A Handbook of Pronunciation

From: L. Canepari (2005) A Handbook of Pronunciation – Lincom Europa Contents p. √¤ Foreword A Handbook of pronunciat...

Author: Luciano Canepari

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From: L. Canepari (2005) A Handbook of Pronunciation – Lincom Europa

Contents p. √¤

Foreword

A Handbook of pronunciation English, Italian, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Arabic, Hindi, Chinese, Japanese, Esperanto 1

1 16 21 23 28 34 36 37 39 41 46

1. Prelude A synthesis of çNaturalÇ Phonetics “ Tonetics Transcriptions ˛e contents of the HPr (“ of the HPh) Observations on phonetic terminology Guide to the figures Guide to di‡erent types of transcriptions Transcribing by hand Generic symbols ˛e o‚cial IPA chart canIPA “ correspondent oƒIPA symbols

2. English – American “ British (neutral “ other accents)

123

3. Italian

152

4. French (neutral “ other accents)

186

5. German (neutral “ other accents)

231

6. Spanish – Iberian “ American

257

7. Portuguese – Brazilian “ Lusitanian

282

8. Russian

314

9. Arabic

330

10. Hindi

345

11. Chinese – Mandarin

370

12. Japanese

392

13. Esperanto

413 424 427

Utilizable bibliography Index Language index

From: L. Canepari (2005) A Handbook of Pronunciation – Lincom Europa

1. Prelude A synthesis of Phonetics “ Tonetics 1.1.1. ©th the aid of some indispensable diagrams (mostly taken from the HPh, but with simplifications and other modifications), we will provide the key to adequately use the rich potentialities of Phonetics, with regard to the 12 languages dealt with in this book: English, Italian, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Arabic, Hindi, Chinese, Japanese, and Esperanto. Above all we take into consideration voicing, vowels, consonants, and intonation (including tones). For in-depth analyses, the reader is referred to the companion volume HPh (A Handbook of Phonetics). 1.1.2. û 1.1 shows the glottis (which is the space between the vocal folds) and the positions adopted during the phonation types we are interested in. In addition to normal breathing, we have a complete stoppage (¤ the stop (ö), which technically can be neither voiced nor voiceless, but has more a‚nities with the latter type, and will schematically be represented with Ï ), besides voicelessness ((f), Á ) and voicing ((v), Ë ). Furthermore, we also find lenis (or lenited] voicelessness and voicing (respectively (É, v), Ù, È ), and mixed phonation (or half-voicing, (Ñ), with three schematic û 1.1. Phonation types and positions of the glottis.

å. breathing

∫. occlusion

(){}

(ö, P)

©. voicelessness

Ï

(f, s, ·)

(É, s, h, ), A)

+

2

Ù

3

+ +

Ÿ. lenis voicing

(v, z, H, ")

ƒ. mixed phonation

∆. creaky voice

(Ca)

Ú

Ë

+

1

™. lenis voicelessness

Á

∂. voicing

(v, z, â, m, a)

(Ñ, Ω, ≈, Ø) {1 Î (pbX ), 2 Í (bpX b), 3 Û (bpX )}: 1 (|'Êa, ap'Êa)÷ 2 (&aÊa'Êa)÷ 3 (aÊ'pa, 'aÊ|)

¤. falsetto

(Úma)

∏

È

2

a handbook of pronunciation

icons, which we will shortly see), where half of the interested phone is voiced, while the other half is voiceless. Generally, the çchoiceÇ –between the three of them– depends on context: after a pause (or silence) or a voiceless C, the first half is still voiceless; whereas the second half, which is in contact with voiced phones, is voiced: (Î ), as in German: Bett /'bEt/ ('ÊEt). Instead, before a pause or a voiceless C, the two halves are exchanged: (Û ), as in English: Bed /'bEd/ ('b™;fl). On the other hand, within words or phrases/ sentences, between voiced phones, the central part is the voiceless one, whereas the two margins (each one for a fourth of the total duration) are voiced: (Í ), as in Neapolitan-Italian pronunciation: dato /'dato/ ('dA;√&∂ø). We have added several particulars in û 1.1, where there are two peculiar phonation types, too: creak (Ú ) and falsetto: (∏ ), which are useful for Chinese and Hindi respectively. In § 4.1.7-12 of the HPh, we have explained how to verify and check if çvoiceÇ is û 1.2. Di‡erent phonation types exemplified by some languages: American “ British English (with mediatic British variants); Italian (with two regional variants: Naples “ Rome); French; (Lusitanian) Portuguese; German; (Mandarin) Chinese; Hindi; Japanese.

ÁÙËË

ÁÁËË ËËË

ËËÛ

ÁÙËËË

ÙËÛÁËÁ

('pha;Ù)

('spa;Ù)

('ba;Ù)

('b¤;Ê)

('phl™;I)

('h™;fl&S¤p)

pie

spy

buy

bib

play

headship ({Amer./Brit.} Eng.)

ËÁÁË/ËÏÁË ËËÁÁ/ËËÏÁ

ËÏÁÁË ËËÏÁÁ

('πkTå, 'π∏Tå) ('w¤ks, 'w¤∏s) actor

('Eökça) ('w¤öks) (Brit.)

wicks

actor

wicks (mediatic Brit.)

ÁËËËË ËËËËËËËÁË ËËÁËËÁËËËÁË ÁËËËÈ ('fa:va) fava

(u˙'gwan:to)

(&u˙kan'tan:te)

un guanto

ËÁÁÁÙ

ÁËÁËËÁË

('sud:H, -d:È) ('Es:th, -tÈ)

un cantante

sud

(sa'pe:te) sapete

est

(Ital.)

ËËÁËÁÁËÁÁÁË ËËÙËÁÙËÁÁÙË ËËÈËËÈËËËÈË ÁËÍËËÍË ÁËÈËËÈË (&ilkap'pOt:to)

(&ilk√p'pOt:ùo)

il cappotto

il cappotto (~å)

(&u˙g√n'dan:de)

un cantante (~å)

(s√'Êe;I∂e) sapete (~å)

(sa'be:de) sapete (®µ) (reg.)

ÁÎË ÁÎË ÁÎË ÁÎË ÁËÁÙ ÁÎËÁÙ ÁËÁÁ

ËÛÁÙ

('p¿e) ('p#Å) ('pÎi) ('púÅ) ('p§pa) ('püis)) ('©ÅtX)

('AÓtu)

pied

alto (Lus. Port.)

poids

puis

plat

peuple

prisme

quatre (French)

ÁÙËËË ÎËËËË ËËËÁÎËÁ ÏËËËË ÏËÁÎËËÁ ÛËËÁÎËËÁ ('phaen) ('Êaen)

('li:púIÂ)

('öa:b…)

('öap&ÊIlt)

('ÊE‰k&∂ø‰f)

Pein

lieblich

aber

Abbild

Bergdorf

Bein

(Germ.)

ÁÁËË

ÁÙËËÁÚÚÚ

ÁÁËËËËÁÚÚÚ

ÙËË

ÎËËÁÁÚÚ

ÁÚËÚ

(5p·aÉ)

(—phaÉç2ßøøU)

(5t·¤,2buç2tUU¥)

('1paÉ)

(ÒÊaÉ63q·aË)

(63pa3bå)

pai

paishœu

tingbudœng

bái

báicài

bàba (Chinese)

ÁËËË ÁÙËËË ËËËË ËÈËËË

∏∏∏

ÁÙÁË

('kaan) ('khaan)

('gaan)

('gHaan)

(¿Ú'mì™21)

(3Âi'Âi)

kaan

gaan

ghaan

mãq? (Hindi)

chichi (Japanese)

khaan

1. prelude

3

present or not, depending on vocal-fold vibrations during the productions of phones. û 1.2 shows the various phonation types applied to the 12 HPr languages, only. 1.1.3. As far as vowels are concerned, let us recall that from a phonetic point of view it is more convenient to use the term vocoids, while reserving the more traditional terms for phonemes and graphemes, in addition to more general expositions, as at the beginning of the HPh. û 1.3-5 will help to çreconstructÇ the typical modalities for the production and identification of vocoids, or vowel phones, which have three fundamental components that – concisely– are: the fronting and raising of the dorsum (or central part of the tongue), with di‡erent degrees of jaw opening, and di‡erent lip positions, since lip rounding doubles the number of possible vocoids. û 1.3. Orograms with the extreme points for vocoid articulations.

å

π

i

u

û 1.4. Vocogram with the extreme points for vocoid articulations (and corresponding labiograms). u i

å

π

nt ce -cen nt tr ra al ba l ck ba -cen ck tra l fro nt fro rou nt nd e ce cen d nt tra r l ba al ro rou ck u n nd ba cen ded . ck tra ro l ro un u de nd d .

… ¢ È ‘ å a

0

1

2

M [*] û [ï] X [Ú] x [¢] √ ∏ A å 3

4

Y y è Y [∏] ° [π] # [œ] § [ì] π 5

6

% T + ê @ ∏

¯ ¨ P Ö ∏ ù

u U o ø O Ø

7

8

9

high (å)

≥ ©¬øß™ lower-high (∫) higher-mid (©) lower-mid (∂)

≥ µ¤∂

Û˙…˙M

Y˙{%˙¯}

higher-low (™) ≥ øπ™~ low (ƒ) y˙{%˙¯}˙u

= +

Û ¤ Ù É Ä Å

±

fro

i I e ™ E π

= ±

i

≠

fro

nt

û 1.5. Vocoid classification (with labiograms of high vocoids).

