Ambiguities of domination: politics, rhetoric, and symbols in contemporary Syria

Rmbiguities of Domination

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,)

Politi[s, Rhetori[, and 51Jmbols

In

[ontemporarlj 51Jria

lisa llfedeen

The Uniuersitq of Chicaqo Press Chicaqo and London

LisA WEDEEN is assistant professor of political science at the University of Chicago. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637 The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London

© 1999 by The University of Chicago All rights reserved. Published 1999 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 99

1 2 3 4 5

ISBN: 0-226-87787-6 (cloth) ISBN: 0-226-87788-4 (paper) Library of Congress Cataloging-in- Publication Data Wedeen, Lisa. Ambiguities of domination : politics, rhetoric, and symbols in contemporary Syria I Lisa Wedeen. p.

em.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-226-87787-6 (alk. paper) ISBN 0-226-87788-4 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Symbolism in politics-Syria. Syria. 1928-

2. Rhetoric-Political aspects­

3. Syria-Politics and government-19715. Political culture-Syria.

DS98.4.W 43

4. Assad, Hafez,

6. Public opinion-Syria.

I. Title.

1999

320.95691-dc21 98-46430 CIP The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI 239.48-1992.

CoNTENTS

Acknowledgments A Note on Transliteration 1 . B ELIEVING I N SPECTACLES

VII

XI

1

2. KILLING Po LITics: OFFICIAL RHETORIC AND PERMISSIBL E SPEECH 3. AcTING "As

IF": THE S T ORY OF M

4. SIGNS OF TRANSGRESSION 5. C o MPL ICATING C o MPL I ANCE

32 67 87 143

Notes

161

Bibliography

211

Index

231

AcKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work would not have been possible without the assistance of many Syrians whose names must go unmentioned. The hospitality shown to me by my hosts made my years of field work remarkably pleasurable. In particular, I thank my longtime friends who shared their experiences, introduced me to their friends, and encouraged me in my intellectual concerns. Syrians taught me what I know about Syria. They helped me to think about power and official rhetoric in ways that allowed me to question some of the abiding assumptions and underlying concepts of social science. Although official interviews were an important part of this learning process, it was really the events of everyday life, the periods of "hanging" out- of drinking coffee, studying at the university, teaching ex­ ercise classes, making olives, babysitting, hosting salon-like gath­ erings in my home, going to films, shopping for groceries, riding the bus with friends to visit relatives in faraway places- that pro­ duced the chance encounters and enduring connections that ani­ mate this book. Many people have earned my gratitude for their intellectual sup­ port. Hanna Pitkin's love for and precision with language has had a lasting impact on the way in which I think and write about the world. For her careful, critical readings of many drafts, I am par­ ticularly appreciative. Laura Green's invaluable comments on sev­ eral versions of the book reinforce my admiration for her acuity, wit, and eloquence. I would also like to thank my colleagues at the University of Chicago who help e d me to transform the dissertation into a book. Specifically, the members of the Wilder House

v11

Vllt

AcKNOWLEDGMENTS

Editorial Board and audiences at many workshops offered insight­ ful suggestions that helped to make the metamorphosis possible. For incisive readings of all or parts of the book at various stages of its development, I am indebted to Lila Abu-Lughod, Andrew Apter, Nadia Abu el-Haj, Lauren Berlant, Robin Derby, Gaston ' Alonso Donate, James Fearon, Debbie Gould, John Mark Hansen, Gary Herrigel, Ken Jowitt, David Laitin, Ira Lapidus, Zachary Lockman, Volker Perthes, Karen Pilkington, Moishe Postone, Michael Rogin, Lynn Sanders, William H. Sewell Jr., and Robert Vitalis. Joseph Logan was a fine research assistant. Engseng Ho's erudition made the process of reviewing transliterations more de­ lightful than it otherwise would have been. Earlier versions of chapter 3 were presented at the 1 995 annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, at the Mas­ sachusetts Institute of Technology, the University of California at Berkeley, the University of Chicago, New York University, and Wesleyan University. I am grateful to those audiences for their comments. I would especially like to thank the anonymous review­ ers at Comparative Studies in Society and History for their critical readings. James Schaefer's editorial assistance and permission to re­ print a slightly different version of chapter 3 here are appreciated. I would also like to thank the staffs at the Asad library and at the Institut FranJrta: L t"bera1tzatton · ted by Eberhard Kienle. London: I.B. Taurus, 1 994. Longuenesse , Elisabeth. "Bourgeoisie, petite bourgeoisie et couches moyennes en Syrie: Contribution a une analyse de la nature de classe de L'etat." Peuples Mediterraneens (July- September 1978):··/ 2 1 - 42. . "The Class Nature of the State in Syria." Middle East Re­ search and Information Project Reports, no. 77 (May 1979): 3 - 1 1 . . Luqa, Iskandar. Hqfiz al-Asad: qiyamjikriyya insaniyya. Damascus: Dar Tlas, 1 986. Macciocchi, Maria-Antonietta. "Sexualite feminine dans l'ideologie fasciste." In Sexualiti et politique: Documents du congres interna­ tional depsychanafyse, Milan, 25 -28 November 1 975, edited by Armando Verdiglione. Paris: Union Generale d' E ditions, 1977. Machiavelli, Niccolo. The Prince and the Discourses. New York: Ran­ dom House, 1 950. Mahfouz, Nagib. Midaq Alley. Translated by Trevor Le Gassick. New York: Anchor Books, 1 992. Makiya, Kanan (Samir al-Khalil). Cruelty and Silence: War, Tyranny, Uprising and the Arab World. New York: W W Norton and Co., 1 993. . The Monument: Art, Vulgarity and Responsibility in Iraq. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991. ---. Republic ofFear: The Politics ofModern Iraq. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1 989. al-Malih, Wasfi. Tarikh al-masrah al-suri. Damascus: Dar al-Fikr, 1984. Malik, George 'Ayn, and Anwar Salim Sallu m. Hafiz al-Asad: al­ qiyada wa al-tarikh. Damascus: Dar Ibn Hani, 1985. Makarim, Hamdan and Tawfiq Kuttab. Masirat al-wafa' wa al-'ata'. N.p., 1988. Maoz, Moshe. The Sphinx ofDamascus. New York: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988. Marin, Louis. Portrait ofthe King. Translated by Martha M. Houle. Theory and History of Literature, vol. 57. Minneapolis: Univer­ sity of Minnesota Press, 1988. Marsot, 'Maf Lutfi al-Sayyid. "Humor: The Two-Edged Sword." Middle East Studies Bulletin 14, no. 1 ( July 1 980): 1-9. .

