruption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Grant’s Administration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 Standard Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 Labor Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 “The Police Version of It”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573 “Jack the Giant Killer”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Political Party Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584

xx

Wilson’s Antitrust Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . 588 The Lion Tamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 The Fruits of Imperialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 Cuba’s Protector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605 Filipino Opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 The Panama Canal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614 “The Boiling Point”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 “Teapot Dome Naval Oil Reserves” . . . . . . 660 “Put Them Out & Keep Them Out” . . . . . . 665 Teapot Dome Scandal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 Bank Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717 “A Doubting Democrat”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741 Dr. New Deal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 Court Packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 Inter-American Peace Conference . . . . . . . 780

“Wonder Why We’re Not Keeping Pace?” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857 “Cat-o’-nine-tales” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906 The Great Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917 “JFK’s Response” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919 Nixon’s Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997 Inflation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014 Foreign Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017 Under the Mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023 Angola. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025 “Another ‘Giant Leap for Mankind’— Backwards” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045 “Well, It’s About Time” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050 Prosperity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1077 Oil Prices and the Economy. . . . . . . . . . . 1099

History and Your World WHY IT MATTERS TODAY Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Constitutional Government. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Monarchs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Trade Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Caribbean Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Explorers Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Spanish Influence in the Untied States . . . . 46 Cultural Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Religion and Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Balance of Trade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Geographical Claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Historical Preservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 U.S. Military Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Principles of Individual Freedom . . . . . . . . 114 Peace Treaties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Government Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Constitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Important Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Recent Treaties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 New Explorations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Recent Wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Border Disputes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Voting in Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Forced Relocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Inventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Economic Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Laws on Working Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Religious Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Reform Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Citizen Lobbyists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Women in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . 303 U.S.-Mexican Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Armed Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Population Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Earth’s Mineral Wealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Compromise in Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 States in Presidential Elections. . . . . . . . . . 350 Supreme Court Decisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Challenges to Soldiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Historical Reenactments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Remembering the Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Rebuilding After Destructive Events . . . . . 402 Current Legislation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 Political Leadership in the South . . . . . . . . 415 Entrepreneurs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 Indians on Reservations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Modern Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Cattle Ranching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Modern Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 New Inventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 Preventing Unfair Business Practices. . . . . 473 Labor Unions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 Immigration Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 Urban Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498

AND

Political cartoon depicting corruption in President Ulysses S. Grant’s administration Publishing Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Fighting Political Corruption . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 Filling Government Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Interstate Commerce Commission . . . . . . 531 Social Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546 American Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 Removing Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 Government Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 Environmental Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 Divided Political Parties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582 Role of the Federal Reserve . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 Relations with China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 Military Bases Located Overseas . . . . . . . . 605 Relations with Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 Business Interests Abroad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 Nationalism and Militarism . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 U.S. Involvement in Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . 633 U.S. Military Preparedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 Peace Treaties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 Military Involvement Overseas . . . . . . . . . . 662 Pro-business Presidential Campaign Pledges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 Why Americans Move . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675 American Automobile Industry . . . . . . . . . 686 Current Fads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694 Jazz Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 Financial News . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714 Charitable Organizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 Volunteer Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 Economic Aid to Farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740 Government Aid for Families and Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 The New Deal Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754

Government and the Media . . . . . . . . . . . . 759 Modern Isolationists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774 U.S.-Latin America Relations. . . . . . . . . . . . 779 Totalitarian Political Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . 784 The U.S. Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790 International Conflict. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800 Fairness in the Workplace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807 World War II Veterans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814 U.S.-Japanese Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821 The United Nations in World Affairs . . . . . 832 New Members of NATO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838 North and South Korea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844 Issues in American Movies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851 Civil Rights in Other Nations . . . . . . . . . . . 864 Urban and Suburban Residents. . . . . . . . . 870 Contemporary Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879 Diplomatic Compromise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896 Students in the Political Process . . . . . . . . 903 Great Society Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910 Reform Movements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922 Voter Registration Drives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928 Economic Activism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933 Affirmative Action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939 Women in the Job Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948 Hispanic Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954 Children’s Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961 Music of Social Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . 966 U.S. Military Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978 Suffering from War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984 Influence of the News Media. . . . . . . . . . . 992 Views of the Vietnam War . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998 U.S. Dependence on Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012 Balance of Governmental Power. . . . . . . 1019 Humanitarian Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026 Immigration and Migration . . . . . . . . . . . 1032 Terrorism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042 Federal Budget Proposals. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048 U.S.-Middle East Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055 The President’s Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070 The United States in World Affairs . . . . . . 1076 Historical Sports Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082 Critical Issues in the World . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087 September 11, 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092

WHY IT MATTERS TODAY Many important historical places in the United States have been protected and preserved. Use or other current events sources to find out about a historical site in the United States today. Record your findings in your journal.

xxi

History and Your World

continued

teen Life

Growing Up in the Middle Ages. . . . . . . . . . 20 Scots-Irish in the Backcountry . . . . . . . . . . 104 Lowell Girls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Life for Teenage Immigrants. . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Growing Up During the Civil War. . . . . . . . 379 Ranch Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 The Debutante Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 Mobilizing for the War Effort . . . . . . . . . . . 643

Riding the Rails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732 The Navajo Code Talkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804 “Duck and Cover” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856 Teenagers as Consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877 Vista Volunteers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 Freedom Summer Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . 930 The Generation Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994 The Disco Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036

Then and Now

Sacred or Scientific Sites? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 The Lives of Sailors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Revolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 The Balance of Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Campaigning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 African Culture and Traditions . . . . . . . . . . 277 Human Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Westward Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Balancing Political Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 Juneteenth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Labor Unions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 Amusement Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508

Navajo Code Talkers Henry Bake and George Kirk operate a radio behind enemy lines in the Solomon Islands.

Civil Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 National Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Conflicts in Bosnia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629 The Free Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670 Censorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697 Baseball. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726 Social Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749 Peace Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 Extending Economic Aid Abroad . . . . . . . . 841 Women and Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952 Education and Deaf Americans . . . . . . . . . 963 No More Vietnams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002

Basketball player Chamique Holdsclaw

Changing Ways Hispanics in America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 The Chesapeake Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 The Federal Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Indian Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 The South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Technology in Daily Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Immigration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 The American Farmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 Mexico and the United States . . . . . . . . . . 618 Investments in Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . 782 Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865 The Peace Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899 Gasoline Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015

Technology then and now

xxii

Interdisciplinary Connections AM ER ICA’S

The Columbian Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 The American West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Early Industrialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Regionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

Conquering Distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 The United States and the World. . . . . . . . 624 Land Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766

Defenses of the Cold War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860 Urban America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974 The Natural Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066

Spanish Architecture in the Southwest . . . . 51 Patriotic Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Southern Folk Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Mathew Brady’s Photographs . . . . . . . . . . 377

Frontier Artists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 Thomas Nast’s Cartoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 Shaping Public Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 The Armory Show . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590

Woody Guthrie and American Folk Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755 Norman Rockwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809 Pop Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969

Native American Myths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 The Early Colonial Experience . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Benjamin Franklin on Colonial Life . . . . . . . 83 Mercy Otis Warren’s Revolutionary Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Uniquely American Literature. . . . . . . . . . . 206 Southern Writers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Transcendentalism and the Romantic Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

Slave Narratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Black Writers During the Late 1800s . . . . . 423 The Western Novel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Mark Twain’s Political Writings . . . . . . . . . . 526 Progressive Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Literature of the Spanish-American War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 Harlem Renaissance Writers. . . . . . . . . . . . 705

Literature of the Great Depression . . . . . . 761 Ernest Hemingway and War. . . . . . . . . . . . 788 Science Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853 Voices of the Fifties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886 Views of Vietnam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988 Reflecting America in Literature . . . . . . . . 1079

AMERICAN

ARTS

Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Crop Cultivation and Processing . . . . . . . . . 77 Building a Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 The Canal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 The Cotton Gin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Weapons and War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 The Panama Canal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614 Deadly Influenza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 The Model T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688 Jonas Salk’s Polio Vaccine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875 The Space Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 Solar Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028

Early frigate

xxiii

Historical Highlights AND Queen Isabella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Prince Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Christopher Columbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Juana Inés de la Cruz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Pocahontas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Anne Hutchinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Olaudah Equiano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Jonathan Edwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Samuel Adams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Abigail Adams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Benjamin Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 James Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Alexander Hamilton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 George Washington. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Thomas Jefferson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Dolley Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 James Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Henry Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Andrew Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Sequoya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Francis Cabot Lowell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Harriet Tubman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Catharine Beecher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Elizabeth Cady Stanton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Susan B. Anthony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Juan Seguín . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 James K. Polk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Narcissa Whitman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 John C. Calhoun. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Harriet Beecher Stowe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Stephen Douglas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Abraham Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Robert E. Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Mary Boykin Chesnut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Frederick Douglass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 Andrew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Ulysses S. Grant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 Madame C. J. Walker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Sitting Bull. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Willa Cather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 Thomas Edison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Andrew Carnegie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 Mary Harris Jones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 Jane Addams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 Scott Joplin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 Grover Cleveland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 William Jennings Bryan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 William McKinley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 Ida Tarbell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 W. E. B. Du Bois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 Theodore Roosevelt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 Woodrow Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588 Carrie Chapman Catt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 Liliuokalani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 José Martí . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605 William Randolph Hearst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606 John J. Pershing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638 Juliette Gordon Low . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 John L. Lewis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 Henry Ford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 James Weldon Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706 Josefina Fierro de Bright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724 Herbert Hoover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731 Franklin D. Roosevelt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748 Mary McLeod Bethune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749 Dorothea Lange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756

Charles Evans Hughes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 Winston Churchill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793 Douglas MacArthur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803 Norman Mineta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813 Harry S Truman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825 Eleanor Roosevelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 George C. Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 Dwight D. Eisenhower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848 Elvis Presley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877 Rosa Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881 John F. Kennedy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 Donna Shalala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 Lyndon B. Johnson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911 Rachel Carson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914 Martin Luther King Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926 Malcolm X. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934 Gloria Steinem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951 César Chávez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954 Henry Kissinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 Le Ly Hayslip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 Richard M. Nixon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013 Barbara Jordan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022 Jimmy Carter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029 Steven Spielberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035 Ronald Reagan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046 Sandra Day O’Connor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049 Colin Powell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060 Bill Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072 Madeleine Albright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081 John Glenn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082 George Howard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093 Rudolph Giuliani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1094 Daniel Pearl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116

H ISTORY

Great

Debates The Protestant Reformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Politics and the Great Awakening . . . . . . . . 84 Separation of Church and State. . . . . . . . . 191 Circuit Riders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 The Ghost Dance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 Philanthropy and the Gospel of Wealth . . 476 Orthodox Religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 The Social Gospel and Progressivism . . . . 548 The American Missionary Movement . . . . 599 Pentecostalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 The Salvation Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729 American Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836 The Ideal of Nonviolence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955 A Return to Conservative Churches. . . . . 1044 Growing Religious Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . 1085

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The Columbian Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 The Constitution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Jackson’s Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 The Women’s Rights Movement . . . . . . . . 307 Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 The Old West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 The Progressive Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 The Atomic Bomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826 The Effects of Watergate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023

IN THE MAKING The Salem Witchcraft Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Reasons for the War of 1812 . . . . . . . . . . . 212 The Mexican War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Interpretations of Reconstruction . . . . . . . 417 George Custer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 Views of Taft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583 The Doughboy’s Pack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637 DNA Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083

Herbert Hoover 1928 campaign button

Technology Activities

Two Views of Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Henry the Navigator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Columbus and the Taino. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Juana Inés de la Cruz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Pocahontas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Anne Hutchinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Olaudah Equiano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Jonathan Edwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Iroquois Great Law of Peace . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Samuel Adams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Abigail Adams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Battle of Saratoga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Schooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Road to Philadelphia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Federal Powers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Alexander Hamilton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Election of 1796. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Adams-Onís Treaty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Henry Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Francis Cabot Lowell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Agriculture and Slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Harriet Tubman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Utopian Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 African American Abolitionists . . . . . . . . . . 301 Declaration of Sentiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Juan Seguín . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Narcissa Whitman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 John C. Calhoun. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Harriet Beecher Stowe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Stephen Douglas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Robert E. Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Mary Boykin Chesnut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Southern Railroads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Andrew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Ida B. Wells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Sitting Bull. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Willa Cather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 Thomas Edison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Andrew Carnegie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474

Mother Jones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 Immigrant Voices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 Jane Addams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 Grover Cleveland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 William Jennings Bryan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 W. E. B. Du Bois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 Woodrow Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 Liliuokalani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 William Randolph Hearst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606 Foraker Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613 General Pershing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638 John L. Lewis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665 Marcus Garvey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679 F. Scott Fitzgerald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707 Josefina Fierro de Bright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724 Herbert Hoover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730 John Maynard Keynes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742 Mary McLeod Bethune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749 Dorothea Lange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756 Charles Evans Hughes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776 Winston Churchill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793 Douglas MacArthur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803

Norman Mineta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813 D-Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816 Eleanor Roosevelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 Douglas MacArthur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847 Elvis Presley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877 Rosa Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881 Peace Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898 Donna Shalala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 Rachel Carson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914 Martin Luther King Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926 Malcolm X. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934 Russell Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962 Henry Kissinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 Barbara Jordan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022 Steven Spielberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035 Reagan on Communism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045 Sandra Day O’Connor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049 Colin Powell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060 Madeleine Albright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081 Hunger in Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089

Olmec Civilization, Printing Press, Inca Civilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Christopher Columbus, Jamestown, St. Augustine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Taj Mahal, French Settlements in the New World, the Mayflower . . . . . . . . 93 Louis XVI, Revolutionary War Battles, Sam Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Federalist and Antifederalists, Benjamin Franklin, Colonial Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

The War of 1812, the USS Constitution, the French Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Erie Canal and the National Road, American Indian removal, Samuel Slater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Slavery, the Irish Potato Famine, the Tredegar Iron Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Women’s Suffrage, Slavery, Walden Pond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Texas Revolution, Western artists and writers, the Oregon Trail . . . . . . . . . 341

John Brown, Lincoln-Douglas debates, the Underground Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Major Battles of the Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Johnson’s Impeachment, Gospel Music, Reconstruction . . . . . . . . 427 Writers of the American West, the Pony Express, Sioux Story Robe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 Thomas Edison’s Inventions. . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Immigrants, History of Baseball, Louis Sullivan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513

Neil Armstrong walks on the Moon.

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Technology Activities continued

continued Thomas Nast, British Rule in Africa, Tammany Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Geographic Distribution of Immigration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 National Parks, Oil and Gasoline Prices, Meat Inspection Act . . . . . . . . . . 595 Building the Panama Canal . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 World War I Weaponry, the Battle of the Somme, War Propaganda. . . . . . 655 Bolshevik Revolution, Sacco and Vanzetti, Marcus Garvey and W. E. B. Du Bois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 Harlem Renaissance, the Modernist Movement, Automobiles . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 Life During the Depression, Boulder Dam, Causes of the Great Depression . . . . . . 737 WPA Art Projects, the Hindenburg Disaster, the Dust Bowl . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765 The Spanish Civil War, Atomic Physics, Fascism and Antifascism. . . . . . . . . . . . . 797 Military Uses of Science and Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829

United Nations, Sputnik, the Founding of Israel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859 1950s Popular Culture, Mohandas K. Gandhi, Hispanic Civil Rights . . . . . . . . . 889 The Space Race, John F. Kennedy, the Great Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919 Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr., Apartheid, 1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945 The Women’s Movement, César Chávez, the Cultural Revolution . . . . . . 973

Southeast Asia, the Vietnam War, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial . . . . . 1005 1970s Popular Culture, President Nixon, Watergate . . . . . . . . . 1039 The Persian Gulf War, Sandra Day O’Connor, the Fall of the Soviet Union . . . . . . . . . 1065 September 11, 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097 NAFTA, the Social Impact of Computers, the Space Program . . . . . 1099

Skill-Building Activities

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LECTION, NEW YOR

Evaluating News Stories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667 Using Primary and Secondary Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 Evaluating Artifacts as Historical Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725 Evaluating Art as Historical Evidence. . . . . 762 Using Oral Histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787 Preparing Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817 Taking Notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839 Conducting an Interview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867 Using the Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915 Using Multimedia Resources . . . . . . . . . . . 942 Evaluating Web Sites on the Internet . . . . 964 Evaluating Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982 Formulating a Hypothesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020 Creating an Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053 Writing a Research Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090

THE GRANGER COL

Reading a Time Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Building Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Reading Effectively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Identifying the Main Idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Identifying Cause and Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Taking a Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Reviewing Map Basics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Interpreting Charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Interpreting Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Distinguishing Fact from Opinion . . . . . . . 317 Recognizing Propaganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Recognizing Fallacies in Reasoning . . . . . . 373 Comparing Points of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Comparing and Contrasting . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 Evaluating Historical Actions. . . . . . . . . . . . 478 Analyzing Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 Synthesizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 Interpreting the Visual Record: Photographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 Interpreting Political Cartoons . . . . . . . . . . 573 Interpreting Economic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 Interpreting Literature as Historical Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648

K

Skill-Building Strategies

In this cartoon President Roosevelt is shown as a ventriloquist whose dummy refuses to cooperate.

Skill-Building Activities continued

Interpreting Maps: Migration to America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Interpreting Maps: Early Settlement of the Chesapeake, 1607–1675 . . . . . . . 61 Interpreting Maps: Middle Colonies, c. 1725 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Interpreting Maps: Quebec Act of 1774 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Interpreting the Visual Record: The United States of America . . . . . . . . 157 Interpreting the Visual Record: The British Attack on Washington . . . . . . . 217 Interpreting Maps: Latin American Nations in 1830. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Interpreting Maps: Boston in 1850 . . . . . . 281 Interpreting Graphs: The Second Great Awakening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Interpreting Maps: The California Gold Rush. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Interpreting Maps: Bleeding Kansas in 1856 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Interpreting Maps: The United States in 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Interpreting Maps: African American Colleges Before 1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

Interpreting Charts: Cost of Establishing a Farm in 1870. . . . . . . . . . 461 Interpreting Maps: Industry and Manufacturing, late 1800s . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Interpreting Political Cartoons: Immigration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 Interpreting Maps: The Election of 1896. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Interpreting Maps and the Visual Record: Prohibition, 1890–1919 . . . . . . 567 Interpreting Maps and Political Cartoons: Compulsory Education, 1852–1918. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 Interpreting Graphs: U.S. Trade, 1885–1915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 Interpreting Charts: Causes and Effects of World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 Interpreting Maps: The Hispanic Population in 1930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 Interpreting Maps: Arrests Under Prohibition in 1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 Interpreting Maps: Unemployment Relief in 1934. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737 Interpreting Maps: The Dust Bowl, 1930s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765

Interpreting Maps: Italian Expansion in Ethiopia, 1935–1936 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797 Interpreting Charts: Causes and Effects of World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829 Interpreting the Visual Record: Anticommunist Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . 859 Interpreting Maps: School Segregation in 1964 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889 Interpreting Maps and Political Cartoons: NASA, Mid–1960s . . . . . . . . . 919 Interpreting Maps and the Visual Record: The Freedom Rides in 1961 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945 Interpreting Maps: The Teenage Population in 1970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973 Interpreting Charts: Causes and Effects of the Vietnam War . . . . . . . . . 1005 Interpreting Maps: Growth of the Sunbelt, 1970–1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039 Interpreting Maps: The Election of 1988. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065 Interpreting Political Cartoons: Oil Prices and the Economy . . . . . . . . 1099

Unit 1, Decision Making: Immigrating to New England. . . . . . . . . . 94 Unit 2, Problem Solving: Solving the Nation’s Debt Problems. . . 220 Unit 3, Decision Making: Moving to the City. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

Unit 4, Problem Solving: Readmitting the Southern States . . . . . 428 Unit 5, Decision Making: Joining a Labor Union. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 Unit 6, Problem Solving: Reforming Urban Society . . . . . . . . . . . . 656 Unit 7, Decision Making: Moving to California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768

Unit 8, Problem Solving: Resolving Conflicts Without War . . . . . . 890 Unit 9, Decision Making: Authorizing Force in Vietnam . . . . . . . 1006 Unit 10, Problem Solving: Solving Religious and Ethnic Conflicts . . . . . . . 1100

The First Voyage of Christopher Columbus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Later Voyages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Spanish Exploration and Conquests, 1513–1542 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Spanish America in 1785 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 European Exploration of North America, 1513–1682 . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Early Settlement of the Chesapeake, 1607–1675. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 The Columbian Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 New England Colonies, c. 1650 . . . . . . . . . . 71

The Chesapeake by the Mid-1700s . . . . . . . 74 The Thirteen Colonies, c. 1770 . . . . . . . . . . . 81 French and Indian War, 1754–1763 . . . . . . 89 Middle Colonies, c. 1725. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 North America in 1763 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 The Siege of Boston, 1775–1776. . . . . . . . 113 Lexington and Concord. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 The Fight for Independence, 1776–1781. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Battle of Saratoga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Quebec Act of 1774. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 North America in 1783 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Maps The United States: Political . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1 The United States: Physical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3 The World: Political . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A5 Native American Culture Areas. . . . . . . . . . . 10 Aztec, Maya, and Inca Empires. . . . . . . . . . . 10 Asia in the Middle Ages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 African Trading Kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Viking and Crusade Routes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Spanish Reconquista, 1492 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Trade Routes in the Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . 25 Migration to America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Beringia Land Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

xxvii


continued

Maps continued Western Land Claims, 1781–1802. . . . . . . 138 The Northwest Territory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 The Federalists and Antifederalists. . . . . . 147 Conflicts in the Northwest Territory, 1790s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 The Louisiana Purchase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 The War of 1812. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 The Creek War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 The West in 1790. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 The West Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 U.S. Boundaries in 1820 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Roads, Canals, and Railroads in 1840. . . . 233 The Missouri Compromise, 1820. . . . . . . . 239 Indian Removal from the Southeast, 1830s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Latin American Nations in 1830 . . . . . . . . 251 The Cotton Kingdom, 1820–1860. . . . . . . 264 The Underground Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Boston in 1850. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Industry in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island . . . . . . . 282 Industry in the North, c. 1860 . . . . . . . . . . 283 Major Shaker Communities before 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 The Second Great Awakening . . . . . . . . . . 309 The Texas Revolution, 1835–1836. . . . . . . 319 The Mexican War, 1846–1847 . . . . . . . . . . 325 U.S. Boundaries in 1853 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Major Overland Routes to the West by 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 The California Gold Rush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 African American Population in 1850 . . . . 347 Slave and Free Territory in 1850 and 1854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 The Election of 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Bleeding Kansas in 1856 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 The Union and Confederacy in 1861 . . . . 370 The War in the West, 1862–1863 . . . . . . . 383 The War in the East, 1861–1863 . . . . . . . . 384 The Final Campaigns, 1864–1865. . . . . . . 393 The United States in 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 The North before the Civil War. . . . . . . . . . 398 The West before the Civil War . . . . . . . . . . 398 The South before the Civil War . . . . . . . . . 399 Reconstruction in the South, 1868–1877. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 African American Colleges Before 1900. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 American Indian Reservations and Battles to 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 The Cattle Boom and Western Railroads, late 1800s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 Major Labor Strikes, 1870–1900 . . . . . . . . 486 Industry and Manufacturing, late 1800s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Growth of Cities, 1880–1900. . . . . . . . . . . 499

xxviii

Conquering Distance Overseas . . . . . . . . . 514 Conquering Distance across the West. . . . 515 Agricultural Regions in 1900 . . . . . . . . . . . 533 The Election of 1896 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Lynchings, 1889–1918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Prohibition, 1890–1919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 National Parks and Conservation, 1872–1984 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 Puerto Rico & Virgin Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 The Election of 1912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 Women’s Suffrage, 1893–1920 . . . . . . . . . 593 Compulsory Education, 1852–1918 . . . . . 595 Spanish-American War, 1898 . . . . . . . . . . . 610 Panama Canal Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613 U.S. Interests in Latin America, Early 1900s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620

The United States in 1860 Free states

Washington Terr.

Slave states Unorganized Terr.

NH VT ME

MN

OR

WI

Nebraska Terr. CA

Territories

IA

OH IL IN

Utah Terr.

New Mexico Terr.

Kansas MO Terr. Indian Terr. AR

NY

MI

KY TN

PA VA

MA RI NJ CT DE MD

NC SC

MS AL GA TX

LA

FL

The United States and the World, 1900–1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 World War I, 1914–1917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 Influenza Pandemic of 1918: The Second Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 Europe and the Middle East After World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 African American Population Changes, 1920–1930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676 The Hispanic Population in 1930 . . . . . . . 683 The Harlem Renaissance, 1920s and 1930s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704 Arrests Under Prohibition in 1929 . . . . . . . 711 The Beginnings of the Global Depression, 1928–1933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718 Unemployment Relief in 1934. . . . . . . . . . 737 Tennessee Valley Authority, 1933–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744

The Dust Bowl, 1930s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765 Land Use in 1620 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766 Land Use in 1850. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767 Land Use in 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767 German and Italian Expansion, 1935–1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792 Japanese Expansion, 1931–1941 . . . . . . . 794 Italian Expansion in Ethiopia, 1935–1936. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797 Japanese American Relocation, 1942–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812 World War II in Europe, 1942–1945 . . . . . 819 Normandy Landings, June 6, 1944 . . . . . . 819 World War II in the Pacific, 1941–1945. . . 823 Occupied Germany, 1945–1950 . . . . . . . . 833 Occupied Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833 Cold War Alliances in Europe, 1955 . . . . . 842 The Korean War, 1950–1953 . . . . . . . . . . . 846 Radar Systems and Defenses in North America, 1959–1964. . . . . . . . . . 860 Major U.S. Military Bases, c. 1965 . . . . . . . 861 The Election of 1948 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868 America on the Move, 1950–1960 . . . . . . 873 School Segregation in 1964. . . . . . . . . . . . 889 The Election of 1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897 The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 . . . . . . . . . 901 NASA, Mid-1960s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919 African American Voter Registration, 1960–1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932 Urban Unrest, 1955–1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937 The Freedom Rides in 1961 . . . . . . . . . . . . 945 The Chicano Movement, 1947–1975 . . . . 958 The Teenage Population in 1970 . . . . . . . . 973 Los Angeles Area, 1920s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974 Los Angeles Area, 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975 French Indochina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979 The Vietnam Conflict, 1954–1975 . . . . . . . 986 OPEC Member Nations in the Middle East and Africa, 1970s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014 Conflicts in the Middle East, 1948–1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030 Growth of the Sunbelt, 1970–1980 . . . . 1039 The Election of 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043 Central America and the Caribbean, 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052 Breakup of the Soviet Sphere, 1989–1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059 The Persian Gulf War, 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . 1060 The Election of 1988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065 The Alaskan Oil Spill of 1989. . . . . . . . . . 1066 The Alaskan Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066 The Yellowstone Fires of 1988. . . . . . . . . 1067 Yellowstone Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067 Afghanistan-Pakistan Border Region. . . . 1105 Operation Iraqi Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110


continued

Charts Characteristics of North American Culture Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Spanish Wealth from the Americas . . . . . . . 47 Hispanic America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 The Columbian Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 The Chesapeake Region: Occupations . . . . 75 Tobacco Prices, 1618–1700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 The Power of the Purse, 1763–1776. . . . . 108 Delegated, Reserved, and Concurrent Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Federal Government Employees . . . . . . . . 152 Amending the Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Amendments to the Constitution . . . . . . . 187 Bill of Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Diversity of Population in Various Regions, 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 American Indians in Indian Territory . . . . . 246 Growth in Urban Population, 1800–1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Immigration to the United States, 1830–1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Population in the South, 1860. . . . . . . . . . 266 Gullah Word Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 U.S. Manufacturing Centers, 1860 . . . . . . . 283 Slave Population, 1810–1860 . . . . . . . . . . 299 The Second Great Awakening . . . . . . . . . . 309 Oregon: Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 California Gold, 1847–1855 . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 Resources of the North and South in 1861 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Casualties of the Civil War, 1861–1865 . . . 394 Diversity of Population, 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . 399 The South: Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Buffalo Population in the West, 1800–1889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Technology in Daily Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Total Immigration to the United States, 1860–1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 Immigration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 Chinese American Areas of Residence . . . 514 Percentage of California’s Chinese Population Living in San Francisco . . . . 514 Western Population Growth, 1860–1910. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 The American Farmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 Bachelor’s Degrees Awarded, 1900–1920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547 Labor Union Membership, 1900–1920. . . 555 U.S. Exports to China, 1898–1908 . . . . . . 603 Mexico and the United States: Trade. . . . . 618 U.S. Trade, 1885–1915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 U.S. Foreign Investment, 1900–1910 . . . . 624 German Foreign Investment in 1910 . . . . 624 British Foreign Investment, 1900–1910. . . 624 Allied and Central Resources, 1914–1918. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 Military Losses in World War I . . . . . . . . . . 652 Female Labor Force, 1890–1930 . . . . . . . . 671 The Crash, 1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715 Selected New Deal Programs . . . . . . . . . . 751

Unemployment in the United States, 1925–1939. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757 Agricultural Production, 1910–2000 . . . . . 766 Latin American Exports to the U.S., 1920–1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 Investments in Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . 782 Fortune Magazine’s 1939 Survey on War: What Should the U.S. Do? . . . . 791 Defense Expenditures, 1940–1945. . . . . . 802 Deaths in World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827 The Nuclear Threat, 1955–1960 . . . . . . . . 849 Allocation of Federal Spending . . . . . . . . . 860 Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865 The Peace Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899 African American Education, 1960–1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943 Occupations of Women, 1960–1970 . . . . 949 Los Angeles Population Growth in the 1900s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975 U.S. Troops in Vietnam, 1965–1972 . . . . . 996 U.S. Battle Deaths in Vietnam, 1961–1972. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 Gasoline Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015 The Energy Crisis: Oil Prices, 1973–1981. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027 Total Federal Debt, 1981–1989 . . . . . . . . 1050 Annual Emissions of Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067 Percentage of Waste Recycled . . . . . . . . . 1067 Selected Technology Stock Prices, June 1, 1998, to June 1, 1999 . . . . . . . 1078

Time Lines The World by 1500, Prehistory–1500 . . . . . . 2 Empires of the Americas, 1492–1800. . . . . 32 The English Colonies, 1620–1763 . . . . . . . . 64 Independence!, 1763–1783 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 From Confederation to Federal Union, 1776–1789. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 A Strong Start for the Nation, 1789–1815. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Nationalism and Economic Growth, 1790–1840 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Regional Societies, 1793–1860 . . . . . . . . . 252 Working for Reform, 1820–1860. . . . . . . . 284 Expansion and Conflict, 1820–1860 . . . . . 314 Sectional Conflict Increases, 1845–1861 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 The Civil War, 1861–1865. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Reconstruction and the New South, 1865–1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 The Western Crossroads, 1860–1910 . . . . 432

The Second Industrial Revolution, 1865–1905 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 The Transformation of American Society, 1865–1910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Politics in the Gilded Age, 1865–1900 . . . 516 The Age of Reform, 1897–1920. . . . . . . . . 544 Progressive Politicians, 1900–1920. . . . . . 568 America and the World, 1898–1917 . . . . . 596 World War I, 1914–1920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626 A Turbulent Decade, 1919–1929. . . . . . . . 660 The Jazz Age, 1920–1929. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684 The Great Depression, 1929–1933 . . . . . . 712 The New Deal, 1933–1939 . . . . . . . . . . . . 738 The Road to War, 1921–1941. . . . . . . . . . . 772 Americans in World War II, 1941–1945. . . 798 The Cold War, 1945–1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830 Society After World War II, 1945–1960. . . 862 The New Frontier and the Great Society, 1961–1969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894

A pin celebrating Earth Day 2000 The Civil Rights Movement, 1960–1978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920 Struggles for Change, 1963–1975 . . . . . . . 946 War in Vietnam, 1954–1975. . . . . . . . . . . . 976 From Nixon to Carter, 1968–1980. . . . . . 1010 The Republican Revolution, 1980–1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040 Launching the New Millennium, 1990–Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068

xxix

How to Use Your Textbook Use the chapter opener to get an overview of the time period. The Chapter Time Line shows you a comparison of U.S. and global events.

–

CHAPTER

Francis Gary Powers holds a model of his U-2 spy plane.


19 The Cold War Poster of Mao Zedong after the Communist victory

1952 Business and Finance After 21 months of operation by federal troops, the U.S. government returns the country’s railroads to private control.

UN medal

1949 World Events Mao Zedong’s Communist forces gain control of most of China.

1945 World Events Delegates from 50 nations meet in San Francisco to create the charter for the United Nations.

1945

1951 Daily Life Americans organize a hero’s welcome for General MacArthur upon his return from Korea.

1948 1947 Daily Life Ten people working in the film industry refuse to testify before a House committee and are blacklisted.

A report on alleged Communists in the entertainment industry

1951

1948 Politics The U.S. Congress passes the European Recovery Act, establishing the Marshall Plan to help stabilize and rebuild Europe.

A cargo of sugar on its way to Europe as part of the Marshall Plan

Build on What You Know

E

conomic troubles during the 1930s contributed to the rise of dictatorships in Germany and Japan. These countries’ military expansion and acts of aggression led to World War II. The war destroyed parts of Europe and Asia. In this chapter you will learn that after the war many nations struggled to rebuild their war-torn economies. At the same time, tensions grew between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Sputnik

Robert Rauschenberg’s painting Bed

1955 The Arts Robert Rauschenberg’s Bed makes an important contribution to American art.

1954 1953 The Arts Playwright Arthur Miller writes The Crucible, in which he compares McCarthyism to the Salem witch trials.

Arthur Miller’s The Crucible

1957 Science and Technology The Soviet Union launches Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, into orbit around Earth.

1958 Science and Technology Congress establishes the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

1960 World Events The Paris summit between Soviet premier Khrushchev and President Eisenhower is canceled after the Soviets shoot down a U.S. spy plane.

19 57 1956 World Events Egypt seizes the Suez Canal after the United States withdraws support for an Egyptian dam project on the Nile River.

196 0 1959 Politics Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev visits the United States.

Soviet premier Khrushchev (second from left) visited an American supermarket in 1959.

What’s Your Opinion? Do you agree or disagree with the following statements? Support your point of view in your journal.

Citizenship The fears of the majority of Ameri-

cans often limit the rights of groups that hold unpopular views.

Global Relations Rivalry between two powerful

Science, Technology, and Society Americans’ fear

nations rarely affects the relationships between other countries.

of technology affects their behavior and is often reflected in the literature and arts of the time. 559

558

Build on What You Know bridges the material you have studied in previous chapters with the material you are about to begin. As you read the Build on What You Know feature, take a few minutes to think about the topics that might apply to the chapter you are starting.