Furthermore, û 1.6 will complete our general view, by providing all possible vocoids, in orograms which contain a miniature vocogram, in order to help to see

4


û 1.6. Vocoid orograms.

unrounded

i

Û

…

M

{{*}}

I

¤

¢

û

{{ï}}

e

Ù

È

X

{{Ú}}

™

É

‘

x

{{¢}}

E

Ä

å

√

∏

π

Å

a

A

å

rounded

Y

y

%

¯

u

è

Y

T

¨

U

{{∏}}

°

+

P

o

{{π}}

#

ê

Ö

ø

{{œ}}

§

@

∏

O

{{ì}}

π

∏

ù

Ø

1. prelude

5

nuances and di‡erences better. For vocoids, voicing is the normal type, so much so because voicelessness is considered to be the marked characteristic. Also the addition of possible nasalization is considered marked (Ô û 1.7; in § 11.17 of the HPh we explain how to verify and check exactly how nasalized vocoids are produced). For the eight vocoids which appear without any grey background, and with symbols in double brackets, no language has been found that uses them systematically. û 1.8 shows the various lip positions, by means of labiograms. û 1.7. Oral (or normal) vocoids and nasalized vocoids.

i

a

u

i

Å

u

û 1.8. Labiograms for the di‡erent vocoids. spread

neutral (or normal)

half-round(ed)

vertically rounded

round(ed)

i

Û … M {{*}}

{¨ ˚ W}

Y {% ¯}

y {% ¯} u

I

¤ ¢ û {{ï}}

{Ù : w}

è {T ¨}

Y {T ¨} U

e

Ù È X {{Ú}}

{È , „}

{{∏}} {+ P}

° {+ P} o

™

É ‘ x {{¢}}

{Í Ï ∑}

{{π}} {ê Ö}

# {ê Ö} ø

E

Äå√∏

{É † ,}

{{œ}} {@ ∏}

§ {@ ∏} O

π

ÅaAå

{Ω Ä a}

{{ì}} {∏ ù}

π {∏ ù} Ø

1.1.4. Also for consonants we follow a more scientific terminology, which defines the consonantal phones as contoids, while reserving the more traditional terms for phonemes and graphemes, in addition to more general expositions. ˛e three fundamental components for the production and identification of contoids are: manners and places of articulation, and phonation types. ˛e latter are extremely useful for contoids, since –depending on whether voicing is present or not– they double their number, for distinctive –or phonemic– purposes, as of-

6


ten happens with (t, d÷ c, G÷ f, v), which then form diphonic pairs, which are distinguished only by the di‡erent type of phonation. ˛ere are seven fundamental manners of articulation: nasal, stop, stop-strictive, constrictive, approximant, trill, lateral. Traditionally (in spite of an actual and objective di‚culty, instead of the clearer articulatory terms that we use), some terms of auditory origin, such as ça‡ricateÇ for stop-strictive or çfricativeÇ for constrictive, are still widespread. Depending on languages, some internal subdivisions are possible, as that between grooved (constrictive and stopstrictive) contoids, which are marked in comparison with the simple –slit– ones, from which they can be distinguished by the addition of a groove along the longitudinal part of the tongue. For instance, (s, z÷ S, Z÷ q, Q÷ c, G) are grooved articulations. Another important subdivision applies to trills, such as (r, K), which consist in two rapid tappings (respectively of the tip of the tongue or of the uvula), and taps, such as (R, ç), with just one tapping. Also flaps are possible, such as ([, ®), which produce a rapid contact in passing to a fronter position, as can be seen from the illustration (û 1.14.3). û 1.9-15 present, according to the seven manners (with further internal subdivisions), the contoid articulations found in dealing with the 12 languages described in é 2-13, including the variants indicated. ˛is is why we call them çHPr conû 1.9.1. Nasal contoids. ˝ )/m

/[

/m

/M

/‹

˝ /M

/“

/"

/M

/˙

/n

˝ £/n

/N

/¸

/º

/ª

/n

“ /n

˝ /N

/n

/˝

/~

/√

˝ /N

/∞

/”

˝ /˙

/Ñ

/\

/û

/m

˝ /,

1. prelude

7

toidsÇ, in order to recall both the completeness of the HPr (in itself), and that these consonantal articulations are not the only existing ones. Rather, since there are çonlyÇ 200 in comparison with the 462 given in the HPh, they are less than half (again, of course, considering them as mere çarticulationsÇ, since potentially each one may produce a diphonic pair, with two distinct elements because of the addition of voicing. As a matter of fact, they almost double the actual number of phones; there are 283 in the HPr, but 772 in the HPh).

/M

/∫

/π

/«

û 1.9.2. Semi-nasal contoids. /n

˝ p/b

(/{

Q/Á

p/b

]/7

˝ t/d

t/d

4/7

T/D

B/∫

˝ ˛/Ã

T/D

t/d

+/_

˝ ©/á

£/8

´/Ò

˝ k/g

$/¢

û 1.10. Stop contoids.

˝ ›/

˝ ö

˝ p/

˝ ∫/

˝ ‡/ƒ

./…

˝ k/›

%/

∞/

˝ w/

k/

û 1.11.1.å. (∫at) stop-strictive contoids.

˝ ∑/

8


û 1.11.1.∫. Grooved stop-strictive contoids. ˝ q/Q

˝ q/Q

ç/Ç

˝ fi/"

C/‚

˝ c/G

&/1

˝ C/G

c/g

v/∆

⁄/Á

˝ Â/©

û 1.11.2. (Grooved and flat) stop-semi-strictive contoids.

ú/∂

˜/

º/Ÿ

å/6

˝ f/v

5/ç

f/v

w/W

˝ †/∑

/D

Q/z

/ï

/ø

˝ Â/J

…/

¢/Ú

˝ x/Ÿ

/)

˝ X/º

û 1.12.1.å. (∫at) constrictive contoids.

˝ h/

·

˝ s/z

˝ s/z

†/Ã

ß/fi

˝ ß/Ω

∑/

ë/ò

˝ S/Z

«/»

X/5

x/ç

‹/¶

./÷

//\

S/q

À/=

˝ ¿/B

û 1.12.1.∫. Grooved constrictive contoids.

1. prelude

9

û 1.12.2. (Grooved and flat) semi-constrictive contoids.

ƒ/√

fl/∂

∂/d

À/ö

»/«

/,

/y

/m

û 1.13.1. Approximant contoids. ˝ F/B

/ñ

˝ /V

/¶

/◊

Ï/ƒ

≈/¸

/⁄

˝ â/j

˝ /¥

˝ /µ

/°

∆/V

˝ W/w

˜/˜

x/‰

˝ /H

˝ h

+

˝ H

∆

û 1.13.2. Semi-approximant contoids.

/b

/d

/ã

/%

/F

/Æ

/=

/j

û 1.13.3. Lateralized approximant contoids.

/S ˝ />

+

+

/Ã

+

/˛

+ /‰

/¸

+

/Í

+

+ ˝ /
•≥

suspensive /÷/ (2 ' 3 2) >¶≥

û 1.23. Two neutral preintonemes of British English. normal //()§@

continuative /,/ (2 ' 2) §'@ interrogative /¿ / (¿ ) §¿ @

1.1.7. We can now carefully see (or see again) the tonograms of the intonemes and preintonemes given in û 1.22-3. ˛is is also useful to run trials in order to check how much we approach –or not– what is shown there, depending on our own spontaneous pronunciation, which may be more or less regional. It is likely that the major di‡erences exist for the suspensive intoneme, which is the most varied and çimaginativeÇ one. In é 2-13 we always also give the imperative, /¡ /, and emphatic, /˚ /, preintonemes. ˛ese are respectively used, above all, to give orders, to curse… or to exclaim, declare… Lastly, let us observe that a continuative intoneme can substitute a conclusive one, when it is needed to attenuate the impact of the latter, in order to be less abrupt, or nicer, as also happens in partial questions addressed to strangers, such as ∑at's the time? or ∑at's your name?, or How much does it cost? For many other things, including paraphonics (which concerns states of mind, attitudes…), it is necessary to refer the readers to the HPh or MaPI. We simply add û 1.24, that shows pitch modifications in (low or mid) parentheses and in quotations, that occur in the text of †e North Wind and the Sun, which we have used for the transcriptions given at the end of each chapter (before possible appendixes, as for English and French). û 1.24. Tonograms of parentheses and quotations.

low parenthesis: (ì œ) /ì œ/ mid parenthesis: (‘ ’) /‘ ’/ quotation: (^ Œ) /^ Œ/

1.1.8. û 1.25 helps us understand the relationship tone languages have with intonation. As a matter of fact, the di‡erent tones (which are the realizations of particular tonemes, such as those of Chinese, for instance) obviously have their own peculiar characteristics, as can be seen from û 1.26. ˛erefore, intonation is added to the existing tones, by modifying them in preintonemes, according to what is shown in û 1.25. In the tonograms there, the grey parts indicate how the preintonemes slightly deform lexical pitches (by delimiting the available extents). In comparison with an emphatic preintoneme, /˚ /, the normal one, / /, is more compressed towards the middle part; an interrogative, /¿ /, is raised, whereas an imperative one, /¡ /, is falling.

16


Obviously, also in intonemes there are some (even greater, Ô û 13.9 of the HPh) modifications, which are indicated by the corresponding tonograms, for Chinese and Japanese (é 11-2; or in the phonosyntheses of the HPh, for the various tone languages given there). Naturally, what has been presented here about intonation holds for the languages treated, with all due di‡erences –at a tonetic level– which are indicated by possible observations and respective tonograms. ˛ese sections might seem to be too short, but in actual fact, they provide all that is needed, whenever one adequately knows the tonetic method, which is an integral –and necessary– part of the phonetic method (within natural phonetics). ˛e tonemic symbols, /¿ ¡ ˚ . ? ÷ ,/, can be applied to all languages, since intonation functions are shared, although their actual tonetic realizations are extremely di‡erent, as can be seen in the individual tonograms given. û 1.25. ˛e four preintonemes for tone languages. / / ( ) ((” ))

/¡ / (¡ ) ((»’ ))

/¿ / (¿ ) ((» ))

/˚ /(˚ ) ((ˇ ))

û 1.26. ˛e four basic ton(em)es of (Mandarin) Chinese.

1 /5/ (5) >1≥

2 /•/ ('1) >Q≥

3 /¶/ (ç2) >5≥

4 /6/ (63) >Z≥

Transcriptions 1.2.1. ‹en it comes to analyzing the pronunciation of a language, for learning or teaching purposes, it is necessary to use two fundamental types of transcription: phonetic and phonemic. Both of them must start from real interlinguistic strategies, rather than from intralinguistic considerations. In fact, an intralinguistic transcription has the sole aim to be used for just one language and –above all– for native speakers. ˛erefore, it is limited to what is merely phonemic, without concerning comparisons with other languages. All this is quite legitimate, though, when no connection with other languages is felt necessary. In this case, even very generic symbols may be used, provided each phoneme has a di‡erent symbol from those of all other phonemes. In theory, it could be su‚cient to transcribe the English diphthongs (Ii, ™I, aÙ, øÙ, aÖ, ‘¨/ø¨, ¯u/Uu) (here American variants appear after a slash), simply as ç/i:, e:, ai, oi, au, o: u:/Ç (if not even as ç/ij, ej, aj, oj, aw, ow, uw/Ç). According to this way of thinking, German (ae, ao, OY) are çrightlyÇ indicated as ç/aj, aw, oj/Ç, or even Spanish or Italian (ai, au) as ç/aj, aw/Ç.