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I N D EX

Page numbers in italic refer tofigures.

Abrahamian, Ervand, 1 80n. 90 Abukhalil, As'ad, 1 82n. 104 Ab u- Lughod , Lila, 200n. 21, 205 - 6n. 63 Adams, John, 49, 50

Adonis (poet), 55

Adorno, Theodor W., 167n. 30 Agulhon, Maurice, 1 80n. 91 Ahfam af-Madina, 203n. 43 Ahmad, Ahmad Iskandar, 33 'Alawi, 8 - 9, 55, 60, 67, 88, 1 1 3 - 14, 127-28, 165n. 23 , 179n. 89, 1 91 n. 80 A/ef (Syrian journal), 83 allegiance, 1 1 , 16, 35, 39, 48, 5 1 , 60, 64, 68, 123, 152, 1 84n. 14 Almond, Gabriel A., 163n. 15 Althusser, Louis, 12 ambiguity, 26, 31, 45, 58, 84, 89, 101 , 122, 152 -56, 158 ambivalence, 2, 19, 22, 30, 60, 79, 105

America (American), 20, 44, 46, 47, 50, 1 15, 129, 1 5 1 , 155, 159, 169, 1 76n. 79, 205n. 61 al-Ansari, Fadl, 42 - 43 anthropology, 1 1 , 25, 1 96n. 1 , 200n. 21 anxiety, 3 , 33, 64, 71, 72, 94, 1 08 Arab-Israeli War of 1 948 1 949, 53 -54, 71 Arendt, Hannah, 44 - 45, 79, 1 67n. 32, 185n. 24 Armbrust, Walter, 200n. 21 al-Arsuzi, Zaki, 55 -56, 1 90nn. 7 1 , 72 al-Asad, B ashshar (Asad's son), 28, 39, 60 - 61 , 1 9 1 n. 80 al-Asad, Basil (Asad's deceased oldest son), 2, 28, 39, 60 - 6 1 , 125, 1 89n. 64, 191n. 80 al-Asad, Hafiz as combatant (af-munadif), 1 , 34, 54, 55

231

232

I NDEX

al-Asad, Hafiz (continued) as common citizen, 17, 27 as God-like or immortal, xii, 1 , 1 6 - 17, 35 -39, 67, 69, 84, 126, 127-28, 157, 158 leadership qualities of, 1, 7, 8 , 29 as Leviathan-like figure, 17 as "man of peace," 40, 54, 1 92n. 85 a s modern-day Salah al-Din or "knight of war," 1 , 3, 10, 40, 54, 55, 56, 7 1 , 126, 192n. 85 as national patriarch, 1, 1 7, 22, 27, 50 -54, 58, 6 1 62, 64 - 65, 69 -71, 72, 82, 83, 85, 122, 1 82n. 1 03, 188n. 62 as omnipotent, 20, 69, 72, 90, 1 1 8 , 120, 128 as omnipresent, 1 , 4, 48, 68, 1 47 as omniscient, 1, 128, 147 as premier pharmacist, teacher, lawyer, etc., 1, 12, 40, 125 as savior of Lebanon, 1, 35 See also cult of Hafiz al-As ad al-Asad, Jamil (Asad's older brother), 58 al-Asad, Na'isa (Asad's mother), 1 , 28, 56 60, 56, 5 7, 1 90n. 73, 74 al-Asad, Rif'at (Asad's younger brother), 28, 34, 35 38, 39, 57-58, 57, 206 -7n. 7

"as if," politics of acting, 6, 30, 65, 67, 69, 72, 73 - 82, 84 - 85, 88, 92, 103 4, 108, 120, 122, 130 31, 1 47, 153. See also cult of Hafiz al-Asad; dissimulation al-'Attar, Naj ah, 58 -59 authoritarianism, 4, 5, 6, 26 27, 29 -30, 44 - 45, 74, 77, 79, 8 1 , 85, 90 - 9 1 , 95, 108, 1 1 9, 1 48 - 49, 1 5 1 , 152, 153 -55, 157-59, 162 - 63n. 12, 1 78 -79n. 88 al-'Azma, Yasir, 100 - 107, 109, 201 nn. 26, 27, 28 Bahout, Joseph, 18 1n. 101 Bakhtin, Mikhail, 88, 197n. 10 Bartsch, Shadi, 193n. 7 Batatu, Hanna, 165nn. 23 , 24 al-Ba'th (state-sponsored daily newspaper), 24, 42, 46, 50, 53, 183n. 2 Ba'th party, 1 -3, 8, 24, 26, 27, 28, 33, 34, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 46 - 48, 49, 52, 53, 54, 55, 62, 65, 66, 75, 1 12, 126, 143 44, 1 74, 1 79n. 89, 1 81n. 101, 1 85n. 22, 1 88n. 62, 205n. 59, 207n. 8 Iraqi branch of, 28, 79, 171n. 50 "popular" organizations of, 2-3, 26, 33, 46 - 48, 68 revolution" of March 8, 52 "