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HOW TO USE YOUR TEXTBOOK

What’s Your Opinion? puts you in the place of a historian looking at the past. In this feature, you will be asked to respond to three general statements about the chapter. Each statement is tied to one of the key themes of the program. You should respond based on your own knowledge and then record your responses in your journal. There are no right or wrong answers, just your informed opinion.

Use these built-in tools to read for understanding. Eyewitnesses to History features an interesting episode from American history that shows you that history is not just a collection of facts but a blend of many individual stories and adventures.

SECTION

1

“

[For nearly] half a mile, you could see little else along the shore, in the street, and on board every vessel, but heads standing as thick as ears of corn before a harvest.

READ TO DISCOVER 1. What key decisions did the first administration make? 2. What domestic and international problems did the nation face in the 1790s? 3. What major issues did John Adams and Thomas Jefferson face during their presidencies? 4. What was the significance of the Louisiana Purchase? 5. Why did the United States declare war on Great Britain in 1812?

Read to Discover questions begin each section of The American Nation. These questions serve as your guide as you read through the section. Keep them in mind as you explore the section content.

DEFINE

”

—Elias Boudinot, letter to his wife, 1789

This observer described the scene on April 23, 1789. Crowds of people gathered to welcome President-elect George Washington to New York City, the nation’s temporary capital. Cup celebrating They came to witness the inauguration of the first president of Washington’s presidency the United States. Celebrations had been staged along the route that Washington followed from Mount Vernon, Virginia. As he neared his destination, the crowds gathered in the streets and along the shore to welcome the boat carrying him. A parade accompanied Washington to the presidential mansion. One week later, Washington took his oath of office on the balcony of Federal Hall. As his last words echoed in the air, the crowd burst into cheers.

cabinet free enterprise strict construction loose construction judicial review

Define and Identify terms are introduced at the

IDENTIFY

beginning of each section. The terms will be defined in context.

Judiciary Act of 1789 Bill of Rights Alexander Hamilton Little Turtle Alien and Sedition Acts Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions John Marshall Marbury v. Madison Louisiana Purchase

Why It Matters Today is an exciting way for you to make connections between what you are reading in your history book and the world around you. In each section, you will be invited to explore a topic that is relevant to our lives today by using CNNfyi.com connections.

WHY IT MATTERS TODAY Today the United States has two main political parties. These are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. Use or other current events sources to learn about an issue involving either of these parties. Record your findings in your journal.

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“

Fully recognizing the danger of fascist and communist totalitarianism, the League believes that such forces can be best opposed by open discussion and by the strengthening of our own democratic procedures, rather than by attempts at direct control.

”

—Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom

INTERPRETING THE VISUAL RECORD

The Hollywood Ten. Protesters demonstrate against HUAC’s investigation of alleged communist activities of Americans in the film industry. How are these activists protesting the actions of HUAC?

The trial and conviction of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg for spying and giving away U.S. atomic secrets shocked many Americans.

Because of the League’s support for progressive causes, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) investigated the national organization and several of its local chapters. The investigation scared many potential members away. HUAC investigations had a similar effect on labor unions and many liberal political groups.

The search for spies. HUAC also investigated individuals accused of spying for the Soviets. In 1948 Whittaker Chambers, a former member of the Communist Party, accused Alger Hiss of being a Communist spy. Chambers told HUAC that Hiss, a New Deal lawyer who had joined the State Department in 1936, had given him secret State Department documents to pass on to the Soviets. Hiss denied the charges, but persistent questioning by HUAC member Richard M. Nixon, a young Republican member of Congress from California, revealed apparent inconsistencies in Hiss’s testimony. When Hiss sued Chambers for slander, Chambers produced microfilmed copies of documents he had kept hidden in a pumpkin at his home. These so-called pumpkin papers revealed evidence that indicated Hiss had lied to HUAC. In 1950 Hiss was convicted of perjury, or lying under oath, and sentenced to five years in prison. Another notorious spy case also helped fuel domestic fears of communism. In 1951 a U.S. court convicted two Americans, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, of providing the Soviet Union with atomic-energy secrets during World War II. Defenders of the Rosenbergs claimed that the two were innocent victims of anticommunist hysteria. Despite worldwide protests, the Rosenbergs were executed in June 1953. Other anticommunist measures included the Internal Security Act, passed in 1950. The act required Communist Party members and organizations to register with the federal government. It also imposed strict controls on immigrants suspected of being Communist sympathizers. The anticommunist hysteria of these years shattered many lives and careers.Writer Abe Burrows described his experiences after being blacklisted. “My Americanism being under suspicion is very painful to me, not just painful economically but painful as it is to a guy who loves his country.”

✔ READING CHECK: Analyzing Information

The First President When Congress opened the ballots from the states’ electors on April 6, 1789, George Washington was the unanimous choice for president. Washington knew that each step he took would set a precedent, or serve as a guide, for future leaders. The task of molding the new government also belonged to the first Congress. Congress first created a federal court system. The Judiciary Act of 1789 established a federal district court for each state. This act specified that there would be five associate justices of the Supreme Court to be nominated by the president and approved by the Senate. The act also defined the federal courts’ powers. Washington wrote to the first justices about the importance of their positions. He said, “The happiness of the people of the United States depend[s] in a considerable degree on the interpretation and execution of its laws.” Congress’s next task was to add a protection of individual liberties to the Constitution. From the 210 proposed amendments, Congress recommended 12 for adoption. The states ratified 10 by late 1791. These amendments became known as the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights guarantees specific rights, such as freedom of speech, religion, and the press. It sets out some rules for criminal and trial procedures. It also recognizes that states or the people retain the powers not specifically delegated to the federal government or prohibited by the Constitution. During its first session Congress also created three departments to assist the president. These were the State Department, to handle foreign affairs; the War Department, to manage military affairs; and the Treasury Department, to oversee the nation’s finances. The president appointed the secretaries, or heads, of these departments to serve as his advisers. Over time, these advisers, along with the heads of departments created later, became known as the president’s cabinet.

CHAPTER 2

era. He explained that “gossip, rumor, slander, backbiting, malice and drunken invention, . . . when it makes the headlines, shatters the reputations of innocent and harmless people. . . . We are shocked. We are scared.” The hysteria generated by HUAC spread quickly. The Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, one group that spoke out against HUAC, argued in 1949 that the hearings violated democratic rights.

Interpreting the Visual Record features accompany many of the book’s rich images. Pictures are one of the most important primary sources historians can use to help analyze the past. These features invite you to examine the images to interpret their content.

The New Government Takes Shape

History Makers Speak quotations appear frequently throughout the book. These exciting primary source quotations give you a glimpse into the lives of actual people who made history. Many of these quotations are accompanied by an Analyzing Primary Sources question to help you better interpret the sources and draw inferences about their importance.

How did the U.S. government try to limit

communism at home? Congress created the National Security Council and HUAC and passed the Internal Security Act.

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CHAPTER 19

Reading Check questions appear throughout the book to allow you to check your comprehension while you are reading. As you read each section, pause for a moment to consider each Reading Check. If you have trouble answering the question, go back and examine the material you just read.

xxxi

Use these review tools to pull together all the information you have learned. Graphic Organizers will help you pull together important information from the section. You can complete the graphic organizer as a study tool to prepare for a test or writing assignment.

Homework Practice Online lets you log on to the go.hrw.com Web site to complete an interactive self-check.

SECTION 1. Define and explain: cabinet free enterprise strict construction loose construction judicial review

1

3. Problem Solving Copy the chart below. Explain how the new nation resolved some of its domestic challenges. Challenges

2. Identify and explain: Judiciary Act of 1789 Bill of Rights Alexander Hamilton Little Turtle Alien and Sedition Acts Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions John Marshall Marbury v. Madison Louisiana Purchase

REVIEW 4.

Solutions

1. Maintaining national security

1.

2. Creating a stable economy

2.

3. Setting up the court system

3.

4. Defining the authority of the national government

4.

Finding the Main Idea a. What role did free enterprise play in early U.S. economic policy? b. How effective was John Marshall’s leadership of the Supreme Court? c. How did the War of 1812 complete the American Revolution?

5.

Writing and Critical Thinking Summarizing Imagine that you are a historian in the early 1800s. Write a brief history of major events and issues from 1796 to 1809. Consider: • John Adams’s presidency • Thomas Jefferson’s presidency • the Louisiana Purchase

Homework Practice Online keyword: SE3 HP2

Plus The Chapter Review with: • • • • • •

Creating a Time Line Writing a Summary Understanding Main Ideas Reviewing Themes Thinking Critically Building Social Studies Skills

78

CHAPTER 2

Writing and Critical Thinking activities allow you to explore a section topic in greater depth and to build your skills.

Use these online tools to review and complete online activities. Internet Connect activities are just one part of the world of online learning experiences that awaits you on the go.hrw.com Web site. By exploring these online activities, you will take a journey through some of the richest American history materials available on the World Wide Web. You can then use these resources to create real-world projects, such as newspapers, brochures, reports, and even your own Web site!

Internet Activity: go.hrw.com KEYWORD: SE3 AN3 Access the Internet through the HRW Go site to research the geographic distribution of major battles during the Civil War. Then create a threedimensional model of one of these battles. Your model should represent the terrain, any geographic features (such as rivers, woods or hills) that affected the battle, and any other important factors such as towns or railroads. As a review, pose and answer questions with a partner in which you analyze why the battle was fought at that location.

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HOW TO USE YOUR TEXTBOOK

Themes in American History The American Nation begins every chapter with a set of theme statements under the heading “What’s your opinion?” These statements are drawn from several broad themes central to American history: Geography; Economics; Government; Citizenship; Culture; Science, Technology, and Society; Constitutional Heritage; and Global Relations. As you begin each chapter of The American Nation, you will be asked to respond to the theme statements in a general way, based on your own knowledge. At the end of the chapter, you will be asked to respond to more specific questions about the themes, based on the chapter content.

Geography The Geography theme explores ways in which the nation’s vast and diverse geography has played an important role in American history. The theme

examines how the development of the nation’s resources has helped shape its economy, society, and politics. In addition, the Geography theme traces how public and government attitudes about resources and the environment have changed over time.

Economics President Calvin Coolidge said in 1925 that “the business of America is business.” The Economics theme asks you to explore the relationship between history and economics in the United States. The theme traces the Catalogs display changing relationhundreds of goods ship between governfor consumers. ment, business, and labor in America. It examines how the growth of a strong national free-enterprise economic system has influenced the country’s domestic and global politics as well as individual lives and American society.

Government

The American West

Even before the nation had won its independence from Great Britain in the Revolution, the founders saw the need to establish a national government. The Government theme asks you to explore the workings of the American system of government—from the Articles of Confederation to the present. This theme also examines the relationships between federal, state, and local governments and how the system is designed to serve the people. xxxiii

Underwater archaeologists search for sunken ships to learn more about U.S. history.

Citizenship

Constitutional Heritage

Throughout our history, Americans have struggled to define, possess, and protect individual rights and personal freedoms, such as the freedom of speech and of religion, the right to vote, and the right to privacy. Americans have also worked to uphold the responsibilities of citizenship that accompany participation in our democracy. The Citizenship theme explores how changing social, economic, and political conditions have influenced the theory and practices of these rights, freedoms, and responsibilities.

No study of American history would be complete without examining the U.S. Constitution, the document that provides the legal framework for our democratic government. The Constitutional Heritage theme will help you understand the Constitution’s origins and how it has evolved through constitutional amendments, Supreme Court rulings, and congressional action. This theme also explores how individuals and different groups in the nations history have influenced the Constitution.

Culture Our nation’s rich and unique culture comes from its many ethnic, racial, and religious groups. The Culture theme examines the influences of diverse culture groups, from before the time of the European explorers to recent immigrants from around the world.

Science, Technology, and Society From the building of the transcontinental railroad and the construction of skyscrapers during the Second Industrial Revolution, to the computers that help you with your school assignments and personal projects today, science and technology have influenced every aspect of our culture and society. The Science, Technology, and Society theme explores scientific and technological developments and their influence on the U.S. economy and life. xxxiv

THEMES IN AMERICAN HISTORY

Global Relations Since the first Asian nomads crossed a land bridge to this continent thousands of years ago, America has been involved in global events. The Global Relations theme invites you to trace ways in which our nation’s political, social, and economic development has affected—and been affected by—other countries and their people.

Essential Elements of Geography

History and geography share many elements. History describes important events that have taken place from ancient times until the present day. Geography describes how physical environments affect human events. It also examines how people’s actions influence the environment around them. One way to look at geography is to identify essential elements of its study. The following six essential elements, developed from the National Geography Standards, will be used throughout The American Nation:

The World in Spatial Terms This essential element refers to the way geographers view the world. They look at where things are and how they are arranged on Earth’s surface. For example, geographers might be interested to learn why certain cities developed where they did.

Places and Regions Geographers often focus on the physical and human characteristics that make particular parts of Earth special. A region is an area with common characteristics that make it different from surrounding areas. People create regions as a convenient way to study the world. Regions can be large like North America, or small like a neighborhood.

Physical Systems Geographers study the physical processes and interactions between four physical systems—Earth’s atmosphere, land, water, and life. Physical processes shape and change Earth’s physical features and environments.

Human Systems As with physical systems, studying human systems can tell geographers much about the world around us. For example, studying population growth, distribution, and movement helps in understanding human events and their effects on the environment.

Environment and Society One of the most important topics in geography is how people interact with the environment. People depend on the environment’s natural resources for survival. However, human activities can have both positive and negative effects on Earth’s environment. The Uses of Geography Historians use geography to understand the past. They look not only at when things happened but where and why they happened. Geography is important to the present as well as the past. People use geography every day to explore how to use Earth’s limited resources, such as water and minerals, more effectively and in a way that ensures the success of future generations.

Anasazi homes were built of stone and sun-dried clay bricks. They were built in openings in high cliffs.

xxxv

WHY HISTORY MATTERS TODAY

H

“

istory and destiny have made America the leader of the world that would be free. And the world that would be free is looking to us for inspiration.” —Colin Powell

Right now, at this very second, somewhere in the United States, someone is making history. It is impossible to know who, or in what way, but the actions of people today may become the history of tomorrow.

History and Your World All you need to do is watch or read the news to see history unfolding. How many news stories do you see or hear about ordinary people doing extraordinary things? The Why It Matters Today feature beginning every section of The American Nation invites you to use the vast resources of CNNfyi.com or other current events sources to examine the links between past and present. Through this feature you will be able to draw connections between what you are studying in your history book and the events that are taking place today.

Anyone Can Be a History Maker When you think of the word history, what comes to mind? Do you picture politicians sitting around a table deciding the future of the nation? Or do you see a long list of dates and boring facts to be memorized? Of course, politicians, dates, and facts are part of history, but there is actually much more to understanding and exploring our past. Our nation has developed through the efforts of many different people, from all backgrounds and walks of life. Many of them were teenagers like yourself. Did you know that teenagers helped settle the West? It’s true. For example, teenager Nancy Kelsey was among the first pioneers to arrive in California in 1841.

Student reporters contribute to CNNfyi.com.

xxxvi

WHY HISTORY MATTERS TODAY

History Makes Us Who We Are There is no one single “story” in history. Instead, the combined experiences of millions of people across time have come together to form the foundation of American society today.

S

“ Student visiting the Vietnam Veterans Memorial

Teenagers also played a role in the Civil War. Thousands of soldiers, like 15-year-old Thomas Galway, fought in this bloody conflict, which shaped the nation’s future. You might also be interested to know that young Americans in the Civilian Conservation Corps played a key role in keeping the nation going during the darkest hours of the Great Depression. These are just a few of the many examples of how people about the same age as yourself have helped shape our nation’s past. What contributions do you think your generation will make to our national history?

o when someone asks you ‘Why does history matter today?‘ you might answer, ‘Because in our past, we see a reflection of ourselves.’”

These young people participate in a re-enactment to celebrate the unveiling of the African American Civil War Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery.

xxxvii

Skills Handbook Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S1

Becoming a Strategic Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S4

Standardized Test–Taking Strategies . . . . . . . . . S12

Critical Thinking Throughout The American Nation, you will be asked to think critically about the events and issues that have shaped U.S. history. Critical thinking is the reasoned judgment of information and ideas. The development of critical thinking skills is essential to effective citizenship. Such skills empower you to exercise your civic rights and responsibilities. Helping you develop critical thinking skills is an important goal of The American Nation. The following critical thinking skills appear in the section reviews and chapter reviews of the book.

Analyzing Information is the process of breaking something down and examining the relationships between its parts. Analyzing enables you to better understand the whole. For example, to analyze the outcome of the 1876 presidential election, you might study how— since the election results were disputed—both sides had to come to an agreement before Rutherford B. Hayes could become president.

Sequencing is the process of placing events in correct chronological order to better understand the historical relationships between these events. You can sequence events in two basic ways: according to absolute or relative chronology. Absolute chronolo- Coat of arms granted to Christopher gy means that you pay close attention to the actual dates on Columbus which events took place. Placing events on a time line would be an example of absolute chronology. Relative chronology refers to the way events relate to one another. To put events in relative order, you need to know which one happened first, which came next, and so forth.

Categorizing is the process by which you group things together by the characteristics they have in common. By putting things or events into categories, it is easier to make comparisons and see differences among them.

Identifying Cause and Effect is a part of interpreting the relationships between historical events. A cause is an action that leads to an event. The outcome of the action is an effect. To explain historical events, historians often point out multiple causes and effects. For example, economic and political differences between the North and South, as well as the issue of slavery, brought about the Civil War—which in turn had many farEmancipation Proclamation reaching effects.

Comparing and Contrasting is examining events, situations, or points of view for their similarities and differences. Comparing focuses on both the similarities and the differences. Contrasting focuses only on the differences. For example, a comparison of early Irish and Chinese immigrants to the United States shows that both groups were recruited to help build railroads and that both groups faced discrimination. In contrast, language and racial barriers generally proved more of a problem for Chinese immigrants.

U.S. military railroad engine CRITICAL THINKING

S1

Finding the Main Idea is combining and sifting through information to determine what is most important. Historical writing often uses many examples and details to support the author’s main ideas. Throughout The American Nation, you will find numerous Reading Checks and questions in section reviews to help you focus on the main ideas in the text.

try not to include situations that do not fit the statement. When this occurs, you run the risk of creating a stereotype, or overgeneralization. A prediction is an educated guess about an outcome. When you read history, you should always be asking yourself questions like, “What will happen next? If this person does this, what will that mean for . . . ?”, and so on. These types of questions help you draw on information you already know to see patterns throughout history.

Summarizing is the process of taking a large amount of information and boiling it down into a short and clear statement. Summarizing is particularly useful when you need to give a brief account of a longer story or event. For example, the story of the Battle of Gettysburg during the Civil War is an exciting but detailed one. Many different events came together to make up this story. You could summarize these events by saying something like, “In 1863 General Lee led his army north into Pennsylvania where he met the Union forces under General Meade at Gettysburg. After several days of bloody fighting, Lee was forced to retreat. Lee’s defeat at Gettysburg was a major turning point in the war.”

Lee’s surrender at Appomattox Courthouse

Making Generalizations and Predictions is the process of interpreting information to form more general statements and to guess about what will happen next. A generalization is a broad statement that holds true for a variety of historical events or situations. Making generalizations can help you see the “big picture” of historical events, rather than just focusing on details. It is very important, however, that when making generalizations you S2

SKILLS HANDBOOK

Drawing Inferences and Conclusions is forming possible explanations for an event, a situation, or a problem. When you make an inference, you take the information you know to be true and come up with an educated guess about what else you think is true about that situation. A conclusion is a prediction about the outcome of a situation based on what you already know. Often, you must be prepared to test your inferences and conclusions against new evidence or arguments. For example, a historian might conclude that women’s leadership roles in the abolition movement led to the development of the early women’s movement. The historian would then organize the evidence needed to support this conclusion and challenge other arguments. Women’s suffrage supporter

Identifying Points of View is the process of identifying factors that influence the outlook of an individual or group. A person’s point of view includes beliefs and attitudes that are shaped by factors such as age, gender, religion, race, and economic status. This critical thinking skill helps you examine why people see things as they do, and it reinforces the realization that people’s views may change over time or with a change in circumstances.

Supporting a Point of View involves choosing a viewpoint on a particular event or issue and arguing persuasively for that position. Your argument should be well organized and based on specific evidence that supports the point of view you have chosen. Supporting a point of view often involves working with controversial or emotional issues. For example, you might consider the points of view involved in the struggles between labor unions and businesses in the late 1800s. Whether you choose a position in favor of unions or in favor of businesses, you should state your opinion clearly and give reasons to defend it.

Identifying Bias is the process of evaluating the opinions of others about events or situaLabor union booklet tions. Bias is an opinion based on prejudice or strong emotions, rather than fact. It is important to identify bias when looking at historical sources, because biased sources often give you a false sense of what really happened. When looking at both primary and secondary sources, it is always important to keep the author’s or speaker’s point of view in mind and to adjust your interpretation of the source when you detect any bias.

Evaluating is assessing the significance or overall importance of something, such as the success of a reform movement, the actions of a president, or the results of a major conflict. You should base your judgment on standards that others will understand and are likely to share. For example, you might consider the outcome of the Mexican War and evaluate its importance to U.S. politics and expansion. You could also evaluate the effect of the war on the peoples already living in the West.

Problem Solving is the process by which you pose workable solutions to difficult situations. The first step in the process is to identify a problem. Next you will need to gather information about the problem, such as its history and the various factors that contribute to the problem. Once you have gathered information, you should list and consider the options for solving the problem. For each of the possible solutions, weigh their advantages and disadvantages and, based on your evaluation, choose and implement a solution. Once the solution has been tried, go back and evaluate the effectiveness of the solution you selected.

Decision Making is the process of reviewing a situation and then making decisions or recommendations for the best possible outcome. To complete the process, first identify a situation that requires a solution. Next, gather information that will help you reach a decision. You may need to do some background research to study the history of the situation. Once you have done your research, identify options that might resolve the situation. For each option, predict what the possible consequences might be if that option were followed. Once you have identified the best option, take action by making a recommendation and following through on any tasks that option requires.

Becoming a Strategic Reader by Dr. Judith Irvin

E

S4

verywhere you look, print is all around us. In fact, you would have a hard time stopping yourself from reading. In a normal day, you might read cereal boxes, movie posters, notes from friends, t-shirts, instructions for video games, song lyrics, catalogs, billboards, information on the Internet, magazines, the newspaper, and much, much more. Each form of print is read differently depending on your purpose for reading. You read a menu differently than the way you read poetry, and a motorcycle magazine is read differently than a letter from a friend. Good readers switch easily from one type of text to another. In fact, they probably do not even think about it, they just do it. When you read, it is helpful to use a strategy to remember the most important ideas. You can use a strategy before you read to help connect information you already know to the new information you will encounter. Before you read, you can also predict what a text will be about by using a previewing strategy. During the reading you can use a strategy to help you focus on main ideas, and after reading you can use a strategy to help you organize what you learned so that you can remember it later. The American Nation was designed to help you more easily understand the ideas you read. Important reading strategies employed in The American Nation include the following:

1

Methods to help you anticipate what is to come

2

Tools to help you preview and predict what the text will be about

3

Ways to help you use and analyze visual information

4

Ideas to help you organize the information you have learned

1. Anticipate Information How Can I Use Information I Already Know to Help Me Understand What a New Chapter Will Be About? Anticipating what a new chapter will be about helps you connect the upcoming information to what you already know. By drawing on your background knowledge, you can build a bridge to the new material.

▼

Anticipating Information 1 Identify the major Step 1: concepts of the chapter. In The American Nation, these are presented in the What’s Your Opinion? feature at the beginning of each chapter.

1

Each chapter of The American Nation asks you to explore the main themes of the chapter before you start reading by forming opinions based on your current knowledge.

▼


2 Agree or disagree Step 2: with each of the statements and record your opinions in your journal.

Economics Wars contribute to a nation’s

economic development.

▼

Citizenship Americans choose to interpret the Geography Geography has a significant impact

meaning of individual liberty in different ways.

3 Read the text and Step 3: discuss your responses with your classmates.

on the way wars are fought.

▼ 4 After reading the Step 4: chapter, revisit the statements and respond to them again based on what you have learned.

Create a chart like this one to help you analyze the statements.

A

B

Before Reading

After Reading

Agree/Disagree

Agree/Disagree

2

Geography has a significant impact on the way wars are fought.

▼ Step 5 Go back and check your knowledge by answering the Reviewing Themes questions in the chapter review.

4

Wars contribute to a nation’s economic development Americans choose to interpret the meaning of individual liberty in different ways. 3

Read the text and discuss with classmates. 5

You can also refine your knowledge by answering the Reviewing Themes questions in the chapter review.

Reviewing Themes 1. Geography What role did geography play in helping

the North win the war? 2. Economics How did the economic resources of the North and the South affect the war? 3. Citizenship How did the draft challenge ideas about individual liberty in the North and in the South?

BECOMING A STRATEGIC READER

S5

2. Preview and Predict How Can I Figure out What the Text Is about before I Even Start Reading a Section?

▼

Previewing and Predicting 1 Identify your purStep 1: pose for reading. Ask yourself what will you do with this information once you have finished reading.

▼

2 Ask yourself what Step 2: the main idea of the text is and what key vocabulary words you need to know.

Previewing and predicting are good methods to help you understand the text. If you take the time to preview and predict before you read, the text will make more sense to you during your reading. 1

Usually, your teacher will set the purpose for reading. After reading some new information, you may be asked to write a summary, take a test, or complete some other type of activity.

“After reading about the Civil War, you will work with a partner to create a historical museum exhibit describing…”

▼ 3 Use signal words Step 3: to help identify the structure of the text.

▼

4 Connect the inforStep 4: mation to what you already know.

2

As you preview the text, use graphic signals such as headings, subheadings, and boldfaced type to help you determine what is important in the text. Each section of The American Nation opens by giving you important clues to help you preview the material.

SECTION

2 READ TO DISCOVER

Read to Discover questions give you clues as to the section’s main ideas.

1. How did the military strategies of the North and South differ? 2. What daily hardships did soldiers face? 3. What was life like on the home front during the war? 4. How did civilians contribute to the war effort? 5. Why did some people oppose the war? DEFINE conscription habeas corpus IDENTIFY Anaconda Plan Mary Boykin Chesnut Elizabeth Blackwell U.S. Sanitary Commission Clara Barton Sally Louisa Tompkins Copperheads WHY IT MATTERS TODAY

Define and Identify terms let you know the key vocabulary you will encounter in the section.

During the Civil War, soldiers on both sides faced difficulties. Use or other current events sources to find out what challenges U.S. soldiers face today. Record your findings in your journal.

The North and South Face Off “

We are going to kill the last Yankee before [spring] if there is any fight in them still. I believe that J. D. Walker’s Brigade can whip 25,000 Yankees.

”

—An Alabama soldier, quoted in Battle Cry of Freedom, by James M. McPherson

This letter reveals the high spirits that marked the beginning of the war between the North and South. After joining the army, one volunteer from New York wrote his family, “I and the rest of the boys are in fine spirits . . . feeling like larks.” People in both the North and the South had great confidence that their side would quickly win the war. In the North, author James Russell Lowell used a fictional character, Hosea Biglow, to describe this widespread optimism. Biglow recalled the days after Fort Sumter fell: “I hoped to see things settled ´fore this fall. The Rebbles licked, Jeff Davis hanged, an’ all.”

A Union soldier (top) and a Confederate soldier (bottom)

Strategies of War From the beginning of the war, the North’s primary goal was to restore the Union. To accomplish this goal, Lincoln and his military advisers adopted a three-part strategy. They sought first to capture Richmond, the Confederate capital; second, to gain control of the Mississippi River; and third, to institute a naval blockade of the South. The naval blockade was nicknamed the Anaconda Plan because it was designed to slowly squeeze the life out of the South like an anaconda snake. It was important because the South depended on foreign markets to sell its cotton and to buy supplies. The North devised its battle strategy based on the region’s geography. Since the Confederacy stretched from Virginia to Texas, the Appalachian Mountains divided most of the action in the Civil War into two arenas: the eastern theater and the western theater. The eastern theater lay east of the Appalachians. The western theater lay between these mountains and the Mississippi River. Control of the Mississippi River would enable the North to penetrate deep into the South. It would also prevent the Confederacy from using the waterway to resupply its forces. While the North’s strategy depended on dividing the South geographically, the South planned to capture Washington and invade the North. Southern leaders hoped for a successful offensive strike northward through the Shenandoah Valley into Maryland and Pennsylvania. They hoped this would shatter northern morale, disrupt Union communications, win European support, and bring the war to a speedy end. Confederate leaders knew that winning the support of France or Great Britain was crucial to a victory for the South. Because the French and British economies depended heavily on cotton, the Confederacy had confidence that one of the nations would respond to the naval blockade by coming to the South’s aid. THE CIVIL WAR

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SKILLS HANDBOOK

103

Looking at the section’s main heading and subheadings can give you an idea of what is to come.

3

Other tools that can help you in previewing are signal words. These words prepare you to think in a certain way. For example, when you see words such as similar to, same as, or different from, you know that the text will probably compare and contrast two or more ideas. Signal words indicate how the ideas in the text relate to each other. Look at the list below of some of the most common signal words grouped by the type of text structures they indicate.

Signal Words Description

Problem and Solution

Sequence or Chronological Order

• different from

• for instance

• the question is

• not long after

• since

• same as

• for example

• a solution

• next

• consequently

• similar to

• such as

• one answer is

• then

• this led to . . . so

• as opposed to

• to illustrate

• initially

• if . . . then

• instead of

• in addition

• before

• nevertheless

• although

• after

• accordingly

• however

• most importantly

• compared with

• another

• preceding

• as well as

• furthermore

• following

• in order to

• either . . . or

• first, second . . .

• on (date)

• may be due to

• but

• over the years

• for this reason

• on the other hand

• today

Cause and Effect

Compare and Contrast

• because

• because of • as a result of

• not only . . . but

• finally

• when

• unless 4 Learning something new requires that you connect it in some way with

something you already know. This means you have to think before you read and while you read. You may want to use a chart like this one to remind yourself of the information already familiar to you and to come up with questions you want answered in your reading. The chart will also help you organize your ideas after you have finished reading.

What I know

What I want to know

What I learned


S7

3. Use and Analyze Visual Information How Can All the Pictures, Maps, Graphs, and Time Lines with the Text Help Me Be a Stronger Reader?

▼

Analyzing Information 1 As you preview Step 1: the text, ask yourself how the visual information relates to the text.

▼

2 Generate quesStep 2: tions based on the visual information.

Using visual information can help you understand and remember the information presented in The American Nation. Good readers form a picture in their mind when they read. The pictures, charts, graphs, cartoons, time lines, and diagrams that occur throughout The American Nation are placed strategically to increase your understanding. 1

You might ask yourself questions like:

▼

Step 33 After reading the text, go back and review the visual information again.

Why did the author include this information with text? What details about this visual are mentioned in the text?

Step 4 Make connections to what you already know.

After you have read the text, see if you can answer your own questions. 2

eople re the p a e r e h 1. W ainting? in this p t the artis id d y h 2. W them? include is might th 3. How g encourage paintin ns to visit America ne National o Yellowst Park?

3

After reading, take another look at the visual information.

4 Try to make connections to what you already know.

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SKILLS HANDBOOK

4. Organize Information Once I Learn New Information, How Do I Keep It All Straight So That I Will Remember It?

Identifying Relationships Using graphic organizers will help you recall important ideas from the section. They are also study tools you can use to prepare for a quiz or test or to help with a writing assignment. Some of the most common types of graphic organizers are shown below.

Cause and Effect

Constructing Graphic Organizers ▼

To help you remember what you have read, you need to find a way of organizing information. Two good ways of doing this are by using graphic organizers and concept maps. Graphic organizers help you understand important relationships—such as cause-and-effect, compare/contrast, sequence of events, and problem/solution—within the text. Concept maps provide a useful tool to help you focus on the text’s main ideas and organize supporting details.

Step 1 Preview the text, looking for signal words and the main idea.

▼ Step 2 Form a hypothesis as to which type of graphic organizer would work best to display the information presented.

▼

Step 3 Work individually or with your classmates to create a visual representation of what you read.

Events in history cause people to react in certain ways. Cause-and-effect patterns show the relationship between results and the ideas or events that made the results occur. You may want to represent cause-and effect relationships as one cause leading to multiple effects,

or as a chain of cause-and-effect relationships.


S9

Comparing and Contrasting Graphic organizers are often useful when you are comparing or contrasting information. Compare-and-contrast diagrams point out similarities and differences between two concepts or ideas.

Characteristics

Shared characteristics

Characteristics

Sequencing Keeping track of dates and the order in which events took place is essential to understanding history. Sequence or chronological-order diagrams show events or ideas in the order in which they happened.

First Event

Next Event

Next Event

Last Event

Problem and Solution Problem/solution patterns identify at least one problem, offer one or more solutions to the problem, and explain or predict outcomes of the solutions. Solution #1

Solution #2

Problem

Solution #3 Solution #4

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SKILLS HANDBOOK

Identifying Main Ideas and Supporting Details ▼

Constructing Concept Maps 1 Preview the text, Step 1: looking for what type of structure might be appropriate to display a concept map.

One special type of graphic organizer is the concept map. A concept map, sometimes called a semantic map, allows you to zero in on the most important points of the text. The map is made up of lines, boxes, circles, and/or arrows. It can be as simple or as complex as you need it to be to accurately represent the text.

▼ 2 Taking note of Step 2: the headings, boldfaced type, and text structure, sketch a concept map you think could best illustrate the text.

Here are a few examples of concept maps you might use.

▼ 3 Using boxes, lines, Step 3: arrows, circles, or any shapes you like, display the ideas of the text in the concept map.

Main Idea

Supporting Idea 1

Detail 1

Detail 2

Supporting Idea 2

Detail 1

Supporting Idea 3

Detail 2

Detail 1

Detail 2

Detail 3

Detail Detail 21

Subtopic 3

Main Topic Detail 1

Subtopic 2

Detail 3

Subtopic 1 Detail 2 Detail 2

Detail 1

Detail 1


S11

Standardized Test–Taking Strategies A

number of times throughout your school career, you may be asked to take standardized tests. These tests are designed to demonstrate the content and skills you have learned. It is important to keep in mind that in most cases the best way to prepare for these tests is to pay close attention in class and to take every opportunity to improve your general social studies, reading, writing, and mathematical skills.