1. prelude

17

1.2.2. However, it is immediately clear that –dealing with descriptions and teaching– indications such as ç/aj, aw/Ç are rarely faithful and highly misleading, for such di‡erent realities as English (aÙ, aÖ) (with centralized and non-high second elements), German (ae, ao) (with peripheral and non-high second elements), and Spanish or Italian (ai, au) (with peripheral and decidedly high second elements). Besides, transcribing German (OY) as ç/oj/Ç would mean completely ignoring (or concealing) the fact that –in neutral pronunciation– also the second element is rounded (and neither fully high nor front). For English it would be desirable –once and for all– not to continue to conceal the evident fact that not only are (™I, ‘¨/ø¨) real diphthongs, but that (Ii, ¯u/Uu) are diphthongs too. Instead, interphonemic transcriptions seek to take into proper consideration the characteristics of each language, even though within a less rich and less precise symbol inventory, which is however capable of using the similarities and di‡erences among the various languages in a better way. ˛erefore, we have: English /aE, aO/, German /ae, ao/, Spanish or Italian /ai, au/. A careful analysis of the vocograms in é 3 “ 5 will surely explain the notational di‡erence between English and German. To complete the series given above, we have English /Ii, EI, OE, OU, Uu/, and German /OY/. 1.2.3. ˛e most e‡ective phonetic transcriptions are the taxophonic ones. ˛ey resort to every useful symbol (among the available ones for the di‡erent phones: vocoids and contoids) and all the most precise prosodic elements, in order to manage to show the necessary nuances. Only in this way is it possible to make real and valid comparisons between di‡erent pronunciations, either regarding di‡erent languages or di‡erent areas for the same language. Otherwise, everything becomes approximate and definitely less useful, since people may think they are working well, while generally they are simply deceiving themselves. Even excessive simplifications, to help learners, are not the best solution in order to teach–learn pronunciation really well. For instance, when English phoneticians continue to use (È) even in more accurate transcriptions (perhaps with diacritics), for all occurrences of /È/ (and perhaps ç/ÈU/Ç too), they miss the opportunity to show reality, as when to go˚ the man˚ further˚ are rendered as ç(tÈ'gÈU, ∑È'mπn, 'f‘:∑È) (or ('fÈ:∑È))Ç in British pronunciation, instead of actual (Tû'g‘;¨, ∑È'mπ;n, 'f‘;∑å) (as happens to the quite often reported cases of ç(i:, u:)Ç for (Ii, ¯u/Uu)). 1.2.4. ˛erefore, for those who use several languages, but also for those who utilize one foreign language only, the most recommendable phonemic transcriptions are the interphonemic ones, because they use symbols in a less arbitrary way. In fact, they do not flatten reality, by only showing what is functional, but compare di‡erent languages better, by considering similarities and di‡erences as well. In Japanese, it is certainly better to use /M/ rather than ç/u/Ç, even if there is no possibility of confusing them, since this language has no /u/. However, the use of /M/ highlights the di‡erences from other languages which do have /u/. ˛e kind of diaphonemic transcription is important, as well. It generally rests on an interphonemic basis, although an intraphonemic basis is possible, too (but

18


with all the imperfections that this inevitably implies). diaphonemes are fundamental to transcribe partially di‡erent accents of the same language simultaneously. In fact, by using a sole kind of transcription and occupying less space, it calls to mind that there are di‡erences and indicates systematic variations (with no need to repeat the same words but only change the symbols of the parts that really di‡er). In this way, for instance, /Uu, OU/ represent (and trace back to) (¯u, ‘¨) (Br.) and (Uu, ø¨) (Am.): two /'tUu/ ('Th¯;u, 'ThU;u), go /'gOU/ ('g‘;¨, 'gø;¨). Equally we have: /π;/ for (A:) (Br.) and for (π) (Am.): last /'lπ;st/ ('lA;sT, 'lπsT); or /Ø;/ for (Ø) (Br.) and for (O:) (Am.): lost /'lØ;st/ ('lØsT, 'lO;sT); and /ù, ≤/ in /'lEùÈ≤/ for ('l™Tå) (Br.) or for ('l™m≥) (Am.). 1.2.5. ‹atever the phonemic transcription used, to go on to the phonetic one (and then to an adequate pronunciation) each distinctive element –¤ each phoneme– must be considered as one of a given number of fixed points in the phonemic space, either vocalic or consonantal, of a certain language. Each of these points, or elements, is necessarily di‡erent from all the others because of its function, and is also di‡erent from a çzero occurrenceÇ. For instance, /π/ is di‡erent from /I/, or from /Ø/, Â, but it is di‡erent from /`/ too. As a matter of fact, beat /'bIit/ di‡ers from heat /'hIit/, but they are also di‡erent from eat /'Iit/ (or //'Ìit//, to show the relationship more clearly). Even the opposite process –¤ the decoding of an oral message– is carried out according to these principles. Each phone of a given utterance –depending on the global meaning and the speaker's phonic system as well– must be assigned to an agreed phoneme (as a realization of it). ˛en this has to be placed into a specific phonemic space, as already said. 1.2.6. It is important to keep in mind the di‡erence between phonemes, phones, and sounds. phonemes have a distinctive value within a given language, since it can change the meaning of words, as for instance: (I can) read /' ≥– enclose symbols or diacritics (such as §õ@), these refer to paraphonic elements. Instead, when they enclose orthographic symbols (such as >a≥), they refer to graphemic elements. Symbols not enclosed in brackets or slashes represent phones in treatments of general phonetics, as in the orograms shown up to now. Instead, in the consonant tables in é 2-13 (and in the phonosyntheses, in é 1623 of the HPh]˚ the symbols not enclosed in slashes represent phonemes, even though they are represented by fairly specific symbols (this is to avoid sacrificing precision, but without making the visual e‡ect too intimidating – in fact, here the symbols represent phones as well]˘ In the phonemic transcriptions accompanying the phonetic transcriptions, it is also possible to use more generic symbols to indicate phonemes. We have followed this approach in é 2-13, where we have also indicated the corresponding results and presented them in easy reference form in the consonant tables. Transcribing by hand 1.5.3. ≈nally, several fundamental observations should be made on the topic of transcriptions carried out by hand. It is important to draw every symbol (and every diacritical marking) exactly as it is printed in this manual (where we employ the elegant Simoncini Garamond character set, in our personal version called ßimon¸ani). It is necessary to be very careful not to confuse one symbol with another one which is similar to it, but –obviously– not exactly the same and with a di‡erent value. To start out, transcriptions should not be carried out in cursive (or in italics). In fact, contrary to habits in normal handwriting, the symbols should not be connected

1. prelude

37

to each other, but should instead be kept separate, as in print. Moreover, symbols should not be simplified, changing n into u, or m into æ; or l into æ or a. Dots should not be omitted, and so ª should not be written in place of i, nor ñ for j. çStylisticÇ additions and modifications should be avoided. ˛us, d must remain di‡erent from ∂ and from ´, just as ä is di‡erent from the grapheme g, and h from Ü. ˛e same goes for cases like z, which should be kept distinct from both Z and Ë. Moreover, (L, r, R, Ÿ) are, by the same token, quite distinct from (ô/H, ¸, [, y), Â. Naturally, small capitals should be avoided as well, since the symbols (Å, ∫, ™, I, G, ì, ,, Ì, K) are di‡erent from (a/A, b, e/E, i/¤, g, l, n, p, r). In conclusion, it is necessary to set aside every normal writing habit which could lead to confusion between the symbols. ˛e best strategy to reach this essential goal is to begin observing every symbol with great care. A çtypographic eyeÇ should be developed which pays attention to every detail, from the size and orientation of a stroke ((t, T, ˛, †), (B, 6)), or of a symbol ((e, Ù, È), (K, º, ˜, ‰), (A, Ø÷ a, å), (™, É÷ E, ‘), (X, x÷ v, √÷ ©, O), (r, 1 ≥1 ˇ1 ≤1 ) (/, ˛) (/, ain /'cEIn/ ('ch™;In) /G/ ç/dZ/Ç Jane /'GEIn/ ('G™;In) /f/ ç/f/Ç f[ /'fjUu/ ('fj¯;u) /v/ ç/v/Ç vi[ /'vjUu/ ('vj¯;u) /†/ ç/†/Ç wreath /'Ii†)b /∑/ ç/∑/Ç wreathe /'I;i„)b /s/ ç/s/Ç ice /'aEs/ ('aÙs) /z/ ç/z/Ç \es /'aEz/ ('a;ÙΩ) /S/ ç/S/Ç dilution /d¢'lUuS˘n/ (DÈ'lUuSÈn)a (D¤'l¯uSó)b /Z/ ç/Z/Ç delusion /d¢'lUuZ˘n/ (DÈ'lUuZÈn)a (D¤'l¯uZó)b /Èfå|) /fÈ'tØg-)b /'cIıdildren˚ ('DÈzóT, 'DÇóT, -óö) /'d√zót, 'dÈ-/ doesn't (this is given in an example in § 2.6.4, too). Let us consider also the possibility of çrestressingÇ for emphasis, as in: Oh, I didn't buy it: it wasn't the ('∑I;i, '∑Èö) dre˛, it was ju® a ('ö™;I, 'öÈö) dre˛ (example adapted from a phonetics newsgroup). Consonants 2.2.0. At the beginning of this section, we will show the table of the consonantal articulations of (American and British) neutral English: û 2.6. It is useful to make regular reference to it, in order to thoroughly understand the English consonantal system. û 1.9-15 show the orograms of all the contoids needed to describe English (and the other languages dealt with in HPr), including secondary, occasional, or regional variants, arranged according to their manner of articulation.

m ö F pb Ô ƒ _ ß ó ‹

(M) f v

(n) n (t d) T D

(˛ Ã)b

˙ k g

cG

laryngeal

velar rounded

velar

palatal {postalveolariz.} prevelar round.

(~)

† ∑ s z (ß fi)a ([|m)a l ı

prepalatal

postalveopalatal protruded

postalveolar prot.

postalveolar

velarized alveol.

alveolar

dental

labiodental

bilabial

û 3.6. Table of neutral English consonants.

(ö)

S Z j

(>)b

osen˘ After /0t, 0d/, it is best to use /Èn/: ('w¤nsTÈn) /'wInstÈn/ Win®on˚ ('hø¨ıDÈn)a ('hÖ¨ı-)b /'hOUıdÈn/ Holden˘ Furthermore, we have /˘n/ (= (Èn)a (ó)b) after /S, Z/: (ph¤-)b /-)b /'d-)b /'d<Emt/ dreamt, ('s√m&ThaÙmΩ)a ('såm-)b /'s√mtaEmz/ sometimes, ('s™;Im 'kha;Ùnfl) /'sEIm 'kaEnd/ same kind, (sÈm'G™li) /sÈm'GEli/ some jelI˚ ('s™;IM 'vøÙs, -m '6øÙs) /'sEIm 'vOEs/ same voice, ('s™;IM 'fπkT, -M] 'f-, -m 'åπkT) /'sEIm 'fπkt/ same fact, ('kh√Mf≥T, -M]f-, -må-)a ('khåMfÈT, -M]f-, -må-)b /'k√mfÈ≤t/ comfort˘ As can be seen, only with labiodentals, /m/ shows a slight let-up, becoming labiodental, (Mf÷ M]f), but this happens just in trivial cases from a lexical-semantic point of view. Otherwise, /f, v/ may become bilabial (constrictives): (må, m6).