I N D EX

youth organizations of, 20 2 1 , 16 1 n. 5, 162n. 7 See also Shabibat al-Thawra; Tala'i' al-Ba'th bay'a, 38 beliefs, widely shared, 7, 41, 43, 62, 63 . See also unbelief Ben-Dor, Gabriel, 163n. 1 5 Berlant, Lauren, 1 5 1 , 176n. 79 Bolsheviks, 13, 1 70n. 49, 1 71n. 50, 1 80n. 9 1 , 191n. 80 "Bonapartist," 4 Bonnell, Victoria E., 180n. 91 Bourdieu, Pierre, 11, 25, 107, 168n. 35, 1 96n. 1 , 200n. 1 9 Brenner, Neil, 1 78n. 8 7 Britain, 50, 173n. 58 British, 19, 29, 71, 1 76, 1 79 Burawoy, Michael, 208n. 20 Burke, Peter, 1 98n. 13 Butler, Judith, 84, 198n. 11 carnival, studies of, 8 8 -90, 197-98n. 10, 198n. 13 cartoons, 2, 25, 3 1 , 81, 86, 87, 90, 107-12, 1 15 , 130, 1 3 1 , 133 - 42, 1 99n. 14 censorship, 44 - 45, 83, 87- 88, 92, 99, 104, 107, 108, 1 10, 1 12, 1 13, 1 16, 1 1 9 -20, 127, 148 - 49, 1 94n. 1 1 , 1 98n. 12, 201n. 23, 202n. 36, 203n. 43 charisma, 3 - 4, 5 - 6, 1 7, 24, 28, 29, 126, 156, 157, 158, 159, 1 75n. 69, 1 80n. 94

routinization of, 1 7, 175 n. 69 "charismatic imp ersonalism," 29 Clark, Katerina, 1 80n. 92 class, socioeconomic, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 1 1 , 26, 29, 52, 60, 62, 67, 98, 1 77, 1 8 1 n. 101 , 1 82n. 102, 202n. 40 Arab intelligentsia as distinct example of, 202n. 40 coercion, 5, 10 - 1 1 , 26 -27, 28, 30, 44, 77, 84, 97, 101, 1 10, 123, 125, 144 48, 152, 154, 156, 159, 206n. 3. See also "disci­ plinary symbolic" power; punishment Comaroff, Jean and John, 1 1 , 1 68n. 33, 1 78n. 85 Comaroff, Jean, 196n. 1 Combs-Schilling, M. E . , 1 70 71n. 50, 192n. 89 comedies, 2, 25, 31, 86, 87107, 1 12, 130, 1 99n. 14 comparative politics, 4, 26, 144, 1 5 1 -52, 158 compliance, 5, 6, 11, 26, 30, 3 1 , 4 1 , 45, 77, 8 1 , 84, 105, 106, 1 1 7, 123, 126, 130, 143 - 60, 1 64n. 1 7, 206n. 3. See also coercion; legitimacy; obedience; punish­ ment complicity, 5, 6, 3 1 , 70, 73, 74 84, 103, 130, 1 3 1 , 154, 158

233

234

I N D EX

contestation, 12, 13, 18, 24, 25, 30, 67, 86, 87, 90, 108, 1 30, 150, 152, 155, 157, 159 "Corrective Movement," 8, 35, 3 6 -3 7, 42, 43, 49, 68, 122, 128, 2 10n. 27 Crystal, Jill, 1 62n. 12 cult of Hafiz al-Asad analogy to advertising, 19, 20, 2 1 , 159 contrast with European monarchical cults, 8, 1 6 - 18, 1 70n. 50, 1 7 1 -72n. 52, 1 75n. 7 1 , 207n. 1 4 disciplinary strategies of cluttering public space, 6, 24, 32, 33 - 49, 130, 157 defining national membership, 6, 1 6 - 18, 1 9 20, 22, 30, 3 1 -32, 46, 49, 5 1 , 63, 65 - 66, 73, 8 3 - 84, 157 depoliticizing citizens, 32, 45, 8 1 , 143 - 44, 14748, 150, 157-58 enforcing obedience, 5, 6, 22, 30, 3 1 , 73 - 85, 92, 103, 1 3 1 , 144 -54, 156, 157, 158 framing compliance and resistance, 1 9, 24, 25, 3 1 , 67- 86, 107, 130 3 1 , 144, 149, 152, 153, 1 56, 159 identifying disobedient citizens, 84, 91, 103, 104