Tips for Taking the Test 1. Be sure that you are well rested. 2. Be on time and be sure that you have the necessary materials. 3. Listen to the instructions of the teacher. 4. Read directions and questions carefully. 5. DON’T STRESS! Just remember what you have learned in class and you should do well.

Practice the Strategies at go.hrw.com Standardized Test–Prep Online keyword: SD3 STP

Tackling Social Studies The social studies portions of many standardized tests are designed to test your knowledge of the content and skills that you have been studying in one or more of your social studies classes. Specific objectives for the test vary, but some of the most common include: 1. Demonstrate an understanding of issues and events in history. 2. Demonstrate an understanding of geographic influences on historical issues and events. 3. Demonstrate an understanding of economic and social influences on historical issues and events. 4. Demonstrate an understanding of political influences on historical issues and events. 5. Use critical thinking skills to analyze social studies information.

Standardized tests usually contain multiple-choice and may also contain open-ended questions. The multiplechoice items will often be based on maps, tables, charts, graphs, pictures, cartoons, and/or reading passages and documents.

Tips for Answering Multiple-Choice Questions 1. If there is a written or visual piece accompanying the multiple-choice question, pay careful attention to the title, author, and date. 2. Then read through or glance over the content of the piece accompanying the question.

FPO H&S-FLIP HORIZ.

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SKILLS HANDBOOK

3. Next, read the multiple-choice question for its general intent. Then reread it carefully, looking for words that give clues. For example, words such as most or best tell you that there may be several correct answers, but you should look for the most appropriate answer.

4. Always read all of the possible answer choices even if the first one seems like the correct answer. There may be a better choice farther down in the list. 5. Reread the accompanying information (if any is included) carefully to determine the answer to the question. Again, note the title, author, and date of primary-source selections. The answer will rarely be stated exactly as it appears in the primary source, so you will need to use your critical thinking skills to read between the lines. 6. Use your knowledge of the time in history or person involved to help limit the answer choices. 7. Finally, re-read the question and selected answer to be sure that you made the best choice and that you marked it correctly on the answer sheet.

Strategies for Success There are many strategies you can use to feel more confident about answering questions on social studies standardized tests. Here are a few suggestions: 1. Adopt an acronym—a word formed from the first letters of other words—that you will use for analyzing a document or visual that accompanies a question.

Helpful Acronyms For a document, use SOAPS, which stands for

S O A P S

Subject Occasion Audience Purpose Speaker/author

For a picture, cartoon, map, or other visual piece of information, use OPTIC, which stands for

O P T I C

2. Form visual images of maps and try to draw them from memory. The standardized test will most likely include important maps from the time period and subjects you have been studying. For example, in early U.S. history, be able to see in your mind’s eye such things as where the New England, Middle, and Southern colonies were located, what land the Louisiana Purchase and Mexican Cession covered, and the dividing line for slave and free states. Know major physical features, such as the Mississippi River, the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains, the Great Plains, and the various regions of the United States and be able to place them on a map. 3. When you have finished studying any historical era, try to think of who or what might be important enough for the test. You may want to keep your ideas in a notebook to refer to when it is almost time for the test. 4. Pay particular attention to the Constitution and its development. Many standardized tests contain questions about this all-important document and the period during which it was written. Questions may include Magna Carta, the English Bill of Rights, the Declaration of Independence, and Common Sense, as well as many other important historical documents. 5. For the skills area of the tests, practice putting major events and personalities in order in your mind. Sequencing people and events by dates can become a game you play with a friend who also has to take the test. Always ask yourself “why” this event is important. 6. Follow the tips under Ready for Reading on the next page when you encounter a reading passage in social studies, but remember that what you have learned about history can help you answer reading-comprehension questions.

Overview Parts (labels or details of the visual) Title Interrelations (how the different parts of the visual work together) Conclusion (what the visual means)

STANDARDIZED TEST–TAKING STRATEGIES

S13

Ready for Reading The main goal of the reading sections of most standardized tests is to determine your understanding of different aspects of a reading passage. Basically, if you can grasp the main idea and the author’s purpose, then pay attention to the details and vocabulary so that you are able to draw inferences and conclusions, you will do well on the test.

Tips for Answering Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Read the passage as if you were not taking a test. 2. Look at the big picture. Ask yourself questions like, “What is the title?”, “What do the illustrations or pictures tell me?”, and “What is the author’s purpose?” 3. Read the questions. This will help you know what information to look for. 4. Re-read the passage, underlining information related to the questions. 5. Go back to the questions and try to answer each one in your mind before looking at the answers. 6. Read all the answer choices and eliminate the ones that are obviously incorrect.

Types of Multiple Choice Questions 1. Main Idea This is the most important point of the passage. After reading the passage, locate and underline the main idea.

2. Significant Details You will often be asked to recall details from the passage. Read the question and underline the details as you read. But remember that the correct answers do not always match the wording of the passage precisely.

3. Vocabulary You will often need to define a word within the context of the passage. Read the answer choices and plug them into the sentence to see what fits best.

4. Conclusion and Inference There are often important ideas in the passage that the author does not state directly. Sometimes you must consider multiple parts of the passage to answer the question. If answers refer to only one or two sentences or details in the passage, they are probably incorrect.

Tips for Answering Short-Answer Questions 1. Read the passage in its entirety, paying close attention to the main events and characters. Jot down information you think is important. 2. If you cannot answer a question, skip it and come back later. 3. Words such as compare, contrast, interpret, discuss, and summarize appear often in short answer questions. Be sure you have a complete understanding of each of these words. 4. To help support your answer, return to the passage and skim the parts you underlined. 5. Organize your thoughts on a separate sheet of paper. Write a general statement with which to begin. This will be your topic statement. 6. When writing your answer, be precise but brief. Be sure to refer to details in the passage in your answer.

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Targeting Writing On many standardized tests, you will occasionally be asked to write an essay. In order to write a concise essay, you must learn to organize your thoughts before you begin writing the actual composition. This keeps you from straying too far from the essay’s topic.

Gearing up for Math On most standardized tests you will be asked to solve a variety of mathematical problems that draw on the skills and information you have learned in class. If math problems sometimes give you difficulty, use the tips below to help you.

Tips for Solving Math Problems Tips for Answering Composition Questions 1. Read the question carefully. 2. Decide what kind of essay you are being asked to write. Essays usually fall into one of the following types: persuasive, classificatory, compare/contrast, or “how to.” To determine the type of essay, ask yourself questions like, “Am I trying to persuade my audience?”, “Am I comparing or contrasting ideas?”, or “Am I trying to show the reader how to do something?” 3. Pay attention to key words, such as compare, contrast, describe, advantages, disadvantages, classify, or speculate. They will give you clues as to the structure that your essay should follow. 4. Organize your thoughts on a separate sheet of paper. You will want to come up with a general topic sentence that expresses your main idea. Make sure this sentence addresses the question. You should then create an outline or some type of graphic organizer to help you organize the points that support your topic sentence. 5. Write your composition using complete sentences. Also, be sure to use correct grammar, spelling, punctuation, and sentence structure. 6. Be sure to proofread your essay once you have finished writing.

1. Decide what the goal of the question is. Read or study the problem carefully and determine what information must be found. 2. Locate the factual information. Decide what information represents key facts—the ones you must use to solve the problem. You may also find facts you do not need to reach your solution. In some cases, you may determine that more information is needed to solve the problem. If so, ask yourself, “What assumptions can I make about this problem?” or “Do I need a formula to help solve this problem?” 3. Decide what strategies you might use to solve the problem, how you might use them, and what form your solution will be in. For example, will you need to create a graph or chart? Will you need to solve an equation? Will your answer be in words or numbers? By knowing what type of solution you should reach, you may be able to eliminate some of the choices. 4. Apply your strategy to solve the problem and compare your answer to the choices. 5. If the answer is still not clear, read the problem again. If you had to make calculations to reach your answer, use estimation to see if your answer makes sense.

STANDARDIZED TEST–TAKING STRATEGIES

S15

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170° E Lanai

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30 ˚ N

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ID E

h

T

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To understand the relative locations of Alaska and Hawaii, as well as the vast distances separating them from the rest of the United States, see the world map.

I N S N T A O U SAN LUIS VALLEY

er

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Lake Powell

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Great Salt Lake

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115˚ W

W

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45˚

110˚W

130 ˚W

The United States of America: Physical

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L

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65˚ W

W 60 ˚

70 ˚ W

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80˚W

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The World: Political

OCEA

IC

N GREENLAND (Denmark)

Arctic ICELAND

Nuuk

ALASKA (U.S.)

Reykjavik

60°N A le

u

Is la t ia n

nds

CANADA Winnipeg

Vancouver

Montreal

Ottawa

NORTH AMERICA Chicago

Toronto New York City

40°N

UNITED STATES

ATLANTIC

Washington, D.C.

OCEAN

Rabat Casablanca

Los Angeles BERMUDA (U.K.)

Houston

20°N

Havana CUBA

Mexico City

HAWAII (U.S.)

VIRGIN ISLANDS (U.S., U.K.) ST. LUCIA GRENADA

HONDURAS NICARAGUA

EL SALVADOR

Managua

Nouakchott

DOMINICA BARBADOS

CAPE VERDE

Galápagos Islands

OCEAN

MALI

Dakar

Bamako

GAMBIA GUINEA-BISSAU

ST. VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES

Caracas VENEZUELA GUYANA SURINAME Georgetown FRENCH GUIANA Paramaribo Bogotá (France) COLOMBIA

N

Quito

Equator

KIRIBATI

MAURITANIA

SENEGAL

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

PANAMA

PACIFIC

W

GUINEA

BURKINA FASO

SIERRA CÔTE LEONE D'IVOIRE LIBERIA

E

ECUADOR

(Ecuador)

B R A Z IL

Lima

AMERICAN SAMOA

S

SOUTH AMERICA

PERU

SAMOA

ST. KITTS AND NEVIS ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA

Brasília

BOLIVIA

La Paz Sucre

20°S TONGA

PARAGUAY

Tropic of Capricorn

Asunción

Río de Janeiro São Paulo

CHILE

ATLANTIC

AR G E NT I N A Santiago

URUGUAY

Buenos Aires

OCEAN

Montevideo

40°S

FALKLAND ISLANDS (U.K.)

0

500 1,000

1,000

1,500

Mollweide Projection

A4

ATLAS

2,000 Miles

2,000 Kilometers

0° W

20°W

Other cities

0

0°W

SOUTH SANDWICH ISLANDS (U.K.)

°W

SCALE: at Equator

National capital

12

°W

°W

Antarctic Circle

80 °W

60

140

160 °W

10

40

60°S

SOUTH GEORGIA (U.K.)

GHANA

COSTA RICA

WESTERN SAHARA

PUERTO RICO (U.S.)

HAITI

JAMAICA

GUATEMALA BELIZE

Guatemala City

0°

THE BAHAMAS DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

MEXICO

Tropic of Cancer

MOROCCO

ARCTIC

OCEAN

Circle

RUSSIA

60°N

Moscow

EUROPE

Astana Ulaanbaatar

KAZAKHSTAN GEORGIA UZBEKISTAN

Istanbul Ankara

Tunis

TURKMENISTAN

ALGERIA

Nicosia CYPRUS Beirut Tripoli LEBANON Jerusalem Alexandria Cairo

Ashgabat

AZERBAIJAN SYRIA

MALTA

Tehran Damascus Baghdad IRAQ IRAN Amman

LIBYA

SAUDI ARABIA Riyadh

EGYPT

AFRICA

Kabul AFGHANISTAN

Islamabad Wuhan Delhi NEPAL Kathmandu

ERITREA

Khartoum N’Djamena

Niamey NIGERIA BENIN Abuja

Dhaka Calcutta Mumbai (Bombay)

TOGO

Lagos EQUATORIAL GUINEA

SÃO TOMÉ AND PRÍNCIPE

Sanaa

Addis Ababa

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

Guangzhou

(BURMA)

LAOS

ETHIOPIA

Colombo

RWANDA

DEMOCRATIC REP. BURUNDI OF CONGO

MALA

(Angola)

Luanda ANGOLA

MALDIVES

Singapore

OCEAN

BRUNEI FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA

SINGAPORE

Equator

INDIAN

0°

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Surabaya

Jakarta

KIRIBATI

NAURU

SEYCHELLES

COMOROS

MARSHALL ISLANDS

PALAU

I N D O N E S I A

MALAWI

TUVALU

SOLOMON ISLANDS

Port Moresby

OCEAN

MOZAMBIQUE

ZAMBIA Lusaka

FIJI

MADAGASCAR

Harare

VANUATU

Antananarivo

ZIMBABWE

NAMIBIA

GUAM (U.S.)

PHILIPPINES

Y

Nairobi

TANZANIA Dar es Salaam

Kinshasa

CABINDA

Manila

SIA Kuala Lumpur

SOMALIA

KENYA

REP. GABON OF CONGO

20°N

PACIFIC

NORTHERN MARIANAS (U.S.)

LANKA

CAMEROON UGANDA

Hanoi

Tropic of Cancer

TAIWAN

Hong Kong

MYANMAR

Yangon (Rangoon) THAILAND VIETNAM Chennai Bangkok CAMBODIA (Madras) Phnom Penh Ho Chi SRI Minh City

DJIBOUTI

SUDAN

Taipei

BANGLADESH

YEMEN

Asmara

Chongqing

INDIA

Masqat

40°N

BHUTAN

New Delhi

Karachi

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

CHAD

P’yo˘ngyang JAPAN Seoul Tokyo Pusan Nagoya SOUTH _ Yokohama KOREA Osaka Shanghai

Tianjin

CHINA

OMAN

NIGER

NORTH KOREA

Beijing

TAJIKISTAN

KUWAIT PAKISTAN BAHRAIN QATAR OMAN

JORDAN ISRAEL

Harbin

MONGOLIA

ASIA

KYRGYZSTAN

Tashkent

Baku

ARMENIA

TURKEY

Algiers TUNISIA

Almaty

RÉUNION (Fr.)

Windhoek BOTSWANA Gaborone Pretoria Maputo SWAZILAND Johannesburg

20°S

NEW CALEDONIA (Fr.)

MAURITIUS

AUSTRALIA

Tropic of Capricorn

LESOTHO

SOUTH AFRICA

Sydney Canberra

Cape Town

NEW ZEALAND

Melbourne

Wellington

Tasmania

E

0 10°W

60 °

E

0

°E

40 °

40

60°S

°E

160

°E

°E 140

30

0°E

12

E

E

20°

0°

10

10°E

°E

80

0°

20°E

Europe 250

500

750 Miles

250 500 750 Kilometers Mollweide Projection

Arctic Circle

ICELAND

Reykjavik

20°W

ANTARCTICA

60°N

COUNTRY

CAPITAL

Czech Republic Slovakia Slovenia Croatia Bosnia and Herzegovina Macedonia Serbia and Montenegro Lithuania Latvia Estonia

Prague Bratislava Ljubljana Zagreb Sarajevo Skopje Belgrade Vilnius Riga Tallinn

W

Dublin IRELAND

50°N

UNITED KINGDOM

Copenhagen

1 Vienna

40°N

PORTUGAL

Madrid S PAI N

Lisbon Gibraltar (U.K.)

Corsica Balearic Is. (Sp.)

VATICAN CITY

ROMANIA

4

SAN MARINO

(Fr.)

Chis¸ina˘u

HUNGARY

3

ITALY

MONACO

MOLDOVA

Budapest

AUSTRIA

SWITZERLAND LIECHTENSTEIN

Kiev U KRA I N E

2

F RANCE

ANDORRA

Minsk BELARUS

POLAND

GERMANY

LUXEMBOURG

Bern

Moscow

8

Warsaw

Berlin

BELGIUM

ATLANTIC OCEAN

RUSSIA

NETHERLANDS

Paris

RUSSIA

9

DENMARK

Amsterdam The Hague London Brussels

St. Petersburg

10

Stockholm

NORTH SEA

E S

Helsinki

Oslo

N

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

FINLAND

SWEDEN NORWAY

5

Bucharest

7

Rome Tiranë

BULGARIA

6

Sofia

BLACK SEA

ALBANIA

Sardinia (It.)

GREECE

M ED I TERRA N EA N Sicily

SEA

MALTA

Athens Crete

ATLAS

A5

U ••N ••I ••T

1

Beginnings Prehistory–

English settler John White created this drawing of the Algonquian in the Virginia colony in 1585.

CHAPTER 1

The World by 1500 Prehistory– CHAPTER 2

Empires of the Americas –

CHAPTER 3

The English Colonies –

Main Events ■ The development of early Native American societies ■ The rise of world civilizations in the Middle Ages ■ The expansion of global trade and exploration ■ Christopher Columbus’s voyage to the Americas ■ The rise of Spanish America ■ English colonization in North America ■ The founding of the English colonies Main Ideas ■ What was the world like by the late 1400s? ■ How did the Spanish American empire develop? ■ What was life like in the early English colonies of North America? Sundial and compass from the early 1700s

1

CH C H APTE R

Prehistory –

1 The World by 1500 560 B.C. Business and Finance Greeks begin to use coins as legal tender.

Silver coin from ancient Athens

Viking carving of skier

2500–2000 B.C. The Arts Vikings carve the oldest-known picture of a person skiing on a rock near Rodoy, Norway.

5 0 0 0 B. C .

2 0 0 0 B. C .

1200–100 B.C. World Events Olmec civilization flourishes in Mesoamerica.

Stone tools used to grind corn

1

1 0 0 0 B. C .

2000 B.C. Business and Finance Trade routes begin to spread from the eastern Mediterranean throughout Europe. THE GRANGER COLLECTION, NEW YORK

5000 B.C. Daily Life Communities in Mexico cultivate corn.

214 B.C. The Arts Chinese begin building the Great Wall of China.

509 B.C. Politics The Roman Republic is established.

221 B.C. Politics The Qin dynasty comes to power in China.

Mural depicting a meeting of the Roman Senate


I

t may seem odd to begin a book on U.S. history with a discussion of the world’s earliest peoples. Why discuss Ice Age hunters who crossed a land bridge from Asia to America tens of thousands of years ago? Why examine Asia, Africa, and Europe in the Middle Ages? What do they have to do with our United States? We begin with the story of these early peoples because their histories laid the foundation for the creation of the United States. Today’s American society draws on their histories, laws, and cultures. 2

B. C.

Isabella and Ferdinand are married.

Anasazi cliff dwellings c. 700 Daily Life The Anasazi civilization begins to develop in the North American desert.

c. A.D. 40 Daily Life One of the earliest Christian churches is established in the Greek city of Corinth. A. D.

1

610 Daily Life Muhammad receives a vision that leads to the establishment of Islam.

250

Silk embroidery from a trading center on the Silk Road

Viking carving honoring warriors

500 271 Science and Technology The first form of a compass is most likely used in China.

1469 Politics Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon marry.

800s World Events Vikings invade England, Ireland, France, and Iceland.

750 553 Business and Finance The Byzantine Empire establishes a monopoly on the silk trade.

1000 c. 850 Science and Technology Arabs develop an improved astrolabe.

1250

1500

c. 1450 Science and Technology German printer Johannes Gutenberg invents a printing press that uses movable type. 1498 The Arts Renaissance artist Michelangelo completes the sculpture Pietà.

The printing press invented by Johannes Gutenberg


Economics Extensive contact with other

societies will benefit a society’s economic development.

Culture When groups of people meet, the culture

Science, Technology, and Society Technological

of one group will always be transformed by the other.

advances will expand international trade, cultural exchange, and exploration. 3

SECTION

1 READ TO DISCOVER 1. How did the first people arrive in the Americas? 2. How did the Agricultural Revolution affect Native Americans? 3. What were the major characteristics of the Olmec, Maya, Aztec, and Inca societies? 4. What were the major characteristics of the Native American cultures of North America? DEFINE hunter-gatherers city-state IDENTIFY Paleo-Indians Agricultural Revolution Olmec Maya Toltec Aztec Inca Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui Anasazi Mound Builders WHY IT MATTERS TODAY People continue to move to new places in search of better living conditions. Use or other current events sources to identify a group that is currently migrating to a new home. Record your findings in your journal.

4

CHAPTER 1

Early Peoples of the Americas “

Giant Tortoise continued to stretch himself. And so the world became larger and larger. . . . After many, many years had passed by, the Sky Holder . . . decided to create some people. He wanted them to surpass all others in beauty, strength, and bravery. So . . . the Sky Holder brought forth six pairs of people. . . . He taught these people and their descendants many useful arts and crafts.

”

Native American religious artifact

—Native American legend

This story has been passed down for generations by Native Americans living in what is now the northeastern United States. According to the story, Earth was once a large tortoise, ruled over by a divine being called the Sky Holder. Native American myths offer many such explanations of the origins of the first inhabitants of the Americas.

The First Americans Scientists offer other theories about the origins of Native Americans. They believe that long after human populations were well established in Europe, Africa, and Asia, the American continents remained empty of human life. From the frozen lands of the Arctic to the southernmost tip of South America, no human voice had ever echoed through the wilderness. No human foot had ever left a print in the soil.

Life in a new land. Most archaeologists agree that the first people to enter the vast American wilderness came from Asia. They disagree about the date, but estimate that these humans came between 38,000 and 10,000 B.C. Scientists believe that during this period, glaciers—thick sheets of ice—formed. They covered much of northern Asia, North America, and Europe. The glaciers locked up so much of the world’s water that the sea level dropped by several hundred feet. This exposed a wide land bridge—Beringia—between Siberia and what is now Alaska. The first Americans, called Paleo-Indians, probably followed the animal herds they depended on for food across Beringia to their new home in North America. The Paleo-Indians brought with them skills that were well suited to the environment of their new homeland. They knew how to make fire and how to find food and shelter in a harsh environment. The Paleo-Indians were hunter-gatherers who stalked whatever game their stone-tipped weapons could kill. Such game included bison, caribou, mammoths, and other mammals. The animals provided them with food as well as with furs and skins for clothing. In the short spring and summer, the vegetation of the tundra—an often barren, arctic region—briefly flourished. Paleo-Indians gathered roots, berries, and other edible plants. As hunter-gatherers, they lived as nomads, moving from place to place in search of food.

The changing environment. Sometime between 10,000 and 5,000 B.C., the climate of the Americas grew warmer and drier. This climatic change dramatically transformed the landscape. Continents were left much as they would later appear to the first European explorers. Scientists believe that as the climate changed, some Paleo-Indians moved south. In a migration that took thousands of years, they spread throughout the Americas and established distinct cultures in various regions. Because none of the Native American peoples of that era kept written records, much of their history is lost. We can, however, learn about early Native Americans through the work of archaeologists. These scientists study artifacts and ruins in order to learn about the people who made them. Other scientists piece together early American history by studying modern-day Native Americans and the myths and legends that had been handed down by previous generations. Most Native American cultures preserved their histories through the telling of stories. Scholars gain important clues to understanding the Paleo-Indians with their study of these oral records. Most Native American myths reveal something about their past. For example, a popular myth offers an explanation of what happened to the Paleo-Indians after some time on the American continent. History Makers Speak

“For a long time everyone spoke the same language, but suddenly

people began to speak in different tongues. Kulsu [the Creator], however, could speak all languages, so he called the people together and told them the names of the animals in their own language, taught them to get food, and gave them their laws and rituals. Then he sent each tribe to a different place to live.

”

—Maidu myth, quoted in Kingdoms of Gold, Kingdoms of Jade, by Brian M. Fagan

The earliest inhabitants of the Americas did indeed develop different languages, laws, rituals, and ways of gathering food. Many of these cultural variations resulted from differences in their environments. The first Americans found a varied land rich in wildlife and plants. Water from the melting glaciers had formed fast-flowing rivers and huge lakes teeming with fish. Musk-oxen, reindeer, mammoths, and giant bison roamed the vast lowland regions. The hills and mountains were full of saber-toothed tigers, mountain lions, and bears. Many Paleo-Indians living in North America hunted with spears attached to stone tips called Clovis points. Named for Clovis, New Mexico—where archaeologists first found them—these stone tips were more effective against large game than earlier spear tips. Abundant wildlife and an effective method of hunting gave the Paleo-Indians a plentiful and reliable food supply. Mammoths and other large game died out—perhaps hunted to extinction— forcing Paleo-Indians to develop new survival skills. They experimented with new types of hunting and trapping. Paleo-Indians in the Eastern Woodlands, for example, learned to burn large areas of forest, making smaller game such as rabbit and deer easier to spot and track. They also began to trap fish and birds and to collect a wider variety of plants to eat.

✔ READING CHECK: Summarizing Americans?

What have scientists learned about the earliest


Hunter-gatherers. Skeletal remains of a large North American mammoth have been discovered in the Great Plains region of the present-day United States. How would the mammoth’s size affect the hunting practices of Native Americans?

These Clovis points were found in the southwestern part of the present-day United States. THE WORLD BY 1500

5

Native American Myths Native Americans have preserved a rich and historic tradition of oral literature. In the following creation myths, the Tewa of present-day New Mexico recount a story about the origins of their nation, and the Abenaki of present-day Maine describe the origins of corn.

“The Origins of Our People” by the Tewa nation The Tewa were living in “Sipofene,” beneath Sandy Place Lake far to the north. The world under the lake was like this one, North American mountain lion but it was dark. Supernaturals, men, and animals lived together at this time, and death was unknown. Among the supernaturals were the first mothers of all Tewa, known as “Blue Corn Woman, Near to Summer,” or the Summer mother, and “White Corn Maiden, Near to Ice,” the Winter mother. These mothers asked one of the men present to go forth and explore the way by which the people might leave the lake. . . . On his way he came upon an open place and saw all the “tsiwi” [predatory mammals and carrion-eating birds] gathered there. . . . The animals gave him a bow and arrows and a quiver, dressed him in buckskin . . . and told him, “You have been accepted. These things we have given you are what you shall use henceforth. . . . ” . . . When he returned to the people he came as Mountain Lion, or Hunt chief. This is how the first made person came into being.

At last she replied, “If you will do exactly what I tell you to do, I will also be with you.” He promised that he would try his very best. . . . “Now get two dry sticks,” she told him, “and rub them together fast while you hold them in the grass.” Soon a spark flew out. The grass caught fire, and as swiftly as an arrow takes flight, the ground was burned over. Then the beautiful woman spoke again: “When the sun sets, take me by the hair and drag me over the burned ground.” “Oh, I don’t want to do that!” the man exclaimed. Harvested “You must do what I corn tell you to do,” said she. “Wherever you drag me, something like grass will spring up, and you will see something like hair coming from between the leaves. Soon seeds will be ready for your use.” The man followed the beautiful woman’s orders. And when the Indians see silk on the cornstalk, they know that the beautiful woman has not forgotten them.

UNDERSTANDING LITERATURE

“The Origins of Corn” by the Abenaki nation A long time ago, when the Indians were first made, one man lived alone, far from any others. He did not know fire, and so he lived on roots, bark, and nuts. This man became very lonely for companionship. . . . [One day] he saw a beautiful woman with long light hair! . . . He sang to her about his loneliness, and begged her not to leave him.

6

CHAPTER 1

1. According to the first myth, who are the Tewa mothers and how did they help to create human beings? 2. How does the Abenaki legend account for the existence of corn silk? 3. What do the two myths reveal about Native American oral literature?

The Agricultural Revolution The most dramatic change Paleo-Indians made was to shift from hunting and gathering to the domestication, or adapting and controlling, of plants. This shift is called the Agricultural Revolution. It occurred worldwide as the biggest game died out, first in Africa, Asia, and Europe, and finally in the Americas. Archaeological evidence indicates that by 5000 B.C. communities in Mexico were growing maize (corn), and by 2000 B.C. people living in the Andes were growing potatoes. By 1500 B.C. farming was well established throughout much of the Andes, Central America, and Mexico. The people living in what is now the southwestern United States began farming about 3500 B.C. Scholars believe that these desert people learned farming techniques from their southern neighbors. The cultivation of crops increased food supplies and made them more reliable. Human populations began to increase as well. Small villages formed where people settled to grow food. At first, most people practiced subsistence farming—growing just enough crops for survival. Over time, new techniques emerged—such as using animals to pull plows—that increased food production. As populations grew, villages gave way to cities. The first cities appeared in southwestern Asia about 3500 B.C. Over the next few thousand years, this “urban revolution” took place in other parts of Asia as well as in northern Africa, the Americas, and southern Europe. With the rise of cities came a more elaborate division of labor. Some Native American men specialized in farming. Other men became artisans, government officials, laborers, merchants, physicians, priests, scholars, and soldiers. Women took on essential tasks such as cooking, raising children, spinning, and weaving. As a result, the basic equality that characterized hunter-gatherer and simple farming societies gave way to the development of social classes. In most societies, for example, men became more powerful than women. Likewise, the small number of government officials, successful merchants, and priests often became more powerful than the masses of artisans, farmers, and laborers.


Why did the Agricultural Revolution lead to the development of social classes in Native American societies?


Agricultural society. Crops such as maize provided a reliable food source for Paleo-Indians. They used stones, as shown above, for grinding maize. How did the shape, size, and durability of these tools help Paleo-Indians provide food for their community?

Native American Cultures By the A.D. 1400s more than 650 distinct cultural groups were living in the Americas. Some of the earliest large civilizations arose in an area called Mesoamerica or Middle America. It is now known as southern Mexico and northern Central America. At its height the region boasted a population of some 25 million.

The Olmec. The first great Mesoamerican culture was the Olmec. The Olmec people lived on the fertile coastal lowlands along the Gulf of Mexico. Historians call the Olmec the mother culture of Mesoamerica because the culture so strongly influenced later societies. Olmec culture developed between about 1200 and 400 B.C. One of the first Olmec settlements, San Lorenzo, may have emerged as early as 1200 B.C. THE WORLD BY 1500

7

O

Then and Now

Sacred or Scientific Sites? ver the years, researchers have unearthed and disturbed many Native American burial sites while removing bones and artifacts. This practice has led to a bitter conflict between some American Indians and the anthropologists and archaeologists doing the digging. Researchers argue that studying skeletal remains and the objects buried with them reveals much about Native American cultures that might otherwise remain unknown. Skeletal remains also provide a physical record tracing the development and Native American spread of many diseases. They pot found at a show the effects of diet, polluburial site tion, and other factors on health. This information can be useful in preventing and treating diseases. “Indians living today,” argues one anthropologist, “stand to benefit from our conclusions.” To many American Indians, however, the burial sites are sacred places that should not be disturbed. They believe that excavation of the sites shows a disregard for their cultural traditions. An attorney for a nation in New Mexico recently asked: “Why single out Indians? Why not dig up everybody’s ancestors?” Through recent lawsuits, some American Indians have succeeded in obtaining the return of their ancestors’ remains for reburial. American Indians have been assisted in their efforts by the Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act, passed by Congress in 1990.

Archaeologists studying the San Lorenzo site have found small pyramids, clusters of earthen mounds, and a rectangular courtyard believed to be the earliest ball court in Mesoamerica. The sacred ball game played in such courts remained popular for centuries and spread to groups as far away as presentday Honduras and Arizona. This game had similarities to the modern-day sports of basketball and soccer. One later Spanish observer described the game, in which padded players bounced a rubber ball off their legs, hips, and elbows. History Makers Speak

“The ball court . . . consisted of two walls, twenty or

thirty feet apart, . . . about eight and a half feet high, and . . . in the middle of the walls, in the center of the court, were two stones, like millstones hollowed out, opposite each other, and each one had a hole wide enough to contain the ball. . . . The one who put the ball in it [the hole] won the game.

”

—Bernardino de Sahagún, A History of Ancient Mexico

The Olmec also placed huge heads carved of stone—believed to be portraits of their rulers—around the San Lorenzo site. Scholars such as Miguel Covarrubias marvel at the Olmec’s “masterfully carved colossal monuments of basalt, splendid statuettes of precious jade, and sensitively modeled figures of clay.” In addition, the Olmec developed the beginnings of a calendar and writing. The Olmec were farmers who practiced slash-and-burn agriculture. Toward the end of the dry season, they cut down and burned sections of the jungle. Then, before the arrival of the rainy season, they planted beans, chili peppers, maize, and squash in the ash-enriched soil.

The Maya. The Maya, who inherited much from the Olmec

culture, rose to prominence about A.D. 300. Their civilization flourished for more than 500 years, primarily in what is now southern Mexico and Guatemala. The Maya refined the Olmec calendar, developing a more accurate system than the one being used at the same time in Europe. Maya mathematicians devised a number system that included zero long before Europeans adopted the concept from the Arabs. Maya scholars also developed a complex system of writing with glyphs, or pictures—the only complete writing system in early America. This enabled the Maya to express their spoken language nonverbally. The glyphs reveal important information about Maya culture. Some tell how three settlements—Tikal in present-day Guatemala, Palenque in what is now Mexico, and Copán in present-day Honduras—emerged as the principal cities in the Maya Empire. Most of the population lived in cities. Many worked as farmers. Some Maya traded with other cultures. For example, the feathers of the quetzal (ket-SAHL), a bird associated with royalty, were traded for black obsidian from the north. The Maya civilization began to decline by about A.D. 900. As with the Olmec, archaeologists are unsure why this decline occurred. The Maya culture has

8

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persisted, however. A small number of Maya still live in Central America. More significantly, Maya culture endured by blending with the cultures of other Mesoamerican people and influencing the beliefs and practices of native peoples throughout the Americas.

✔ READING CHECK: Comparing and Contrasting

What were the similarities and

differences between the Olmec and Maya cultures?

