Advances in Psychology Research Volume 57

ADVANCES IN PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH VOLUME 57

No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.

ADVANCES IN PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH Advances in Psychology Research, v. 56 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 978-1-60456-508-9 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 55 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 978-1-60456-176-0 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 54 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 978-1-60456-129-6 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 53 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 978-1-60021-924-5 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 52 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 978-1-60021-662-6 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 51 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 978-1-60021-660-2 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 50 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 978-1-60021-530-8 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 49 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 978-1-60021-580-3 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 48 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-60021-373-1 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 47 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-60021-293-X Advances in Psychology Research, v. 46 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-60021-248-4 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 45 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-60021-152-6 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 44 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-60021-150-X Advances in Psychology Research, v. 43 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-60021-105-4 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 42 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-60021-104-6 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 41 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-60021-061-9 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 40 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-59454-836-6 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 39 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-59454-420-4

Advances in Psychology Research, v. 38 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-59454-478-6 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 37 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-59454-262-7 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 36 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-59454-255-4 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 35 Alexandra Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-59454-079-9 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 34 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59454-079-9 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 33 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59454-078-0 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 32 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-969-X Advances in Psychology Research, v. 31 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-985-1 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 30 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-943-6 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 29 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-921-5 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 28 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-868-5 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 27 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-803-0 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 26 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN: 1-59033-798-0 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 25 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN: 1-59033-59033-765-4 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 24 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN: 1-59033-739-5 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 23 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN: 1-59033-693-3 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 22 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-652-6 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 21 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-651-8

Advances in Psychology Research, v. 20 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-614-3 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 19 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-569-4 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 18 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-547-3 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 17 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-537-6 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 16 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-472-8 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 15 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-410-8 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 14 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-393-4 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 13 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-326-8 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 12 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-248-2 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 11 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-186-9

Advances in Psychology Research, v. 10 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-162-1 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 9 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-139-7 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 8 Serge P. Shohov (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-124-9 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 7 Frank Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-054-4 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 6 Frank Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-59033-014-5 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 5 Frank Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-56072-953-8 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 4 Frank Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-56072-952-X Advances in Psychology Research, v. 3 Frank Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-56072-897-3 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 2 Frank Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-56072-903-1 Advances in Psychology Research, v. 1 Frank Columbus (Editor) ISBN 1-56072-774-8

ADVANCES IN PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH VOLUME 57

ALEXANDRA M. COLUMBUS EDITOR

Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

Copyright © 2008 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA (Available on request)

ISBN: 978-1-60876-245-3 (E-Book)

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

New York

CONTENTS Preface

ix

Short Communication Body Image Figure Performance in Sorority Women Rachel Moericke, F. R. Ferraro and Jennifer Muehlenkamp Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

1

The Development of Epistemic Complexity in Adulthood: Personal Conceptualizations of Self and Culture Gabriel Bukobza

9

The Role of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in the Prevention and Treatment of Neuropsychiatric and Neurodevelopmental Disorders Sa’eed Bawa

39

Student Reports of Bullying: Results from the 2001 School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey Jill F. DeVoe and Sarah Kaffenberger

75

Factors that Influence Subjective Time: Gender, Type of Person, and Time of Day? David P. Austin, F. Richard Ferraro, Ryan Kerzman, Thomas V. Petros and Jeffrey N. Weatherly Cognitive and Behavioral Alterations in Corticobasal Degeneration Presenting as Dementia Phenotype Rita Moretti, Paola Torre, Cristina Vilotti, Maja Ukmar, Francesca Capozzoli and Rodolfo M. Antonello

119

135

A Possible Role of the BDNF/Trkb Pathway in the Pathogenesis of Bipolar Disorder and Potential Therapeutic Targets Shih-Jen Tsai and Chen-Jee Hong

149

Difficulty Coping and Stressors in the First Year Postpartum for Mothers and Fathers Stephen Matthey

163

viii Chapter 8

Contents Cocaine-Dependent Patients with Antisocial Personality Disorder, Cocaine-Dependence, and Treatment Outcomes Nena Messina, David Farabee and Richard Rawson

Chapter 9

Childhood Sexual Abuse and Borderline Personality Disorder Randy A. Sansone and Lori A. Sansone

Chapter 10

Post-Partum Depression: Prevalence and Demographic, Obstetric and Perinatal Risk Factors Alexandre Faisal-Cury and Paulo Rossi Menezes