inducing complicity, 5, 6, 3 1 , 73 - 85, 103, 1 3 1 , 158 isolating citizens from one another, 6, 40 41, 90, 97, 103 - 4, 121 , 122, 130 - 3 1 occasioning enforcement of obedience, 2, 6, 19, 20 -22, 3 1 , 73 - 85, 103 -7, 1 45, 147, 157 regimenting bodies, 19, 20 -22 specifying guidelines for public conduct, 6, 30, 32 - 66, 156 -57 as entailing phony rituals of obeisance and spurious rhetoric, 1 -3, 6, 7, 1 1 , 12, 19, 26, 34 - 49, 50, 53, 57-58, 5 7, 6 1 , 65 66, 67- 68, 72 -76, 79, 80 - 82, 85, 100 -107, 109, 1 1 1 , 1 14 - 15, 1 17-1 8 , 121, 122-23, 124 -26, 128 -29, 1 3 1 , 153 -55 (see also "as if," politics of acting; dissimulation; unbelief) flexibility of, 39 - 42, 49, 65, 84 limitations of, 22 -24, 66, 82 - 86, 130 -3 1 , 148 51, 1 52, 1 59 - 60 (see also ambiguity; ambivalence; subversion; transgression; unbelief) as orchestrated, 2 -3, 1 9, 20 -22, 24 -25, 44, 60,

I N D EX

8 1 , 84, 96, 124 -26, 145 - 46, 147- 48 origins and history of, 33 39 participation in, 2 - 4, 6, 2 1 , 24, 40 - 44, 46 - 48, 5 8 - 63, 65 - 66, 6786, 94 - 95, 98- 99, 103 -7, 1 10, 130, 145 - 46, 1 52, 154 reception of, 2 - 4, 6 - 12, 18, 19 -20, 22 -24, 25, 26, 29-30, 3 1 , 46, 5 0 - 5 1 , 57-58, 62, 65 - 66, 67-71, 82 - 83, 84 86, 87-132 passim, 133 - 42 (see also car­ toons; cynicism; films; jokes; unbelief) as representation of political power/state domina­ tion, 3, 4, 15, 16 - 1 8 , 19 -22, 3 0 , 3 2 , 45 46, 48, 5 1 , 58, 70, 71, 72, 73 , 89, 145 - 47, 157 scholarly treatment of, 4 -5, 33 -34 as subsystem of coercive compliance, 27, 1 45 52 waxing and waning of, 34, 40, 48 See also ideology; propa­ ganda; rhetoric and symbols; spectacles culture, the c o n ce p t of, 6, 25, 163 - 64n. 15, 164n. 16, 1 77-78n. 83, 187n. 47

cynicism, 3, 8 1 , 147- 49, 150, 154 -55 Dallal, Ahmad, 1 82n. 104 Darnton, Robert, 149, 202n. 36 Davis, Eric, 1 71n. 50 Day'at Tishrin, 93 -95. See also Lahham, Durayd; al­ Maghut, Muhammad Debord, Guy, 1 69n. 39 de Certeau, Michel, 1 96n. 1 democracy/Western liberal democracies, 26, 96, 1 0 1 , 123, 124 -26, 143, 1 5 1 , 155 -56, 1 59, 1 63n. 15, 199n. 15 Dirks, Nicholas, 198n. 10 "disciplinary symbolic" power, 30, 84, 1 45 -52, 155 60 discipline, 6 , 13, 14, 1 8 -22, 26, 29, 30, 42, 52, 86, 88, 104, 130, 131, 145, 147, 1 75 -76, 208n. 20. See also cult of Hafiz al-Asad; "disci­ plinary symbolic" power discourse. See cult of Hafiz al­ Asad; iconography; ideology; rhetoric and symbols dissimulation, 6, 12, 44 - 46, 68, 69, 73, 74, 76, 8 1 , 82, 83, 84, 85, 9 1 , 94, 102 - 4, 108 -9, 122, 1 30, 148, 1 5 3 , 1 54, 156, 1 62n. 8, 1 93n. 7. See also "as if," politics of acting

235

236

INDEX

domination, 6 , 1 1 , 12, 13, 14, 1 8 , 26, 30, 3 1 , 32, 41, 5 1 , 73, 77, 79, 8 1 , 82, 84, 86, 89, 1 15, 1 3 1 , 147, 1 52, 156 dreams, 67, 69, 71 -73, 74, 7778, 79, 8 1 , 83, 84, 85, 95, 1 1 7, 1 1 8 -20 Drysdale, Alasdair, 1 65n. 19 Durkheim, Emile, 14, 171n. 5 1 Eastern Europe, 39, 74 -77, 81, 1 49, 1 50, 154, 157, 202n. 36, 209 -10n. 27 Edelman, Murray, 169n. 39 Egypt, 42, 43, 53 -54, 71, 128, 143, 1 76n. 74, 1 85n. 22, 203n. 42 Egyptian(s), 6 1 , 71, 143, 205n. 60 Eichmann, Adolf, 78, 79 Elias, Norbert, 1 73n. 56, 1 75n. 68, 207n. 14 England, 13, 15, 1 70nn. 49, 50, 1 75nn. 68, 71 everyday life, 12, 19, 24, 25, 30, 32, 52, 65 - 66, 68, 69, 71, 87- 88, 90, 98, 100 - 1 03, 1 10, 1 12, 1 1 8, 127, 128 -29, 1 30, 1 3 1 - 32, 145, 146, 1 50, 153, 156, 167n. 3 1 family, symbolic uses of, 2 1 , 27-28, 32-33, 49 66, 67, 69-73, 82 - 83, 85, 100, 1 1 3 -15, 1 80n. 92, 1 81n. 97, 1 82n. 1 03 , 186 - 87n.