The Toltec and the Aztec. Before the Maya’s decline, invading groups from the north descended upon a region in central Mexico. About A.D. 900, one of these groups, the Toltec (TOHL-tek), came to dominate the area. The Toltec built Tula, a great city-state, or independent city. The Toltec empire became the center of a great trading network. Pottery from as far away as present-day Costa Rica has been found at Toltec sites. Maya religion and architecture reveal the influence of Toltec culture. For example, the Maya city of Chichén Itzá displays examples of Toltec architecture. During the 1100s, internal conflicts weakened Toltec society. The empire soon fell to new invading groups from the north. A later poet described the destruction of the city of Tula: “Everywhere can be seen the remains of clay vessels. . . . Everywhere are their ruins, truly the Toltecs once lived there.” The conquerors of the Toltec fought among themselves until one group, the Aztec, emerged victorious. The Aztec—or Mexica, as they called themselves—were a fierce, warrior society, but they settled down and adopted the ways of the Toltec people. They built their capital, Tenochtitlán (tay-nawch-teet-LAHN)—the site of present-day Mexico City—on an island in Lake Texcoco (tays-KOH-koh). Over time, Tenochtitlán grew into an impressive city with hundreds of buildings, an elaborate system of canals, and as many as 300,000 residents. Over a period of 200 years, the Aztec gained control of an empire of 5 million people. Eventually, a class system developed in Aztec society. Some members grew wealthy from the gold, silver, and precious stones they demanded as tribute—a forced payment from conquered peoples. Men and women from the noble class served as priests and government officials. Ordinary citizens worked as farm laborers, porters, servants, and slaves. The Aztec viewed warfare as a sacred duty. They believed that the sun god, Huitzilopochtli (wee-tsee-loh-POHCH-tlee), had to battle the forces of darkness each night in order for a new day to dawn. The Aztec believed that human sacrifices gave Huitzilopochtli the strength to fight the Moon and stars and therefore return the next day. To satisfy their god, the Aztec sacrificed thousands of war prisoners on Tenochtitlán’s sacred altars.

The Inca. As the cultures of Mesoamerica developed, similar advances took place in South America. Farming cultures developed on the Pacific coastal plains, in the high valleys of the Andes, and along the upper Amazon River. The most powerful group—the Inca— gained control of this region by the mid-1400s.


Science. The Maya used observatories like this one to expand their knowledge of astronomy and to establish the Maya calendar. What other types of technical knowledge are revealed by the existence of these ruins?

The capital of the Aztec Empire, Tenochtitlán, was built on an island and contained an extensive system of canals.

Native American Culture Areas Interpreting Maps By 1500 Native Americans lived in many different geographic settings: frozen tundra, mountains, dry grasslands, deserts, lush woodlands, and tropical forests.

? ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY How might the geography and climate of an area influence the culture that develops there? 170˚E

ASIA

180˚

INUIT

ARCTIC OCEAN INUIT

UNINHABITED LAND

INUIT INUIT

20˚W

INGALIK

170˚W INUIT

INUIT

HAN

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c cti Ar cle Cir

SASCHUTKENNE

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60

˚N

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HAIDA

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CARRIER

SWAMPY CREE HEILTSUK KWAKIUTL NOOTKA SQUAMISH SHUSWAP MAKAH NOOKSACK PLAINS CREE COAST SALISH CHIMAKUM KALISPEL CHINOOK COLUMBIA SPOKANE BLACKFOOT PLAINS YAKIMA OJIBWAY WALLA NEZ WALLA PERCÉ A L YAQUINA LA CAYUSE MO CROW MANDAN UMPQUA NORTHERN TOLOWA MODOC PAIUTE HUPA ACHOMAWI BANNOCK TETON SIOUX SANTEE NORTHERN SIOUX CHEYENNE YUKI SHOSHONE OMAHA WAPPO WESTERN IOWA SHOSHONE MIWOK PAWNEE COSTANOAN ARAPAHO GOSIUTE ESSELEN PAIUTE UTE Mesa MISSOURI YOKUTS KAWAIISU KANSA Verde CHUMASH HOPI APACHE OSAGE MOHAVE NAVAJO KIOWA PECOS MARICOPA ZUNI YUMA APACHE COMANCHE NAKIPA TOHONO O’ODHAM PIMA WICHITA 120˚W CADDO SUMA COCHIMI JUMANO TONKAWA SERI o ATAKAPA IGNACIENO A AW YAQUI ANK KAR ZOE

Subarctic Northwest Coast

NORTH

NASKAPI BEOTHUK

AMERICA MONTAGNAIS MICMAC

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Circum-Caribbean

Ri

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CHAPTER 1

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Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection

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Lambert Equal-Area Projection

10

ic of

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SOUTH Machu Picchu AMERICA AN DE Cuzco S

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DELAWARE

SUSQUEHANNA POWHATAN MONACAN E ENO KE O ER CH CHERAW CHICKASAW WACCAMAW TUSKEGEE CUSABO CREEK TUNICA ALABAMA HITCHITI CHOCTAW MOBILE APALACHEE

e

GUACHICHIL

Valley of Mexico

MASSACHUSET WAMPANOAG NARRAGANSET

Riv Cahokia io Oh SHAWNEE

nd

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Tikal Copán

KICKAPOO PEORIA MIAMI ILLINOIS

Gr a

RA TA

Aztec, Maya, and Inca Empires Tenochtitlán

HURON IS O QU IRO

Lakes

M i s s issi pp i

Mesoamerica

Great

SAUK FOX POTAWATOMI

er

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S AIN

ONO WASHO M MAIDU

California

˚N

PENOBSCOT ABNAKI

PEQUOT MOHEGAN WK HA A MO EIDA AG ONNONDGA O YU A CA NEC SE

130˚W

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50˚W

40

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Ri v e r

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ITA

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CHIPEWYAN

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SOUTH AMERICA

The Inca established their capital high in the Andes, in the city of Cuzco (KOO-skoh), during the A.D. 1000s. About 1440 they launched a campaign of expansion and conquest that gave them control of a region covering much of present-day Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru. This was the largest empire in the Americas at the time—with some 12 million people who spoke more than 20 languages. Unlike the Aztec, the Inca did not force their newly conquered subjects to pay tribute. However, they did require their labor. The first major Inca ruler, Pachacutec (pah-chah-KOO-tek) Inca Yupanqui (yooh-PAHNG-kee), ordered 20,000 men to rebuild Cuzco, the capital city, after the Inca had conquered it. “Four thousand of them quarried and cut the stones; six thousand hauled them with great cables of leather and hemp,” a later historian explained.“The others dug the ditch and laid the foundations, while still others cut poles and beams for the timbers.” Inca laborers built massive buildings as well as thousands of miles of roads that linked the vast empire.

✔ READING CHECK: Drawing Inferences

What were the strengths and weaknesses of

the Aztec and Inca cultures?

Early Cultures of North America The cultures of the Mesoamerican civilizations reached into North America. The farming methods, pottery styles, and social practices of Native Americans living in what is now the southwestern United States show strong Mesoamerican influences. The population of North America, however, was too small and spread out to support societies of the size found in Mesoamerica and South America. As a result, Native Americans living in North America developed distinct regional cultures.


Inca artistry. The Inca highly valued artistic achievement, as can be seen in the architecture of the Inca city of Machu Picchu and this vessel in the shape of a human figure. How does this vessel reveal the importance of artistry in Inca society?

The Southwest. The Anasazi (ah-nuh-SAH-zee) were one of several groups who settled in the barren hills and deserts of the Southwest. Sometime between A.D. 700 and 1300 the Anasazi constructed multistory rock and adobe dwellings. Many of these dwellings nestled against cliffs, and some had as many as 800 rooms. Anasazi families built their rooms around plazas. Each extended family had its own kiva, a round room that served as a sacred and ceremonial space. Archaeologists believe that a crisis of some kind—probably drought—caused the Anasazi to abandon their communities about 1300. By the mid-1400s they had ceased to exist as a distinct people. Researchers believe that the Anasazi were probably ancestors of the Pueblo Indians, whom Spanish explorers encountered in the 1500s.

The East and Southeast. The Adena and Hopewell cultures of the Eastern Woodlands combined hunting and gathering with farming to support relatively large populations. The two cultures, often called the Mound Builders, dominated the eastern region for about 1,700 years. Both cultures created distinctive earthworks that served as elaborate burial mounds. Originating in the Ohio River valley about 1000 B.C., the Adena eventually occupied an area extending from THE WORLD BY 1500

11

Characteristics of North American Culture Areas Northwest Coast Plateau

• Coastal dwellers • Fishers • Developed complex culture • River dwellers • Primarily fishers • Relatively small population

Great Plains

• Grassland dwellers • Nomadic buffalo hunters after introduction of horse

Northeast

• Forest dwellers • Mostly hunter-gatherers; also farmers and fishers • Desert basin dwellers • Mostly gatherers, because of barren surroundings • Small population

Great Basin

California

• Desert, mountain, river, or coastal dwellers • Farmers, nomadic hunters

Southwest

• Canyon, mountain, and desert dwellers • Farmers, nomadic hunters

Southeast

present-day Kentucky to New York. About 300 B.C., however, the Hopewell began to push the Adena out of the region. The Hopewell’s cultural influence extended into present-day Louisiana, New York, and Wisconsin. The more advanced Mississippian culture of the Southeast later replaced the Hopewell culture, which declined about A.D. 400. Beginning about A.D. 700 in the lower Mississippi River valley, the Mississippian culture spread to occupy much of the Southeast and Midwest. Huge temple mounds resembling Mesoamerican pyramids dominated their villages. The largest Mississippian settlement was located at Cahokia (kuh-HOH-kee-uh), near present-day St. Louis. It extended six miles and contained 85 burial and temple mounds. The largest covered 16 acres and stood about 100 feet high. At its peak, Cahokia’s population may have numbered about 40,000. The chiefs of Cahokia controlled a network of trade routes that stretched from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico and into Mesoamerica. Perhaps because of climate changes or crop failures, Cahokia was abandoned during the 1200s. However, the Mississipian culture continued to flourish elsewhere for several centuries.

• River valley dwellers • Mostly farmers; also hunter-gatherers, fishers

Interpreting Charts Native Americans who lived in North America before the arrival of Europeans developed significantly different cultures.

? Skills Assessment How might the availability of food affect a society's way of life?

✔ READING CHECK: Categorizing

What were the major Native American cultures in North America?

SECTION 1. Define and explain:

3. Categorizing Copy the table

2. Identify and explain:

Mesoamerican Groups

1.

2.

2.

3.

3.

4.

4.

South American Group

Cultural Traits

1.

1.

North American Groups

Cultural Traits

1.

1.

2.

2.

3.

3.

keyword: SD3 HP1

CHAPTER 1

4.

Finding the Main Idea a. Where did the first people to arrive in the Americas come from? How did they get to the Americas?

b. Why was there great variety among early Native American cultures? In what ways did Native American cultures share traditions and knowledge? c. How do the Mound Builder societies provide evidence of the spread of Mesoamerican culture into the area of the present-day United States?

Cultural Traits

1.

Homework Practice Online

12

REVIEW

below. Use the table to list the major societies of Mesoamerica, South America, and North America and their cultural traits.

hunter-gatherers city-state

Paleo-Indians Agricultural Revolution Olmec Maya Toltec Aztec Inca Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui Anasazi Mound Builders

1

5.

Writing and Critical Thinking Making Predictions Write a brief article for a historical journal describing what might have happened to early Native Americans if the Agricultural Revolution had not occurred.

Consider:

• what the Agricultural Revolution was • what effect the Agricultural Revolution had on Native Americans • agriculture’s effect on later Native American civilizations

SECTION

2 READ TO DISCOVER 1. What advances did Chinese civilization make in science and technology? 2. What role did trade play in the Islamic world? 3. What role did trade play in the development of African kingdoms? 4. What impact did the fall of the Roman Empire have on trade in Europe during the Middle Ages? DEFINE hajj republic

Early World-Trading Kingdoms “

No town is more densely populated than al-Fustat, with its numerous sheiks and notables, its wonderful specialties and merchandise, its good souks [markets] and its good crafts, its [public] baths which are the height of excellence, its enclosed markets. . . . I have been told that a single building can house as many as two hundred souls.

”

—al-Muqaddasi, quoted in Arab Travelers and Geographers, by Pier Giovanni Donini

Egyptian marketplace

Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi (al-muh-kahd-duh-SEE) wrote these words in A.D. 985 to describe the Egyptian trading center of al-Fustat—present-day Cairo— where many merchants and travelers met together. While Native Americans were living in relative isolation, large trading cultures were flourishing in Asia and Africa. Al-Muqaddasi’s description provides evidence of this bustling commercial life.

IDENTIFY Diamond Sutra Kublai Khan Muhammad Qur’an Swahili Tenkaminen Mansa Musa Leif Eriksson WHY IT MATTERS TODAY Magna Carta and constitutional principles continue to guide many governments today. Use or other current events sources to find out about constitutional government in the United States and elsewhere. Record your findings in your journal.

China The Chinese Empire controlled vast areas of ancient Asia. By the time China began to trade extensively with other kingdoms, it had many technological and cultural developments to share. Under the rule of the Qin and Han dynasties—between 221 B.C. and A.D. 220— the Chinese made significant advances in science and technology. Chinese astronomers calculated the length of the year with great precision and observed sunspots. Scientists also invented a simple yet highly sensitive seismograph to register earthquakes. Another important Chinese invention was paper, developed in A.D. 105. The use of paper later spread to other areas in Asia and eventually to Europe. The Chinese invented a system of printing with carved blocks of wood. They also made the world’s first-known printed book, the Diamond Sutra, in 868. Chinese society changed in the 1200s, when Mongol invaders from Central Asia overran the country. The Mongol leader, Kublai Khan (koo-bluh KAHN), was the grandson of Genghis Khan, who had established a powerful empire. In 1264 Kublai Khan set up his capital in what is now Beijing. The city was a great achievement in planning and architecture. European visitor Marco Polo described Kublai Khan’s capital. History Makers Speak

“This new city is a perfect square, with each side six miles long.

The wall of the city has 12 gates, 3 on each side of the square. The whole city was laid out by line. The streets are so straight that if you stand above one of the gates, you can see the gate on the opposite side of the city.

”

—Marco Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo

THE WORLD BY 1500

13

Under Kublai Khan’s rule, China became the largest empire in the world. It became more open to trade with the Western world. After Khan’s death in 1294, the Mongols’ power declined, and the Chinese eventually regained control. The new leaders sought to protect their culture from foreign influences by isolating it from the non-Asian world. They limited the entry of foreigners into the empire, although trade continued. Chinese merchants carried goods to and from other countries across a network of land paths. Beginning in 1405, the Chinese became more open to the world. They launched seven sailing expeditions to trade and to explore new lands. These expeditions sailed to present-day Vietnam, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, the Arabian Peninsula, and East Africa. After these explorations, however, China once again returned to its relative isolation. Mongol leader Kublai Khan, shown on the left, conquered China.


What contributions did the Chinese make in

science and technology?

Asia in the Middle Ages Interpreting Maps The Muslims and Mongols conquered vast areas of land from the Mediterranean Sea to the eastern reaches of Asia.

? PHYSICAL SYSTEMS What natural feature barred the southern expansion of Kublai Khan’s empire? Venice

500

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MED

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Two-Point Equidistant Projection

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Calicut

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SPICE ISLANDS (MOLUCCAS)

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Spread of Islam in Mongol empires Route of Marco Polo, 1271–1295 Route of Chinese naval expeditions, 1405–1433

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E S 90˚E

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110˚E

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120˚E 130˚E

Skill-Building Strategies Chronology is often called the skeleton of history. Knowledge of the chronological order of historical events—that is, the sequence in which they occurred—is essential to understanding them. A time line is a visual aid that provides a framework for the chronology of a specific historical period. Studying a time line involves learning the dates of particular historical events and knowing the possible relationships between these events.

How to Read a Time Line 1. Determine the framework. Note the years that the time line covers and the intervals of time into which it is divided. 2. Study the sequence of events. Study the dates and the order of events on the time line, noting particularly the amount of time between events. 3. Supply additional information. Think about people, places, and other events that are associated with each item on the time line. Use this information to “flesh out” the time line’s coverage of the historical period. 4. Identify relationships. Consider how each event on the time line relates to earlier and later events. Look for cause-and-effect relationships and long-term historical developments.

Reading a Time Line Applying the Skill Study the time line below, which covers Chinese history between 1200 and 1300. Note that when more than one event is listed for the same year, they are stacked with the earliest event on top. The entries for 1264 illustrate the establishment of Kublai Khan as leader of the Mongol Empire. 1264 Kublai Khan becomes the leader of the Mongol Empire. Kublai Khan establishes Beijing as the capital of the empire.

1200

1250

1234 The Mongols complete their conquest of northern China.

1300 1275 European Marco Polo arrives in Beijing.

Practicing the Skill Using the time line above, answer the following questions. 1. What other events might belong on the time line? 2. What long-term historical development is suggested by the entry for 1275?

The Islamic World Trade played an instrumental role in Africa’s early history by connecting it to Asia. Using trade routes established between Asia and Africa, traders exchanged Chinese and other Asian goods such as cloth and horses for African goods. These African products included gold, ivory, and slaves. After 900, Muslim merchants controlled much of this trade. Muslims are followers of the religion known as Islam. An Arab merchant named Muhammad founded Islam after experiencing a vision in the year 610. Muhammad’s teachings emphasized devotion to one God, Allah. The Muslim leader also commanded his followers to convert nonbelievers. Although Muslim armies helped spread the faith by conquering new lands, many people were introduced to Islam through trade. Carrying the Qur’an (kuh-RAN)—the holy book of Muhammad’s teachings—Muslim merchants tirelessly preached their religion wherever they went. By the year 750, vast areas of Asia, Africa, and Europe had become part of the Muslim Empire. As in the Chinese Empire, intellectual life flourished in the Islamic world. Muslim scholars excelled at mathematics and improved algebra. Using knowledge

Copies of the Qur’an were carried by Muslim traders to introduce the Islamic faith to fellow travelers and traders.

THE WORLD BY 1500

15

gained from the mathematicians of India, they refined the Arabic numeral system and the concept of zero. Muslim geographers advanced the art of cartography, or mapmaking. Through trade, many of these advances found their way to cultures outside the Islamic world.

✔ READING CHECK: Drawing Conclusions

How did trade affect the Islamic world?

The African Trading Kingdoms Muslim merchants relied on an extensive network of trading kingdoms in Africa to help them spread their faith. These kingdoms had existed on the continent for centuries. Early African kingdoms established a pattern of trading practices that most later African empires adopted.

East African city-states. During the

African Trading Kingdoms Interpreting Maps By the 900s, large caravans of heavily laden camels carried goods across the Sahara.

? PHYSICAL SYSTEMS What water route did Kush traders use to move goods to the Mediterranean Sea? EUROPE 40˚N

ATLANTIC OCEAN

ASIA

Tunis ME

Fés Marrakech MOROCCO

DITE

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ezi Ri v mb MADAGASCAR

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N 0

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ZANZIBAR

Kilwa

Trade route Major product

Malindi

er

Islamic world c. 1200 Border of Kush c. 350 Border of Askum c. 600 Border of Songhay c. 1500 Border of Mali c. 1300 Border of Ghana c. 1000

West African kingdoms. Ghana

SALT

o

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SALT

Zeila

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GOLD GOLD

AKSUM

S u d a

er ig

GOLD SALT

SE

N

Masqat

PENINSULA

KUSH

Timbuktu GHANA Bilma Gao Agadez Kumbi Saleh SLAVES MALI SONGHAY SLAVES GOLD GOLD

Mecca

D

Awlil

ARABIAN RE

SALT

River

20˚N

Ni

Tropic of Cancer

700s many African people moved to the eastern coast and became involved in trade with Asia. Some traders shipped goods to the Arabian Peninsula, where they were traded to Asian merchants. Many of these traders were Arabs who had fled to East Africa to escape upheaval in their homelands. Over time, the mix of newcomers and locals created a unique East African coastal culture. For example, Swahili (swah-HEE-lee), the language spoken in East Africa, is a form of Bantu with strong Arabic influences. Over time, many East African trading villages grew into powerful and wealthy city-states. At first, northern city-states such as Mogadishu (mahg-uh-DEE-shoo) were the most prosperous. Eventually, commercial activity moved southward.

40˚E

60˚E

(GAH-nuh), the earliest of the West African kingdoms, developed from a trading post founded about A.D. 300 at the southern end of a caravan route from Morocco (muh-RAH-koh). In the 770s Arab geographer al-Fazari described Ghana as “the land of gold.” Abundant reserves of this precious metal resulted in great wealth and power for Ghana’s kings. Arab geographer al-Bakri described Tenkaminen, Ghana’s leader in about 1065, as “the master of a large empire and a formidable

power.” Ghana’s prosperous empire began to crumble when Muslims overran the kingdom in 1076. Ghana was eventually overtaken by its neighbors, the Malinke people, who established a new kingdom called Mali. Mali’s best-known leader was Mansa Musa, who ruled from 1307 to about 1332. A devout Muslim, he undertook a hajj, or pilgrimage, to the Islamic holy city of Mecca in 1324. Mansa Musa saw this journey as an opportunity to display Mali’s wealth. After Mansa Musa’s death in the 1330s, Mali gradually lost its powerful position. A succession of leaders from various West African kingdoms controlled the major north-south trade routes. In the mid-1300s the relatively weak state of Songhay (SAWNG-hy)—once under Mali’s rule—won its independence. Songhay eventually became the dominant power in West Africa, flourishing as a center of Islamic learning. The city of Timbuktu, for example, was home to three universities and 180 Islamic schools.

✔ READING CHECK: Comparing

Free Find: Two Views of Africa After reading al-Mas’udi’s and Ibn Battuta’s accounts of traveling in Africa on the Holt Researcher CD–ROM, create a travel guide to these areas during the times the authors were there.

How did eastern and western African kingdoms

develop?

&Technology

Science

Archaeology

A

sia and Africa are important locations for the study of archaeology because these areas have produced some of the oldest civilizations on Earth. The archaeologist’s task of locating sites where human beings once lived is often difficult. Scientists use several methods to decide where to excavate, or dig, for clues to humankind’s past. When available, they consult written records that may give hints about location. More commonly, they conduct ground surveys.

A ground survey may involve remote sensing techniques, including aerial photography, satellite imagery, groundpenetrating radar, and soil resistivity surveys. The resistivity survey measures the ability of soil to conduct electricity. If ruins lie buried beneath the ground, the soil in that location exhibits resistance by conducting electricity poorly. In contrast, “empty” soil conducts electricity very well. Scientific dating techniques developed in the 1940s allow archaeologists

1 Grid system for keeping track of location of artifacts

to determine the age of the ancient artifacts. Because carbon 14 in artifacts or fossils breaks down at a constant rate over time, scientists can estimate the age of an object by measuring how much carbon 14 is left in it. Radiocarbon dating the wood from an African spear handle, for instance, indicates when the trees used to carve the handle were cut. This gives an approximate time that the spear would have been used. In recent years, archaeologists have used carbon-dating to try to verify the location of Viking Leif Eriksson’s settlement of Vinland, at a site now called L’Anse aux Meadows (The Creek of the Meadows) in Newfoundland.

Understanding Science and History 1. What types of scientific techniques are used in archaeology? Why are they used? 2. How does science contribute to the study of history?

2

Brushing dirt from the artifact

3

Screen for sifting soil samples

THE WORLD BY 1500

17

Europe During the Rise of Trading Kingdoms European involvement in trade over the centuries was somewhat uneven. European trade with Africa and Asia during the era of large trading kingdoms was limited, but Europeans had been involved in trade centuries before as a part of the Roman Empire. In 509 B.C. the city-state of Rome established a republic—a system of government run by elected officials rather than monarchs alone. By 27 B.C. the Roman Republic had grown into an empire, eventually ruling over most of Europe and some of what would become the Islamic world. Until the collapse of the empire in the late A.D. 400s, arts and sciences flourished. The Romans created elaborate buildings and vast road networks for travel and trade. By A.D. 500 the western part of the Roman Empire lay in ruins. It was the victim of political strife and repeated attacks by migrating tribes from northern Europe and western Asia. In its place arose many small warring kingdoms, marking the beginning of Europe’s Middle Ages—roughly A.D. 500–1500. Among the most feared of the migrating tribes were the Vikings of northern Europe. These skilled Scandinavian seafarers sailed thousands of miles to raid, trade with, and colonize new territory. They began to move into England and Ireland around 800. By the early 900s many Vikings had settled in northern France. Others had ventured west to Iceland and later to Greenland. In about the year 1000, Viking leader Leif Eriksson established what is believed to be the first European settlement in North America. Eriksson called his settlement Vinland. There he and his followers encountered numerous Native Americans. The settlement did not last, however. Because of Europe’s isolation, few non-Vikings even knew that the voyage had taken place.


Architecture. This photograph shows the Colosseum in modernday Rome. Based on this photo, what arguments could be made about the importance of ancient Roman architecture in modern-day Europe?

✔ READING CHECK: Summarizing

Why was Europe slow to become involved in world

trade?

SECTION 1. Define and explain: hajj republic

2. Identify and explain: Diamond Sutra Kublai Khan Muhammad Qur’an Swahili Tenkaminen Mansa Musa Leif Eriksson

2

3. Comparing Copy the graphic

REVIEW 4.

organizer below. Using the organizer, list elements of African and Asian cultures, including inventions, that were unique to each continent and elements that were shared by both cultures.

Finding the Main Idea a. How did the location of East and West African kingdoms prove important to their development as trading centers? b. How did trade contribute to the spread of cultures and ideas in Asia and Africa before 1500? c. What prevented Europe from joining the AsiaAfrica trade system?

Asia

5. Africa

Writing and Critical Thinking Drawing Conclusions Write a speech on the relationship between trade and a region’s scientific advancement. Consider:

Homework Practice Online keyword: SD3 HP1

18

CHAPTER 1

• what advances were made in China • what advances were made in Africa • how trade assisted in the spread of knowledge

SECTION

3 READ TO DISCOVER 1. What led to the rise and fall of feudalism? 2. How did the Crusades affect Europe? 3. How did the Renaissance arise, and what effect did it have on Europe? 4. What factors led to the rise of nation-states? DEFINE feudalism manors bourgeoisie

Europe in the Middle Ages “

Renovatio, imperi, romani! (Renewal of the Roman Empire)

”

—Charlemagne

So shouted the European people, using the slogan of a great king named Charlemagne, ruler of the Frankish kingdom. In the 770s Charlemagne attempted to rebuild the great Roman Empire. With the help of powerful armies, he succeeded in gaining control over much of continental Europe. Once the land was under his control, Charlemagne divided the Sculpted bust of Charlemagne territory into small sections to be ruled by nobles. After Charlemagne’s death in 814, his empire fell apart as a result of fighting among his heirs and invasions from outside forces such as the Vikings. Once again Europe lacked political unity.

IDENTIFY Crusades King John Magna Carta Renaissance Roger Bacon Johannes Gutenberg Isabella of Castile Ferdinand II of Aragon Reconquista WHY IT MATTERS TODAY A person who rules over a kingdom or empire is known as a monarch. Use or other current events sources to find information about a country that has a monarch today. Record your findings in your journal.

The Early Middle Ages The nobility system established by Charlemagne played an important role in Europe during the Middle Ages. Kings relied on the nobles to protect their territory and to conduct the business of government. To combat the Vikings and other invaders, many European rulers enlisted the aid of nobles under a system later known as feudalism. In return for land and protection from invasion, the nobles pledged their loyalty and military assistance to the rulers. Feudal society operated under a rigid class system. At the top was the noble class. Nobles managed estates called manors. Each manor was almost completely self-sufficient and included a house, fields, and a village. Peasants, known as serfs, provided most of the labor required to keep the manor functioning. Noblemen spent their days managing their estates, hunting, or engaging in battle. Most noblewomen spent their days directing servants in such duties as caring for livestock, cleaning, cooking, spinning, weaving, and working in the fields. When the noblemen were away fighting, the women were often left in charge of running the estates. Most serfs spent their days in physical labor. Both men and women worked in the fields, and women performed household tasks as well. The lords received a large portion of the crops grown by the serfs. Many nobles also required their workers to pay them fees, such as taxes on marriage or inheritances. Few people in feudal Europe ever traveled more than 25 miles from their homes. Life centered around the manor and the Roman Catholic Church. Virtually all the important events in people’s lives took place at their village church. Parish priests led mass; conducted baptisms, weddings, and funerals; and performed many acts of charity. In monasteries and convents, monks and nuns THE WORLD BY 1500

19

Growing Up in the Middle Ages

T

teen Life

een life, that period when children make the transition to adulthood, is generally thought of today as taking place from age 13 to 19. During the Middle Ages, this period of transiPainting of young tion often began Europeans in the 1300s much earlier. Most children were expected to provide manual labor for their families starting at a very young age. When they were about 14 years old, many of these children entered apprenticeships or became servants. Children born into nobility usually found their lives determined by birth order and gender. Following a system of inheritance called primogeniture, aristocratic families left their estates to the eldest son and expected him to marry a noblewoman and carry on the family name. Younger sons often remained unmarried, and many went into service for the church or the military. The eldest daughter in a noble family almost always entered a convent to become a nun. Wealthy younger daughters born into nobility tended to get married before age 18.

Medieval merchants often sold luxury items like this porcelain vase from China.

20

CHAPTER 1

worshiped, studied the scriptures, and preserved the writings of ancient Greeks and Romans. The medieval church promoted art and culture and left behind a rich heritage of religious music, tapestries, illuminated manuscripts, and grand cathedrals. Most important, the Roman Catholic Church, led by the pope, played a leading role in guiding European politics. It often settled disputes between warring Christian kingdoms. Church leaders also sometimes negotiated political alliances and suggested various courses of action to political leaders. Beginning about 1100, a series of changes brought about a gradual end to feudal society. New farm equipment such as heavy plows increased the amount of land that could be farmed. Laborers could produce enough food to sustain large armies and a growing number of townspeople. As the military strength of the kingdoms grew, invaders were less likely to attempt to take by force what they could get by trade. Trading towns and cities gradually replaced manors as the center of economic activity. As a result, many serfs moved from manors to towns, where they could either work for wages or farm rented plots of land surrounding the town.


What factors led to the

rise and fall of feudalism?

The Crusades and Trade

A series of military and religious expeditions known as the Crusades also prompted a shift away from feudalism. Between 1096 and the late 1200s, waves of Christian crusaders fought Muslims for control of Palestine. This area of the eastern Mediterranean was sacred to Christians, Jews, and Muslims. Various groups of Muslims had controlled the Holy Land since the 600s. In 1071 the sacred city of Jerusalem fell to Muslims from Central Asia. This development made it increasingly difficult for Christians to visit the holy city. The First Crusade began in 1096 as an effort to retake Jerusalem. Christian invaders from Europe captured the city and established several kingdoms in the area. Muslims retook Jerusalem in the late 1100s, however, resulting in additional Crusades. The Crusades had important consequences for trade. Merchants in the Italian city-states of Genoa (JE-noh-uh), Pisa, and Venice funded the Crusades in return for trading privileges. Italian traders brought back rare spices, fine silks, and other exotic Asian goods from the Muslim lands. Trade changed Europe’s political and social order. The merchants who organized trading voyages began to form of a new social class—the bourgeoisie (boohzh-wah-ZEE), or urban middle class. The bourgeoisie supported monarchs, who could provide better political stability and allow trade to flourish. In return, the bourgeoisie demanded a greater degree of economic and political freedom for themselves and their cities. Kings and lords reluctantly

granted self-government to towns. Some towns even organized assemblies to help the monarchs decide on taxes and government policies. In 1215, English nobles who were angered by new taxes forced King John to sign Magna Carta, a charter limiting the powers of the monarchy.In addition to guaranteeing basic liberties for nobles, the charter protected their trading rights.


What effects did the Crusades have on Europe?

The Renaissance

H ISTORICAL D OCUMENTS Magna Carta In 1215 a group of English nobles forced King John to sign Magna Carta. This charter has provided a foundation for the protection of individual rights and constitutional government. How did Magna Carta promote the development of constitutional government?

K

now that we . . . have confirmed, by this our present charter that . . . a widow, after the death of her husband, shall straightway, and without difficulty, have her marriage portion and her inheritance. . . . No widow shall be forced to marry when she prefers to live without a husband. . . . No bailiff, on his own simple assertion, shall henceforth put any one to his law, without producing faithful witness in evidence. No freeman shall be taken, or imprisoned, or disseized [deprived of his land], or outlawed, or exiled, or in any way harmed—nor will we go upon or send upon him—save by the lawful judgment of his peers [equals] or by the law of the land. To none will we sell, to none deny or delay, right or justice. . . . It has been sworn, on our part as well as on the part of the barons, that all these above mentioned provisions shall be observed with good faith and without evil intent.

In addition to spurring trade and political reform, the Crusades contributed to a rebirth of European learning and artistic creativity later known as the Renaissance. During the early Middle Ages, much of Europe had been closed off intellectually from the rest of the world. Crusaders and traders brought back classical Greek and Roman texts and new ideas in science, technology, art, and philosophy. The works of classical and Muslim thinkers inspired European scholars to learn more about science. Roger Bacon, an English monk and scientist, speculated about the future. History Makers Speak

“Machines may be made by which the largest ships, with only one

man steering them, will move faster than if they were filled with rowers; wagons may be built which will move with unbelievable speed and without the aid of beasts.

”

—Roger Bacon

Analyzing Primary Sources

Making Predictions How have Bacon’s predictions come true?

The Renaissance began in Italy in the 1300s and soon spread to the rest of Europe. A major factor in this cultural diffusion was the work of a German printer, Johannes Gutenberg. About 1450 he invented a printing press that used movable type. His printing press made it possible to print a large number of books quickly—and thus to spread ideas far and wide.

✔ READING CHECK: Identifying Cause and Effect

How did technology contribute to

the Renaissance?

The Rise of Nation-States The other great transformation of the Middle Ages was the rise of nation-states. Feudal kingdoms, independent city-states, and church-controlled lands slowly gave way to national monarchies in most of western Europe. Among the first to achieve national unity during this period were England, France, Portugal, and Spain. Most THE WORLD BY 1500

21

Viking and Crusade Routes Interpreting Maps The religious wars for control of the Holy Land introduced Europeans to the riches of the Arab world and led to expanded trade.

? LOCATE Where is Jerusalem, and how might its location have contributed to a spread of ideas across Europe? 30˚W

20˚W

10˚W

0˚

GREENLAND W 870– 930

FAEROE ISLANDS 800

ATLANTIC OCEAN

E S 20˚E

NORWAY

700 793

SHETLAND ISLANDS

SWEDEN

SE ES

Barcelona

844

THIRD C SADE RU

PORTUGAL

Free Find: Isabella After reading about Queen Isabella on the Holt Researcher CD–ROM, imagine that you are Isabella and write a fictional letter to the pope explaining what you have done during your reign to spread Catholicism.