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Our examples also show that at present a homorganic (labiodental) stop may very often be inserted into the sequence (mf) (¤ only with voiceless /f/); but a too frequent use is better avoided. ˛is homorganic insertion can happen with other sequences too: ('wø;<m†, -mp†)a ('wø;m-)b /'wO:≤m†/ warm`, ('™mTi, '™mpTi) /'Emti/ emp“, ('s¤msó, 's¤mpsó) /'sImsó/ Sim(p)son. Even /˙/ resists well: ('Ø;˙fl)b /'-, ån-, -öf®)b /√n'g<EItf®/ u«rateful. In all other cases, with less di‡erent coarticulations, assimilation (which is often considered less recommendable, on mere written and grammatical bases) is more elusive. It is therefore used spontaneously, though unconsciously. To end, simplification is also possible, though less frequently than in the past, in cases like: ('s™nts÷ -ns) /'sEnts/ cen_˚ ('pha;ÖndΩ÷ -nΩ) /'paOndz/ pounds˚ ('l√~c÷ -~S)a ('lå-)b /'l√nc/ lun>˚ ('l√~cÈn÷ -~SÈn)a ('lå-)b /'l√ncÈn/ lun>eon˚ (-, '‚>-, 'G>-, 'Ãø-)b /'d¤nT¤fl)b /mIs'p-)b /It'kπ Èn'ø;Då) (('lO: Èn'ø;-) /'pEtiΩ, ¤∏æ-, ¤ökæ-÷ ¤Tæ-÷ ¤Tæ-¤öTæ-) /It'kπeese˚ (È'lA: me, ('f™c¤T, -¸¤T, -öc¤T) /'fEcIt/ feb it, ('Th¤icå, -¸å, -öcå) /'tIicÈ≤/ tea>er. ≈nally, chiefly in British English, /c/ may become (öS), before a pause or a C\ ('f™öS, 'b™~öS, 's‘;öST, 's‘;öSmi) (examples we have already seen) and ('khπc÷ 'khπöS) /'kπc/ cab˚ (¿5w¤c 'b¨k3 3÷ ¿5w¤öS 'b¨k3 3) /'w·Ic 'bUk/ whi> book? Constrictives (or £fricatives∞) 2.2.8.1. Also for this manner of articulation (as for the stop-strictive one, rather than ça‡ricateÇ), we prefer to use an articulatory term, because of its greater clarity. ˛ere are four (diphonic) pairs, /f, v÷ †, ∑÷ s, z÷ S, Z/ (f, v÷ †, ∑÷ s, z÷ S, Z). For /f, v/ readers are referred to what has been said about /pf, bv/ (§ 2.2.2.2). We now add some examples that show the frequent reduction or dropping of /v/: (aÙ'khπ[;]m bÈ'lI;iv&∑πT, -iV&∑-, -i&∑-)a (-A;m b¤-)b /aE'kπ;nù b¢'lIiv∑πt/ I can't believe àt˚ ('g¤vmi 'fa;ÙÑ, 'g¤Vmi, 'g¤mi) /'gIvmi 'faEv/ give me five!˚ (aÙÑ'Sø;å-)b (-bÍ¤˙) /'ti$en˚ (aÙ'maÙk&gø¨\ bÈö∑™nû'g™n:\ aÙ'maÙö 'nAT, -∑Èn-, √-, -T&g-, -T 'n-)a (-‘¨\, -ØT)b I might go but èn again I might not˚ (∑™n'π[;]fT≥ È'Tha;Ùm, ∑Èn-)a (-'A;ftÈ> È-, -˛>È 'Th-)b èn after a time…÷ ère (exist.): (∑™ È-, -åÙ-, -å-, -È-, -™ı:Ñ)b `ree times four are ‘elve÷ to\ (ThÈ'l√nDÈn)a (-å-)b to London˚ (ThÈ'sku;Uı) to (ool˚ (Th¯'¤˙glÈnfl, 'Thw¤-) to E«land˚ (ThÈ'j¯;u, Th¤'j-, Thi'j-) to you˚ (Th¯'π;n) to Ann˚ ('kh√mT¯¤T, -Tw¤T)a ('khåm-)b come to it˚ (jÈ'hπÑT¯, -fT¯, j¯-) you have to˚ (Thû'g¤;Ñ) to give˚ (Thû'w¤n:, Th¯-) to win˚ (Th¯'IiT÷ ThÈ-)a (÷ ThÈ'ö-)b to eat˚ (Th¯'O;f≥, -'A-÷ ThÈ-)a (÷ ThÈ'öØfå)b to o‡er – for to˚ before consonants˚ (È, û) can be very short; and, before voiceless consonants, they are often devoiced: ('Th™n TÈ'fa;ÙÑ) ten to five; up\ ('m™Ik√p j≥'ma;Ùnfl, jU≥-÷ -ûp-)a (-åpjÈ-, -jø;-÷ -ûp-)b make up your mind˚ (∑≥z'w√n √p'∑™;≥÷ Èp-÷ ∑≥¤z-)a (∑Èz'wån åp'∑™;‘÷ Èp-÷ ∑È>¤z-)b ère is one up ère [ère's]÷ upon\ ('w√n È&pO;nÈ'n√∑≥, È&pA-, È&p√-, ÈpÈ-)a ('wån È&pØnÈ'nå∑å, ÈpÈ-)b one upon anoèr˚ ('la;Ùn ÈpO;n'la;Ùn, -pA-, -p√-, -pÈ-)a (-pØ-, -pÈ-)b line upon line÷ us\ ('Th™lÈs) tell us˚ (l™ts'gø;¨, l™ös-, l™s-)a (-‘;¨)b let's go! – but: ('l™[Ès 'gø;¨)a ('l™TÈs 'g‘;¨)b let us go÷ was\ (aÙwûz'ur> will be full÷ would\ (wûD¤pbi'g¨;fl, -öb-, -Tb-) would it be good?˚ (∑™ID'DU;u÷ ∑™IÈD-÷ -wûD-)a (-¯;u)b `\ would do [`\'d]˚ (hiâ'kh√m:, -fl'k-÷ hiûâ÷ hiÈfl-÷ hiwû-)a (-åm:)b he would come [he'd]˚ (¤[Èbbi'naÙs, -Db-÷ ¤pwû-÷ ¤Twû-)a (¤TÈ-)b it would be nice [it'd], ('GI;im wûd's™;I&sø¨, -n Èd-)a (-‘¨)b Jean would sZ so÷ you\ (¤fjÈ'DU;u, -j¯-)a (-¯;u)b if you do˚ (aÉı'Th™¬j√, -j¯, ,ı-÷ aÉûı-÷ aÙwûı-)a …(-j¯, √ı-)b I will tell you [I'll]˚ ('†π˙kj¯, -j√)a (-j¯)b ànk you˚ ('A;™ITå)…b elevator operator˚ ('laÙT&haÖs 'khIip≥, 'laÙT&haÖs“khIip≥, 'laÙThaÖs&khIip≥)a (-å)…b lighòuse keeper÷ let us notice: ('laÙT 'haÖs&khIip≥)a (-å)b light housekeeper˘ 2.3.4.3. To feel certain about the stress patterns of compounds, it is necessary to look them up in reliable dictionaries. But pronunciation dictionaries are not always the best choice, for this aspect, although, of course, they have to be consulted. We willingly recommend the Random House dictionaries which, for secondary stress, are almost perfect; of course, the stress patterns shown are American ones, but, in general, they may hold good even for British English, which, in the meanwhile, may have added — kept some other possible variants (mainly collocation-like, rather than compound-like, so less useful ones: weekend˚ icecream˚ N[ York˚ N[ Zealand˚ N[ Hampíre…). In addition, the Oxford çAdvanced Learner'sÇ dictionaries show the çmarkedÇ cases of primary stress in several lexical collocations (which are quite unpredictable, above all for foreigners). In (dia)phonemic transcriptions such as ours, the most typical and numerous compounds are shown with a single primary stress /'àà/; the secondary one is easily recoverable, because the second lexeme necessarily bears a secondary stress. cce versa, most dictionaries printed in the ¨ßå include secondary stress, ç/'à&à/Ç; but usually the non-IPA symbols they use put stresses after stressed syllables, unfortunately, not before, and simply through a di‡erence in thickness (which, sometimes, is not evident enough, even with both of them in præsentia); as a matter of fact, we happen to find, ™ çin scrib’Ç instead of /In'sk-, -T¤˙)b /'sEnt, ¨>, ù:): ('h¤;>)m;a ('hI;≥)a /'hIÈ≤/ here˚ ('ph¨;>)m;a ('phU;≥)a /'pUÈ≤/ poor˚ ('wù:ı)m;a ('wO:ı)a /'wO:ı/ wall˚ ('sù:)m;a ('sO:)a /'sO:/ sY (instead, /O:≤, O:Øk)b /'™¤®)b /'<EIı/ rail˚ ('fAÉP[§])m;b ('fa;Éı, 'faÉ®)b /'faEı/ file˚ ('oÉP[§])m;b ('ø;Éı, 'øÉ®)b /'OEı/ oil. In [n]eièr the American-like pronunciation prevails: ('[n]ÙI∑a÷ -AÙ-)m;b ('[n]aÙ∑å÷ -Ii-)b. Generally, /i/ is realized as if it were /Ii/ (and in the prefix /0I-/ as well): ( i'bl¯;u32| ∑È5mø: 'khl‘¨sli2 &D¤d∑È'˛h>πvlå2\ 5fÖ;¨ıD ¤Ω'khl‘¨k û'>aÖnD¤m3 3| ìÈn[D]Èö'lA;sT2œ\ ∑È5nø;† 'w¤˙:2 5g™;Iv 'åp ∑iÈ'Th™mpT3 3|| ì'∑™n:2œ ∑È5sån 'SØn 'aÖT3 3 ì'wø;mli3 3œ| Èn¤'mIiDiÈTli2\ ˚∑È5˛h>πvl‘ 'Th¨k 'Øf3 3 ˚¤Ω'khl‘¨k3 3|| ìó's‘;¨2œ ∑È5nø;† 'w¤n:D2 wûzÈ5bla;Ùä TûkûM'f™s2| ∑Èt∑È'sån:3 3 wÇ∑È's˛>Ø˙g‘>3 3 ìÈv∑È'Th¯;u3 3œ|| ¿&D¤G¯'laÙk21 ¿∑È'sTø;>i2| ¿Dj¯5wØn TÈ'h¤È>¤T û'g™n:21|||)