44, 1 87n. 47, 1 88nn. 62, 63, 1 90nn. 7 1 , 74, 191n. 80, 192n. 87, 203 - 4n. 46 Farzat, 'Ali, 2, 107- 12, 133 - 42 fascism, 8, 10, 24, 159, 1 67n. 30 films, 2, 25, 3 1 , 86, 87-92, 1 12 -20, 1 30, 1 3 1 , 149, 1 5 1 , 152, 1 69, 199n. 14, 200n. 21, 202n. 41 , 203nn. 42, 45, 203 - 4n. 46 Forman, Milos, 149 Foucault, Michel, 18 -19, 130, 153, 1 69n. 39, 1 76n. 74, 1 78nn. 86, 87 "Foucaultian," 19, 74, 1 5 3 France, 13, 15, 19, 24, 49 -50, 1 13 , 1 70nn. 49, 50, 1 75n. 68, 207n. 14 Frederick the Great, 29 Freitag, Ulrike, 40 French Mandate, 143, 1 8 1n. 101 Freud, Sigmund, 50, 120 -21, 167n. 30, 204n. 55 Freudian, 71 Fujitani, Takashi, 19, 147 G al, Susan, 1 97n. 7 Gaventa, John, 168n. 33 Geertz, Clifford, 1 3 - 14, 169nn. 40, 41, 17172n. 52, 1 72n. 53, 1 80n. 94 Gelvin, James L., 1 79n. 90 Germany, 10, 15, 19, 1 13, 149, 167n. 3 1 Gerschenkron, Alexander, 174n. 64

I N D EX

Ghalioun, Burhan, 1 74n. 64 Golan Heights, 7, 47, 54, 203n. 46 Gramsci, Antonio, 1 1 , 45, 1 64n. 15, 168n. 33 Greenblatt, Stephen, 73 Greenfeld, Liah, 15, 1 73n. 58 Greif, Avner, 1 64n. 16 GulfWar (1991), 39, 192n. 85 Hall, Stuart, 1 1 , 1 2 , 168n. 34 Hama, massacre of ( 1 982), 33, 35, 40, 46 - 49, 1 65 66n. 24, 1 67n. 28 Hammoudi, Abdellah, 1 6 1 62n. 12 Harlow, B arbara, 92 Hatem, Mervat, 1 9 1 n. 83 Havel, V:iclav, 74 -77, 8 1 , 83, 89, 150, 154, 195n. 1 hegemony, 5 - 6, 10, 1 1 -12, 45, 74, 1 5 1 , 155, 168n. 33 Heydemann, Steven, 163n. 14, 1 8 1n. 101 Hinnebusch, Raymond, 4, 27, 1 74n. 65 Hittin, battle of, 1, 3, 10 Hobsbawm, Eric, 1 5 Human Rights World Report, 1 79n. 89 Hunt, Lynn, 50, 1 80n. 9 1 , 1 86n. 44 Huntington, Samuel, 7 Husayn, Saddam, cult of, 27, 77-79, 17 1n. 50 compared to Asad's, 28 -29, 1 82n. 103 iconography, 1, 13, 14, 2 1 , 22, 24, 28, 46, 49, 55, 60 -

6 1 , 63, 69, 75 , 7� 76, 158, 180n. 9 1 . See also cult of Hafiz al-Asad; ideology; propaganda; rhetoric and symbols; spectacles ideologues, 8, 13, 14, 34, 38, 39, 40, 49, 55, 60, 70, 9 1 , 158 ideology, 3, 8, 12, 27, 40 - 41 , 45, 54, 77, 8 1 , 145, 155, 157-58, 1 62n. 12. See also cult of Hafiz al-Asad; iconography; propaganda; rhetoric and symbols; spectacles Ikhwat a/-Turab, 199n. 1 6 lnden, Ronald, 1 64n. 15 interpellation, 19, 46 "interpretive" social science, 14, 25, 1 72n. 53 Iran, 158, 1 70n. 49, 1 80n. 90 Iraq, 27, 28 -29, 42, 77-79, 81, 1 7 1 n. 50 lslamicist opposition, 8, 9, 1 65 - 66n. 24, 1 67n. 28. See also Muslim Brotherhood Israel, 7, 20, 33, 43 , 47, 53 -54, 62, 1 14, 124, 203n. 46. See also Zionism Italy, 15 Jadid, Salah, 8, 34, 42, 54, 1 12 Japan, 19, 147 Jerusalem, 1 , 3, 54, 126 jokes, 2, 25, 3 1 , 65 - 66, 86, 8792, 120 -29, 1 30 - 3 1 , 152, 157, 196n. 1,

23 7

238

IN DEX

Kanafani, Ghassan, 71 Kant, Immanuel, 154 Kantorowicz, Ernst, 1 7, 1 74n. 66, 1 75n. 68 Kasak Ya Watan, 95 - 97. See also Lahham, Durayd; alMaghut, Muhammad Kawakibi, Salam, 1 99n. 16 al-Khafaji, 'Isam, 29, 1 82n. 104 Kishtainy (Qishtayni), Khalid, 205n. 59 af-Kumbars, 1 16 -17. See also Malih, Nabil Kuran, Timur, 1 93n. 7 Kuttab, Tawfiq, 1 84n. 14