AT FIR

Kiev

THIRD CRUSADE ST,

SE CON D, HUNGARY Venice FO CR UR US T AD Pisa ES C RU SAD Rome

BLACK SEA

Constantinople SICILY

TH

0

AFRICA

EUROPE

Regensburg

E

IBERIAN PENINSULA Lisbon

0˚

0 30˚N

CHAPTER 1

Genoa

827 – 8 4 3

859

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

GRANADA (Conquered 1492)

10˚W

40˚N

RUSSIA POLAND

H

40˚N

Toledo (CASTILE and LEON)

Lyons

IC

D

SPAIN

GE

FRANCE

ENEES

ARAGON

Mainz

NORMANDY Paris

LT

IR TH

NAVARRE

PYR

Cologne

ST

843–882

Spanish Reconquista, 1492

22

ENGLAND

WALES London

50˚N

ATLANTIC OCEAN

York

BA

AN

IRELAND Dublin

DENMARK 4 88

RM

Crusaders

841 –

Islamic world

SCOTLAND

A

NORTH SEA

06

Vikings

802–8

Christian world

, 94 4

ICELAND

n dl To Newfo0u00 and c. 1

907

982

60˚N

10˚E

N

250 250

500 Miles

500 Kilometers

Miller Cylindrical Projection

SELJUK TURKS IR D

CR USA DE

MEDITERRANEAN

AFRICA

SEA

SEC

ON

DC RUSA D

E

Acre Jerusalem

often these changes came as a result of warfare, but sometimes they were the result of marriage between royal families. Portugal won its independence from the kingdom of Castile (ka-STEEL) in the 1100s and was unified under King John I in the early 1400s. Louis XI unified the various French provinces by the time his reign ended in 1483. After 30 years of bloody fighting, Henry VII unified England in 1485.

The unification of Spain. The unification of Spain was more complicated. Four Christian kingdoms—Aragon, Castile, Navarre (nuh-VAHR), and Portugal— controlled most of the Iberian Peninsula. Muslims held the southernmost kingdom of Granada. The first step toward the unification of Spain occurred when Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon married in 1469. They did not unite their kingdoms until 1479. However, they did quickly join forces in the Reconquista (re-kawngKEE-stah)—the ongoing battle to recapture Spanish lands from the Muslims. The Reconquista ended in 1492, when Spain defeated the Muslims in Granada. Isabella and Ferdinand believed that the best way to unify their kingdom was to make Spain a completely Catholic nation. Having already expelled the Muslims, in March 1492 they ordered all Jews to convert to Catholicism or leave Spain.

La Católica. Isabella’s efforts to promote Catholicism in Spain earned her the title la Católica—or the Catholic— granted by Pope Alexander VI. The daughter of John II, Isabella lived from 1451 to 1504. While her older halfbrother, King Enrique IV, ruled Castile, Queen Isabella Isabella lived with her grandmother. From an early age Isabella developed strong beliefs about the purpose of the monarchy. In 1474, five years after marrying Ferdinand, she became queen of Castile following the death of her brother. In a speech designed to motivate her subjects for battle in 1475, Isabella made a passionate proclamation. History Makers Speak


“What greater honor, what greater benefit, what greater service to God,

could there be than joining battle? . . . If you say to me that women, since they do not face such dangers, ought not to speak of them . . . to this I say that I do not know who risks more than I do, for I risked my King and Lord [Ferdinand], whom I love above all else in the world.

”

Nation-states. Isabella and Ferdinand accept the surrender of Muslim forces at Granada. How does this painting suggest the birth of a new nation-state?

—Isabella, quoted in Isabel the Queen, by Peggy K. Liss

Isabella’s contemporaries considered her a powerful monarch. Ambassador Pedro Mártir, on his return from Egypt in 1502, described her as “stronger than a strong man, more constant than any human soul, a marvelous example of honesty and virtue; Nature has made no other woman like her.” Isabella and Ferdinand’s aggressive rule did much to achieve their goal of an all-Catholic Spain. However, their religious intolerance carried a price. Among the nearly 150,000 expelled Jews were some of the nation’s leading bankers, government officials, merchants, and scholars.

✔ READING CHECK: Evaluating

What factors led to the rise of the nation-state of Spain?

SECTION 1. Define and explain: feudalism manors bourgeoisie

2. Identify and explain: Crusades King John Magna Carta Renaissance Roger Bacon Johannes Gutenberg Isabella of Castile Ferdinand II of Aragon Reconquista

3

3. Identifying Cause and Effect

REVIEW 4.

Copy the flowchart below. Use it to list factors that led to the rise of feudalism, elements of feudalism, and factors that contributed to its decline.

keyword: SD3 HP1

a. How was political and social life in Europe different before and after the Crusades?

b. What caused the rise of the Spanish nation-state? c. Were the national monarchies that developed in the Middle Ages better for Europe than the old systems? Why or why not?

Factors of Rise

5.

Writing and Critical Thinking Supporting a Point of View Imagine that you are a European living during the Renaissance. Write a letter to a friend explaining how the Renaissance is defining European society.

Feudalism


Finding the Main Idea

Factors of Decline

Consider:

• what the Renaissance was • what effect it had on Europe • what it means to define a society THE WORLD BY 1500

23

SECTION

4 READ TO DISCOVER 1. How did new technological developments improve sea exploration? 2. What difficulties did sailors endure on their voyages? 3. How did Portugal become a leader in world exploration? 4. How did the slave trade develop in Africa? 5. How did Portugal gain control of East-West trade? DEFINE caravels IDENTIFY Prince Henry Alfonso V African Diaspora Bartolomeu Dias Vasco da Gama WHY IT MATTERS TODAY Trade remains an important way for cultures around the world to interact with one another. Use or other current events sources to find information about some of the products that the United States trades with other countries. Record your findings in your journal.

The Lure of Trade and Exploration “

In one [land], there is a race of great stature, like giants, foul and horrible to look at; they have one eye only, in the middle of their foreheads. . . . [In another were] ugly folk without heads, who have eyes in each shoulder; their mouths are round, like a horseshoe, in the middle of their chest.

”

—Sir John Mandeville, The Travels of Sir John Mandeville

The port of Genoa was one of the busiest This fanciful account by Sir John trading ports during the Renaissance era. Mandeville described strange new worlds that were believed to exist beyond Europe. Writings like Mandeville’s became popular in Europe as life there grew more stable and some inhabitants ventured beyond the continent. Although Mandeville’s tale was largely fictional, other books provided a more accurate description of life beyond Europe. Between 1271 and 1295 a merchant from Venice named Marco Polo visited China and served in the Chinese court under the Mongols. In the Travels of Marco Polo, a popular chronicle of his real-life adventures, Polo described the magnificence of the Mongol Empire. His dramatic tales inspired Europeans to explore new lands. The lure of trade with the East, however, became the most compelling reason for adventurers to risk their lives in this new era of exploration.

Sailing in Search of Trade Wealthy Europeans wanted African gold and grain, Chinese silk to make fine clothes, and Persian rugs, Chinese glass, and porcelain to decorate their homes. They also wanted cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg from the Spice Islands of the East Indies, and pepper from India to flavor and preserve their foods. Demand for these costly goods motivated Europeans to seek the most economical trade route possible.

Trade monopolies. Muslim trading empires and Italian city-states controlled the trade from Asia and Africa. Prices for goods were often high because these goods usually changed hands a number of times, with traders increasing the prices each time. Some of the profit went to the Muslim traders who controlled the Asian trade routes. Much more, however, went to the Italian merchants from Genoa and Venice. They bought the goods from Muslim traders in North Africa or in Black Sea ports and shipped them across the Mediterranean Sea to be sold to customers in Europe. The newly emerging nation-states of Europe wanted to share in this wealth. Envious of Genoa and Venice’s near monopoly, or exclusive control, of East-West trade, other European merchants began looking for cheaper ways to get Asian goods. An all-sea route to the East seemed the most promising answer. 24

CHAPTER 1

Trade Routes in the Middle Ages Interpreting Maps By the early 1300s Venice and Genoa competed for control of trade routes to Asia.

? PHYSICAL SYSTEMS Why might Portugal have established trade routes around the Cape of Good Hope, instead of through the Mediterranean Sea? Arctic Circle

Islamic world, c. 1200 Christian world, c. 1200

60˚N

Italian trade routes

ATLANTIC OCEAN

EU

ENGLAND London

PORTUGAL Lisbon AZORES

R

O

Muslim trade routes

PE

BLACK SEA

Venice Genoa

Gobi Desert

SAHARA

Jerusalem Cairo EGYPT Mecca

Delhi

Benin

CHINA Tropic of Cancer

RED SEA

Guangzhou

INDIA Goa Calicut

Zeila Sierra Leone

JAPAN

Samarqand

PERSIA

Timbuktu

CAPE VERDE IS.

AFRICA

CEYLON

Mombasa S DIA

SUMATRA

INDIAN OCEAN

Mozambique

0˚

Equator

N JAVA

W

E S

0 0

30˚W

SPICE ISLANDS (MOLUCCAS)

MADAGASCAR

1 49 7–1 498 Cape of Good Hope

BORNEO SULAWESI

Zanzibar

8

MA

1 4 8 7 – 148

30˚S

GA

Kongo

PACIFIC OCEAN

PHILIPPINES

0˚

DA

Portuguese explorations

Beijing

Baghdad

M ED ITE S EARRANEAN

Marrakesh

CANARY IS.

Asian trade routes

SEA

Tunis

MADEIRA

ARAL SEA

Constantinople CASPIAN

SPAIN Sagres

30˚N

ASIA

1,000 1,000

AUSTRALIA

2,000 Miles

Tropic of Capricorn

2,000 Kilometers


30˚E

60˚E

90˚E

120˚E

150˚E

New technology. Europeans could never have pursued their dreams of reaching the East without new technological advances. Poor navigational tools and the Catholic Church’s control over scientific inquiry limited mapmakers’ ability to chart Europe and the surrounding areas accurately. By the Middle Ages, most educated Europeans believed that God had created Earth as a sphere. Nevertheless, the church required geographers to follow its biblical scholars’ interpretations that Earth was flat. Until the 1400s, mapmakers drew Earth as a flat disk surrounded by water. In addition, medieval scholars mistakenly believed Earth to be at the center of the universe, with the Moon, Sun, and heavens rotating around it. Most Renaissance Europeans overcame these misconceptions. European navigators developed the skills necessary to travel the world’s oceans. They learned from Muslims how to use astrolabes to calculate latitude—the distance north or south of the equator. Astrolabes measured the distance of the Sun and stars above the horizon. With this device, Europeans could figure the latitudes for important ports and islands. They recorded the information in tables that could be consulted by other seafarers. By the 1200s Europeans had started to use a Chinese invention called a compass—a magnetized needle that pointed north-south. The compass allowed them to determine their direction even when the stars were hidden by clouds.

European sailors learned of tools like this astrolabe from Muslim traders.

THE WORLD BY 1500

25

Shipbuilding advanced as Europeans designed larger ships that could better withstand the rough Atlantic Ocean. Since the 800s, Europeans had been using the lateen sail—probably introduced by seafarers from the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. These sails formed large triangles that could be trimmed or adjusted to take advantage of wind coming from any direction. Ships with these sails required wider and deeper hulls, which increased the cargo space. In addition, oars were replaced by rudders attached to the stern, or rear, of the ship. Portuguese shipbuilders in particular introduced significant improvements during the 1400s. The improvements made their ships highly suited for seafaring explorations. Called caravels, Portuguese ships used lateen sails and rudders but were smaller, and therefore more maneuverable, than cargo ships.


How did trade monopolies

contribute to sea exploration?

A Sailor’s Life


Life of the sailor. Early sailors such as this one lived a rough life at sea. What does this sailor’s appearance tell us about his daily life?

Despite the advances in new technology, sea travel during the late Middle Ages remained extremely dangerous. One witness described the return of a seafaring expedition. “Most of the crew had died. And those which survived could hardly be recognized as human. They had lost flesh and hair, the nails gone from their hands and feet.”Conditions on board seafaring vessels were often filthy. These “foul stinkes,” as one passenger complained, became such a haven for rats that most ships’ charters required that at least one cat be carried on board to control the rat population. A sailor’s diet at sea usually consisted of pickled beef and pork, known as salt horse. Their only fresh drinking water was collected in barrels from rainstorms. Hardtack, a saltless hard biscuit, was another staple in the sailors’ diet. However, it typically became soggy, moldy, and infested with bugs on long journeys. One sailor reported that “what with the heat and dampness, our ship biscuit had become so wormy that . . . I saw many who waited for darkness to eat the porridge made of it, that they might not see the maggots.” The hardships of life at sea affected a sailor’s habits and temperament. An English writer named Richard Braithwait described a typical sailor. History Makers Speak

“He makes small or no choice of his pallet [bed];

he can sleep as well on a sack of pumice [rocks] as a pillow of down. . . . He has been so long acquainted with the surges of the sea, as too long a calm distempers [upsets] him. . . . He can spin up a rope like a Spider, and down again like lightning. . . . Death he has seen in so many shapes, as it cannot amaze him.

”

—Richard Braithwait, Whimzies, or New Cast of Characters

In exchange for their hazardous labor and difficult living conditions, sailors earned wages, received clothing, and were granted occasional bonuses. Some sailors also belonged to Shipmen’s Guilds—organizations similar to unions—to help protect them from exploitation by shipowners. Known as gromets during their first year at sea, young boys also experienced the rigors of the sailor’s life. Despite its hardships, a sailor’s life 26

CHAPTER 1

offered unequaled opportunity for excitement and adventure. Sailors encountered new lands and cultures of which those who never left the shore could only dream.


What was a sailor’s daily life on

the sea like?

Portugal Leads the Way The small country of Portugal led the way in exploration. A strong desire to seize a share of the East-West trade drove the Portuguese to seek a new all-water route to Asia. Portugal’s geographic location on the west coast of the Iberian Peninsula determined the route these sailors took—southward into the Atlantic Ocean and around Africa. The Portuguese government actively encouraged and sponsored several overseas explorations.

Prince Henry’s school. Prince

T

Then and Now

The Lives of Sailors hanks to modern technology, the lives of sailors today are much improved over the lives of those in the 1400s. Sea travel today is much safer than ever before, and sailors enjoy fresher food than did their earlier counModern sailor on terparts. Some large shipthe USS Hercules ping companies provide their employees with comfortable sleeping quarters, hold barbecues on board, and allow sailors’ families to accompany them on voyages to ease the loneliness of life at sea. Despite such improvements on large ships, however, life for many seafarers remains difficult. Many merchant ships operate with crews of fewer than 15 people, most of whom are young men. Crew members often receive low wages, experience prolonged isolation during long voyages, and sometimes face abuse by their supervisors. Sailors who make their living aboard military ships lead lives quite different from those on merchant vessels. U.S. Navy ships, for example, carry hundreds of crew members on board. In recent years, women have also joined naval crews in increasing numbers. Life aboard a naval ship is often extremely busy. Sailors perform a wide variety of administrative, technological, and service jobs to keep the ship ready for combat.

Henry of Portugal led the Crown’s efforts to promote the study of geography and exploration. Born in 1394, he was the third son of King John I and Philippa of Lancaster. Prince Henry’s strong commitment to exploration originated from his Prince Henry belief in God. He believed that through exploration, Christianity could triumph over Islam and that this would lead to the recovery of Jerusalem. His burning desire was to find the rich African “gold kingdoms” he had heard described while fighting in Morocco. He also yearned to find an all-sea route to Asia. Prince Henry established a center for the study of navigation about 1420. The center brought together the country’s best navigators, mapmakers, and ship designers. The prince oversaw all their work. He encouraged them to experiment with new navigation methods, to draw more accurate maps, and to build ships capable of withstanding the stormy Atlantic. Prince Henry put the results to practical use by sponsoring a number of exploratory voyages southward down the African coast. Although he never sailed on any of these voyages, Prince Henry’s immense contribution to Portugal’s seafaring efforts earned him the nickname the Navigator.

African explorations. By the 1430s Portuguese adventurers had explored and colonized the Madeira (mah-DAYR-uh) and the Azores, groups of islands off Africa’s northwest coast. The islands became important ports for resupplying ships heading to settlements on the North African coast. The Azores also served as a port of refuge for Atlantic navigators. In the 1450s the Portuguese reached the Cape Verde Islands off the coast of Senegal.

Free Find: Henry the Navigator After reading about Prince Henry on the Holt Researcher CD–ROM, create a list of classes that students wanting to be explorers would need to take.

THE WORLD BY 1500

27

The exploration of Africa’s west coast began primarily as a quest for scientific knowledge. It eventually gave rise to a profitable trade system for the Portuguese. One of Prince Henry’s navigators, Gil Eanes (YAH-neesh), led the first expedition, bravely sailing beyond Cape Bojador—near the tip of the great bulge of western Africa. Although Prince Henry died in 1460, the work he had begun continued. Successive expeditions attempted to sail farther south down the coast. Exploration increased even more in 1474, when King Alfonso V of Portugal granted the monopoly on trading with Africa to his heir. Eight years later the Crown built the fort of São João da Mina. This was a trading base for an extensive area that included most of West Africa. By the late 1400s, trade with Africa brought Portuguese monarchs more than 1,500 pounds of gold per year, surpassing the value of all the rest of their income combined.

✔ READING CHECK: Evaluating

What was Prince Henry’s role in helping Portugal become an exploration leader?

Europeans and Africans became increasingly involved in trade as European exploration continued.


Family values. African artwork often emphasized the importance of family life. How might this African mask represent African family values?

28

CHAPTER 1

The African Slave Trade When the Portuguese first arrived on Africa’s Atlantic coast, trading consisted mostly of African spices and gold. In time, another business—the trade in human beings—came to dominate their dealings with Africa. Slavery was not unknown to Africans, but its form differed from what it would become under European control. Traditionally, most slaves in West African society were either criminals or captives taken in war. Their rights were restricted, but they did have some legal protections. Most could marry, and their children did not necessarily become slaves. Moreover, slavery was usually temporary, and individuals could obtain their freedom. In time, Europeans took most of these rights away from slaves and created a system of permanent bondage from birth. In the late 1400s Portugal’s role in the slave trade was relatively small. By the end of the following century, the slave trade had become a major source of income, replacing gold in economic value. The Portuguese sent many enslaved Africans to other Portuguese colonies. There they endured terrible living conditions. Eventually, the slave trade led to the African Diaspora (dy-AS-pruh)—the displacement of Africans from their native lands. Millions of African people were forcibly resettled on other continents. Estimates suggest that during the approximately 400 years that the slave trade operated, more than 10 million Africans were removed from their homeland as slaves. Countless more died as a result of capture or on the horrible voyage to the Americas. The slave trade devastated African society. Villages began targeting their enemies for capture because of the enormous profits that could be made. The result was an increase in warfare among the various West African nations. With the strong emphasis placed on family ties in African cultures, the experience of having a family member or friend captured was particularly devastating. In 1444 Gomes Eanes de Zurara (GOH-mish YAHneesh duh zoo-RAH-ruh), the official chronicler for the Portuguese king, described the horrors brought about by the traffic in slaves:


“Mothers would clasp their infants in their arms, and throw

themselves on the ground to cover them with their bodies, disregarding any injury to their own persons, so that they could prevent their children from being separated from them.

”

—Gomes Eanes de Zurara, The Chronicles of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea

Portugal ignored the slave trade’s human costs because of the enormous profits to be gained.


How did Portugal begin its

involvement in the slave trade?

A Route to the Indies Europeans’ quest for profits from trading Asian goods prompted further searches for routes around Africa to Asia. During the mid-1480s, Portuguese sailors came upon the mouth of the Congo River and charted the southwest coast of Africa. In 1488 Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, Africa’s southernmost tip, and established a route to the Indian Ocean. Dias went no farther, however. Fearing the great expanse of unknown ocean that lay ahead of them, his crew panicked and forced the ship to turn back. In 1497 a fleet of four ships outfitted by Dias and commanded by Vasco da Gama set out from Portugal to complete the African voyage. By early 1498 da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope. In 1498 he made landfall on the west coast of India, finally completing a sea route to the East. Over the next 50 years, the Portuguese established trading forts in West and East Africa, India, the Spice Islands, and southern China, thereby gaining control of East-West sea trade. Envious of Portugal’s success, other powerful European nation-states soon began to sponsor voyages of their own.



New trade routes. After his long voyage, Vasco da Gama and his crew met with representatives of India. What does this image express about the economic importance of his arrival for Portugal?

When and how did Portugal reach

the Indies?

SECTION 1. Define and explain: caravels

2. Identify and explain: Prince Henry Alfonso V African Diaspora Bartolomeu Dias Vasco da Gama

4

3. Sequencing Copy the chart

REVIEW 4.

below. Use it to list the steps by which Portugal came to dominate East-West trade.

a. How might Europe’s history have been different without technological advances in sailing and navigation?

b. Imagine that you are a young sailor in the Middle Ages. Write a short paragraph describing your life at sea.

1. Technological advances occur.

c. How did the trading practices of Portugal affect Africa?

2.

5.

3. 4. 5. Vasco da Gama establishes an all-water East-West trade route.



Writing and Critical Thinking Identifying Cause and Effect Write a brief report explaining how Asian trading practices changed the course of European and African history. Consider:

• how Asian countries carried out trade • how this led to a desire for an all-sea route to the East • the effect this desire had on European and African history

THE WORLD BY 1500

29

CH C H APTE R

Review

1 Creating a Time Line

Reviewing Themes

Copy the time line below onto a sheet of paper. Complete the time line by filling in the events and dates from the chapter that you think were most significant. Pick three events and explain why you think they were significant. 5000

B.C .

1

A .D.

1500

1. Culture What evidence suggests that cultural

exchange occurred between Native American cultures in Mesoamerica and in North America? 2. Economics How did the Crusades affect European economies? 3. Science, Technology, and Society How did technological advances influence cultural development in medieval Europe?

Writing a Summary Using standard grammar, spelling, sentence structure, and punctuation, write an overview of events in the chapter.

Identifying People and Ideas Identify the following terms or individuals and explain their significance. 1. Paleo-Indians 6. Crusades 2. Agricultural Revolution 7. Isabella of Castile 3. Kublai Khan 8. caravels 4. Qur’an 9. Prince Henry 5. feudalism 10. African Diaspora

Understanding Main Ideas SECTION 1 (pp. 4–12) 1. What were some characteristics of the early Native

American civilizations? SECTION 2 (pp. 13–18) 2. How did technology shape China? 3. What role did trade play in the development of

kingdoms in Asia and Africa? SECTION 3 (pp. 19–23) 4. What were the major European economic and

political systems that developed in the Middle Ages? 5. How did the Renaissance emerge, and how did it change Europe? SECTION 4 (pp. 24–29) 6. What advances in sailing were achieved in Europe?

30

CHAPTER 1

Thinking Critically 1. Evaluating How did the isolation of the Americas 2.

3. 4.

5.

shape the history of Native American cultures? Comparing Write a brief paragraph comparing daily life for people in Europe and in the Americas in the year 1200. Analyzing Information How did religion influence cultural exchange among Africa, Asia, and Europe? Identifying Cause and Effect How did geography and the changing environment of the Americas affect Paleo-Indian culture? Categorizing What factors led to the development of nation-states and how did nation-states affect East-West trade?

Writing About History Summarizing Copy the chart below. Use it to list the major characteristics of life in the 1200s in Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe. Then choose one of these places and write a poem or short skit about life there at the time. Africa

Americas

Asia

Europe

Interpreting Maps Study the map below. Then use it to help answer the questions that follow.

;; ;; ;;;; ;;;;;;;; ;; ;;; ;;;;; ;;; ;;;;; ;;;;;;;; Migration to America

Beringia Land Bridge

180°

ri n Be

Shoreline today

it Stra

g

SIBERIA

ALASKA

B

165°W

A G I I N it

60° N

ARCTIC OCEAN

E

R

St ra

ASIA

r Be

g in

ALASKA

BERING SEA

Shoreline today

Shoreline during Ice Age

150°W

PACIFIC OCEAN

45°

N

135°W

60°W

NORTH AMERICA

30°

N

;;

ATLANTIC OCEAN

PACIFIC OCEAN

W

120°W

Gulf of Mexico

N

15°N

105°W

Glaciers during Ice Age Migration routes

75°W

MESOAMERICA Orthographic 90°W Projection

a. Beringia Land Bridge b. Panama Canal

c. Gulf of Mexico d. Bering Strait

2. Why did Paleo-Indian travelers keep moving south?

Analyzing Primary Sources Study this excerpt about Prince Henry the Navigator. Then use it to help answer the questions that follow.

“The noble spirit of this Prince was always urging him

to begin and to carry out great deeds. He always kept his ships well armed . . . both for reasons of war and because he wished to know about [faraway lands]. . . . Seeing that no other prince took any pains in this matter, he sent out his own ships to those parts, so that he would have firm knowledge of them. This was the first reason for his actions. The second reason was that . . . many kinds of merchandise might . . . be brought to our realm. This would bring great profit. . . . The third reason was that . . . natural caution leads every wise person to wish for knowledge of the power of his enemy. . . . The fourth reason was that he sought . . . Christian princes who would aid him against the enemies of the Christian faith.

”

3. What motivated Prince Henry to explore the world?

E S

1. What geographic feature aided the Paleo-Indians in their journey to the Americas?

SOUTH AMERICA

a. military concerns b. economic concerns

c. religious concerns d. all of the above

4. Which of these concerns might apply to the modern space program? Explain your answer.

Alternative Assessment Building Your Portfolio

U .S. HISTORY

Science, Technology, and Society From among the compass, astrolabe, printing press, and caravel, choose the invention you think most affected the world. Then draw a diagram or build a model of what the invention might have looked like when it was created. Write five questions for other students to answer based on the diagram or model.

Internet Activity: go.hrw.com KEYWORD: SD3 AN1 Choose a topic on the world by 1500 to:

• understand Olmec culture. • create a pamphlet on the role of the printing press in social change and the movement of ideas.

• research the city of Machu Picchu and Inca civilization.

THE WORLD BY 1500

31

CH C H APTE R

–

2 Empires of the Americas English medal commemorating the defeat of the Spanish Armada

Ornamented silver from the Inca Empire

1492 World Events Christopher Columbus lands in the Caribbean.

1450

1494 Politics With the Treaty of Tordesillas, Spain and Portugal divide the world’s unexplored lands.

1544 Business and Finance Spanish explorers discover profitable silver mines in Potosí, Peru.

1500

1550

1495 1521 The Arts Politics Leonardo da Vinci begins his Hernán Cortés capmasterpiece fresco, The Last tures the Aztec capiSupper, in Milan, Italy. tal of Tenochtitlán.

1565 World Events Europeans establish the first permanent settlement in the present-day United States at St. Augustine, Florida.

1588 World Events The English navy defeats the Spanish Armada. 1594 The Arts William Shakespeare writes Romeo and Juliet.

16 00

1519–1522 Science and Technology Sailor Ferdinand Magellan’s expedition becomes the first to circumnavigate the globe.

The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci

1619 Politics The first representative assembly in North America is established in Virginia.

Magellan planning his route


I

n the 1400s a desire for trade and wealth motivated many Europeans to seek an eastward sea route to Asia that would replace dangerous and expensive overland routes. Scientific and technological advances gave Europeans the navigational skills to explore greater distances than ever before. In this chapter you will learn how Christopher Columbus’s arrival in the Americas in 1492 marked a turning point in world history, bringing the cultures of Europe, Africa, and Asia into contact with the Americas. 32

Pueblo Indians rebelling against Spanish settlers

Coffee plant 1639 Science and Technology The first printing press in North America is used.

1680 Politics The Pueblo Revolt drives the Spanish out of Santa Fe.

1650

1698 Science and Technology Paper manufacturing begins in North America.

1700

1670 Business and Finance The Hudson Bay Company is formed to trade in the Hudson Bay region of North America.

1755 The Arts Mission Concepción is completed in San Antonio.

1727 Daily Life Coffee is first planted in Brazil.

Mission Concepción

1750

1689 The Arts Juana Inés de la Cruz publishes her first book of poetry.

1721 Daily Life Regular postal service is established between London and New England.

18 00 c. 1765 Daily Life The potato, originally from the Americas, is one of the most popular foods in Europe.

Potatoes Title page of an early edition of Juana Inés de la Cruz’s book of poems


Economics Pouring money and energy into

overseas expansion and conquest will hurt a nation’s economy in the long run.

Global Relations Disputes between two coun-

Culture People’s values and past experiences

tries involving armed conflict usually harm other nations.

will determine how they react to new cultures they encounter. 33

SECTION

First Contact

1 READ TO DISCOVER 1. Why did Columbus sail west? 2. How did Native Americans react to Columbus? 3. Why did the encomienda system develop, and how did it affect American Indians? 4. What reforms did Bartolomé de Las Casas urge the Spanish Crown to undertake? DEFINE viceroy encomienda

“

[The islands were] full of trees of a thousand kinds, so lofty that they seem to reach the sky. . . . Some of them were in flower, some in fruit. . . . And the nightingale was singing, and other birds of a thousand sorts, in the month of November.

”

—Christopher Columbus, quoted in Original Narratives of Early American History, edited by E. G. Bourne

Colored woodcut from 1572 of the fruit trees on the So wrote an adventurous mariner named Christopher island of Hispaniola Columbus, who, on Friday, October 12, 1492, landed on an island in the Bahamas. The landscape and vegetation were like nothing Columbus had seen before. At once, he “broke out the royal banner, and the captain’s two flags with the green cross,” staking Spain’s first claim to land in the Americas. The Spanish and other Europeans who followed them believed that these beautiful lands were theirs for the taking. As a result, European contact initiated profound changes in the Americas, Europe, and Africa. Columbus’s daring voyage introduced the Americas to the rest of the world, thus beginning a new era of trade, colonization, and cultural exchange.

IDENTIFY Christopher Columbus Taino Guacanagarí Bartolomé de Las Casas WHY IT MATTERS TODAY

By the 1400s, Europeans desired a cheaper, faster trade route to the East that did not involve traveling through the Mediterranean Sea. Portugal took the lead, concentrating on finding a sea passage around the southernmost tip of Africa. Spain, however, looked westward—largely because of the boldness and imagination of one man, Christopher Columbus. In 1492 Columbus set sail from Spain on the first in a series of historic Atlantic crossings. Like most sailors of his time, Columbus believed that Earth was round. He concluded that if he sailed far enough west, he could establish a more direct trade route to Asia. Columbus grew up in Genoa, a bustling port city on Italy’s northwestern coast. Fascinated by the sea, the adventurous youth sailed on Genoese trading vessels. He quickly became an excellent navigator. A former shipmate recalled Columbus’s skill: “By a simple look at the night sky, he would know what route to follow or what weather to expect.” Eventually, Columbus made his way to Lisbon, Portugal, the center of European knowledge about Christopher sea travel. While in Lisbon, he studied charts of conColumbus temporary geographers and astronomers. He also read summaries of ancient Greek and Roman texts, the Bible, and Marco Polo’s exciting account of his travels in Asia. As a result of his studies, Columbus developed a theory about a westward route to Asia. Breaking with the scientific theories of the time, Columbus concluded that the western sea could not be very large. He THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART

Christopher Columbus was the first European to explore the Caribbean. Today many Caribbean nations have a mix of European, Native American, and African cultures. Use or other current events sources to learn about Caribbean culture today. Record your findings in your journal.

Christopher Columbus

34

CHAPTER 2

NEW YORK COLLECTION, THE GRANGER

believed that the great trading cities of Asia lay only about 2,400 miles west of Portugal. Some scholars thought it was more than 10,000 miles westward from Europe to the Indies (Asia). The actual distance to Asia did prove to be about 12,000 miles—almost five times greater than Columbus had calculated. In the 1480s Columbus tried in vain to persuade various European monarchs to sponsor a westward voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. In 1484 he asked John II of Portugal to “give him some vessels to go and discover the Isle of Cypango [Japan, as described by Marco Polo] by this Western Ocean.” King John rejected the plan because he doubted the accuracy of Columbus’s calculation of the distance to Asia. Initially, Columbus had no better luck with the Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella. Columbus persisted, however. He described to them the golden palaces and temples of Asia mentioned in Marco Polo’s tales and tempted them with visions of the riches that could belong to Spain. Columbus also vowed to take the Catholic faith to the peoples of foreign lands. This idea impressed the deeply religious Ferdinand and Isabella. Nevertheless, only after the monarchs had defeated the Muslims at Granada in January 1492 were they willing to back an expedition. On April 17, 1492, the king and queen authorized the necessary funding for Columbus’s journey. To reward Columbus for his future discoveries, Ferdinand and Isabella agreed that the mariner would be knighted, appointed an admiral, and made viceroy, or governor, over all the lands he might discover. In addition, he would receive at least 10 percent of the riches he obtained on Spain’s behalf.

Marco Polo’s adventures were translated into many languages, inspiring many young explorers. This edition was published in Germany in the late 1400s.


Why did European monarchs fund exploration voyages?

The Fateful First Voyage Columbus outfitted three ships—the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa María—and recruited a crew of some 90 sailors, most of whom were Spaniards. At dawn on August 3, 1492, Columbus and his crew departed from Palos, Spain. The small fleet first journeyed approximately 820 miles southwest to the Canary Islands, Spain’s westernmost possession. Going so far south allowed Columbus’s ships to catch the fast-moving trade winds of the Atlantic. Then, in September, the three vessels set out for a long journey across the uncharted sea. After a month at sea, the men had not sighted land since leaving the Canaries. The crew’s patience was wearing thin. Many sailors hoped that the ships would turn back. In the early morning hours of October 12, as the lookout on the lead ship scanned the horizon, he shouted out the long-awaited cry: “Tierra!” Land!

The people of the Indies. The October 12 entry in Columbus’s Journal, his diary of the voyage, reads: “[At] daylight Friday . . . they reached an islet . . . which was called Guanahani [gwahn-uh-HAHN-ee].” Columbus and his men struck land


Columbus’s voyage. After a month at sea, Columbus’s crew kept constant watch for any sign of land such as birds, cloudbanks, or green weeds. Based on this image, where would be the best place to keep a lookout for signs of land? EMPIRES OF THE AMERICAS

35

Free Find: Columbus and the Taino After reading the letter in which Columbus describes his contact with the Taino on the Holt Researcher CD–ROM, imagine that you are a Taino Indian. In that role, write a letter to a friend describing your experience and thoughts when you saw Columbus for the first time.

on a tiny coral island in the central Bahama Islands, about 400 miles southeast of present-day Florida. Columbus named the island San Salvador, meaning Holy Savior. Confident that he had reached Asia—the so-called Indies—the admiral called the island-dwellers Indios, the Spanish word for “inhabitants of the Indies.” The American Indians Columbus encountered called themselves Taino (TY-noh), the word for “good” or “noble” in their Arawak language. The Taino were farmers and fishers who lived in small settlements. Some groups traded salt, shells, and other goods peacefully with their neighbors. Other groups participated in raids against neighboring islands. Groups with more complex social and political organizations lived on the larger Caribbean islands, such as present-day Cuba, Hispaniola (his-puhn-YOH-luh), Jamaica, and Puerto Rico. The Spanish praised the Taino’s generosity.“They invite you to share anything that they possess, and show as much love as if their hearts went with it,” noted Columbus. He believed that it would be easy to convert them to Catholicism. He also took the Taino’s generosity to mean that they “could all be subjugated [conquered] and compelled to do anything one wishes.”