Index

173 197

211 223

PREFACE Advances in Psychology Research presents original research results on the leading edge of psychology research. Each article has been carefully selected in an attempt to present substantial research results across a broad spectrum. Short Communications- Sorority women and non-sorority women participated in an experiment that examined perceptions of body image and body shape. Participants were asked to endorse body silhouettes, which ranged from very thin to very obese, in order to assess their perceptions of several aspects of body image including what they believed to be the ideal body shape for themselves as well as how others should look. The researchers hypothesized that sorority women would endorse smaller silhouettes than non-sorority women and that more years in a sorority would lead to endorsing even smaller silhouettes. The results indicated sorority women endorsed figures that were significantly smaller than figures endorsed by the non-sorority women, and the more years in a sorority was also significantly negatively associated with endorsement of smaller body image silhouettes. These results will be discussed as they relate to contributing factors related to the onset of eating disorders in college women. Chapter 1- This study examined how adult individuals construe knowledge. Eighty participants, aged 17-70 were interviewed regarding their personal knowledge of self and culture. Content analysis of the interviews revealed four fundamental structures of knowledge, or epistemes, which differed in level of complexity and consistently appeared in both domains. The four epistemes are, in ascending level of complexity: MonolithicMonoformal, Relativist-Relational, Dialectical-Deconstructive, and Integral-Inclusive. The implications of the findings to the areas of development, self, culture, post-formal cognition, and wisdom are discussed. Chapter 2- Dietary factors may, to some extent, be responsible for the increase in the incidence of neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders in Western societies and in some developing countries. One factor that may be particularly important is the high level of the consumption of omega-6 fatty acids compared with omega-3 fatty acids. Anthropological data suggest that the intake of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids during the Palaeolithic age was almost the same, but the present omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids ratio in Western diets has been estimated to be between 10 and 25 to 1. Even in Japan, where seafood has traditionally been consumed at very high levels, the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids is increasing as diets become more westernized, leading some authors to suggest that fish consumption be increased, particularly amongst young people. The omega-6 to omega-3

x

Alexandra M. Columbus

PUFA imbalance has been brought primarily by the increase in vegetable and seed oil use, and a decrease in fish or fish oil intake. Fats constitute sixty percent of the brain and nerves that are responsible for running every system in the human organism. Omega-3 fatty acids (αlinolenic, eicosapentaenoic, docosahexaenoic) play an important role in the development and function of the central nervous system. Epidemiological data suggest that there is a link between the development of neurodevelopmental disorders, such as dyslexia, dyspraxia, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and autistic spectrum disorders as well as neuropsychiatric disorders, such as major depression, dementia, schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease and the consumption of fish. There are several mechanisms, whereby omega-3 fatty acids may decrease the risk of neurodevelopmental and neuropschiatric abnormalities. Omega-3 fatty acids are an essential component of CNS membrane phospholipid acyl chains and are therefore critical to the dynamic structure and function of neuronal membranes. Omega-3 fatty acids can alter membrane fluidity by displacing cholesterol from the membrane and optimal fluidity, influenced by essential fatty acids, is required for neurotransmitter binding and the signaling within the cell. Essential fatty acids, especially of the omega-3 family can act as sources for second messengers within and between neurons. Omega-3 fatty acids may exert significant influence in major depression via cytokine modulation. Although, epidemiological and clinical data have shown beyond reasonable doubts the significance of omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, the focus of this chapter is to demonstrate the role of omega3 fatty acids in the prevention and management of neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders. Chapter 3- Bullying in schools is an issue that continues to receive attention from researchers, educators, parents, and students. Despite the common assumption that bullying is a normal part of childhood and encompasses minor teasing and harassment, researchers increasingly find that bullying is a problem that can be detrimental to students’ well-being. Bullying is commonly defined as being “exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of one or more other students”. Olweus also suggests that bullying can be characterized by two distinct forms of negative actions: direct and indirect bullying behaviors. Direct bullying takes the form of overt, physical contact in which the victim is openly attacked. Indirect bullying takes the form of social isolation and intentional exclusion from activities. Both forms of bullying, occurring separately or together, can be harmful to students’ well-being and development. This chapter examines the prevalence and nature of bullying in relation to student characteristics, school characteristics, and victimization. In addition, the study explores other behaviors that were reported by the victim, such as fear, avoidance behavior, weapon carrying, and academic grades. It also examines student reports of being bullied by direct means only, bullied by indirect means only, and bullied both directly and indirectly. Readers are alerted to the limitations of the survey design and analysis approach with regard to causality. Conclusions about causality can not be made due to the cross-sectional, nonexperimental design of the survey used. And, while certain characteristics discussed in this chapter, such as school control, gang presence, security guards, and hallway monitors, may be related to one another, this analysis does not control for such relationships. Therefore, no causal inferences should be made between the variables of interest and bullying when reading these results.