Lebanese civil war, 7, 34 -35, 43 Lebanon, 1, 33, 34-35, 39, 43, 62 legitimacy, 5 - 6, 1 8 , 74 lexical understanding, 7-9 mushiness" of the concept, 7 social science usage, 7, 9 - 1 1 , 144, 156, 162n. 12, 165n. 20, 166n. 27, 170 -7ln. 50, 206n. 3 Lenin, Vladimir, 75 Leninism, 8 Leonardi, Robert, 1 63n. 1 5 Levi, Margaret, 209n. 20 Liiceanu, Gabriel, 150 Lipset, Seymour Martin, 9 Lohmeyer, Hans Gunter, 167n. 28, 207n. 8 loyalty, 3 , 6, 28, 35 -39, 47, 63, 64, 68, 69, 73, 75, 123, 148, 1 5 9 - 60, 196 - 97n. 7. See also allegiance; oaths

Ladurie, Emmanuel Le Roy, 1 98n. 1 3 Lahham, Durayd, 93 - 100, 107, 201 nn. 22, 23, 24, 28 Laitin, David, 1 64n. 15, 168n. 33, 208n. 1 9 Laqueur, Thomas, 1 69n. 39 Lawson, Fred H . , 165n. 24, 1 8 1n. 101 al-Lay!, 1 88n. 59, 203n. 43, 203 - 4n. 46 Layoun, Mar� 1 89n. 70

Machiavelli, Niccolo, 49 al-Maghut, Muhammad, 93 100 Mahfouz, Naguib, 71 Makarim, Hamdan, 1 84n. 14 Makiya, Kanan, 28, 29, 77-79, 8 1 , 1 71n. 50, 1 8 1n. 104 Malas, Muhammad, 188n. 59, 203n. 43, 203 - 4n. 46 Malih, Nabil, 1 1 6 - 1 7 Maraya (Mirror), 100 - 1 07, 200n. 2 1 , 201nn. 26,

jokes (continued) 204nn. 53, 55, 204 5n. 56, 205nn. 57, 58, 59, 60 Jordan, 53 -54, 158, 194n. 27 Joseph, Suad, 52, 1 8 7n. 49 Jowitt, Ken, 1 74n. 66 June 1967 War, 7, 52-54, 200 201n. 22

"

IN DEX

27. See also al-'Azma, Yasir Mar'i, Hamid, 1 12 Marin, Louis, 146, 1 71n. 52 martyrdom, 50, 52-53, 54, 60, 6 1 - 65, 97. See also sacrifice Marx, Karl, 4 masculinity, 54 -55, 60, 71, 82, 129, 1 82n. 103, 1 89n. 65 Mason, Robert Scott, 33 -34, 1 62n. 1 1 Mbembe, Achille, 32, 165n. 20, 195n. 35 Mediterranean Games, 20 -24, 2� 21, 23, 177n. 80 Melhem, Hisham, 164n. 1 9 Messick, Brinkley, 1 76n. 74 Middle East Watch, 2, 27, 179n. 89 Migdal, Joel, 206n. 3 Ministry of Culture, 2, 45, 46 Ministry of lnformation, 87, 198n. 12, 199n. 14 Mitchell, Timothy, 1 72n. 55, 176n. 74, 197n. 7 modernity, 19, 154 monuments, 25, 35, 158 Moore, Barrington, 91, 200n. 20 Morocco, 163n. 12, 1 70n. 50 Muhammad (prophet), xii, 38, 158 Muhammad, Usama, 1 1 3 -16, 151, 1 62n. 8, 203nn. 43, 45 Muhawi, Ibrahim, 205n. 57 Muhaydli, Sana', 6 1 - 64, 1 92nn. 84, 85, 93

Muslim Brotherhood, 33, 35, 44, 47- 48, 165 - 66n. 24, 167n. 28, 1 79n. 89, 184n. 12, 1 8 5 86n. 32, 1 86n. 36. See also Islamicist opposition al-Mutanabbi, 58 Nanetti, Raffaella Y , 1 63n. 15 al-Nasir, Carnal 'Abd, 2, 34, 54, 143, 163n. 13, 1 83n. 9, 1 88n. 58 nation confusion about meaning of, 15, 1 72n. 55 feminine imagery of, 55 - 60, 6 1 - 65, 70 -71, 82, 1 8 9n. 68 working definition of, 14, 1 73n. 6 1 nation-building, 15, 52, 144 creation of myths and, 1 5 relation t o state-formation, 14 - 18, 144, 157 schooling and, 15 nation-state experiences of some early Western European, 1 5 -16, 173n. 57 postcolonial, 1 5 - 16, 144, 157 post-national liberation, 158 Syrian, 16, 28, 30, 40, 72, 144, 147, 157 National Film Organization, 1 12 - 13 , 1 1 8 National Union o f Syrian Stu­ dents, 1 88n. 6 1

23 9

240

I N D EX

nationalism countercultural challenges to contemporary Syrian regime, 84, 89 European, 1 5 , 1 73n. 57 formulations of, 84, 89 i n imitation o f nation-states, 15 i n opposition to nationstates, 15 pan-Auab, 16, 55 -56, 9798, 100, 104, 106, 1 14, 1 15, 1 18, 1 62n. 7, 1 73 - 74n. 62, 206n. 2 quandries o f membership posed by, 1 6, 84, 1 44, 157 See also cult of Hafiz alAsad, disciplinary strategies of, defining national membership nidal, 17, 61 North Korea, 1 83n. 10 Nujum al-Nahar, 1 13 - 16. See also Muhammad, Usama oaths, 35 -38, 48, 64, 68, 146. See also allegiance; loyalty obedience, 5 , 6, 16, 18, 19, 29, 30, 3 1 , 32, 35, 38, 5 1 , 63, 65, 66, 68, 70, 72, 73 - 85, 9 1 - 92, 103, 1 22, 124, 1 3 1 , 144 48, 152, 153 - 60, 1 64n. 1 7 October 1 973 War, 3 , 34, 42 43, 50, 52-55, 94, 1 85n. 23, 1 89n. 65