The search for gold. Because some of the Taino wore small gold ornaments,


Columbus’s arrival. This painting, completed during the 1800s, depicts Columbus’s landing on a Caribbean island. What clues does this painting provide about the purposes behind Columbus’s voyage?

Columbus concluded that gold mines must be nearby. During the next month, the explorers sailed from island to island—naming and claiming each for Spain—in search of gold. Then, on Christmas Eve, 1492, the Santa María either landed or was shipwrecked off the island that Columbus had named Hispaniola—the site of present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Columbus decided to establish the first Spanish colony there. He named the settlement La Navidad, meaning “the nativity,” in honor of Christmas, the day of its founding. Like the inhabitants of Guanahani, the American Indians of Hispaniola were generous to the Spanish. Their chief, Guacanagarí (gwah-kahn-uhgah-REE), showered Columbus with gold nuggets and ornaments—even promising “a statue of pure gold” the size of Columbus himself. This impressive display convinced some of Columbus’s men to remain in the settlement. Columbus sailed back to Spain in January 1493, taking with him about two dozen Taino captives and evidence of the Indies’ riches. Ferdinand and Isabella gave him a hero’s welcome. They greeted Columbus with the titles they had promised: “Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy and Governor of the Islands that he hath discovered in the Indies.” The monarchs speedily approved a second voyage. The captive islanders who survived the voyage became the objects of both sympathy and curiosity in Spain. The queen ordered that the Indians on Hispaniola and elsewhere in the Americas be treated humanely and converted to the Roman Catholic faith. However, she left open the possibility that anyone who resisted the authority of the Spanish Crown could be enslaved.

✔ READING CHECK: Summarizing he encountered?

36

CHAPTER 2

How did Columbus respond to the Native Americans

The First Voyage of Christopher Columbus Interpreting Maps Christopher Columbus made four round-trip voyages to the Americas between 1492 and 1504.

?

PLACES AND REGIONS On which voyage did Columbus visit Central America? 1 20˚ W

50

˚W

PE

W

March 15, 1493: Niña and Pinta arrive at Palos

RO

7

˚W

EU

30˚

40

Aug. 3, 1492: First expedition sails from Palos, Spain

RI

S

AF

D N

W

E

E ST

IE RL

S

A TR

D

E

Aug. 7–Sept. 6, 1492: Layover in Canary Islands

CA

Ca Isl nar an y ds

˚W 60

2

I W

Lands seen by Columbus and his crew

Later Voyages

Th

or

ah

San

am

Sal

as

10˚

N

5

W

Cuba

a

250

0

Is l

250

500 Miles

500 Kilometers

Lambert Equal-Area Projection

an

ds

ATLANTIC OCEAN

1493–149 4

Hispaniola

Puerto Rico

Jamaica

Jan. 16, 1493: Niña and Pinta set sail for Europe

Dec. 24–25, 1492: Santa María grounded; La Navidad founded

0

S

H UT ICA O R S E AM

1502–1504

N W

˚W

W

Nov. 6, 1492: Existence of tobacco recorded

Orthographic Projection

B RIB CA SEA

Jam

6

N EA

70

80˚

4

a aic

a

iol

an

sp Hi

FLORIDA

E

o ert Pu o c i R

a

N

A

vad

eB

Cub 20˚

TL

Gulf of Mexico

m

N

IC

T AN

ONC

ha

30˚

E

Oct. 12, 1492: Landfall on San Salvador

Ba

3

AN

E

CARIBBEAN SEA

14

98

–1

50

0

S

CENTRAL AMERICA

SOUTH AMERICA

Columbus the colonizer. When Columbus returned to La Navidad 11 months later, he found the colony destroyed. All the Spaniards were dead or gone. Some probably had left to find gold, but most had either fallen victim to illness or died in disputes with one another or with the Taino. Columbus ordered the construction of another settlement, Isabela. He then left the settlement under the care of his brother Bartolomé and spent the next three years sailing the Caribbean searching for gold. While Columbus was away, the pressure the colonists put on the Taino to provide food and gold provoked the Indians to revolt. Columbus’s failure to maintain order eventually led the monarchs to replace him as viceroy. Before his replacement, Columbus granted the colonists control over Indian labor, introducing what would become the encomienda (en-koh-mee-EN-duh) EMPIRES OF THE AMERICAS

37

Great

The Columbian Legacy

H

istorians offer different interpretations of the lasting significance of Columbus’s voyages to the Americas. In 1992 the 500th anniversary of Columbus’s first voyage brought these differences of opinion to the height of historical debate. Traditional historians applauded Columbus for expanding Western civilization and enlarging geographic knowledge. Others blamed him for introducing slavery to the Americas and for the massive reduction of the Native American population. Historians who hold the traditional viewpoint see the legacy of Columbus’s voyage as almost entirely positive: Europeans brought civilization to the relatively small populations living on the American continents. European culture, they argue, was significantly enriched as contact brought changes in government, religion, and science. Eventually, the United States—often considered the world’s champion of democracy and individual liberty—was created as a result of this contact between hemispheres. Other historians believe that Columbus’s voyage had fatal consequences for both the “Old” and “New” worlds. They note that the Europeans enslaved people and generally had little regard for the cultural heritage of the peoples they met. In addition, European diseases helped destroy entire civilizations. Some historians try to balance these viewpoints, considering both the positive and negative effects of Columbus’s voyages.

Debates

system. Under this system colonists, or encomenderos (en-koh-muhn-DE-rohs), received the right to have a certain number of American Indians work for them. The encomenderos used the Indians to build houses, mine gold, and provide food. The system required that the encomenderos instruct their workers in the Roman Catholic faith and permit them to grow food for themselves. Queen Isabella learned in 1499 that 300 settlers had returned from the Indies, each with an American Indian slave given to him by Columbus. She became very angry. In her eyes, Indians were not slaves. Rather, they were supposed to be paid a small allowance for their labor. Over Isabella’s objections, however, the encomienda continued. In practice, the system amounted to group enslavement for many Indians because they were seldom paid.

✔ READING CHECK: Analyzing Information What was the purpose of the encomienda system?

Las Casas and Slavery Some Spaniards protested the harsh treatment of American Indians. One prominent critic, Bartolomé de Las Casas, had lived for some years as an encomendero in Cuba. He spent a great deal of time giving religious instruction to the Indians under his care. Las Casas, however, began to question the system. Las Casas urged Spanish colonists to live and work peacefully with the Indians. He also asked that friars and priests convert Indians to Catholicism gradually, through “love, gentleness, and kindness.”In his Apologetic History of the Indies, published in 1566, he argued that the Indians’ humanity equaled that of Europeans. History Makers Speak

“Not only have [the Indians] shown themselves to be very wise peoples

and possessed of lively and marked understanding, . . . but they have equaled many diverse nations of the . . . past and present . . . and exceed by no small measure the wisest of all these.

”

—Bartolomé de Las Casas, Apologetic History of the Indies

Bartolomé de Las Casas urged the Spanish government and settlers to treat the Indians with more humanity.

38

CHAPTER 2

Few Spaniards shared the views of Las Casas. Within a century, however, the encomienda had largely ended. The enormous decline of the American Indian population, rather than humanitarian concerns, was responsible. Many Indians died from overwork and malnutrition, but many more died of disease. European diseases proved particularly deadly because the American Indians had no immunity to them. The Western Hemisphere’s isolation from the rest of the

world meant that American Indians had never been exposed to common illnesses in Europe and Africa such as chickenpox, measles, smallpox, and typhus. When Europeans and Africans arrived in the Americas, they unknowingly introduced the organisms that caused these diseases. In some remote areas the epidemics preceded the appearance of the Europeans, since the diseases spread easily from Indian to Indian. No doubt the resulting devastation made it much easier for the Spanish to conquer the Indians. One Maya chronicle records the effects of an epidemic. History Makers Speak

“Great was the stench of the dead. After our fathers and grandfathers

succumbed [died], half of the people fled to the fields. . . . The mortality was terrible. Your grandfathers died, and with them died the son of the king and his brothers and kinsmen. So it was that we became orphans, oh, my sons! So we became when we were young. All of us were thus.

”

—Cakchiquel Mayas, The Annals of the Cakchiquels and Title of the Lords of Totonicapan

Although the death rate for American Indians varied, in some areas their numbers had declined by more than 90 percent by the mid-1500s. To replace Indian laborers, the Spanish began importing African slaves. The first slaves reached the West Indies in the early 1500s. By 1540 at least 10,000 enslaved Africans were arriving annually in the Spanish colonies. Many enslaved Africans performed hard labor on sugar plantations or other large farms. This is a tragic example of how European exploration in the Americas affected people’s lives throughout the world.



Diseases. This illustration from the 1500s portrays the devastating effects of smallpox on the American Indian population. According to these images, what symptoms did the American Indians experience after catching European diseases like smallpox?

How did the encomienda system

contribute to the rise of slavery?

SECTION 1. Define and explain: viceroy encomienda

2. Identify and explain: Christopher Columbus Taino Guacanagarí Bartolomé de Las Casas

1

3. Comparing Copy the chart

REVIEW 4.

below. Compare the goals that various people had for American Indians and the methods they proposed for achieving those goals. Goals for American Indians

Finding the Main Idea a. How did the encomienda system benefit the Spanish settlers? What effect did it have on American Indians?

b. Why did the reforms that Bartolomé de Las Casas proposed for American Indians achieve only limited success? c. Imagine that you are a Taino living on San Salvador. Draw or describe a plan for a mural that portrays your interactions with the Spanish explorers.

Methods

Columbus

5. Isabella Las Casas

Writing and Critical Thinking Identifying Cause and Effect Imagine that you traveled with Columbus. Explain how European trading goals changed the course of the history of the Americas. Consider:


• how trade led to the search for new trade routes • how this search affected Columbus’s route • how Columbus’s landing in the Americas shaped its history EMPIRES OF THE AMERICAS

39

SECTION

2 READ TO DISCOVER 1. Who were the early European explorers of America? 2. How did Hernán Cortés conquer the Aztec? 3. What methods did the Spanish use to conquer the Inca?

Conquest of the Mainland “

Since our Redeemer has given this victory to our most illustrious King and Queen . . . for this all Christendom ought to feel joyful and make celebrations . . . with many . . . prayers for the great exaltation which it will have, in the turning of so many peoples to our holy faith, and afterwards for material benefits, since not only Spain but all Christians will hence have refreshments and profit.

”

—Christopher Columbus, letter to Ferdinand and Isabella, 1493

DEFINE circumnavigate conquistadores IDENTIFY Treaty of Tordesillas Vasco Núñez de Balboa Ferdinand Magellan Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca Hernán Cortés Malintzin Moctezuma II Francisco Pizarro WHY IT MATTERS TODAY The urge to explore remains strong today. Use or other current events sources to learn more about how people continue to explore our world. Record your findings in your journal.

Maps like this one

Christopher Columbus wrote to Ferdinand and helped Portuguese navigators Isabella as he made his triumphant voyage back to explore South America during the 1500s. Europe in 1493 to inform them of his discovery. Before arriving in Spain, however, he stopped at Lisbon, Portugal, to repair his ship. While there, he proudly announced to King John II his success in finding what he believed was a shorter sea route to the Indies. Earlier the king had dismissed Columbus’s ideas and had declined to finance his voyage. The king surprised Columbus by immediately claiming Columbus’s new lands for Portugal. Columbus was unaware that a previous treaty with Spain had awarded lands discovered south of the latitude of the Canary Islands to Portugal.

Exploring the Americas Following news of Christopher Columbus’s achievement, Ferdinand persuaded Pope Alexander VI to issue a bold ruling. In 1493 the Spanish-born pope established a north-south Line of Demarcation, or separation. This imaginary line granted Spain all territory found about 300 miles west and south of the Azores, a group of islands west of Europe. The Portuguese viewed Columbus’s voyages as a serious threat to their control of the Atlantic Ocean. They were unhappy with the arrangement,which King John II of Portugal felt favored Spain. To prevent conflict, the leaders of Spain and Portugal signed a new agreement in 1494. The Treaty of Tordesillas (tawr-day-SEEL-yahs) moved the earlier Line of Demarcation farther west. Territory explored west of the line would belong to Spain; east of the line, to Portugal.

The Pacific. Some explorers traveled to the lands of North America and South America, claiming them for Spain. In 1513 Vasco Núñez de Balboa (NOON-yays day bahl-BOH-uh) explored the area now known as Panama. Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and came upon a great body of water, which he called the South Sea. Balboa was probably the first European to glimpse this body of water— later named the Pacific, or “peaceful,” Ocean—from the Americas. Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese mariner who believed that by sailing west he could find a water passageway around the Americas. As with Columbus, the Portuguese king rejected Magellan’s plan to find a westward route to Asia. Magellan took his proposal to the king of Spain. He reasoned that the treasured Spice 40

CHAPTER 2

Islands would fall west of the Line of Demarcation—and therefore belong to Spain if discovered. Bartolomé de Las Casas described the sailor’s interview with the king. History Makers Speak

“Magellan brought with him a well-painted globe showing the entire

world, and thereon traced the course he proposed to take, save that the Strait was purposely left blank so that nobody could anticipate him. . . . This [Ferdinand Magellan] must have been a brave man, valiant in thought and for undertaking great things.

”

Analyzing Primary Sources

Identifying Points of View Why did Las Casas consider Magellan a brave man?

—Bartolomé de Las Casas, quoted in The European Discovery of America, by Samuel Eliot Morison

Although at least one Portuguese historian considered him a traitor, Magellan exhibited remarkable ability, courage, and skill. The Spanish king granted his request. In 1519 Magellan set out to find a way to pass the Americas and continue on to Asia. He found the passageway he sought at the southern tip of South America. After threading through the turbulent, narrow waterway, Magellan triumphantly sailed into the Pacific Ocean. Although he had succeeded in finding a westward route to Asia, Magellan died before he could return to Spain. He lost his life in a battle with the natives of the Philippine Islands. In September 1522 the Victoria—the only ship remaining of Magellan’s five-vessel fleet—sailed into the harbor near Cádiz (KAH-dees), Spain. Captain Juan Sebastián de Elcano (el-KAHN-oh) and his 17 shipmates were aboard. Among only 35 survivors of the original 250 or so people on the expedition, they became the first people to successfully circumnavigate, or sail completely around, the world.

The South and Southwest. Not every explorer was successful in reaching his goals. In the 1520s Pánfilo de Narváez (PAHN-fee-loh day nahr-BAH-ays) led a failed attempt to colonize North America’s coastline along the Gulf of Mexico for Spain. One by one, the ships in Narváez’s fleet disappeared or were shipwrecked. After his ship capsized near Galveston Island, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (kah-BAY-sah day BAH-kah) swam ashore with some 80 other survivors. The men “escaped [as] naked as we were born,” Cabeza de Vaca wrote, “and our bodies were so emaciated . . . that we looked like pictures of death.” Within a few months, just 15 men were still alive. Cabeza de Vaca and three other men began walking from village to village. Eventually they traveled through present-day Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. In 1539 Estevanico, an African who was one of the original explorers traveling with Cabeza de Vaca, became the first non-Indian to visit the Pueblo Indians in present-day New Mexico. In the 1540s Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto explored southeastern North America and the Mississippi River. Around the same time, Francisco Vásquez de Coronado marched through the present-day southwestern United States. His group was looking for the “Seven Cities of Gold,” believed to be farther in the interior. Although his group never found the mythical cities of wealth, their explorations paved the way for many later explorers.



Magellan. Attempting to find a westward route to Asia, Magellan used tools like this sundial with a compass inside. How would these tools aid Magellan in his voyage around the world?

Where did early Spanish and Portuguese explorers

travel in the Americas? EMPIRES OF THE AMERICAS

41

Skill-Building Strategies In your study of history, you will regularly come across new and unfamiliar words. Learning the meaning of these words will enlarge your vocabulary and help you understand new information and ideas.

How to Build Vocabulary 1. Identify new words. As you read your textbook or supplemental assignments, create a list of words that you cannot pronounce or define. When reading Boyer’s The American Nation, make sure to review the key terms at the beginning of each section. 2. Study the context of new words. Study the paragraph and the sentence where you find a new word. This context, or setting, may provide clues to the word’s meaning through examples or a definition using more familiar words. 3. Use a dictionary. Use a dictionary to learn the pronunciation and the precise meaning of each word on your list.

Building Vocabulary 4. Review new vocabulary words. Look for ways to use new words—in homework assignments, classroom discussions, or even everyday conversation. The best way to master a new word is to use it.

Applying the Skill As you read Section 2, create a list of the new words that you encounter in the text. Write down what you think each word means, then check your definitions against those in a dictionary.

Practicing the Skill Answer the following questions. 1. What does the word circumnavigate mean? How did its use in the section help you arrive at this definition? 2. What does the word conquistador mean? How did its use in the section help you arrive at this definition? 3. What does the word encomienda mean? How did its use in the section help you arrive at this definition?

The Spanish Encounter the Aztec Spanish conquerors, known as conquistadores (kahn-kees-tuh-DAWR-eez), soon followed in the footsteps of the early explorers. By the early 1500s, Spanish soldiers set out to conquer the Americas, to gain riches for themselves, and to spread the Catholic religion throughout the world.

Hernán Cortés. One of the most able and adventurous of the conquistadores

Aztec princess Malintzin provided crucial information to Hernán Cortés that helped him conquer the Aztec Empire.

42

CHAPTER 2

was Hernán Cortés. A professional soldier, Cortés settled in Cuba as an encomendero. Intrigued by stories of gold on the Mexican mainland, Cortés gathered a force of some 600 Spaniards and enslaved Africans and set sail in February 1519. On the Mexican coast Cortés’s army battled American Indians. They defeated the Indians, and through them he learned much about the wealthy Aztec Empire. Living among these coastal Indians was a young Aztec princess known as Malintzin (mah-LINT-suhn), or Malinche (mah-LEEN-chay), and also called Doña Marina by the Spanish. Malintzin became a valuable interpreter and adviser to Cortés. She revealed Aztec weaknesses to the ambitious soldier, explaining that many Indian groups hated the Aztec. Indians conquered by the Aztec were occasionally sacrificed to appease the Aztec war god, while others bore heavy tax burdens imposed by the empire. Armed with this knowledge, Cortés set off to confront the Aztec ruler, Moctezuma (mawk-tay-SOO-mah) II. Moctezuma learned of Cortés’s arrival almost immediately. A scout who witnessed the Spanish defeat of the coastal Indians raced on foot to the capital city of

Tenochtitlán. He told Moctezuma of the pale-skinned men who rode horses— which they thought were deer. The scout reported that these bearded strangers were taller than a house and had cannons powerful enough to crack a hole in the side of a mountain. The deeply religious Aztec ruler contemplated this amazing news. According to an ancient prophecy, a light-skinned god called Quetzalcoatl (ket-sahl-kuh-WAHtuhl) would one day return to rule over the Aztec. Moctezuma feared that the prophecy was now coming true. Moctezuma believed that the god’s arrival would mean the end of his reign. He sent gold and other gifts to Cortés to persuade him not to come to Tenochtitlán. Instead, the gifts made Cortés even more determined to conquer the Aztec.

Spanish Exploration and Conquests, 1513–1542 Interpreting Maps Spanish explorers claimed lands from Peru in South America to the Rio Grande in North America.

Co lo Ri ve

do ra r

AMERICA

issip pi

NORTH

R i v er

? HUMAN SYSTEMS Which Spanish explorer first claimed the western coast of South America? ATLANTIC OCEAN

M is s 30°N

Ri o n Gra de

St. Augustine FLORIDA

Havana CUBA

MEXICO Mexico City (Tenochtitlán)

15°N

W

PUERTO RICO

HISPANIOLA

MESOAMERICA

N

CARIBBEAN SEA

San Juan

Isthmus of Panama

E S

0°

THE BAHAMAS

Gulf of Mexico

PACIFIC OCEAN 105°W

azon R i v er Am

Aztec Empire Inca Empire Balboa, 1513

Lima

S

15°S

OU

500

0

500

1,000 Miles

1,000 Kilometers

S

Pizarro,1531–1533

0

NTAIN

Cortés, 1519–1521 Narváez, 1528 Cabeza de Vaca and Estevanico, 1528–1536

Cuzco

M

Ponce de León, 1513

SOUTH AMERICA

DE

PERU

AN

Cortés conquers the Aztec. With Malintzin’s help, Cortés persuaded American Indians who had been defeated by the Aztec to join his forces. Cortés’s army of Indian recruits grew to several thousand as he led them closer and closer to the Aztec capital. Moctezuma welcomed Cortés as an honored guest. The determined conquistador, however, imprisoned Moctezuma. Cortés let the ruler retain his title—though not his power—as emperor of the Aztec. This fragile arrangement collapsed when Cortés left Tenochtitlán. In his absence his lieutenant, Pedro de Alvarado, ordered the killing of scores of men, women, and children attending an Aztec religious ceremony. The Aztec fought back. When Cortés returned, he found the Aztec capital in chaos. In desperation, he urged Moctezuma to try to calm his angry subjects. Many Aztec no longer trusted their ruler, however. When Moctezuma attempted to intervene, he was killed. Spanish and Aztec sources dispute which side murdered the emperor. With Moctezuma dead and the Aztec in full revolt, the Spanish knew they had no choice but to leave the capital. They tried to flee during the night by crossing the main causeway over Lake Texcoco, but a woman drawing water sounded an alarm. Thousands of Aztec attacked the Spanish. The Spanish managed to leave the city, but both sides suffered heavy casualties.


30°S

de Soto, 1539–1542 Coronado, 1540–1542 90°W

75°W

EMPIRES OF THE AMERICAS

43

In the following months Cortés regrouped his forces and obtained reinforcements. In May 1521 he attacked the capital city of Tenochtitlán. A four-month siege by the Spaniards left the Aztec worn-out and starving. A smallpox epidemic swept through the city, further weakening the native population. On August 13 Cortés attacked again, and the great city fell. Soon he controlled all of central Mexico. An Aztec poet expressed his people’s sadness at defeat. History Makers Speak

“Broken spears lie in the roads; we have torn our hair in our grief. The houses are roofless now, and their walls are red with blood.” —Aztec poet, quoted in The Broken Spears, by Miguel Leon-Portilla


Battle for Tenochtitlán. Suffering from a smallpox epidemic and a lack of resources, the Aztec were unable to hold off the Spanish forces. Based on this image, what other military advantages did the Spanish have over the Aztec warriors?

After the conquest the Spanish leveled Aztec temples and other buildings and destroyed Aztec works of art. They also melted down elaborate gold jewelry and shipped it to Spain. Over the ruins of Tenochtitlán, Cortés built Mexico City, the present-day capital of Mexico. Cortés lived like a king within the conquered region. In 1522 the Spanish Crown appointed him viceroy of the region. As Cortés quickly became one of the wealthiest people in Spanish America, the proud Aztec people were absorbed into the encomienda system.

✔ READING CHECK: Sequencing

In what order of events did Hernán Cortés conquer

the Aztec?

Conquests in South America

PRIMARY SOURCE

The Inca Empire, centered in the Andes of South America, became Spain’s next target for conquest. In 1531–32 Francisco Pizarro (pee-SAHR-roh), a Spanish soldier and treasure hunter who had explored with Balboa, led a small army to the heart of the empire. Traveling cautiously along steep, narrow passes, they reached the town of Cajamarca (kah-hah-MAHR-kah) in presentThe French View of Spanish America day northern Peru.

Although Spain claimed all the lands in the Americas, other European nations with strong navies soon challenged Spanish dominance. The riches that conquistadores brought back to Spain inspired the French to search for other lands. One French scholar of the period explained why his people entered the race for empires. How did the French-Spanish rivalry affect exploration?

“

The French above all were spurred [motivated] by a desire to do likewise in areas that had not been reached by [the Spaniards], for the French did not esteem [consider] themselves less than [the Spaniards], neither in navigation . . . nor in any other calling. The French persuaded themselves that [the Spaniards] had not discovered all, and that the world was large enough to reveal even stranger things than those already known.

”

Conquering the Inca. Pizarro lured the Inca ruler, Atahualpa (ah-tah-WAHL-pah), to his camp. There, a Spanish priest told Atahualpa that the Inca must convert to Catholicism. Atahualpa asked to see the book—the Bible—that “spoke” their god’s words. According to an Inca account: History Makers Speak

“[Atahualpa] took the book and

began to leaf through its pages. And the Inca said, ‘Why does it not speak to me? This book tells me nothing!’ And . . . [Atahualpa] threw the book from his hands.

”

—Incan observer, quoted in Stolen Continents, by Ronald Wright

44

CHAPTER 2

Atahualpa’s actions outraged the Spaniards, who attacked the Inca and captured the emperor. To gain his freedom, Atahualpa promised to fill his large prison quarters with gold and silver. Desperate to save their emperor-god, the Inca delivered a large ransom in gold and silver. Pizarro accepted the ransom but ordered Atahualpa killed, not freed. After Pizarro’s arrival in Cajamarca, an internal dispute divided the Inca people. One group allied with Pizarro, and the other group retreated to a remote area of the Andes where they resisted the Spanish for many years. Control of the vast South American empire eventually passed into Spanish hands, however.

Postconquest American Indian society. To maintain control over the conquered American Indians, Spanish military forces often went to desperate lengths to wipe out American Indian cultures. They tore down Indian temples, destroyed Indian art, and reorganized Indian settlements. American Indian cultures were not completely destroyed, however. They live on in the people and customs of most modern Latin American nations today. Some American Indians resisted the influence of Spanish culture. Others realized that survival of their heritage meant the mixing of Spanish and American Indian culture. Some Indian tribes eagerly adopted European trading goods such as cattle, horses, and tools. Many Indians created a new religion by mixing their practices with Catholic rituals. Over time, both American Indians and Spaniards adopted elements of the other’s language and customs. Eventually, a new culture emerged that blended ingredients of American Indian and Spanish ways of life.


How did the Inca respond to the conquest?


2

3. Categorizing Copy the flow-

circumnavigate conquistadores

2. Identify and explain: Treaty of Tordesillas Vasco Núñez de Balboa Ferdinand Magellan Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca Hernán Cortés Malintzin Moctezuma II Francisco Pizarro

People Encountered

Magellan

Cabeza de Vaca

Catholicism. Father Valverde discussed his Catholic faith with Atahualpa and the Inca. What differences can you see between Father Valverde and Atahualpa?

REVIEW 4.

chart below. List the explorers who came to the Americas, the peoples they encountered (if any), and the outcome of their explorations. Explorer


Finding the Main Idea a. Why did the Spanish explorers come to the Americas? How did their motives shape their actions? b. What were the attitudes of the Spanish and Portuguese toward the American Indians? c. How could the actions of some American Indians be seen as an attempt to preserve their culture?

Result

5.

Writing and Critical Thinking Summarizing Write a paragraph explaining how Cortés used various aspects of Aztec culture and society to help him conquer the Aztec Empire. Consider:

Cortés

• how the Aztec ruled their subjects • what role the Aztec religion played in Cortés’s

Pizarro

• how Malintzen helped Cortés to defeat the Aztec

conquest



45

SECTION

3 READ TO DISCOVER 1. Where did the Spanish establish settlements in North America? 2. How did missions, haciendas, and ranchos aid Spanish rule? 3. Which elements of Spanish culture affected the Americas? DEFINE viceroyalties peons IDENTIFY Pedro Menéndez de Avilés Juan de Oñate Popé Pueblo Revolt Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo Junípero Serra Juana Inés de la Cruz WHY IT MATTERS TODAY Traditional Spanish culture continues to exert widespread influence throughout the America. Use or other current events sources to find modern examples of Spanish influence on art, architecture, culture, or religion. Record your findings in your journal.

46

CHAPTER 2

The Spanish Settle the Americas “

Believing [the] land to be an island, they named it La Florida . . . because they discovered it at the season, which the Spaniards call Pascua Florida [the Floral Passover]. . . . Ponce . . . went ashore to discover and take possession.

”

—Antonio de Herrera, quoted in The European Discovery of America, by Samuel Eliot Morison

Antonio de Herrera, Spain’s official historian at the time, described the European claim of Florida by the crew of a red-haired conquistador named Juan Ponce de León. In the The search for the spring of 1513 the crew set sail northward from the islands “Fountain of Youth” of the Caribbean. The goal of this voyage was to find the legendary “Fountain of Youth”—rumored to be on an island north of Cuba. After sighting land, the fleet sailed along the coastline seeking a safe harbor and finally anchored near shore on April 2. Florida quickly became an important base for the Spanish, who used the newly discovered strong current of the Gulf Stream to give their ships a powerful boost on their way back to Europe. However, Ponce de León never found his Fountain of Youth.

Spanish Settlements in North America The explorations and conquests of Hernán Cortés, Francisco Pizarro, and others enabled Spain to claim vast portions of the Americas. Over the next two centuries, the Spanish fanned out from Mexico City—the center of their North American empire called New Spain—and from their island colonies in the Caribbean. Armed with the soldier’s sword and the priest’s cross, they went to gain riches and to spread the Roman Catholic faith.

Florida. By the early 1500s the Spanish already had turned their attention to La Florida. This was a territory encompassing the entire eastern seaboard from present-day Florida to Newfoundland. Because Spanish ships from the Caribbean often sailed up the Atlantic coast on their way back to Europe, Spain wanted to establish settlements to provide safe harbors. One early attempt to establish a permanent settlement in Florida took place in 1526. Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón (yl-YAWN) led some 500 colonists from Hispaniola to a site believed to be on the coast of either present-day Georgia or South Carolina. The expedition, which included families, missionaries, and African slaves, built San Miguel de Gualdape (gwahl-DAHP-ay). The colony did not survive the first winter, however. Sick and too weak to farm or to catch fish, nearly two thirds of the settlers perished. The others straggled back to Hispaniola in early 1527. Attempts to establish a colony farther south along the Florida coast met with other difficulties. American Indian groups living in the area—including the Apalachee, Calusa, and Timucua (tim-uh-KOOUH)—fought the Spanish to prevent

New Mexico and Arizona. Some 1,500 miles west of

Spanish Wealth from the Americas 35 Pesos (in millions)

them from settling there. In 1565, however, an expedition led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés (may-NAYN-days day ah-bee-LAYS) at last succeeded in securing a permanent settlement in Florida. This settlement was St. Augustine, the oldest city established by Europeans within the boundaries of the present-day United States.

30 25 20 15 10

15 16 –1 52 0 15 36 –1 54 0 15 56 –1 56 0 15 76 –1 58 0 15 96 –1 60 0 16 16 –1 62 0 16 36 –1 64 0 16 56 –1 66 0

St. Augustine, Juan de Oñate established the first Spanish 5 settlement in New Mexico in 1598. Under Oñate’s leader0 ship, Spanish forces set out to explore and conquer all the lands and Indians in the area. Oñate resigned as governor Years in 1607 and seven years later was convicted of cruelty, Source: Earl J. Hamilton, American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501–1650 immorality, and lying while he had been in office. In 1609 the newly appointed governor of New Mexico, Interpreting Graphs The Spanish treasury grew with millions of pesos worth of gold and silver taken Pedro de Peralta (pay-RAHL-tah), established New Mexico’s from the Americas during the 1500s and 1600s. capital at Santa Fe. From this outpost, the Spanish maintained a fragile hold on the northernmost borderland of ? Skills Assessment During which time period did Spain receive the greatest amount of wealth New Spain for more than 200 years. The Pueblo Indians from the Americas? and the Spanish struggled bitterly for control of this territory. The Pueblo resented Spanish demands that they pay taxes and convert to Catholicism. In 1680 the Pueblo drove the Spanish out of Santa Fe. Under the leadership of Popé (poh-PAY), a Pueblo prophet, the Pueblo launched a series of attacks against Spanish settlers. By the time the Pueblo Revolt had ended, some 400 Spaniards lay dead, and some 2,000 settlers had fled south. After the American Indians drove the Spanish out, Pueblo witnesses recalled the scene. History Makers Speak

“Popé . . . ordered . . . that they instantly break up and burn . . .

everything pertaining to Christianity. . . . They were ordered likewise not to teach the Castilian [Spanish] language in any pueblo and to burn the seeds which the Spaniards sowed and to plant only maize and beans, which were the crops of their ancestors.

”

To halt the growing influence of Spanish settlers, Pueblo Indians turned to violence to drive the Spanish settlers from Sante Fe.

—Pueblo captive, quoted in Kiva, Cross, and Crown, by John L. Kessell

Popé hoped that the destruction of all traces of Spanish culture would help the Pueblo recover their way of life. The Pueblo regained control of their territory only temporarily, however. In the 1690s New Mexico’s new governor, Diego de Vargas, re-established Spanish rule. At the same time, the Spanish began moving into present-day Arizona. Father Eusebio Kino (yoo-sayb-yoh KEE-noh) built missions near presentday Nogales (noh-GAHL-es) in 1687 and Tucson in 1700. Kino also explored the southern reaches of the Colorado River. During the 1700s fears of French and British expansion prompted the Spanish to intensify their colonization of the southwestern United States. They established forts called presidios and religious communities called missions in addition to large ranches, villages, and towns. The Spanish influences on the Southwest can still be seen in the many Spanish place names and in the culture of the region. EMPIRES OF THE AMERICAS

47

Texas. Despite the early explorations of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and others,

GER CO

LLECTION

, NEW YO

RK

Spanish settlement in present-day Texas proceeded slowly. The first permanent Spanish colony was founded at Ysleta (ees-LE-tuh) in 1682 by settlers driven from New Mexico by the Pueblo Revolt. By 1690 France’s colonizing activity in North America spurred Spain to strengthen its hold on Texas. Spanish missionaries established the San Francisco de los Tejas mission near the Neches (NE-chuhz) River in 1690. They built the San Antonio de Valero mission in 1718. Several other settlements emerged along the lower Rio Grande. However, lack of mineral resources and constant raids by the Apache and the Comanche Indians slowed settlement.