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£International∞ English pronunciation 2.5.2.3. (∑È'nø;‰† 'w¤n:D2 Èn∑È'sån:2 wÈ‰D¤'spjuuT¤˙ 'w¤c wÈz∑È'sc) is always distinct (in all accents). Occasionally, we can find ç/O:È≤/Ç, for /O:≤/ (both ç/Or/Ç, and ç/or/Ç). ˛e triphthongs are not attenuated into diphthongs. Even in neutral pronunciation, we have /I˙/ (¤˙) (not ç(Ù˙, ¢˙)Ç). In New Zealand, /π;, A;/ = /A:/, /Ø;, O;/ = /Ø/, /¢/ = /È, ±I/ (¤ /I/ is only an intentional choice); fini´ /'fInIS/ ('fÙnÙS÷ 'f¢n¢S), visit /'vIz¢t/ ('vÙzÈT, 'v¢zÈT). ˛e most typical characteristic consists in (Ù, e) for /I, E/, in neutral pronunciation (but (¢, ¤), in the other accents), in addition to the pronunciation of the diphthongs /Ii, EI, aE, OE, aO, OU, Uu/ (which is similar to the Australian, mediatic British, and Cockney accents), as can be seen from the respective vocograms. Besides, /È:é, (&køpRi'lEt:to) /kOpri'lEtto/ copriletto, (pøi'ke) /pOi'ke*/ poi>é. ˛e other case regards the manifestation of half-opening, because starting with /e, o/ we –again– get to (™, ø). ˛is happens in /e, o/ endings after stressed syllables, when the stressed vowel is /i, u/, as in: ('vi:v™, 'vi:vø) /'vive, 'vivo/ vive˚ vivo, ('ku:c™, 'ku:cø) /'kuce, 'kuco/ cuce˚ cucio. Moreover, in an intoneme, the same can

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also occur for /'e-oò/: ('ve:do, -dø) /'vedo/ vedo (but not for /'o-eò/: ('do:ve) /'dove/ dove). ‹at remains to be said, as can be guessed (and confirmation is always precious), is that this happens with a final C too: ('ri:d™R, 'ri:døn) /'rider/ rider(e)˚ ridon(o), ('ip:siløn, 'su:tøR) /'ipsilon, 'sutor/ ipsilon, sutor (Lat.). ˛ere are however, other less regular cases which are dealt with in § 3.3 of MaPI. Let us take a look at some examples of the seven vowel phonemes: ('vi:ni) /'vini/ vini˚ ('se:te) /'sete/ sete˚ ('sEt:te) /'sEtte/ sette˚ ('ra:na) /'rana/ rana˚ ('Ot:to) /'Otto/ otto˚ ('sot:to) /'sotto/ sotto˚ (kul'tu:Ra) /kul'tura/ cultura. Clearly, /j, w/ are not vowels, but (approximant) consonants, as in: ('pju) /'pju*/ più˚ ('kjE:do) /'kjEdo/ ºedo˚ ('kwa) /'kwa*/ qua˚ ('bwO:no) /'bwOno/ buono. It is equally true that /ju, jE, wa, wO/ Â are not çdiphthongsÇ at all (Ô § 3.1.2) but simply sequences of CV˚ like /su, tE, va, nO/, Â. û 3.1. Italian monophthongs. /i/ (i) /e/ (e), ({'i/'u…)™ò) /E/ (E), (™{…'})

/u/ (u) /o/ (o), ({'i/'u…)øò) /O/ (O), (ø{…'})

/a/ (a)

Diphthongs 3.1.2. Italian grammar books put a lot of e‡ort into complicating what is, in fact, quite simple. Indeed, instead of the three very common structures, ¤ the real diphthong (('éé, &éé, ’éé)), the hiatus ((é'é, é&é)) and the heterophonic sequence ((0é)), ™, (jé), (wé), and the like), they continue to consider only two of them: çdiphthongÇ (with fusion: çsyneresisÇ) and çhiatusÇ (with separation: çdieresisÇ), but with strained interpretations of medieval origin, of a graphic-grammatical and graphic-metric nature. In fact, çsemi-vowelsÇ or çsemi-consonantsÇ do not exist: they are merely an çincredibly successfulÇ magic trick! As a matter of fact (unless one expects to do çmagicÇ in phonetics using graphic-grammatical categories), it is phonetically absurd to speak about a çdiphthongÇ for (—jé, —wé) (('pjE:no) /'pjEno/ pieno˚ ('gwan:to) /'gwanto/ guanto]˚ as only (—éi, —éu) (('fai) /'fai/ fai˚ ('pa;uza) /'pauza/ pausa] are real diphthongs, as any sequence of ('éé, &éé, ’éé) (('a;uto) /'auto/ auto˚ (au'tEn:tiko) /au'tEntiko/ autentico]˘ It is equally absurd to speak about çhiatusÇ for ('ié, 'ué), as only (i'é, u'é) are real hiatuses, as any other sequence like (é'é, é&é) ((pa'u:Ra) /pa'ura/ paura]˚ compared to (pau'ro:zo) /pau'rozo/ pauroso˚ a real diphthong. Hence, one cannot believe literature that only uses two categories (¤ diphthong and hiatus) and, what is more, they dangerously mix them up to a point where they include –in çdiphthongsÇ– the heterophonic sequences (/jé, wé/), and –in çhiatusesÇ– the real diphthongs (as in ('ma;i, 'ca;o, 'bO;a) /'mai, 'cao, 'bOa/ mai˚ ciao˚ boa… – Ô § 1.4.4).

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3.1.3. ˛us, in languages like Italian, diphthongs are vowel sequences, which are more or less common, formed by a combination of the seven vowel phonemes and nine taxophones (/i, e, E, a, O, o, u/ (i, e, ™, E, a, O, ø, o, u)), that writing tidily reproposes without the problems presented –for example– by Germanic languages. ˛ese really do have monophonemic diphthongs, because, in di‡erent accents they vary as to their realizations, independently from monophthongs (and more than monophthongs do), and also because they have varied historical spellings. ˛erefore for Italian, it seems pointless –in this chapter– to make a list of diphthongs, of very di‡erent frequency; it would be appropriate however, to look at § 8.26 of NPT/HPh (as well as § 5.1.2-3 of MaPI]˘ By forcing (and violating) reality, grammar and metrics continue to call, above all, /jE, wO/ çascendant diphthongsÇ, because they derive from the Latin /E, O/ (™, ø), and they find they need to have to çinventÇ (as the best lawyer for the worst criminals) fictitious realities, like çsemi-consonantsÇ and çsemi-vowelsÇ. ˛ese seem to be nearly cinematographic special e‡ects, that make one believe one is facing something real, but which is completely invented! If phantaphonetics –or virtual phonetics– is not our aim, then sequences like (jé, wé) are –naturally– part of /{0}0é/ groups, as in /'fjanko, 'franko÷ 'gwado, 'grado÷ 'twOno, 'trOno÷ 'gjande, 'grande, 'glande/ fianco˚ franco÷ guado˚ grado÷ tuono˚ trono÷ ªande˚ grande˚ ∫ande. Paradigmatically, /j, w/ are in opposition with /0/, clearly not with /é/ and can under no circumstance belong to vowel groups. Even çsemi-vowelsÇ are a truly distorted reality and have been invented to try to explain (but they are only deceived into trying to explain) what has no need of explanations. Indeed, what need do normal diphthongs, like /ai, au/, have for alibis to defend themselves from grammatical and metric fanaticism, so as to demonstrate that they constitute one syllable and not two: ('ma;i, 'ka;u{to}) /'mai, 'kau{to}/ mai˚ cau(to)? Even /ia/ is a –monosyllabic– diphthong, as in ('mi;a) /'mia/ mia. It is evident, in the same way as the Earth is round and rotates around the Sun; and yet, it has not been at all easy for it to be accepted…! ˛e diphthong, hiatus, and /CV/-sequence matter, is much simpler: one does not have to be a scientist; all it takes is observation and thought (using both ears)! Yet… there is no change! Let us trustingly refer to § 5.1.2-3 of MaPI as well.

Consonants 3.2.0. û 3.2 shows the table of the neutral Italian consonant articulations, including their taxophones ((M, ~, ˙÷ R÷ ¬)), which are necessary for satisfactory pronunciation. Instead, û 1.9-15 gives orograms, grouped by manners of articulation of all contoids given in the chapters of this volume, even as secondary, occasional or regional variants of the 12 languages dealt with.

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N c G

velar rounded

(~)

velar

n

palatal

dental

(n) t d qQ

postalveo-palatal

(M)

alveolar

ö m F pb Ô ƒ _ ß ó ‹

labiodental

bilabial

û 3.2. Table of Italian consonants.

postalveo-palatal protruded


(˙) k g

f v s z (l)

S {Z} r|(R) l

j (¬)

w

L

Nasals 3.2.1. ˛ere are three nasal phonemes, /m, n, N/ (m, n, N), and four taxophones, for /n/, that can be rendered by three supplementary symbols (M, ~, ˙) (a fourth symbol, ((˙)), in front of /t, d÷ q, Q÷ s/, can be useful to bring attention to the assimilation, from alveolar to dental, even if the di‡erence, though real, is less important than in other cases): ('mam:ma) /'mamma/ mamma˚ ('ma:ma) /'mama/ m'ama˚ ('nOn:no) /'nOnno/ nonno˚ ('nO:no) /'nOno/ nono˚ ('baN:No) /'baNNo/ ba√o˚ (peR'NOk:ki) /per'NOkki/ per √ocº˚ ('toM:fo) /'tonfo/ tonfo˚ ('dEn:te) /'dEnte/ dente˚ ('fra~:Ga) /'franGa/ frangia˚ ('fa˙:go) /'fango/ fango. In neutral Italian, /N/ is self-geminant (Ô § 3.3.1.5.): ('soN:No, loN'NO:mo) /'soNNo, loN'NOmo/ so√o˚ lo √omo. We can observe that the self-geminant /N/ is in opposition to geminates, as in ('soN:No) /'soNNo/ so√o and ('son:no) /'sonno/ sonno, but not simple C (('so:no) /'sono/ sono); the minimal pair is between the first two examples, not the third. In order to closely examine the manifestation of nasal assimilation in neutral Italian, a whole series of nouns could be shown (beginning with all possible C, Ô § 3.4 of MaPI]˚ preceded by (kon) /kon/ con çwithÇ, but we will limit ourselves to (kom'mar:ko) /kom'marko/ con Marco and to the improbable (koN'NE;o) /koN'NEo/ con Gneo (a rare male name, even in ancient Rome). Various problems (not only with consonants, but with vowels and intonation, too) deriving from various regional pronunciations are examined in some chapters of MaPI, as well. We can now briefly mention the fact that, very often, in the north of Italy, the sequences of /n0/ are not homorganic by assimilation, but have a velar articulation, (˙), or semi-prevelar (without full contact), («), as in (&u˙ba˙'bi:nø, &u«ba«'bi:nø) (concentrating, here, only on the nasals, because the actual regional di‡erences, doubtlessly, also regard other C, many V˚ the type of phonation, the syllabic structure and the intonation), for neutral (&umbam'bi:nø) /umbam'bino/ un bambino. In the same way, in the north, /N/ is very often not self-geminant: ('sO:No, 'so:No÷