Olaniyan, Tejumola, 85, 195n. 35 Ortner, Sherry, 25, 177-78n. 83, 178n. 84 Orwell, George, 74, 79- 80 Ottoman Empire, 16, 1 1 9 Ozouf, Mona, 13, 1 70n. 49, 171n. 5 1 Palestine, 5 3 , 55, 98, 1 1 8, 203n. 46 Persian GulfWar. See GulfWar ( 1 99 1 ) Perthes, Volker, 1 , 1 62n. 1 1 , 165n. 23, 1 79n. 89 Peukert, Detlev ]. K., 167n. 3 1 Picard, Elizabeth, 163n. 14, 165n. 22 Pinney, Neil, 208n. 20 Plesu, Andrei, 148, 208n. 1 7 police and security forces, 28, 47, 57-58, 67, 68, 93 - 94, 96, 98, 104 -7, 109 - 10, 1 14 -1 5 , 1 1 6 - 1 7, 1 19, 128, 1 44, 145 , 147, 152, 156, 158, 1 79n. 89, 1 88n. 62, 1 90n. 74, 206 -?n. 7 policy makers, 6, 25, 89 political science approaches to compliance, 144 - 45 , 151 -52, 156, 208n. 19, 208 - 9n. 20 approaches to rhetoric and symbols, 5 -1 1 , 8992, 1 95 - 96n. 1 treatment of "culture," 5, 163 - 64n. 15, 1 64n. 16

I N DEX

popularity, 6, 7, 9 - 10, 2 1 , 34, 43, 87, 88, 92, 1 00, 105, 107, 122, 124, 167n. 3 1 posters, 25, 34, 35 -38, 39, 54, 60, 68, 75, 8 1 , 1 14, 125, 158 propaganda, 2 -3 , 10 - 1 1 , 15, 1 12. See also cult of Hafiz al-Asad; iconog­ raphy; rhetoric and symbols; spectacles Przeworski, Adam, 208n. 20 punishment, 5, 1 8 - 1 9, 27, 30, 32, 66, 67, 76, 77, 80 - 8 1 , 84, 85, 87, 93 - 94, 95 - 96, 97, 98, 104 -5, 106, 109, 1 1 1 , 144 - 47, 1 50, 1 52, 154, 156, 194 - 95n. 27. See also coercion; "disciplinary symbolic" power; police and se­ curity forces Putnam, Robert D., 1 63n. 15 al-Qywatli, Shukri, 143, 1 88n. 59

al-rahmaniyya, 55 -56, 1 90n. 72 rational choice studies, 1 5 1 -52, 164n. 16, 208n. 1 9, 208 - 9n. 20 resistance, 25 -26, 3 1 , 83, 84 86, 87, 89 - 92, 120, 121 -22, 129-32, 153, 159, 1 96n. 7. See also contestation; subver­ sion; transgression

revolutionary heroism, 97, 98 99 revolutionary ideology, 41, 54, 126, 1 70n. 49 revolutionary regimes, 8, 13, 24, 147 rhetoric and symbols fluency in, 40, 46, 65 - 66, 83, 122, 125, 157 "Foucaultian" ways of think­ ing about, 1 9 -24, 74, 1 02, 1 30 "hegemony" and its relation­ ship to theorizing about, 1 1 -12, 45, 74 orienting effects of, 33, 45, 48, 63, 149, 157 political science approaches to, 5 - 1 1 , 89 - 90, 144 - 45, 1 63n. 13 relevance to comparative politics, 6, 2 9 - 3 1 , 83 86, 90 - 92, 129-32, 144 - 60. See also polit­ ical science sources for analysis of, 24 25, 1 77n. 82, 1 83n. 2 See also cult of Hafiz al­ Asad; iconography; ideology; propaganda; spectacles Riggs, Marlon T., 1 5 1 Rogin, Michael, 5 0 , 1 69n. 39, 1 86 - 87n. 44 Rorty, Richard, 79 - 82 Rushdie, Salman, 149 sacrifice, 35, 53, 6 1 - 65, 66, 71, 1 1 1 , 1 2 1 , 122, 123, 1 88n. 62, 204n. 46

241

242

I N D EX

Sadowski, Yahya, 33, 165n. 23, 167n. 29, 1 74n. 65, 1 82n. 105 Said, Edward, 163n. 15, 182n. 104 Sa'id, Usama, 82 - 83 "safety valve," 8 8 - 92, 198nn. 10, 13 Salah al-Din, 1, 3, 10, 56, 126 Salih, al-Tayyib, 71, 1 89n. 70 Saqr, Turki, 1 83n. 2 Scarry, Elaine, 80 - 82, 194 95n. 27 Schaar, John H., 7 Scholz, John T., 208 - 9n. 20 Scott, James C., 87, 88, 90, 9 1 92, 146, 1 68n. 33, 1 83n. 3 , 195 - 96n. 1 , 1 96 - 97n. 7 , 1 97n. 8 , 1 98nn. 13, 14, 200n. 20 Seale, Patrick, 33, 162n. 1 1 , 1 83 - 84n. 1 1 , 186n. 32, 1 88n. 59 secular opposition parties, 1 67n. 28 Sewell, William H. Jr., 173n. 57, 177-78n. 83 Sha'a', Ghada, 1 88n. 63 Shabibat al-Thawra, 20, 47, 62, 1 6 1 n. 5, 1 92n. 84 shahada (standard testimonial of faith for Muslims), Xtt