THE GRAN

California. California was the last of Spain’s territories in North America to be col-

Friar Junípero Serra helped to spread Christianity to American Indians by establishing missions throughout California.

onized. Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo (kah-BREE-yoh) explored much of the California coastline for Spain as early as 1542. Spanish leaders did not attempt to set up permanent settlements in the region until the late 1700s, when they became alarmed by Russian explorations in northern California. In 1769 Gaspar de Portolá (pawrtoh-LAH) founded San Diego. Seven years later Juan Bautista de Anza (bow-TEEstah day AHN-sah) founded San Francisco. Friar Junípero Serra (hoo-NEE-pay-roh SER-rah), a scholarly Franciscan missionary, came to California with de Portolá’s expedition. Serra founded a mission at San Diego and established eight more missions along the Pacific coast.


What types of settlements did the Spanish establish in

North America?

Changing Ways

Hispanics in America

■ Understanding Change

Since the 1500s, when the first Spanish colonist arrived to settle in what is now known as the United States, Spanish-speaking immigrants have maintained a significant presence. Today the Hispanic population continues to grow, influencing American culture. Approximately how large is the Hispanic population in the United States today? What differences do you see in these two images of Hispanic families?

THEN

Hispanic America Population (in millions)

30 25

Spanish immigration to the Americas Hispanics in the United States

20 15 10 5 0 Then

48

CHAPTER 2

Now

Sources: Cambridge Atlas of International Migration; History of Latin America; Statistical Record of Hispanic Americans. Data represents 1506–1650 and 2000.

NOW

The Spanish Empire By 1780 Spanish America comprised one of the largest colonial empires the world had ever known. Within its vast borders were lands of rich diversity.

Colonial government. To oversee this empire, Spain organized its territory into large provinces called viceroyalties. New Spain and Peru were the first viceroyalties formed. Then, in the mid-1700s, two more viceroyalties were added. New Granada stretched from Panama to Ecuador and Venezuela, while La Plata comprised Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay. The king appointed a viceroy to oversee each viceroyalty and to supervise lesser officials. Viceroys ruled as the king’s personal representatives, but they also were advised by a council—the audiencia—whose members reported directly and privately to the king of Spain. The king’s Council of the Indies, a group of government officials based in Spain, oversaw the entire American empire. Colonial government worked better in theory than in practice. Orders issued by the Crown or the Catholic Church in Spain had to be carried thousands of miles by messenger—first by ship and then by horseback or on foot—to the distant outposts of the empire. Although government officials in Spanish America often became impatient with the delays and made their own decisions, they were rarely penalized. Encomenderos also frequently exercised independence and ignored the orders of the viceroy. In the 1540s Francisco Pizarro’s brother Gonzalo murdered Peru’s first viceroy. Later viceroys learned to ignore unpopular orders from the king, following the practice “I obey but I do not execute.” Colonists, particularly those in the remote corners of the empire, usually organized their own settlements and established independent local governments.


Catholicism. One of the main goals of Spanish settlers in North America was to convert American Indians to Catholicism. In this image of the baptism of Indians, why do you think that Spanish settlers would carry weapons during the ceremony?

Missions. The Catholic Church played a central role in the Spanish exploration and settlement of the Americas. Priests usually accompanied the conquistadores, and missions became a common form of Spanish settlement. Spain’s King Philip II issued the Royal Orders for New Discoveries in 1573. He declared that “preaching the gospel . . . is the principal purpose for which we order new . . . settlements to be made.” The Royal Orders commanded priests to teach Catholicism as well as “the use of . . . bread, silk, linen, horses, cattle, tools, and weapons.” More than 150 of these Spanish missions were established in the present-day United States. At the center of each mission stood a simple church, surrounded by living quarters and workshops where American Indians worked at blacksmithing, weaving, and other crafts. In fields nearby, missionaries and Indians raised cattle and grew grain, grapes, and other crops. The missionaries labored to convert American Indians to Catholicism. They also wanted to teach them Spanish ways and to make them loyal Spanish subjects. In their zeal, however, the missionaries often pushed Indian culture aside and enforced a harsh labor system resembling the encomienda. Some American Indians adapted by combining European customs with their own cultural practices. Many Indians, however, resented the forced labor and harsh discipline and fled from the missions. Many others died from European diseases against which they had no immunity. EMPIRES OF THE AMERICAS

49

Spanish America in 1785

Haciendas and ranchos. Outside

Interpreting Maps For more than 300 years the Spanish ruled lands that stretched from northern California to Chile in South America.

? LOCATE Which viceroyalty included lands that are now part of the United States?

NEW

M T

45° N

S.

HI AN

TS. YM CK RO

NORTH AMERICA

Mississippi AP PA L

AC

San Francisco R. SPAIN Monterey Santa Fe San Xavier del Bac Albuquerque San Diego ATLANTIC Ysleta Nogales FLORIDA San Antonio St. Augustine La Bahía OCEAN Monterrey Gulf of Havana Mexico CUBA HISPANIOLA Mexico City

N

E

W

Equator 0°

n R. A m az o

A ND

S

ES

SOUTH AMERICA BRAZIL

Lima

PERU

Capital of viceroyalty

Tropic of Capricorn

Asunción

City or Spanish settlement

RÍO DE LA PLATA

CHILE 0

750 750

15° S

La Paz

Mission

0

Tropic of Cancer 15° N

CARIBBEAN SEA Portobelo Santa Fe de Bogotá NEW GRANADA Quito

PACIFIC OCEAN

30° N

1,500 Miles

Buenos Aires

30° S

Río de la Plata

1,500 Kilometers

Patagonia

Miller Projection

45° S

Cape Horn 120°W

105°W

90° W

75° W

60° W

45° W

30° W

the missions, the Spanish government divided land into farming and ranching estates. Haciendas, some consisting of hundreds of thousands of acres, were the largest. Smaller farms and ranches were called ranchos. Peons, or landless laborers—most of whom were American Indians—worked on the haciendas. In theory, hacienda owners paid the peons, who were free to come and go as they wished. In reality, however, many landowners controlled the workers through debt. Hacienda owners required the peons to purchase daily necessities from the hacienda store, usually at inflated prices. Before they could seek employment elsewhere, workers had to pay off their debts—an impossible task for many. In addition, children often had to assume the debts of their deceased parents. Most rancho owners lived on their land and worked alongside their laborers. Skilled Spanish horsemen called vaqueros (vah-KER-ohs) drove the cattle on haciendas and ranchos. Developing the lasso and the rodeo, their lifestyle became a model for later North American cowboys.


How

did Spain govern in the Americas?


Daily Life in Spanish America

In this early-1800s watercolor, a hacienda owner meets a vaquero.

50

CHAPTER 2

Spanish America maintained a unique social structure. Peninsulares (pay-nin-sooLAHR-ays), Spaniards born in Spain, and criollos (kree-OH-yohs), Spaniards born in the colonies, held the most privileged positions in the Americas. Many lived in huge houses with servants and owned businesses and haciendas. Spaniards held high government positions and studied law, medicine, or theology. Beneath the Spaniards in social status were mestizos (me-STEE-zohs), men and women born of European and Indian parents. Some mestizos had the opportunity to acquire high-level positions in Spanish American society. Most mestizos, however, lived modestly as artisans, estate supervisors, shopkeepers, or traders. Mulattoes—people of African and European ancestry—held a status roughly equal to that of the mestizos. At the bottom of the social structure were American Indians, Africans, and zambos—people of Indian and African ancestry. These groups were legally

prevented from holding public office and certain jobs. Most Indians became farmers or farm laborers, although some made a living as sailors, tavernkeepers, or wagon drivers. Most enslaved Africans worked as hacienda supervisors or as artisans. Women’s roles were also determined by ethnic or family background. Spanish women—who made up just some 10 percent of colonists in the early 1500s— maintained a degree of economic independence because they could own property. In addition, many managed family businesses, ranchos, and haciendas, either with their husbands or, if widowed, by themselves. Many wealthy Spanish women learned to cook, read, sew, and write either at home or in boarding schools called house-homes. There were few opportunities for women to pursue higher education. One Spanish American woman, Juana Inés de la Cruz, did become well educated. Born near Mexico City in 1651 as Juana Inés de Asbaje, she learned to read by the age of seven. Dreaming of furthering her education, she pleaded with her mother that she “might study and Juana Inés de la Cruz take courses at the university” located in Mexico City. Her mother refused, but Asbaje nevertheless decided to educate herself. She “found a way to read many different books my grandfather owned,” as she later wrote.

Free Find: Juana Inés de la Cruz After reading the biography on Juana Inés de la Cruz on the Holt Researcher CD–ROM, write a short essay describing the freedoms and restrictions women faced in the new Spanish colonies.

AMERICAN

ARTS

S

Spanish Architecture in the Southwest

panish colonization left a lasting mark on the architecture of the Americas, particularly in the present-day southwestern United States. The Spanish influence on architecture stems from missionaries who oversaw the construction of impressive structures designed to help convert the local American Indians to Catholicism. The Spanish built dozens of missions in Arizona, California, New Mexico, and Texas during the 1600s and 1700s. They reflected many European styles. The architecture of some Spanish missions has its roots in the baroque style popular in Europe during the late 1500s and beyond. Baroque architecture often uses strong contrasts of light and shadow that create dramatic effects. Elaborate detail, individualism, and spirituality also are important characteristics of the baroque style. The church at Mission Concepción (kawn-sep-SYAWN)—one of several missions established

near San Antonio, Texas, in the early 1700s—is an excellent example of Spanish colonial architecture. Its Romanesque forms and gothic arches are typical of other Spanish missions built in the Americas. Mission Concepción

Understanding the Arts 1. What aspects of the baroque style did the Spanish missions incorporate? 2. Describe some of the unique architectural features of Mission Concepción.


51

In 1669 Asbaje decided to enter the San Jerónimo convent, taking the name Sor (Sister) Juana Inés de la Cruz. Convents in Mexico during the 1600s did not require the same isolated living conditions as convents in Europe. Nuns at San Jerónimo worked in a pleasant and relaxed atmosphere where they entertained visitors, cooked extraordinary feasts, and enjoyed playing music. The convent also offered women the freedom to study. For 25 years de la Cruz read extensively in the humanities and sciences, accumulating a large library. During this time she also became a popular poet in Mexico, publishing two volumes of poetry. Her plays were performed for many wealthy nobles. “Of all my country,” de la Cruz wrote, “I was the venerated [honored] figure, one of those idols that inspire the general applause.” One of de la Cruz’s poems explains her choice of scholarly pursuits. Primary Source

This selection cannot be included in this publication i because the copyright holder has denied permission and/or

Published 20 years after her death, this title page to a second edition of a volume of poetry by Juana Inés de la Cruz describes her as the muse, or poet, of Mexico.

has electronic use restrictions with which we cannot comply.

In 1695 de la Cruz died after contracting a disease from sick nuns whom she was helping. Many scholars consider her the greatest American poet of the 1600s. Few women obtained an education equal to the status of nuns like de la Cruz. Most African, Indian, and mestizo women learned useful traditional skills at home such as cooking, pottery making, and weaving.



3

3. Summarizing Copy the

viceroyalties peons

2. Identify and explain:

What was daily life in Spanish America like for women?

REVIEW 4.

pyramid below. List the different classes in Spanish American society and explain what role each class played in daily life.

Pedro Menéndez de Avilés Juan de Oñate Popé Pueblo Revolt Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo Junípero Serra Juana Inés de la Cruz

Finding the Main Idea a. What led to the Pueblo Revolt? How successful was it?

b. Where and when did Spanish colonists found settlements in North America?

c. How did the Spanish use missions, haciendas, and ranchos to administer their empire in the Americas?

5.

Writing and Critical Thinking Evaluating Imagine that you are a Spanish priest visiting the Americas in the 1700s. Write a report evaluating the effectiveness of the mission system. Consider:

• the purpose of the missions • how American Indians responded to efforts to convert them into Catholics

• to what extent American Indians continued their Homework Practice Online keyword: SD3 HP2

52

CHAPTER 2

traditional cultural practices

SECTION

4 READ TO DISCOVER 1. How did the Protestant Reformation affect colonization? 2. Why was the defeat of the Spanish Armada significant? 3. How did the English attempt colonization? 4. How did the growth of Jamestown affect relations between American Indians and settlers? DEFINE inflation indentured servant IDENTIFY John Cabot Northwest Passage Protestant Reformation Martin Luther Francis Drake Spanish Armada Walter Raleigh Charter of 1606 John Smith Powhatan Wahunsonacock Pocahontas John Rolfe WHY IT MATTERS TODAY People from different cultures still fight each other because their beliefs are different. Use or other current events sources to learn about a world conflict involving cultures with different beliefs. Record your findings in your journal.

The English in North America “

[John Cabot is given the right] to subdue, occupy and possess . . . Isles, countries, regions or provinces of the [American Indians] . . . unknown to all Christians. . . . [And to share] their fruits, profits, [and] gains.

”

—King Henry VII

In 1497 King Henry VII of England commissioned Italian seafarer Giovanni Caboto, also known as John Cabot, to seek out and claim land in North America for England. In the dark hours of the morning of June 24, 1497, Cabot’s crew made landfall on the shores of what John Cabot sets is now known as Newfoundland. After carefully guiding sail from England his small ship through treacherous fog and ice, the experienced mariner went ashore and claimed the area for England. Cabot and his crew chose not to land again on this voyage, however. Fearing hostility from American Indians, Cabot believed his small crew should not explore inland any farther than the range of a crossbow from his ship. A more fierce enemy, perhaps, may have been the swarms of huge, disease-carrying mosquitoes that bred in the melting snow on Newfoundland’s rocky shores. In 1498 Cabot returned to sail along the coasts of present-day Nova Scotia and New England in exchange for a small amount of money and trading privileges from the king.

Early Claims Shortly after Christopher Columbus’s first voyage, other mariners, such as John Cabot, joined the search for a route to Asia. As a result, geographic knowledge of the Americas slowly grew. Vasco Núñez de Balboa’s sighting of the Pacific Ocean and Ferdinand Magellan’s voyage around the tip of South America motivated nonSpanish explorers to seek a northern route to the Pacific and thus to Asia. The explorers hoped the discovery of a Northwest Passage would break the Spanish monopoly. Such a passage does not exist, although many European claims in North America resulted from failed attempts to find it. The voyages of Giovanni da Verrazano (vayr-raht-SAHN-oh) and Jacques Cartier (kahr-tyay) formed the basis for later French claims in North America. Verrazano, an Italian, failed in 1524 to find a westward water route to Asia. He did, however, claim for France lands along North America’s east coast. About 10 years later, Cartier explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the St. Lawrence River as far west as present-day Montreal. Cartier’s attempts to start a settlement were unsuccessful, but his efforts strengthened French claims to what is now Canada. While Spain began settlement in Central and South America as well as parts of North America during the 1500s, other European powers laid claim to trading posts in North America. They chose, however, not to establish permanent colonies. EMPIRES OF THE AMERICAS

53

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION

M

artin Luther, a German Catholic priest, launched the Protestant Reformation in 1517 when he published his Ninety- five Theses, challenging many practices of the Catholic Church. This included the sale of indulgences. Catholics who paid money to the church were granted indulMartin Luther gences, or promises that preaching loved ones who had died would move more quickly into heaven. Luther wrote in his 94th and 95th theses that “Christians must be exhorted [urged] to follow Christ their head with utter devotion through punishment, through death, through hell.” Said Luther, “In this way let them have confidence that they will enter heaven through many tribulations [challenges], rather than through a false assurance of peace.” Luther’s refusal to take back his teachings led to his excommunication, or formal expulsion, from the Catholic Church and condemnation by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. As a result, he fled into hiding, where he wrote pamphlets on religious reform and translated the New Testament into German. He devoted the rest of his life to religious writing and the organization of the alternative church he founded. Luther’s ideas spread throughout northern and eastern Europe and eventually led to dramatic political and cultural transformations. Supporters of the Reformation called for increased literacy and encouraged people to read the Bible themselves. Some new congregations also rejected the assigned leadership of the Catholic Church and began electing their own clergy.

54

CHAPTER 2

At that time, most European countries were still more concerned with reaching Asia than with organizing settlements. Since the French and the English were more concerned with domestic issues and events in Europe, nearly a century passed before these nations successfully colonized North America. The delay in colonization efforts can also be attributed to the religious upheaval known as the Protestant Reformation. The Reformation began in the German city of Wittenberg in 1517, when a priest named Martin Luther protested against corruption in the Roman Catholic Church. Protests quickly spread to other areas of Europe. Reformers established a number of Protestant churches as alternatives to Catholicism. This conflict between Protestants and Catholics became not only a religious struggle but also a territorial and political one. For a time, the Reformation commanded Europe’s attention. France, for example, was too involved with a civil war between Catholics and Protestants (1562–98) to follow up on its claims in North America until the 1600s. During the Reformation, Spain, the most powerful nation in Europe, clung to the Catholic faith. Other countries, such as England, officially became Protestant states. This division led to a drawn-out conflict between the two nations as each tried to achieve religious and political dominance in Europe.


Why were the

English and French slow to colonize the Americas?

England Challenges Spain The earliest challenges to Spain’s American empire came in the late 1500s. European pirates—particularly the English “sea dogs”—began attacking Spanish galleons and seizing their cargoes of treasure as they left the Americas. One highly successful sea dog was Francis Drake. In 1577 Drake ventured from England with a fleet of swift, heavily armed vessels on a voyage of exploration and piracy against Spanish ships in the Americas. Queen Elizabeth I embraced Drake as a hero, knighting him on the deck of his pirate ship. The queen’s action naturally angered King Philip II of Spain, who viewed Drake’s actions as a challenge to Spanish power. Determined to strike back, King Philip assembled a massive fleet of some 130 ships and some 27,000 men, known as the Spanish Armada, to invade England. In 1588 most of the Armada sailed to the port of Calais, France, just across the Strait of Dover from England. There they waited for additional troops. The Spanish had a fearsome reputation in Europe for their well-armed military. However, England’s sea captains skillfully used the speed of their smaller, newly constructed ships to great advantage. They propelled burning ships toward the Armada,

whose ships quickly became separated and more vulnerable to attack. As the Spanish ships attempted to flee, a furious storm developed, damaging the battered fleet. Only about half of the original Spanish Armada returned to Spain. The failure of the Armada in 1588 revealed Spanish naval weaknesses. By the 1600s Spanish economic weaknesses became apparent as well. With tons of colonial silver flowing into its treasury, Spain seemed quite prosperous. The prosperity was deceptive, because the Spanish used most of the silver to buy goods from other countries. John Campbell, an English writer, explained: History Makers Speak

“[Spanish] galleons bring the silver into Spain, but . . . it runs out

as fast as it comes in. . . . The silver . . . and very little of the goods or manufactures . . . belong to the subjects of the crown of Spain. It is evident, therefore, . . . that the greatest part of the returns from the West Indies belong to . . . [foreigners].

”

—John Campbell, The Spanish Empire in America

Some historians believe that the steady flow of resources and silver from the Americas caused inflation, or an increase in prices, throughout Europe. When the flow of silver and resources slowed in the 1600s, Spain found itself with little currency to buy imported goods. In addition, the Spanish government had taken out loans from other countries to fight its endless wars. These debts and the weak Spanish economy prevented Spain from carrying out new plans for further North American colonization. As a result, Spain’s weaknesses opened the way for the Dutch, English, and French to begin colonization.


With the continual flow of silver from the colonies to European markets, the value of Spanish silver coins such as this one plummeted during the 1600s.

How did the defeat of the Spanish Armada

affect the Americas?

England’s First Attempts at Colonization Even before the shattering defeat of the Spanish Armada, English adventurers had planned to colonize the lands claimed by John Cabot and others. They were eager to develop profitable commerce with the Americas. Sir Humphrey Gilbert sailed to Newfoundland in 1583 to start an English colony, but on the return voyage he and his ship were lost in a storm. The following year Gilbert’s half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, explored the Atlantic seaboard for a suitable site to colonize. He named the area that he chose Virginia, in honor of Elizabeth, the “Virgin Queen.” In 1585 Raleigh sent a small group of colonists to Virginia. They settled on Roanoke Island, off the coast of present-day North Carolina. After almost a year of hardship, the colonists returned to England. In 1587 Raleigh tried again, sending about 100 people, including women and children, under the command of John White. After establishing a new Roanoke colony, White headed back to England for supplies. Events in Europe delayed White’s return. When he finally reached Roanoke in 1590, all he found were the words CRO and CROTOAN carved near the settlement. Crotoan was the American Indian name for an island off the coast. Searchers found no other trace of the colonists. The fate of the “Lost Colony” remains a mystery. After that, English


Colonial life. This watercolor of American Indians fishing from a dugout canoe was painted by John White between 1585 and 1587. What is White suggesting about the availability of food and the ingenuity of Indians in this illustration?


55

European Exploration of North America, 1513–1682 Interpreting Maps European explorers sought a northern trade route that would take them to the spices of Asia and to the cities of gold in North America.

?

PHYSICAL SYSTEMS Identify a common feature of all European settlements

7– 49

NORTH AMERICA

M i s s o ur i

–3 5

16 N

AI

PL

°N

NEW FRANCE

s ke

Hudson R. R. i Jamestown h O Chesapeake VIRGINIA Bay SOTO DE 9–42 Roanoke 3 5 o

1 528

e Z

NARV Á

E

1

COR

Dutch exploration

T É S 15

NO

40° W

Tro

pi

er nc Ca f co °N

20

151 3

CUBA

7

ZA

15 84

nd

AK 57

E

Fort Caroline St. Augustine PO NC ED EL EÓ N

RA

H

G ra

Gulf of Mexico

°N

30

4 1 52

ATLANTIC OCEAN

1

Mississippi R.

CABEZA DE VACA 1528–36

DR

Spanish exploration

V ER

–82

42

English exploration French exploration

NOVA SCOTIA

Plymouth

167 9

– NADO 1 5 40 RO

LA SALLE

1542 120° W

MARQUETTE AND JOLLIET 1673

R. do ra

Ri o

O

CO

IL

130° W

N 10°

19 60° W

English settlement

Spanish settlement

CH

30° W

Q GreaSt. Lawrence R. Quebec t Montreal La

R.

CABR

Col o

H

French settlement

I

Gulf of St. Lawrence

150° W

140° W

RT

40

PACIFIC OCEAN

CA

NEWFOUNDLAND

AM

Hudson Bay

20° W

RA LE IG

160° W

03 – 15

T1

34

E

15

S

1

610–1

ON 1

HUDS

ER

N

CA

W

BO

170° W

10° W

98

HUDSON 1609

180°

50° N

Ar Cir ctic cle

60°

N

in North America.

0 0

500 500

CARIBBEAN SEA

1,000 Miles

50° W

80° W

1,000 Kilometers


110° W

70° W

PANAMA 100° W

90° W

SOUTH AMERICA

r 0°

ato

Equ

officials began to focus more on issues and problems existing in England. More than 25 years would pass before the next English colonization effort. King James I issued the Charter of 1606, which licensed the Plymouth Company and the London Company to organize settlements in Virginia. The two groups were joint-stock companies, in which investors shared operating costs as well as any profits or losses. The charter gave the companies the right to establish settlements and “to dig, mine, and search for all manner of mines of gold, silver, and copper.” The Plymouth Company was given the right to settle anywhere between the 38th and 45th parallels—from present-day Virginia to Maine. The London Company could settle anywhere between the 34th and 41st parallels, from present-day South Carolina to New York.

✔ READING CHECK: Making Generalizations attempts fail?

56

CHAPTER 2

Why did England’s early colonization

The Experiment at Jamestown

ANGER COLLECT ION, NEW YO THE GR RK

The first permanent English settlers—some 100 men recruited by the London Company—reached Virginia in the spring of 1607. They chose a location near one of the rivers along Chesapeake Bay for their settlement, naming it Jamestown in honor of their king.

The early years. Unfortunately, Jamestown was located on a low, wooded peninsula near a marsh infested with diseasecarrying mosquitoes. Disease, exposure to the elements, and starvation killed many people the first year. The settlers elected Captain John Smith—an adventurous explorer, mapmaker, and soldier—as president of the council of settlers in 1608. Smith quickly made plans for strengthening the colony. The help of local American Indians, called Powhatan by the English, prevented total disaster. The Powhatan actually consisted of a large confederation of some 30 small tribes under the leadership of Wahunsonacock (wah-hoohn-SUH-nuhkahk). They were skilled in agriculture and fishing. The Powhatan gave the settlers food and taught them how to cultivate corn—a crop new to the English. An Indian ally. Pocahontas, the favorite daughter of Wahunsonacock, gave invaluable help to the English colonists. Although she was young—10 or 12 years old—when the colonists arrived, Pocahontas became an important intermediary between the English and the Powhatan. She frequently visited Jamestown, bringing food and gifts and establishing trade between Pocahontas the two groups. Pocahontas charmed and fascinated the colonists. In 1608 Captain Smith wrote that in personality Pocahontas “much exceedeth any of the rest” of the local Indians. Smith once described his capture by the Powhatan and subsequent rescue by Pocahontas when she “hazarded the beating out of her own brains” by throwing herself over his body to prevent his execution. Despite historians’ doubts about this romantic legend, Pocahontas did play a vital role in maintaining peace between the Powhatan and the English. As a mutually trusted intermediary, she negotiated the release of Powhatan prisoners and protected the colonists from her father’s anger during disputes. Nevertheless, relations with the Powhatan grew more strained after Smith returned to England, and Pocahontas no longer voluntarily visited the settlement. Desperate for food in the harsh winter of 1609–10, the English raided local American Indian villages. They stole food, burned shelters, and killed many of the Indians. Captured by colonists in 1613, Pocahontas spent the following year as a welltreated hostage in Jamestown. During this time, she converted to Christianity and was baptized as “the Lady Rebecca.” Her marriage in 1614 to colonist John Rolfe temporarily brought an end to the fighting between the colonists and the Powhatan. In June 1616 the Indian princess traveled to England with her husband and infant son, Thomas. She died suddenly in England in March 1617.


Pocahontas. Pocahontas assisted the English colonists of Jamestown, bringing them corn and other goods and mediating the relationship between the colonists and the Powhatan. How does this image reflect Pocahontas’s role in helping the colonists?

Free Find: Pocahontas After reading about Pocahontas on the Holt Researcher CD–ROM, write a short essay describing the way the Powhatan treated the English settlers of Jamestown.


57

The Early Colonial Experience Life as an early settler in the English colonies proved extremely difficult for most people. Individuals had significantly different experiences, however, depending on their social standing. In the first of the following two letters written by colonists, John Pory, the secretary of the Jamestown colony, notes the beginnings of the cultivation of tobacco. The second letter, written by indentured servant Richard Frethorne, reveals the harsh reality of early colonial life for many people.

A Letter to “The Right Honorable and My Singular Good Lord” September 30, 1619

Letter to his Father and Mother: March 20, April 2 and 3, 1623

by John Pory

Loving and kind father and mother my most humble Farm tool duty remembered. . . . This is to let you understand that I your child am in a most heavy case by reasons of the nature of the country is such that it causeth much sickness . . . and when we are sick there is nothing to comfort us; for since I came out of the ship, I never had any thing but peas, and loblollie (that is water gruell) as for deer or venison I never saw any since I came into this land, there is indeed some foul, but we are not allowed to go, and get it, but must work hard both early, and late for a mess of water gruel, and a mouthful of bread, and beef. . . . We live in fear of the enemy [Indians] every hour. . . . We are in great danger, for our Plantation is very weak, by reason of the death, and sickness, of our Company. [A friend] much marveled that you would send me [as] a servant to the Company, he saith I had been better knocked on the head, and indeed so I find it now to my great grief and misery, and saith, that if you love me you will redeem [free] me suddenly, for which I do intreat and beg.

As touching the quality of this country, three things there be, which in few years may bring this Colony to perfection; the English plough, Vineyards, & Cattle. . . . We have had this year a plentiful crop of English wheat. . . . In July last so soon as we had reaped this self-sown wheat, we set Indian corn upon the same ground, which is come up in great abundance; and so by this means we are to enjoy two crops in one year from off one & the same field. . . . All our riches for the present do consist in Tobacco, wherein one man by his own labor hath in one year, raised to himself to the value of 200 £ [pounds] sterling; and another by the Tobacco leaves means of six servants hath cleared [earned] at one crop a thousand pound english. These be true, yet indeed rare examples, yet possible to be done by others. Our principal wealth (I should have said) consisteth in servants. . . . We are not the veriest [greatest] beggars in the world, our Cow-keeper here of James city on Sundays goes acowtered [dressed] all in fresh flaming silks and a wife of one . . . wears her rough beaver hat with a fair pearl hatband, and a silken suit.

58

CHAPTER 2

by Richard Frethorne

COLO

NIAL

IAM WILL

SB U R

G FO

N ATIO UND

UNDERSTANDING LITERATURE 1. What crops did the earliest English colonists grow? 2. What was life in the colonies like for Richard Frethorne? 3. How and why did the experiences of John Pory and Richard Frethorne differ?

Tobacco and prosperity. A major conflict between the American Indians and colonists arose over tobacco, a plant native to the Americas. Spanish and Portuguese sailors introduced tobacco to Europe about 1550. By the early 1600s the smoking of tobacco in pipes had become increasingly popular, suggesting a new enterprise for the struggling Virginia colonists. John Rolfe successfully introduced the desirable Caribbean tobacco to Virginia in 1612. Soon the Jamestown colonists were shipping large quantities of tobacco to England. To provide laborers for tobacco cultivation, Jamestown’s backers introduced the headright system. In this system, sponsors received 50 acres of land for each worker, or “head,” they paid to bring to Jamestown. The backers also set up indentured servitude, a new arrangement for bringing settlers to Jamestown. An indentured servant was bound for a period of years to the person who paid his or her way to America. At first, most of those who survived their term of service—far from a certainty in Jamestown—acquired land to work for themselves. As Jamestown’s population grew, the colonists’ tobacco farms expanded onto American Indian hunting grounds. The Indians viewed the taking of their lands as an act of war. In the spring of 1622, Indians attacked Jamestown’s outlying farmhouses, killing some 350 settlers—including John Rolfe—and burning most of the buildings. The English struck back fiercely. They even concluded one “peace conference” by murdering some 200 American Indians with poisoned wine. These actions brought an end to peace between the settlers and the Indians.


What successes and failures did the settlers at


Indentured servants. Hoping to gain land of their own, many debtors and poor workers from England traveled to the North American colonies as indentured servants. What type of work do you think this indentured servant is doing?

Jamestown experience?

SECTION 1. Define and explain: inflation indentured servant

2. Identify and explain: John Cabot Northwest Passage Protestant Reformation Martin Luther Francis Drake Spanish Armada Walter Raleigh Charter of 1606 John Smith Powhatan Wahunsonacock Pocahontas John Rolfe

4

3. Analyzing Information

REVIEW 4.

Copy the problem/solution chart below. List the problems that colonists encountered in Virginia and the solutions they and their allies devised to those problems.

colonization in the Americas?

b. What did the defeat of the Spanish Armada mean to Europe and to the settlement of North America?

c. Do you think that Pocahontas was an effective intermediary between the colonists and the American Indians? Provide examples from the text that support your position.

5.


a. How did the Protestant Reformation affect

Problems

Solutions


Writing and Critical Thinking Supporting a Point of View Write a brief speech supporting the English or Spanish method of colonization. Which was more effective in achieving its goals? Consider:

• what the Spanish colonization goals and methods were

• what the English colonization goals and methods were

• how well each country achieved its goals EMPIRES OF THE AMERICAS

59

CH C H APTE R

Review

2 Creating a Time Line

Reviewing Themes

Copy the time line below onto a sheet of paper. Above each date indicate which century the date falls within. Then complete the time line by filling in the events and dates from the chapter that you think were most significant. Pick three events and explain why you think they were significant. 1492

1600

1700

1800

1. Global Relations How did the outcome of the con-

flict between England and Spain affect colonization in the Americas? 2. Economics How did the Spanish and English colonization of the Americas affect the economies of Spain and England? 3. Culture How did differences in beliefs and values affect relations between Europeans and American Indians?

Writing a Summary Using standard grammar, spelling, sentence structure, and punctuation, write an overview of events in the chapter.

Identifying People and Ideas Identify the following terms or individuals and explain their significance. 1. Christopher Columbus 6. Pueblo Revolt 2. Treaty of Tordesillas 7. Juana Inés de la Cruz 3. encomienda 8. Protestant Reformation 4. conquistadores 9. Spanish Armada 5. Hernán Cortés 10. indentured servant

Understanding Main Ideas

Thinking Critically 1. Drawing Conclusions How did the arrival of

2.

3. 4. 5.

Catholic missionaries change the daily lives of American Indians? Making Predictions If the Spanish Armada had defeated the English in 1588, how would life in the Americas have been different? Identifying Points of View How did American Indians respond to European colonists? Contrasting What were the differences between Spanish and English methods of colonization? Supporting a Point of View If you were deciding whether to travel as an indentured servant to Jamestown in the 1600s, what factors would you take into account?

SECTION 1 (pp. 34–39) 1. What instructions did Spain give Christopher

Columbus and early settlers to guide them in their relationships with Native Americans? 2. What reforms did Bartolomé de Las Casas recommend to Spain? SECTION 2 (pp. 40–45) 3. How were the Aztec defeated? SECTION 3 (pp. 46–52) 4. How did Spain manage its American empire? 5. What were women’s roles in Spanish America? SECTION 4 (pp. 53–59) 6. How did tobacco affect the history of Jamestown?

60

CHAPTER 2

Writing About History Evaluating Write an essay evaluating Columbus’s first

voyage as a turning point in history. Use the following graphic to organize your thoughts.

Columbus’s Voyage

Short-Term Effects

Long-Term Effects

Interpreting Maps Study the map below. Then use it to help answer the questions that follow.

Early Settlement of the Chesapeake, 1607–1675

Analyzing Primary Sources Study the following comments Wahunsonacock made after Jamestown settlers began raiding Powhatan villages. Then answer the questions that follow.