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lo'NO:mo); but, generally, /N, nj/ are confused with something intermediate, which we show quite generally here: (ka˙'pa;~ja, ka«-) which stands both for /kam'panja/ Campania and for /kam'paNNa/ campa√a. In central areas, /nj/ becomes (N) (but in this case not self-geminant): (an'tO:No) /an'tOnjo/ Antonio˚ (aN'NEn:to) /an'njEnto/ anniento˘ Stops 3.2.2. Italian has three diphonic pairs of stops, /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/ (p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g): (peR'bE:ne) /per'bEne/ per bene˚ (ti'dO) /ti'dO*/ ti do˚ (ko˙'gwaL:Lo) /kon'gwaLLo/ congua˙o. Although before a front V –and in front of /j/– /k, g/ are realized as prevelar, it is not necessary to systematically use the special symbols ((´, Ò)): (&kjakkje'ra:Re) /kjakkje'rare/ ºacºerare˚ ('kik:kø) /'kikko/ ºcco˚ ('gE˙:ga) /'gEnga/ ghenga. ˛e greatest regional problem concerning stops is provided in the çgorgia toscanaÇ (¤ çTuscan throatÇ) and in the çcentral-southern voicingÇ, which will be examined in general terms (also because there are di‡erences between areas; but for more precise details, various chapters of MaPI can be consulted). ˛erefore, the following gives just a general idea: (&ihaFi'Ïa:ni) /ikapi'tani/ i capitani and ('ci˙âwe im'Êun:∂ø) /'cinkwe im'punto/ cinque in punto˘ Stopstrictives 3.2.3. ˛ere are two diphonic pairs, dental and postalveopalatal protruded, /q, Q÷ c, G/ (q, Q÷ c, G): ('dan:qa, 'pjaq:qa) /'danqa, 'pjaqqa/ danza˚ piazza˚ ('QO:na, aQ'QO:to) /'QOna, aQ'QOto/ zona˚ azoto˚ ('ce:na, 'fac:co) /'cena, 'facco/ cena, faccio˚ ('GEn:te, 'OG:Gi) /'GEnte, 'OGGi/ gente˚ oggi. ˛e main regional problems regarding the north concern the sequential realizations of /q, Q/, as: ('da˙tsa, -fia, -†a, 'da«-÷ 'pja{t}tsa, -ßa, -†a÷ d'zO:na, d'fi-, d'∑-÷ ad'zO:to, ad'fi-, ad'∑-) (or, in broader accents, simply as constrictive: ('da˙sa, -ßa, -†a, 'da«-÷ 'pjassa÷ -ßßa, -††a÷ 'zO:na, 'fi-, '∑-÷ a'zO:to, a'fi-, a'∑-)), instead of real stopstrictive phones, (q, Q). For almost the whole center and many parts of the south, without going into too much detail, the most obvious characteristic is given by the change of /écé/ to its corresponding constrictive, (éSé): ('pe:Se) /'pece/ pece˚ (&diSe'Si:lja) /dice'cilja/ di Cecilia˚ ('ka:So) /'kaco/ cacio. In Tuscany the same goes for /éGé/ = (éZé): ('a:Zile, la'Zak:ka) /'aGile, la'Gakka/ agile˚ la giacca. It is important to focus on the fact that we are dealing with single postvocalic /c, G/ (and hence, in this case, intervocalic too), thus avoiding ridiculous imitations which have, unfortunately ended up amongst examples shown in books about linguistics, dialectology, language history, language teaching and sometimes even in… phonetics and phonology! ˛erefore, it is legitimate to give (la'Zi:†a) /la'Gita/ la gita, as an example (although the o‚cial symbol (†) is hardly recommendable), but not simply *('Zi:†a)

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/'Gita/ gita, because after silence or after C, it stays for (G), ('Gi:†a), as does, obviously, (aG'Gi:na) /aG'Gina/ a Gina (because of co-gemination, Ô § 3.3.2.1-3; certainly not *(aZ'Zi:na)). Naturally, the same is true of (la'Se:na) /la'cena/ la cena˚ while we can only have: (peR'ce:na, ac'ce:na) /per'cena, ac'cena/ per cena˚ a cena (absolutely not *(peR'Se:na, aS'Se:na))! Apart from Tuscany (and some northern parts of Umbria and the Marches), in the center and south (still generalizing the area and the precision in transcription, too), we have /éGé/ = (éGGé): ('aGGile, laG'Gi:∂a)… Constrictives 3.2.4. Neutral Italian has two diphonic pairs of constrictives, /f, v ÷ s, z/ (f, v÷ s, z) as well as a voiceless postalveopalatal protruded self-geminant /S/ (S) (Ô § 3.3.1.5.), with the voiced correspondent, but non-geminant (Ô the beginning of the same paragraph), in foreign words, above all French: ('fa:va) /'fava/ fava˚ ('sO:zja) /'sOzja/ sosia˚ ('peS:Se, loS'Sa:me, {laS}'SE:na) /'peSSe, loS'Same, {laS}'SEna/ pe&e, lo ßame, (la) &ena˚ (&aba'Zu:r, &aZi'go) /aba'Zur, aZi'go/ abat-jour˚ à gigot˘ In front of any voiced C there is always /z/ in Italian: (biz'bE:tiko, zve'ni:R™, zle'ga:Re, zden'ta:to) /biz'bEtiko, zve'nire, zle'gare, zden'tato/ bisbetico˚ svenire˚ slegare˚ sdentato (Ô (sten'ta:to) /sten'tato/ stentato]˘ As far as VsV is concerned, modern neutral pronunciation resolves the problem of the traditional one (Ô § 3.3.5.2.); actually, every postvocalic intralexemic -s- (¤ in simple words, not compound] is voiced, /z/ (z): ('ka:za, 'ri:zø, 'pre:za, ci'ne:ze, Ge'lo:zo) /'kaza, 'rizo, 'preza, ci'neze, Ge'lozo/ casa˚ riso˚ presa˚ cinese˚ geloso˘ Only in compounding, is the initial -s- of lexeme or grammeme /s/ (s): (&pR™ndi'so:le, &sotto&segRe'ta:Rjo, &pResa'la:Rjo, kwal'si;asi, Ri'sal:to) /prEndi'sole, sottosegre'tarjo, presa'larjo, kwal'siasi, ri'salto/ prendisole˚ sottosegretario˚ presalario˚ qualsiasi˚ risalto˘ ˛e last example means çI jump againÇ; whereas, the noun means çto stand outÇ and is (Ri'zal:to) /ri'zalto/… Forms such as prosieguo, whose composition –nowadays– is heard in a less definite way, vary: (pRo'sjE:gwo, -z-) /pro'sjEgwo, -z-/. For /s, z/, in the north, an alveolar instead of dental articulation is frequent; ('ßO:fija) /'sOzja/ sosia (be warned that, too often, neutral Italian articulation, which is dental {with lowered tip}, is defined çalveolarÇ, even in phonetic books!). In central-southern regional pronunciations (except in Tuscany), for VsV (even if with an approximant inserted after s), we do not have /z/, but /s/: ('rO:se, 'a:sja) /'rOze, 'azja/ rose˚ Asia. However, the prestige of voiced pronunciation, with /z/, is such that, many speakers try to go from (s) to (z); but from a regional situation without /z/ (and with no help from the written word), the substitution often generalizes (z) (or (Ω)), even in words like: *(&laza'lu:t™, &laΩa-) /lasa'lute/ la salute, that is (&lasa'lu:t™). In the center (except ∫orence and Prato) we find the typical change /s/ = (q) after /n, r, l/: /'pEnso, 'pErso, 'falso/ ('pEn:qo, 'pEr:qo, 'fal:qo) penso, perso, falso. The same happens in Tessin and in northern and easter Lombardy. It is very frequent also in some areas of southern Italy, including its partial or complete voicing: (ë,

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Q) (Ô MaPI). However, speakers who have a kind of defective r produce ('pEV:so, 'pE˜:so, 'pEK:so)… (not a stopstricive). In the center and south of Italy, above all, there are areas in which preconsonantal /s, z/ are seen to be prepalatal, (À, =): ('viÀ:ta, ='bat:to) /'vista, z'batto/ vista˚ sbatto (¤ in the south-eastern parts of the Marches, Umbria, and Latium; and in western Sicily, and southern Calabria and Salento; as well as in northern Lombardy). In Campania, /s0, z0/ are typically realized as postalveopalatal protruded constrictives, (S, Z), but only in front of non-apical C; thus, for instance: (S'pA;√Rø, Z'gar:Rø) /s'paro, z'garro/ sparo˚ sgarro. We cannot but reveal that too many third-rate çimitatorsÇ (even in books!) show absurd pronunciations, for example in Neapolitan, ™: *(S'ta:Re) /s'tare/ stare˚ for (s'tA;√R™). In the north, /S/ is often without lip protrusion, but, above all, it is not self-geminant: ('pe:ëe, lo'ëa:me, {la}'ëe:na) pece˚ lo ßame˚ la scena; so, the first and third examples are closer to the central-southern pronunciation of ('pe:Se, la'Se:na) /'pece, la'cena/ pece˚ la cena! We can see how self-geminant /S/ opposes geminates, as in ('faS:Se) /'faSSe/ fa&e and ('fac:ce) /'facce/ facce, but not single, as in ('fa:ce) /'face/ face (a literary word), which in central Italian pronunciation (and very often in southern ones) is ('fa:Se); however, the minimal pair is between the first two examples, not the third. Approximants 3.2.5. ˛e two Italian approximants are /j, w/ (j, w): ('jE:Ri) /'jEri/ ieri˚ (gjac'ca:jo) /gjac'cajo/ ªacciaio˚ ('wO:vo) /'wOvo/ uovo˚ (kwa'lu˙:kw™) /kwa'lunkwe/ qualunque˘ In central-southern pronunciation, we sometimes find /j/ = (jj): ('paj:jo, 'pa;jjo) for ('pa:jo) /'pajo/ paio˘ In the south we often have even (i'e:Ri, u'o:vø) for /'jEri, 'wOvo/ ieri˚ uovo (simplifying a little). Trills 3.2.6. ˛ere is only one trill phoneme, /r/, with two important taxophones, (r, R), which depend on the strength of the syllables; in stressed syllables, before or after the syllabic nucleus we find a trill, (r) (lengthened, (r:), if in a checked syllable of an intoneme); whereas in unstressed (or half-stressed) syllables we have a tap: ('ra:Ro) /'raro/ raro˚ ('pOr:ta) /'pOrta/ porta˚ (Ri'prE:ndeRe) /ri'prEndere/ riprendere˚ (&pRepa'rar:si) /prepa'rarsi/ prepararsi˚ ('kar:Ro) /'karro/ carro˚ (aR'ri:vø) /ar'rivo/ arrivo˚ (&aRRi'va:Re) /arri'vare/ arrivare˘ As one can see, even for /rr/, the choice between (r, R), depends on the position of the stress. ˛ere are various types of accents with a çFrench rÇ, in Italian, that range from uvular, like (K, º, ˜, r), to labiodental (with or without uvularization), (V, ◊). For regional pronunciations (as shown in MaPI), we could have a generalized