Sharabi, Hisham, 1 87n. 47 Shi'i, 6 1 , 201n. 28 Siddiqui, George, 33, 3 4 Sinai Two, 43 slogans. See cult of Hafiz

al-Asad; ideology; pro­ paganda; rhetoric and symbols; spectacles Soviet Union, 27, 29, 90, 1 94n. 18, 1 95n. 1 , 205n. 60 spectacles, 1- 3 , 4, 7-10, 5 1 , 63, 68, 78, 8 1 , 1 1 1 , 122, 145, 155 -56, 158, 169n. 39, 1 70n. 49 analysis of, 1 8 -24 compared with Iraq's, 28, 29, 1 7 1 n. 50 as mode of representation, 13 - 1 8, 146 - 47, 152 socialist realist aspects of, 27-28 as source material, 24, 1 60 See also cult of Hafiz al­ Asad; iconography; ideology; propaganda; rhetoric and symbols Stalin, cult of compared with Asad's, 2728, 29 Stallybrass, Peter, 1 97- 98n. 10, 204n. 54 state definition of, 14, 1 72n. 55, 1 73n. 56 dilemmas faced by postcolo­ nial, 1 4 - 18, 157 See also nation-state state-building (state-formation) early centralizing Western European, 8, 1 5 - 1 8, 1 72 -73n. 56 postcolonial Middle Eastern, 1 4 - 15, 16, 157, 158

in relatio n to natio n-build­ i ng, 1 4 - 18, 144, 157 Syrian, 8, 1 4 - 1 5, 16 - 1 9, 26, 29, 30, 32, 5 1 , 52 53, 54, 144, 1 87n. 54, 1 91n. 83 "state feminism," 6 1 , 191n. 83 Stokes, Susan C., 1 97n. 7 Subaltern Studies, 1 96n. 1 subversion, 3, 1 8 , 70, 71, 84 86, 8 9 - 90, 99, 1 19 20, 129 -32, 159, 1 9798 n. 10, 1 98n. 1 1 . See also contestation; resis­ tance; transgression Suez War ( 1 956), 1 8 8 n . 5 8 sumud, 1 7, 6 1 Sunni, 8, 9, 60, 127, 166n. 24

tadhiya, 1 7, 6 1 Tala'i' al-B a ' th, 20, 47, 5 3 , 54, 1 61n. 5 tanjis, 88 a!-Taqrir, 97- 1 00. See also Lah­ h am, Durayd; al­ Maghut, Muhammad television, 2, 24, 25, 26, 3 1 , 39, 42, 86, 88, 90, 9 1 , 9 2, 96, 100, 101, 104, 1 06, 152, 155, 159, 1 99n. 16, 200n. 2 1 , 201 nn. 26, 27, 202 3n. 41 a!-Thawra (state-controlle d daily newspaper), 2, 24, 107 theater, literature on history of Syrian, 200 -201n. 22 Theweleit, Klaus, 167n. 30

I N DEX

Tishrin daily newspaper, 24, 58, 107' 1 88 n . 6 3 as reference to October W:ar, 3, 93-94 , 95

"totalitarianism,"

44, 74 79 82 '

1 67- 68n. 32, i s2 � . 106 transgression, 5, 12, 25, 29, 3 1 , 43, 66, 67, 69, 72, 76, 83, 84 - 86, 87- 1 32 passim, 144, 149-52, 159, 204n. 54. See also contestation; resis­ tance; subversion Tucker, Robert, 167- 68n. 32 Tunisia, 158

unbelief, 1 -7, 9, 10 - 1 1 , 22, 25, 29, 44, 65 - 66, 68 - 69, 73 - 86, 90, 92, 107, 108, 121 -22, 130 -32, 145, 149, 1 5 1 , 152, 1 54, 159, 1 60 United Arab Republic, 42, 143, 1 85n. 22, 203n. 42 Van Dam, Nikolaos, 1 74n. 63 Veeser, Aram, New Historicism claim of, 25, 1 78n. 86 Verba, Sidney, 1 63n. 15 Verdery, Katherine, 1 92n. 87 Veyne, Paul, 160, 209n. 26 Von Geldern, James, 13, 1 71n. 50, 1 80n. 91

Waqa'i ' al-'Am al-Muqbil, 1 1 720. See also Zikra, Samir

243

244

I N D EX

Wasif, Mona, 39 Weber, Max, 3, 9, 17, 144, 156, 157, 166n. 27, 1 75n. 69 White, Allo n, 197-98n. 10, 204n. 54 Williams, Raymond, 168n. 34 Yang, Mayfair, 168n. 32

Yates, Francis A., 13 youth, 2, 20, 27, 47, 62, 68, 1 6 1n. 5, 162n. 7 Zerubavel, Yael, 1 70n. 47 Zikra, Samir, 1 1 7-20, 204n. 50 Zionism, 41, 46 Z iiek, Slavoj, 73, 154 -55