N

E

W

S

Po 20 20

40 Kilometers

Ra

Albers Equal-Area Projection

pp

on

iv

iR iv

k

Ri

ve

r

er

yR

oc

n

ap

36°N

ake Bay

an

Ja

ke

have by love? Why should you destroy us, who have provided you with food? What can you get by war? We can hide our provisions and fly into the woods. Then you would famish because you had wronged your friends. . . . We are willing to supply your wants, if only you come in a friendly manner, not with swords and guns as if you were invading an enemy.

er

Ft. James

ah

un

tt

m

Ma

Pa

Ft. Royal

“Why should you take from us by force what you can

St. Marys City

a c Ri v er

sape

0

to m

40 Miles

Che

0

m e s Ri v

”

kR or

er Machot (Pamunkey Village) Ft. Ft. Orapax Y West Charles Werowocomoco Arrohateck Varina (Powhatan Village) ve Shirley Henrico r Bermuda Hundred Hundred Paspahegh Appamatuck Archer’s Hope tt Ft. A p p o m ar Jamestown e Smith’s v i Dale’s Henry R Martin’s Hundred Fort Gift Flowerdew am Kecoughtan Martin’s Hundred e sR Ft. Algernon 37°N Brandon

Indian village

OCEA

76°W

ATLANTIC

J

Fort

er

N

ox

i

iv

White settlement

2. Which statement most accurately summarizes information from the map? a. White settlements avoided areas where Indians lived. b. White settlements developed near Indian villages. c. Both white settlements and Indian villages were established far from the rivers. d. White settlements were completely independent and avoided trade with the Indian villages.

1. Why are most Indian villages and white settlements clustered near the James River?

3. Which statement best summarizes this passage? a. There are advantages to both groups if they cooperate. b. The Powhatan will steal from the British if the British continue to treat them as enemies. c. Wahunsonacock wants the colonists to return to Britain. d. Wahunsonacock wants to take British supplies by force. 4. These raids occurred after Captain John Smith returned to Britain. How might Smith’s absence have affected the colonists’ behavior?

Alternative Assessment Building Your Portfolio

U .S.

HISTORY

Economics Imagine that you are an Italian merchant in the 1500s. Create a map that details the trade routes between Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas during this period. Your map should use symbols to represent major items of trade as well as indicate the direction that certain goods travel around the world. Write five questions for other students to answer based on the map.

Internet Activity: go.hrw.com KEYWORD: SD3 AN2 Choose a topic on the empires of the Americas to:

• write a biography of Christopher Columbus. • use and create databases on the settlement at Jamestown.

• create a model of the Spanish settlement at St. Augustine.


61

AM ER I CA’S

The Columbian Exchange olumbus began an exchange of goods across the Atlantic Ocean that would transform the world. Europeans introduced familiar food crops and livestock to the Americas, hoping to transform the region into another Europe. American food plants were also quickly introduced into Africa, Asia, and Europe. Many of these plants were particularly useful because they produced high yields and could tolerate a NORTH PACIFIC wide range of climates. OCEAN

C

The Movement of Plants and Animals

NORTH AMERICA NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

Bluegrass. The state of Kentucky has long been known as the Bluegrass State because of the thousands of square miles of bluish-green grass that grows there. Kentucky Bluegrass originated as a European pasture and meadow grass. It was transplanted to North America in the 1700s.

Tropic of Cancer

Pets. Today dogs and cats are the most common Equator domestic pets in the United States. American Indians were raising dogs before contact with Europeans, but there were no domestic cats in North America until Europeans brought the first “house cat” around 1750.

The Columbian Exchange The Americas Food Plants

Other Plants

corn, potatoes, tomatoes, pumpkins/squash, beans (navy, lima, kidney, string), peppers (bell, chili), pineapples, peanuts, pecans, cashews, avocados, papayas, cocoa beans, vanilla beans, sweet potatoes, wild rice, cassava roots (tapioca) cotton, rubber, tobacco, marigolds

Animals turkeys, hummingbirds, rattlesnakes, gray and squirrels, guinea pigs, muskrats, potato Insects beetles

?

SOUTH AMERICA

Tropic of Capricorn

SOUTH Europe, Asia, & Africa PACIFIC

OCEAN wheat, oats, barley, soybeans, rice, radishes, lettuce, onions, okra, chickpeas, olives, grapes, peaches, pears, oranges, lemons, coffee, watermelons, 140°W 120°W bananas,100°W 160°W sugarcane

80°W

60°W 40°W

dandelions, crabgrass, couchgrass, Antarctic Circle bluegrass, roses, daisies cows, horses, hogs, goats, sheep, chickens, rabbits, domestic cats, Mediterranean fruitflies, honeybees, Japanese beetles, sparrows, starlings, mice, rats

20°W

AM E R I C A’S

Tomatoes and peppers. Many dishes popular in Italy and India today are made with tomatoes and peppers, products that originated in the Americas. Although tomatoes were brought to Europe in the 1500s, few Europeans ate them at first. Some people thought tomatoes were poisonous and grew them only for decoration. In India, vitamin-rich chili peppers became an important ingredient in curries and improved the diet of the poor.

ARCTIC OCEAN

80°N

Arctic Circle

EUROPE 40°N

20°N

AFRICA N

W

E S

Rice. Asiatic rice is believed to have originated in China as a grass plant, while African rice was developed independently from a similar plantNORTH in West Africa. RicePACIFIC eventually became a OCEAN popular dietary staple in the Americas. Rice grows particularly well in both East Asia and southeastern North America.

60°N

ASIA

INDIAN OCEAN 80°E

100°E

120°E 20°S

Map Legend

SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN 0

1,500

0

1,500

3,000 Miles

3,000 Kilometers

Robinson Projection

0°

20°E

ANTARCTICA

40°E

60°E

Climate

Vegetation

Humid Tropical Tropical Savanna Desert

Tropical rain forest

AUSTRALIA

Tropical grasslands with scattered trees Sparse, drought-resistant plants; many barren, rocky, or sandy areas Steppe Grassland, few trees Mediterranean Scrub, woodland, grassland Humid Mixed forest Subtropical Marine Temperate evergreen forest West Coast Humid Mixed forest Continental Subarctic Northern evergreen forest Tundra Moss, lichens, low shrubs Highland Forest to tundra vegetation, varies with altitude 80°S

40°S

GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

HUMAN SYSTEMS 140°E

160°E 1. How 60°S did Europeans influence the popu-

larity of pets in the United States?

2. What geographical features might allow rice to grow well both in East Asia and in the southeastern part of North America?

63

–

CH C H APTE R

3 The English Colonies A meeting of the Virginia House of Burgesses

Engraving of a sawmill

1630 Politics The first General Court meets in the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

1620

An early tobacco plantation

1630

1640 The Arts The Bay Psalm Book is the first book published in the English colonies.

1640

1627 Business and Finance Virginia exports half a million pounds of tobacco.

1639 Daily Life Massachusetts sets up the first colonial printing press.

1650

1661 Politics Virginia passes an act recognizing African slavery.

166 0

1648 World Events Work is completed on India’s Taj Mahal.

1670 The Arts The first engraving, of Reverend Richard Mather, is produced in America.

1670

16 8 0

169 0

1688 World Events The English people launch the Glorious Revolution, replacing King James II with William and Mary.

The Taj Mahal


E

uropeans began to explore and conquer the Americas in the late 1400s. Within a few decades, Spanish settlers arrived in these lands, determined to change the course of America’s future. The English were soon at their heels. By the early 1600s, the English were also eager to colonize these American lands. In this chapter you will learn that the English colonists who settled North America in the 1600s and 1700s came for many reasons. These various factors contributed to the development of distinct cultures within England’s North American colonies.

64

Benjamin Franklin

Journal promoting settlement in New England

1721 The Arts Gustavus Hesselius paints the Last Supper to decorate the inside of a Maryland church.

1704 Daily Life The colonies’ first continuous newspaper, the weekly Boston News-Letter, is founded.

1700

1710

1711 Science and Technology The patent medicine Tuscarora Rice becomes a common treatment for tuberculosis.

1720

1742 Science and Technology Benjamin Franklin invents the Franklin stove.

1730

1714 Politics Speaking before the New York assembly, Samuel Mulford demands that colonists’ rights be protected against customs officials.

Silver spoon and cups from the 1700s

174 0

1751 Business and Finance Parliament passes an act forbidding the printing of paper money in New England.

1750

1741 Daily Life Jonathan Edwards preaches his “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” sermon.

1748 World Events The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ends the War of the Austrian Succession.

1763 World Events The Treaty of Paris is signed.

176 0

1770

1757 The Arts Colonial painters exhibit their work in New York.

Preacher George Whitefield


Economics The economic needs of one nation

can have a dramatic effect on the population of another nation.

Culture The cultural backgrounds of

Global Relations A sponsoring country has an

settlers will influence the development of a region.

obligation to maintain tight control over its colonies. 65

SECTION

1 READ TO DISCOVER 1. What problems did Puritans face in England? 2. Why did Puritans emphasize education? 3. What role did women play in New England? 4. What incidents threatened stability in Massachusetts? IDENTIFY Pilgrims Separatists Puritans William Bradford Mayflower Compact Squanto Great Migration John Winthrop New England Way Thomas Hooker Fundamental Orders of Connecticut Roger Williams Anne Hutchinson WHY IT MATTERS TODAY The Puritans made education an important part of their community. Use or other current events sources to learn about the various ways in which Americans keep up that tradition. Record your findings in your journal.

66

CHAPTER 3

The New England Colonies “

They fell upon their knees and blessed the God of heaven, who had brought them over the vast and furious ocean, and delivered them from all the perils and miseries thereof, again to set their feet on the firm and stable earth.

”

—William Bradford, quoted in The Americans, by Daniel J. Boorstin

William Bradford described the actions of the 101 passengers and some 25 crew members aboard the Mayflower when they arrived on the shore of what is The Pilgrims land now Massachusetts in November 1620. They had been at Plymouth Rock. at sea for almost nine weeks, enduring violent storms much of that time. Originally bound for the Hudson River near Manhattan, they decided to stay where they were, on the land they called New Plymouth. According to Bradford, it was a “hideous and desolate wilderness . . . and the whole country, full of woods and thickets, represented a wild and savage hue.” Despite their inhospitable surroundings, on December 25, 1620, the Pilgrims began building their first homes in North America.

The Pilgrims In 1620 the men and women aboard the Mayflower reached Cape Cod Bay, near what is now Provincetown, Massachusetts. Near there they founded the colony of Plymouth. Known as Pilgrims, they had left England because of religious conflict. They saw themselves as wanderers who, like the pilgrims and exiles portrayed in the Bible, traveled in search of a place to worship God in their own way.

The Pilgrim faith. Conflicts over religious doctrine had raged in England since 1534. That year King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church to form the Church of England, or Anglican Church. Henry’s motives had been primarily personal—the pope had refused to grant him a divorce from his first wife. At heart still a Roman Catholic, he had created a church that remained largely Catholic in form. This deeply troubled many English Christians, who longed for a truly Protestant church. The Pilgrims were Separatists, so called because they had broken with the Anglican Church. The Pilgrims were the most radical of the Puritans, Protestants who wished to “purify” the Anglican Church of all Catholic rituals and traditions. The Puritans objected, for example, to the clergy’s elaborate robes. They insisted that church leaders should be known for “their purity of mind, not their adornment of person.” Some Separatists, including the Pilgrims, left England for the more religiously tolerant Netherlands. King James I had threatened to “harry them out of the land, or else do worse.” There they were forced into low-paid, unskilled work and confronted with what one Pilgrim called the “grim & grisly face of poverty.” Equally

S ACHUSETT

OF THE PIL GRIM SOCIE TY, PLYMOU

TH, MASS

alarming was the prospect of their children being led away from the faith by Dutch customs. Puritan minister John Robinson summed up the Pilgrims’ experience in the Netherlands as “exiled from country, spoiled of goods, destitute of friends, few in number, and mean in condition.” Seeking “some place of better advantage and less danger,” William Bradford and others obtained permission from the Virginia Company to settle on lands it owned near the mouth of the Hudson River.

COURTESY

Plymouth colony. The Pilgrims did not reach their original destination. Their ship was blown off course, and they landed farther north, in Massachusetts’s Cape Cod Bay. Rather than risk additional travel, they decided to stay. To maintain order in the new settlement, Pilgrim leaders had drawn up an agreement for the men to sign. This document, the Mayflower Compact, established a self-governing colony based on the majority rule of male church members. Once the Compact was signed, the colonists elected John Carver as their governor and turned to the challenge of surThe Mayflower viving the winter. They then set out to establish what one colonist called “the most Compact glorious edifice [building] of Mount Zion [a holy place] in a Wilderness.” Disease and hunger soon took their toll, however. The colony’s record for March 24, 1621, notes,“In three months past dies half our company. . . . The living [are] scarce able to bury the dead.” Like Jamestown, the colony owed its survival in part to American Indians. Soon after the first encounter between the Wampanoag (wahm-puh-NOH-ag) and the Pilgrims, the two groups signed a peace treaty. As one colonist wrote, “by friendly usage, love, peace, . . . [and] good counsel,” the Pilgrims and the Wampanoag strove to “live in peace in that land.” The settlers were particularly indebted to Squanto, a Patuxet Indian who spoke English. Kidnapped in 1615, he had lived in Spain and England before On November 21, 1620, while still aboard the Mayflower, 41 of the returning home in 1619 to find his male passengers signed an agreement to help them govern their new village wiped out by disease. Squanto colony. The Mayflower Compact established a precedent for governments based on written agreements and the consent of the governed. then lived with the Wampanoag. He To what did the signers promise to submit and obey? taught the Pilgrims how to grow crops. With Squanto’s aid, the Pilgrims enjoyed a e, whose names are underwritten, . . . Having underbountiful harvest in the fall. The Pilgrims taken for the Glory of God, and Advancement of the then joined the Wampanoag in a harvest Christian Faith, and the Honour of our King and celebration. “For three days we enterCountry, a Voyage to plant the first colony in the northern Parts of tained and feasted,” wrote one colonist. Virginia; Do by these Presents [this document], solemnly and mutually This celebration later became the basis for in the Presence of God and one another, covenant and combine ourthe Thanksgiving holiday tradition. selves together into a civil Body Politick, for our better Ordering and

H ISTORICAL D OCUMENTS

The Mayflower Compact

W

The Great Migration. In contrast to the Pilgrims, most Puritans remained in England and did not leave the Anglican Church. These religious dissenters hoped to reform the church from within.

Preservation, and Furtherance of the Ends aforesaid; And by Virtue hereof do enact, constitute, and frame, such just and equal Laws, Ordinances, Acts, Constitutions, and Offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general Good of the Colony; unto which we promise all due Submission and Obedience.

THE ENGLISH COLONIES

67

The Crown opposed reform, however. James I feared that Puritan demands would lead to political unrest. Religious dissent, or disagreement, he declared, “as well agreeth with a Monarchy as God and the Devil.” James’s son Charles, who inherited the throne in 1625, was even more determined to stop dissent. Charles also wished to stop Puritans from practicing their religion. The English Puritans faced economic difficulties as well. England’s population had dramatically increased, but employment had not. The growing profitability of wool production encouraged large landowners to turn from farming to raising sheep. Landowners fenced their lands and drove off the tenant farmers, many of whom were Puritans. Land was scarce, and the money needed to purchase an acre or two in England would purchase several hundred acres in America. Then in the 1620s crop failures and an economic depression in the wool industry hit Puritan farmers and weavers. To escape both religious persecution and economic ruin, many Puritans decided to risk a move to the colonies. Beginning in 1630, in what is known as the Great Migration, more than 40,000 people left England for the Americas. While most of them went to the West Indies, 10,000 to 20,000 settled in Massachusetts. Most Puritans did not leave England. In 1642 the conflict between the Puritans and the Royalists—the supporters of King Charles I—erupted in civil war. Led by Oliver Cromwell, the Puritans won. During the civil war and Cromwell’s rule between 1653 and 1658, Puritan emigration almost ceased. INTERPRETING THE VISUAL RECORD

Cultures meet. John Winthrop, governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, meets with a Narraganset Indian. How does this painting illustrate the difference between the English and Narraganset cultures?

✔ READING CHECK: Contrasting

How were the Puritans different than other

religious groups?

Massachusetts Bay Colony By the late 1620s a group of English Puritan leaders had become interested in settling in North America. In 1629 a group of wealthy Puritans obtained a royal charter for the Massachusetts Bay Company that allowed them to establish a colony there. In 1630 the company’s fleet of 11 ships carried some 1,000 settlers to Massachusetts. These Puritans did not wish to cut all ties with England or with the Anglican Church. Rather, inspired by a sense of mission, they hoped to provide other Christians with an example of a model community. While still aboard ship, John Winthrop, their leader, expressed their vision and warned against failure. History Makers Speak

“We must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill.

The eyes of all people are upon us. So that if we shall deal falsely with our God in this work we have undertaken, and so cause Him to withdraw His present help from us, we shall be made a story and a byword through the world.

”


—John Winthrop, A Model of Christian Charity

68

CHAPTER 3

Most colonists, wrote Winthrop, expected to find more of God’s “wisdom, power, goodness and truth than formerly we have been acquainted with.” They believed that they had a covenant, or sacred contract, with God to build a society based on the Bible and a covenant with one another “to walk together in all His ways.”

Harvard College was founded in 1636.

COURTESY OF THE PILGRIM SOCIETY, PLYMOUTH, MASSACHUSETTS

The charter of the Massachusetts Bay Company allowed Winthrop and the other stockholders to govern the colony as they wished. They could not, however, violate English law. They established their colony as a place where everyone, guided by English law and the Bible, was expected to work together for the common good. The stockholders granted voting rights to all freemen—adult men who were church members and property owners. The freemen in each town then elected representatives to the General Court, or governing body, to make laws for the colony. Only about half of the men in the colony—and none of the women—had the right to vote. The Puritan commonwealth was based on cooperation between church and state—a relationship the colonists referred to as the New England Way. The meetinghouse, in which Puritans held both town meetings and church services, symbolized this cooperation. The outside walls of the plain, unpainted clapboard building served as a public notice board. Sermons delivered within on Sundays and on important occasions instructed the congregation in the New England Way. Such lessons were important because the Puritans believed that everyone in the community had to live a moral life. Otherwise, the entire community would suffer God’s anger. When catastrophe struck, the faithful often blamed the occurrence on New England’s sinfulness. The Puritans also believed in predestination—that an all-knowing God had already determined who would be saved, but that strict self-examination could reveal clues as to who was among the chosen. The church granted full membership to those who convinced the congregation that they were among the chosen. In 1662 partial membership was offered to those who could not offer such testimony. The New England Way depended on educated people who could understand the Bible. The General Court thus required parents to make sure that their children learned to read. In 1636 the General Court founded Harvard College, the first college in North America. The college’s primary purpose was the training of young men for the ministry. A law passed in 1647 required individual towns to maintain schools. The “Old Deluder Law,” as it was known, was designed to defeat the “chief project of that old deluder, Satan, to keep men from the knowledge of the Scriptures.” Other colonies were slower to establish schools. In 1701 a second college, Yale, was founded in Connecticut as a response to Harvard’s perceived departure from church doctrine.


Why was education important to the New

England Way?


The meetinghouse. In 1683 the Puritans built a new meetinghouse. How does the building’s design reflect the Puritans’ beliefs?

New England Life By the time Massachusetts Bay Colony passed its school law, it had more than 20,000 inhabitants. The men who immigrated there were primarily educated artisans or farmers. According to Deputy Governor Thomas Dudley, they were “godly men . . . endowed with grace and furnished with means.”Three out of four had paid their own way to the colony. THE ENGLISH COLONIES

69

brought along their wives and children. Puritans considered orderly families to be essential to a stable society. Women were expected to obey their fathers or husbands. Most Puritan women accepted their role. As Lucy Winthrop Downing wrote to her brother John Winthrop: “I am but a wife and therefore it is sufficient for me to follow my husband.” Poet Anne Bradstreet, who came to Massachusetts in 1630, also expressed acceptance of the inequality of the sexes.

COLLECTION,

NEW YORK

Women and families. In contrast to the Jamestown colonists, Puritan men

THE GRANGER

Primary Source

“Let Greeks be Greeks, and women what they are, Men have precedency and still excel, It is but vain, unjustly to wage war; Men can do best, and women know it well.

”

—Anne Bradstreet, The Tenth Muse

Anne Bradstreet’s collection was the first book of poetry published in the colonies.


✔ READING CHECK: Summarizing THE GRANGER COLLECTION, NEW YORK

Colonial homes. A woman works a spinning wheel in her kitchen. Puritan women made the family’s clothing, often including shoes, like the ones pictured below. What can you determine from the image about the design of colonial homes?

Court records from the era show, however, that some Puritan women rejected the authority of their husbands. A few even successfully brought suit against their husbands for not fulfilling their role as providers for the family. Following English custom, New England women usually did not work in the fields, although they did help at harvest time. Instead, they took on many other tasks required to run a farm. They made many of the things their families needed: soap, candles, yarn, clothes, butter, and cheese. Women sold their occasional surplus in town to help support their families. In her husband’s absence, wrote one minister, a woman might also act as “wife and deputy-husband.” Families in New England tended to be large. Most had at least six children, and families with nine or more children were common. Food was plentiful, and the diseases that had plagued Jamestown were unable to survive in New England’s cold climate. As a result, in one town 85 percent of all children lived to adulthood. Colonist Mary Buell’s tombstone shows just how large these families could be. It records that she died at age 90 leaving behind 336 living descendants.

70

CHAPTER 3

What contributions did women in New

England make?

Commerce. Although there were indentured servants and slaves in New England, most large families had relatively little need for extra laborers. Fathers and sons supplied the labor needed to transform the “remote, rocky, barren, bushy, wild-woody wilderness,” as Edward Johnson described it in 1653, into “a second England.” Because of long winters and the poor soil found in much of New England, however, farmers did not raise a large surplus of crops to sell. To pay for supplies and luxury items from England, some New England residents turned to fishing, trade, and business. New Englanders distilled rum and built ships. They sold fish, grain, lumber, meat, and naval stores (pitch, rosin, tar, and turpentine) to England, Spain, Portugal, and the West Indies. They also traded with England’s other American colonies. Merchants earned substantial profits by selling their shipping services. Johnson remarked that it could not have been “imagined, that this wilderness should turn [into] a mart for merchants in so short a space.”

New England Colonies, c. 1650

Conflicts in the Colony Despite prosperous times, life in Massachusetts was not without its difficulties. Some people rejected the Puritan laws and ways and eventually left the colony.

Interpreting Maps New England’s rocky soil turned many colonists to the sea for a livelihood.

?

Religious dissent. Minister Thomas Hooker and his 0 0

100 100

200 Miles

200 Kilometers

N


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W

NEW FRANCE

S

obscot Ri Pen v

Land claimed by New York and New Hampshire

MASSACHUSETTS

ce

Lake Champlain

PENNSYLVANIA

Hudso n

Rive r

Lake Ontario

NEW YORK

er

R i v er

en wr La iver R

44˚N

Conne cticu t

St .

congregation left Massachusetts partly because of religious differences with Puritan leaders and partly because the commonwealth’s “towns were set so near to each other.” To get more farmland, they moved southwest, establishing a colony in the Connecticut Valley. In 1639 Hooker’s settlers adopted the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, widely considered to be the first written constitution in the colonies. Other colonists were forced to leave Massachusetts Bay Colony because they questioned Puritan ways. One such person was Roger Williams, a minister who, unlike most other Puritans, believed in strict separation of church and state. His beliefs so angered Puritan leaders that they banished Williams. He purchased land from the Narraganset Indians and in 1636 founded a settlement that later became known as Providence, Rhode Island. Williams obtained a royal charter for the colony in 1644 that gave religious freedom to its inhabitants.

LOCATE Which colony had the least shoreline?

MASSACHUSETTS Boston 1630

Hartford 1636 CONNECTICUT

NEW JERSEY

Annexed by Massachusetts in 1652

NEW HAMPSHIRE Portsmouth 1623

Salem 1626 Massachusetts Bay

New Haven RHODE 1638 ISLAND LONG ISLAND 72˚W

42˚N

Plymouth 1620 Providence 1636 ATLANTIC

OCEAN

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68˚W

Challenging authority. Anne Hutchinson was another Puritan who found refuge in Rhode Island after refusing to follow the New England Way. Born in England in 1591, Hutchinson came to Boston, the capital of Massachusetts Bay Colony, in 1634 with her family. Governor Winthrop called her “a woman of a ready wit and bold spirit.” Hutchinson worked as a nurse and midwife and devoted herself to Bible study Anne Hutchinson and teaching. She hosted meetings in her home, where she discussed the sermons of Boston’s leading ministers. She attracted a following of women as well as wealthy merchants, many of whom resented the Puritan ministers’ authority. Increasingly, Hutchinson expressed ideas that opposed the established clergy’s teachings. In 1636 her followers included the governor and other prominent citizens. Fearing a rebellion, officials arrested Hutchinson in 1637 and charged her with weakening the authority of the church. The fact that she was a woman added to the authorities’ displeasure. Her meetings, Governor Winthrop told her, were “not tolerable . . . in the sight of God nor fitting for your sex.” The clergy found Hutchinson’s claim that she received her religious insights directly from God particularly dangerous. This claim threatened the authority of both the community and the church. Banished in 1638, she moved to Rhode Island and later to Long Island. When Hutchinson was killed in an American Indian

Free Find: Anne Hutchinson After reading about Anne Hutchinson on the Holt Researcher CD–ROM, create a news report that explains both sides of her conflict with the clergy.

THE ENGLISH COLONIES

71

attack in 1643, Massachusetts ministers declared it “the just vengeance of God.”

H ISTORY IN THE MAKING

The Salem Witchcraft Trials BY CAROL F. KARLSEN

or a long time many historians considered the Salem witchcraft trials to have been started by mentally disturbed young women, liars, and mass hysteria. Today most emphasize the New England environment in which witchcraft fears and accusations flourished. Ideas about witches, demons, and magical practices were all part of the Puritans’ belief system and New England’s popular folklore. Some historians also argue that the outbreak resulted from decades of economic tensions that divided the community. The accusations also stemmed from men’s fear of women gaining economic and social independence—and threatening the power structure and the social order. These new perceptions of the Salem witchcraft trials highlight how such accusations were a part of New England culture and society. Such greater awareness makes the Salem outbreak appear less bizarre but no less fascinating.

F

The Salem witchcraft trials. Other conflicts were confined within the colony. By 1690 some two dozen people had been accused of witchcraft in Massachusetts. In early 1692 several girls in Salem Village, a farming community near bustling Salem Town, were stricken with seizures. The girls had become fascinated with stories of magic told to them by an enslaved West Indian woman named Tituba. The local minister and other villagers attributed the girls’ seizures to witchcraft. As the girls named those supposedly responsible for their afflictions, other residents of Salem Village and nearby towns testified that they too were victims of witchcraft. They claimed other villagers had used demonic powers to kill their children, sicken their farm animals, and otherwise harm their families and property. By June hundreds of people, mainly older women but also some men, had been accused of witchcraft. Dozens were tried, and 19 were hanged. Later that year some colonists began to doubt the accusations and the trials were stopped. Several years later Samuel Sewall, a judge in the witch trials, stood in his church pew with his head bowed while his minister read his confession. “[Sewall] desires to take the Blame and Shame of it [the witch-hunt], Asking pardon of Men, And especially desiring prayers that God . . . would pardon that Sin and all his other Sins.”


What incidents threat-

ened the unity of society in Massachusetts?

SECTION 1. Identify and explain: Pilgrims Separatists Puritans William Bradford Mayflower Compact Squanto Great Migration John Winthrop New England Way Thomas Hooker Fundamental Orders of Connecticut Roger Williams Anne Hutchinson

2. Categorizing Copy the

keyword: SD3 HP3

CHAPTER 3

REVIEW 3.

following graphic organizer. Use it to explain the factors that led the Pilgrims and Puritans to settle in New England.

Finding the Main Idea a. Why was education important to the Puritan community?

b. Write a paragraph describing English settlement in New England from the perspective of a female colonist. c. How did leaders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony react to colonists whose ideas threatened their authority?

Factors in Europe

4.

Writing and Critical Thinking Evaluating Imagine that you are a Puritan colonist. Write a letter to a friend in England evaluating the New England Way.

Settlement in New England


72

1

Consider:

• the main characteristics of the Puritan government • the characteristics of Puritan religion • weaknesses in the system

SECTION

2 READ TO DISCOVER 1. How and why did the Chesapeake differ from New England? 2. Why was the Chesapeake slow to develop towns, and how did that affect the region? 3. What led to Bacon’s Rebellion? 4. Why did Chesapeake planters come to favor slavery over indentured servitude? DEFINE abolitionists IDENTIFY Cecilius Calvert Toleration Act Nathaniel Bacon Bacon’s Rebellion House of Burgesses Middle Passage Olaudah Equiano Quakers WHY IT MATTERS TODAY In many countries today, religion plays a key role in political issues and events. Use or other current events sources to learn about the influence of religion on a key present-day political issue or event. Record your findings in your journal.

The Southern Colonies and Slavery “

The use of negroes . . . would both occasion great numbers of white people to come here, and also would render us capable to subsist [survive] ourselves, by raising provisions upon our lands, until we could make some produce fit for export.

”

—Southern colonists, letter to Trustees of the Colony of Georgia, December 9, 1738

A group of southern colonists argued for the increased use of slaves. By the end of the 1600s, many southern planters had come to rely on the labor of enslaved Africans. The Royal African Company had a monopoly on the slave trade in Virginia at this time. It was not always able to meet the planters’ demands. Illegal slave ships, known as interlopers, sometimes tried to land on Virginia’s shore. One such ship, the Society, was captured in 1687, and about 100 Africans aboard were seized. According to colonial records, 90 of the Africans, including several children, brought in a collective price of more than £1,500.

Landing a group of slaves at Jamestown

Settling the Chesapeake By 1640, several decades before slavery became firmly established, Virginia was a thriving colony with a population of some 10,000. Tobacco fueled the economy and remained the most valuable export of the colony for many years. The promise of huge profits led more than one wealthy Englishman to dream of establishing a colony in the Chesapeake—the land surrounding Chesapeake Bay. The first to do so was George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore. After Calvert’s death in 1632, King Charles I made his son Cecilius Calvert proprietor, or owner, of millions of acres in the upper Chesapeake. The colony was named Maryland, after Charles’s French wife, Henrietta Maria. As proprietor, Calvert was free to use the land and to govern—within loose guidelines—as he wished. Calvert wanted to create a haven for fellow Roman Catholics who faced persecution in Protestant England. He also hoped to make money. Because there were not enough Catholic immigrants to make his venture profitable, Calvert opened his colony to Protestants. Soon Protestant colonists greatly outnumbered Catholics. To protect the Catholic minority’s legal rights, the Maryland Assembly passed the Toleration Act in 1649, which granted a degree of religious freedom. That same year Maryland governor William Stone promised immigrants to Maryland “liberty in religion and privileges of English subjects.” THE ENGLISH COLONIES

73

Chesapeake Society Catholic and Protestant settlers in Maryland soon followed Virginia’s lead and devoted much of their land to tobacco production. As a result, both colonies developed a distinct culture that shaped life in the Chesapeake.

THE GRANGER COLLECTIO

N, NEW YORK

Population. Most white colonists came to the Chesapeake as indentured servants. One indentured servant, John Harrower, described how some servants were bought and sold once they arrived in Virginia. History Makers Speak

“Soul drivers . . . are men who make it their business to go on board all

ships who have in either Servants or Convicts and buy sometimes the whole and sometimes a parcell of them. . . . Then they drive them through the Country like a parcell of Sheep until they can sell them to advantage.

”


—John Harrower, The Journal of John Harrower

Advertising. This pamphlet was published to attract settlers to Virginia. How does the image of Virginia suggested by the pamphlet compare to what life was like in the colony?

Po

Some 75 percent of the indentured servants who came to Virginia were men or boys between the ages of 15 and 24. They were likely attracted by pamphlets such as George Alsop’s Character of the Province in Maryland, published in 1666. This pamphlet presented a favorable but often misleading account of life in the colonies. Alsop tried to recruit some women, declaring “they are no sooner on shoar, but they are courted into . . . Matrimony.” Alsop’s efforts had little effect. Even into the early 1700s, more than three times as many white men as white women were living in Maryland. With this gender imbalance, many men never married. High death rates also affected the Chesapeake population. Throughout the 1600s typhoid, malaria, and other diseases affected colonists. Some 40 percent of immigrants to the Chesapeake region died within two years of their arrival. Only immigration assured Virginia’s surThe Chesapeake vival in its early days. Life expectancy by the Mid-1700s slowly improved by about 1700 as nativeInterpreting Maps The planters born colonists—who had better immuof the coastal areas dominated nity to the region’s diseases—increased Chesapeake society, forcing many small farmers to move westward in in number. search of land. The high death rates gave rise to fam? HUMAN SYSTEMS What geographic feature helped ily patterns that differed from those of discourage the growth of cities in the Chesapeake? New England. There, low death rates 40°N meant that most people married only N NEW JERSEY once. In one Maryland county, half of all Baltimore E 1729 W marriages in the late 1600s ended within MARYLAND S R Delaware seven years because of the death of a partBay ner. In most cases the surviving partner DELAWARE nn St. Marys City oc remarried. As a result of this trend, most k 1634 R VIRGINIA 38°N families included stepparents, stepsibRive Richmond ATLANTIC OCEAN es lings, half siblings, and sometimes the r m 1737 children of deceased relatives or friends. Jamestown ac m to

iver

ah pp Ra

a

Ja

y Ba Chesap eake

er iv

1607

0 0

50 50

100 Miles

100 Kilometers


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CHAPTER 3

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✔ READING CHECK: Contrasting

What made Chesapeake’s population different than New England’s?

Changing Ways

The Chesapeake Region

During the 1600s large numbers of people migrated from England to the Chesapeake region. Nearly all of these people brought some professional skills with them. Over time, however, the region’s economy changed, and its residents adapted by learning new skills. What differences do you observe between the images of Chesapeake area workers in the 1600s and in the 2000s? Which statistics in the graph have changed the most? the least?


■ Understanding Change

THEN

Occupations Gentry

Agriculture and fishing

Professionals

Craftswork

Merchants

Government

Trade/sales

Semiskilled and unskilled labor

Data represents occupational status of free male emigrants from England to the Chesapeake, 1607–99, and all residents of the Chesapeake, c. 2000.

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