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(R) or (r), independently of the stress; we could also have uvularization, (5, R); or in Venice, (¸, Í, ®). Let us take a detailed look at the çSicilian typeÇ (in Sicily, of course, and in southern Calabria and the Salentina Peninsula as well) for /òr, rr, tr, dr, str, sdr/. Indeed, simplifying a little (even the transcriptions) for /òr, rr/, we have the voiced slit alveolar constrictive, (z), self-geminant if postvocalic: ({laz}'za:djo) /{la}'radjo/ (la) radio˚ ('kaz:zø) /'karro/ carro˘ It is clearly not the postalveolar trill phone ((#), çcacuminalÇ, çó¶), as it has been çdescribedÇ for generations, without proof. Relative to this, we also have the çbizarreÇ pair ç=ó, ƒóÇ which is persistently presented as ç(˛#, Ã#)Ç, without listening carefully. In fact the most normal articulation is given, simply, by the stopstrictives which correspond to (z), ¤ (., …) (slit alveolar): ('.a:v™) /'trave/ trave˚ ('…a:gø) /'drago/ drago˘ Lastly, the /str/ sequence (lexically quite common), is more often rendered by the voiceless postalveo-prevelar constrictive (self-geminant, if postvocalic) (.): ('na.:.ø) /'nastro/ nastro˚ ({la.}'.a:da) /las'trada/ (la) strada; instead, the (less common) sequence /zdr/ is more often rendered by a voiced (grooved + slit) alveolar sequence, (fi…): ({la}fi'…a:jø) /{la}z'drajo/ (la) sdraio (much less commonly by (la{÷}'÷a:jø)). We will conclude by indicating the assimilation of /r0/, which is more typical of eastern Sicily: ('pat:tø) /'parto/ parto. Laterals 3.2.7. Italian has two lateral phonemes, /l, L/, alveolar and palatal (this last is quite rare in languages, and – in neutral Italian – it is self-geminant, as well): ('la:la) /'lala/ l'ala˚ ('lal:la) /'lalla/ Lalla˚ ('dir:Li) /'dirLi/ dir˙˚ ('fOL:La) /'fOLLa/ fo˙a. We can observe how the self-geminant /L/ opposes to geminates, as in ('paL:La) /'paLLa/ pa˙a and ('pal:la) /'palla/ palla, not to (('pa:la) /'pala/ pala); the minimum pair is between the first two examples not the third, which is a single consonant. In some central areas, /L/ becomes /j/, or /lj/ becomes (L) (in this case it is not self-geminant): ('paj:ja, 'pa;jja) /'paLLa/ pa˙a˚ ('O:Lo) /'Oljo/ olio˚ (&paLLa'ti:vø) /pallja'tivo/ palliativo˘ On the other hand, in the north, generally, /L, lj/ are mixed into something intermediate that we can render quite generally here: (li'ta;¬-ja) that stands for /li'talja/ l'Italia and for /li'taLLa/ li ta˙a. Neutral Italian has /l/ = (¬) + /c, G, S/: ('a¬:ce) alce˘ Structures 3.3. We will now look at the characteristics which go beyond simple segments, those with syllable, length, stress, and intonation relevance. ˛e intermediate vocoids, (™, ø), were mentioned in § 3.1.1; for assimilations and consonant taxophones, the relevant characteristics are shown, including the most common regional peculiarities, in their respective paragraphs.

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It has already been stated that in Italian, diphthongs are biphonemic and are formed by joining two vocalic phonemes/phones, retaining their normal typical realizations, with no modification, in particular of the second element, that is always distinct, even in the case of /ai, au/ (ai, au), contrarily to many languages, above all Germanic (Ô § 8.26-8 of NPT/HPh). Taxophonics 3.3.1.1. It is necessary and useful to speak out against the widespread practice, led by journalists and unrefined publishers, of yielding to laziness of various forms regarding the spelling of grammemes, ™: la˚ una˚ della…, -re (in infinitives) –we refer to the linguistic convention, that places an asterisk (*) in front of undesirable forms, which report a decidedly inaccurate use– like in *la esattezza, *una opportunista, *della università, *voltare pagina… for the more usual and definitely more harmonious: (&lezat'teq:qa, &unop&poRtu'nis:ta, del&luni&veRsi'ta, &voltaR'pa:Gina) /lezat'teqqa, unopportu'nista, delluniversi'ta*, voltar'paGina/ l'esattezza, un'opportunista, dell'università, voltar pagina… As a matter of fact, Italian is a real native language only in central Italy (where local dialects present substantially, the same structure as the Italian language, only with di‡erences of register); ¤ in Tuscany, Umbria, the Marches and Latium (although their linguistic borders do not coincide exactly with administrative borders, but are a little less widespread, for the four regions and above all for the Marches, as even the whole province of Pesaro and Urbino do not come into the çlinguistic CenterÇ). In the center, the dropping of grammeme endings [-i˚ -e˚ -a˚ -o {in clear phonic order}), even for nouns, adjectives, conjunctions, adverbs and verbs, is a normal and natural procedure, as seen in: ancor indietro˚ sempr'avanti˚ er'andato˚ quant'altri mai˚ cinqu'anni˚ or'ott'e trenta (o&Røttet'tren:ta), Dant'Aliªeri˚ Â. For words in connected speech (unless there are particular reasons, such as highlighting, or emphasis, which should be present or risk lacking expressiveness), neutral pronunciation resorts to elision, ¤ the dropping of one of two identical V (including the dropping of the final V of the articles and some pronouns {considered by grammar, in front of even di‡erent V}): (lat'te:za, &unat&tivi'ta, le&zeRcitaq'qjo:ni, aL&Lita'lja:ni, su&naRgo'men:to÷ la'mi:ka, u'nal:tRa, u'nal:tRo, lin'seN:No) /lat'teza, unattivi'ta*, lezercitaq'qjoni, aLLita'ljani, sunargo'mento÷ la'mika, u'naltra, lin'seNNo/ l'attesa˚ un'attività˚ l'esercitazioni˚ a∫'italiani˚ s'un argomento÷ l'amica˚ un'altra˚ l'inse√o. If one is not influenced by spelling without elision, and one is, at the same time, free from non-central and non-neutral sounds, one can easily see that normal pronunciation really is not: *(laat'te:za, &unaat&tivi'ta, le&ezeRcitaq'qjo:ni, &aLLi&ita'lja:ni, su&unaRgo'men:to÷ laa'mi:ka, &una'al:tRa, liin'seN:No), even for the words written as: le esercitazioni, a˙ italiani, su un argomento, li inse√o. For this reason, it is more advisable to use writing which accurately considers these facts, explicitly showing how closely linked genuine pronunciation and spell-

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ing elision is (indicated by an apostrophe; whereas, it is defined as truncation, if there is no apostrophe). ˛e following is by no means a counterexample: (sa'peres 'kri:veR™) /sa'peres 'krivere/ sapere &rivere, with no vocalic omissions, as it falls perfectly, into the genuine Italian structure (based on the use of central Italy), which barely tolerates things such as (sa'pers 'kri:veR™) /sa'pers 'krivere/ saper &rivere, but prefers: (&sapes'kri:v{eR}™) /sapes'krive{re}/ sapé &rive(re), which are of local/dialectal use. 3.3.1.2. Amongst the bad habits we have just examined, unfortunately we can find, propagated by schools, the (humiliatingly mechanical, ¤ without the slightest consideration, resulting in a damaging conditioned reflex) use of the notorious çeuphonic dÇ –¤ çwell-sounding dÇ, however, the only euphonic part of it is its high-sounding name– as in: *ad Emilia, *ed an>e, *od altro, (not to mention: *ed educazione, *ad Adele, *od odore!). Once more, the central way of speaking, which is not ruined by schools or journalism, spontaneously and correctly, gives: (ae'mi:lja, e'a˙:ke, o'al:tRo) /ae'milja, e'anke, o'altro/ a Emilia, e an>e, o altro˚ and even: e educazione, a Adele, o odore (not including the really çcacophonous dÇ, forming sequences such as ç/édédé/Ç). Contrarily, neutral language, prefers cases such as: (&ada˙'ko:na, e&deve'li:na, &odol'fat:to) /adan'kona, edeve'lina, odol'fatto/ ad Ancona˚ ed Evelina˚ od olfatto. However, we obviously have: (e'E:va, o'Ot:to) /e'Eva, o'Otto/ e Eva˚ o otto, as the V˚ in these cases are not the same at all (phonically speaking)! ˛e cases of the preposition da and of pronouns una and uno as well followed by an adjective are clearly di‡erent. ˛ey must never be elided (or çtruncatedÇ for uno), as they are necessary to maintain an important distinction between the preposition di and the articles (written una˚ uno as well): (dan'da:Re) /dan'dare/ d'andare is only çdi andareÇ, not çda andareÇ; in the same way, (u&nita'ljana, &unan'ti:kø) /unita'ljana, unan'tiko/ un'italiana˚ un antico are nouns; hence, di‡erent from: (&una&ita'ljana, &unoan'ti:kø) /unaita'ljana, unoan'tiko/ una italiana˚ uno antico, as in: ne cerco… (for instance: canzone, mobile) çI'm looking for an Italian song/piece of furnitureÇ. A last reflection, linked to spelling and school wrongdoings, has to be cast regarding the absurd complication of insisting on teaching çthe exception to the ruleÇ, where the pronoun sé is written with an acute (accent) in order to di‡er from se (conjunction and also allotrope, or variant, of sé in front of other weak pronouns or ne): (&sevveR'ra;i, &sela'ri:d™, &sene'va) /sevver'rai, sela'ride, sene'va*/ se verrai˚ se la ride˚ se ne va˘ It is not at all çclearÇ why, once the spelling rule is formulated, to distinguish sé from the other se, one must rack one's brains to excogitate the çexceptionÇ to sé stesso, sé medesimo… which some grammars –and many pedants– would rather we wrote *se stesso and *se medesimo, with no good reason to do so. Indeed, we cannot exclude the possibility of finding (even in an ambiguous initial position) sentences such as: Se stessi male, non potrei venire çIf I were ill, I couldn't comeÇ, which is di‡erent from: Sé stessi malediranno ˙ azzeccagarbu˙ della grammatica ç˛e pettifogging lawyers of grammar will curse themselvesÇ; or: Se medesime compa√e