Preface

xi

Chapter 4- The present study focused on short-duration time estimation, which by definition is vital for assessing the immediate environment. This study explored the roles of time of day, type of person, and gender on empty and complex intervals and 60-s fixed-time and 30/90-s variable-time periods. The participants (N = 104) were students from a psychology department subject pool who were prescreened using the Horne and Ostberg scale. Participants were then randomly assigned to participate either in the morning or in the evening. The participants operated a stopwatch to measure the amount of time they believed had passed across 10 trials in each of four different conditions (empty intervals for a 60-s fixed-time period, complex intervals for a 60-s fixed-time period, empty intervals for a variable-time period that averaged to 60-s, and complex intervals for a variable-time period that averaged to 60-s). The results revealed that gender does not influence time estimation. However, the Time of Day X Type of Person vs. Complex/Variable interaction was significant. Surprisingly, the intervals containing complex stimuli had a longer reported duration than the empty intervals, suggesting that time passes by slower when the interval is filled with a complex event. Chapter 5- "In dementias, one may find all sorts of specific losses … and, as the disease worsens, a reduction of personal identity. And yet this reduction is virtually never complete; it is as if identity has such a robust, widespread neural basis; as if personal style is so deeply ingrained in the nervous system that it is never wholly lost, at least while there is still any mental life present at all. (This, indeed, is what one might expect if the personal quality of experience and feeling and thought has molded the structure of the brain from the start.) And it is this that makes a continuing possibility of being affected by music, even in the most deeply damaged patients, long inaccessible to language and most other modes of communication. For it is the inner life of music that can still make contact with their inner lives, with them; that can awaken the hidden, seemingly extinguished soul; and evoke a wholly personal response of memory, associations, feelings, images, a return of thought and sensibility, an answering identity." (O. Sacks) Chapter 6- Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a member of the neurotrophic factor family, promotes neuronal development, survival and function. In addition, BDNF can modulate synaptic plasticity and neurotransmitter release across multiple neurotransmitter systems, as also modulate various intracellular signal-transduction pathways. BDNF exerts its effect through the receptor tropomyosin related kinase B (TrkB) and the p75 low affinity neurotrophin receptor. Recent studies have demonstrated that the BDNF/TrkB pathway may play an important role in the pathogenesis and therapy of bipolar disorder (BPD). In rodents, mood-stabilizing treatments have been shown to alter the BDNF/TrkB activity. Furthermore, recent genetic association studies have demonstrated that the BDNF genetic polymorphism is associated with BPD. Stress has been shown to markedly alter BDNF levels in certain brain areas including the hippocampus, which is thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of mood disorders. In this review, the authors summarize their current understanding of the involvement of the BDNF/TrkB pathway in the pathogenesis of BPD. They also discuss medications related to the treatment of BPD, and make several recommendations for future studies into the relationship between the BDNF/TrkB signaling pathway and BPD. Chapter 7- Much of the work that documents new parents coping experiences is based upon small sample sizes, thus making it difficult to know the rate at which such experiences occur. This study combined qualitative and quantitative information on this issue.

xii

Alexandra M. Columbus

First time parents (221 mothers; 179 fathers) were surveyed one year after the birth about their experiences of coping. Results showed that 24% of women and 10% of men had experienced at least one episode of difficulty coping for more than 2 weeks. For approximately half of these women and men the onset of these longer duration episodes occurred after six weeks postpartum. All mothers and fathers reported that adjusting to the change in their life had impacted on them. In addition, other frequently reported stressors included: baby-care issues and fatigue (mothers and fathers); household chores; infant illness; financial concerns; lack of support; a lack of confidence; and tension with family members (mothers). For men frequent stressors included work-related stress and concern for his partner. There were few differences in reported stressors between women experiencing longer episodes and short episodes of difficulty coping. These data complement the qualitative studies on the experiences of new mothers and fathers, by quantifying the frequency of perceived stressors. This information can be used to normalise the experiences of new parents when providing them with appropriate services. In addition, the data suggest that just screening for psychosocial difficulties at one time point (e.g., 6 weeks postpartum) will miss a considerable proportion of women or men who may have difficulty coping at a later date. The lack of discernible differences in stressors between women self-reporting difficulty coping for long and short durations lends some support to the questionable usefulness of just focusing on women meeting diagnostic criteria for a mood disorder. Chapter 8- This study compared the efficacy of two commonly used treatment approaches (cognitive–behavioral treatment and contingency management) for the treatment of cocaine dependence among methadone-maintained patients with and without antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). This disorder is strongly associated with substance abuse and recent study findings provide a strong argument against the perception that substance abusers with ASPD are unresponsive to drug treatment. Chapter 9 - In this chapter, the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and borderline personality disorder (BPD) is discussed. An overview of BPD, including the epidemiology is presented, as well as a working definition of the disorder, diagnostic approaches, treatment strategies, and outcome. The difficulties in assessing trauma in clinical populations is also discussed, regardless of the individual’s Axis II diagnosis. Then the literature regarding the role of sexual abuse in BPD is reviewed, which is generally conceptualized as one of several contributory variables to the development of the disorder. This chapter is concluded by integrating childhood sexual abuse into the other known causal factors for BPD. Chapter 10 - Objectives: to estimate the prevalence and risk factors for postpartum depression (PPD), among post-partum women from a private clinic at Osasco, São Paulo. Methods: The authors performed a cross sectional study of 267 women from 8/28/00 to 5/15/03.The instruments used were the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and a questionnaire for socio-demographic and obstetric characteristics. Inclusion criteria were: women with no past or present history of depression, psychiatric treatment, alcohol or drug addiction, and whose child was alive. The prevalence of PPD, according to the BDI, and odds ratios for the associations between PPD and exposures variables were estimated. Hypothesis testing was done with x2 tests, or x2 tests for linear trend, when categories were ordered. A p value of < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: the prevalence of PDD was 19.1% (95% IC: 14,3 a 23,8%). In the univariate analysis, only low birth weight was associated with PPD (OR 5.88, IC 95% 1.78-20.0,

Preface

xiii

p