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di gioco perdono, vengono e&luse… çIf equal playmates lose, they are excludedÇ, di‡erent from: Sé medesime comparano a tutte le altre ç˛ey compare themselves to all the othersÇ. ˛erefore, eliminating the accent from sé is not only utterly pointless, but causes awkward ambiguity, as well as undue analogies that lead to many people writing *a se stante, instead of the only form possible: a sé stante çseparate, apartÇ. Let us briefly turn our attention to the çimproperÇ use (decidedly incorrect – proudly lead by a fair number of çintellectualsÇ) of *e non˚ *o non, as in: *italiani e non. In Italian, the negative non /non/ çnotÇ has to be followed by the term which is denied, as in: giallo, non verde; cotto, non crudo; un ºlo, non due (ºli); coßa, non petto; essere, o non essere? Instead, the absolute negation (hence, final in the sentence) is only no /'nO*/ çnoÇ (Eng. /'nOU/ ('n‘;¨, 'nø;¨)) – even if the given term is not expressed or repeated. ˛erefore, logically, we must even have: italiani e no. Is it possible to imagine an Italic Hamlet saying *Essere, o non? – or, *Io ti amo, ma tu non!? (for correct English çTo be, or not to be?Ç, of course, and çI love you, but you don'tÇ). Such usage is much worse than English cases like: *I don't want no bread˚ *We ain't going (no more)˚ *She don't love you (no more)˘ Syllabification and length 3.3.1.3. Distinctively, in Italian, length (or quantity) only concerns consonants not vowels. ≈rst and foremost, we must firmly repeat that this is about true gemination, not length or lengthening; hence, the only suitable way of rendering the length of Italian C, consists –even phonologically– of the gemination (or doubling) of the symbol in question: (af'fat:to) /af'fatto/ a‡atto˚ (&koRReG'Ges:se) /korreG'Gesse/ correggesse; certainly not: *(a'f:at:o, kor:e'G:es:e) */a'f:at:o, kor:e'G:es:e/ (even */kor:e'd:Zes:e/!), which have no reason or justification (neither theoretical nor acoustic), and rather pose problems for the syllabification, which is: (af-'fat:to, &koR-ReG-'Ges:-se) /af-'fat-to, kor-reG-'Ges-se/. On the subject of syllabification, apart from unsatisfactory çmodern phonological modesÇ, one must recall that even traditional grammars are not the most objective – quite the opposite, in fact! As well as the absurd graphic syllabic division of -sC- (which, despite its obvious flaws, has been entrusted to computers too, so, unfortunately there is no hope of changing it), from a phonic point of view, the only real division (and natural: just listen to it!) for /s0/ is after /s/, not before (as for other sequences, which are heterosyllabic; therefore, di‡erent from /0j, 0w, 0r, 0l/, which are all tautosyllabic, in neutral Italian): ('pas:-ta) /'pas-ta/ pasta >pa-sta!≥˚ ('par:-te) /'par-te/ parte >par-te≥˚ ('al:to) /'al-to/ alto >al-to≥˚ ('pas:-so) /'pas-so/ passo >pas-so≥ (but: ('ma:-Rjo) /'ma-rjo/ Mario >Ma-rio≥˚ ('a:-kwi-la) /'a-kwi-la/ aquila >a-quila≥˚ ('a:-pRo) /'a-pro/ apro >a-pro≥˚ ('du:-pli-c™) /'du-pli-ce/ duplice >du-pli-ce≥. It is also true that in northern Italian, especially in the more typical, broader regional accents, the structures /0j, 0w, 0r, 0l/, after a stressed V˚ are very often heterosyllabic: ('a;k-wi-la) for ('a:-kwi-la) /'a-kwi-la/ aquila˚ ('a;p-Ro) for ('a:-pRo) /'a-pro/ apro˚ ('ma;R-jo) for ('ma:-Rjo) /'ma-rjo/ Mario˚ ('du;p-li-c™) for ('du:-pli-c™) /'du-pli-ce/ duplice.

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˛is aspect can be hard to grasp, especially if accurate transcriptions are not availed of (and obviously, if no keen listening is made); so it is quite a common problem for many actors, dubbers and presenters of northern descent, who –as çvoice professionalsÇ– are somewhat lacking; unfortunately they are more like çsemi-professionalsÇ… As seen, phonically we have (bas-'ta:-Re) /'bas-ta-re/ bastare, but also (las-'tO:-Rja) /las-'tO-rja/ la storia÷ therefore, likewise (s'tO:-Rja) /s'tO:rja/ storia˚ with (s't) /s't/, as –when there is a V in front– the phono-syllabification is (s-'t) /s-'t/, as in the second example [la storia]˘ Even acoustic data confirm the fact that (|s'té) /|s'té/ (after a pause, or çsilenceÇ) is part of the same syllable (a little particular, possibly, on the scale of syllabicity, but nothing really surprising) whereas, obviously, (és'té) /és'té/ constitute two phono-syllables bordering between two C (Ô § 12.2-6 of NPT/HPh]˘ 3.3.1.4. From a phonetic point of view, neutral Italian, in an intoneme, undergoes a lengthening of the last element of the phono-syllable (with one exception, which will be looked at presently): ('fa:-Re) /'fa-re/ fare˚ (de-'ci:-zø) /de-'ci-zo/ deciso˚ (Ri-'pE:-te-Re) /ri-'pE-te-re/ ripetere˚ (&Ri-ka-&pi-to-'la:-Re) /ri-ka-pi-to-'la-re/ ricapitolare÷ ('kan:-to) /'kan-to/ canto˚ ('mol:-to) /'mol-to/ molto˚ ('ver:-de) /'ver-de/ verde˚ ('pos:to) /'pos-to/ posto (>po-sto≥!), (&i˙-kon-'tran:-do) /in-kon-'tran-do/ incontrando˚ (aR-&Rive-'der:-ci) /ar-ri-ve-'der-ci/ arrivederci. We must be careful not to misunderstand the meaning of çin an intonemeÇ, which should be understood as in a prominent position in a sentence; this does not mean only çat the end of a sentenceÇ, but çevery time there is an intonemeÇ even in the middle of syntactic sentences, which –after all– has very little to do with phonic sentences, which are decidedly richer and more variable than traditional-grammar sentences (and even çgenerative-grammarÇ ones). ˛e exception (to the rule of phonetic length) is made up of a single final stressed V, which is always short (except for possible emphatic or communicative reasons): (ko'zi) /ko'zi*/ così˚ (kaf'fE) /kaf'fE*/ ca‡è÷ however: (poR'ta;i) /por'tai/ portai˚ (&paRa'ti;a) /para'tia/ paratia, as in the middle of the word as well: ('ka;uza) /'kauza/ causa˚ (in'trO;ito) /in'trOito/ introito. A partial exception is formed by the final stressed /érò/ sequence in an intomene: ('fa:r{e}) /'far{e}/ far(e)˚ (&Rive'de:r{e}) /rive'der{e}/ riveder(e)÷ in other contexts, we have: (pe'Ro:Ra, peR'di:R™) /pe'rora, per'dire/ per ora˚ per dire˘ ˛e other final C˚ in an intoneme, are lengthened as they are in stressed checked syllables within a word: (peR'don:÷ peR'do:no) /per'don{o}/ perdon(o)˚ (ka'nal:÷ ka'na:le) /ka'nal{e}/ canal(e). Even geminate C in an intoneme have the first element lengthened: ('sas:so) /'sasso/ sasso˚ ('vet:ta) /'vetta/ vetta˚ ('son:no) /'sonno/ sonno˚ ('brac:co) /'bracco/ braccio˚ ('daq:qjo) /'daqqjo/ dazio˚ ('peS:Se) /'peSSe/ pe&e˘ In any other position, ™ before the stress, there is no further lengthening: (sas'set:to, vet'to:Re, son'nam:bulo, &peSSo'li:nø) /sas'setto, vet'tore, son'nambulo, peSSo'lino/ sassetto˚ vettore˚ sonnambulo˚ peßolino, or in a preintoneme: ('sasso pe'zan:te, 'vetta ele'va:ta, 'sonno pRo'fon:do, 'bracco 'lu˙:gø, 'daqqjo ob&bliga'tO:Rjo, 'peSSe 'frit:tø) /'sasso pe'zante, 'vetta ele'vata, 'sonno pro'fondo, 'bracco 'lungo, 'daqqjo obbliga'tOrjo, 'peSSe 'fritto/ sasso pesante˚ vetta elevata˚ sonno profondo˚ braccio lungo˚ dazio obbligatorio˚ pe&e fritto˘

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In a di‡erent position from that in an intoneme, as also in a preintoneme, even the vowel lengths change, dropping the semichrone ((;)): (kau'za:Re) /kau'zare/ causare˚ ('kauze &natu'ra:li) /'kauze natu'rali/ cause naturali (Ô ('ka;uza) /'kauza/ causa). 3.3.1.5. However, in neutral Italian, not all C are geminable; in fact, /z, j, w/ are always single (¤ non-geminable, as also the xenophoneme /Z/, which has been integrated into the Italian phonological system for centuries now): ('pO:za) /'pOza/ posa˚ ('kwO:jo) /'kwOjo/ cuoio˚ (a'Zu:r) /a'Zur/ à jour˘ Nevertheless, phonetically, in the appropriate contexts, /z/ is lengthened: ('riz:ma) /'rizma/ risma. ˛ere are also five self-geminant C (/N, S, L÷ q, Q/), which, in a postvocalic position, are necessarily geminated; but with no chance of phonological opposition with a single C: ('baN:No) /'baNNo/ ba√o˚ ('laS:So) /'laSSo/ laßo˚ ('vOL:Lo) /'vOLLo/ vo˙o˚ ('viq:qi) /'viqqi/ vizi˚ ('viq:qjø) /'viqqjo/ vizio˚ (oQ'QO:no) /oQ'QOno/ ozono˘ ˛e reason for this is to be found in Latin; as a matter of fact, these five phonemes were not part of that language, and generally derive from two or more C (or from other languages); therefore, by assimilation, the result is a geminate C (Ô § 5.6.17 of MaPI “ § 1.6 of DiPI]˘ We can observe that (only) phonetics can supply explanations about the grammar rules (which are çtroublesomeÇ for foreigners and for northern Italians), as the articles (&uno, lo, Li) /&uno, lo, Li/ uno˚ lo˚ ˙ must be used in cases such as: (&unoS'Se:mø, loQ'Qa;ino, LiQ'Qi;i, LiN'NOk:ki) /unoS'Semo, loQ'Qaino, LiQ'Qii, LiN'NOkki/ uno &emo˚ lo zaino˚ ˙ zii˚ ˙ √ocº (as also (&unos'trac:co, los'kOp:pjo, Lis'kOL:Li) /unos'tracco, los'kOppjo, Lis'kOLLi/ uno straccio˚ lo &oppio˚ ˙ &o˙). In fact, it is a question of two –heterosyllabic– consonants, whereby the neutral Italian structure could not tolerate more complicated sequences, as they would make these syllables too heavy to pronounce. ˛e remaining 15 C, /m, n÷ p, b, t, d, k, g÷ c, G÷ f, v, s÷ r÷ l/, in a postvocalic position, can be single or geminate, distinctively, as shown in the example chosen: ('va:no) /'vano/ vano and ('van:no) /'vanno/ vanno˚ ('fa:to) /'fato/ fato and ('fat:to) /'fatto/ fatto˚ ('mO:Go) /'mOGo/ mogio and ('mOG:Go) /'mOGGo/ moggio˚ ('be:ve) /'beve/ beve and ('bev:ve) /'bevve/ bevve˚ ('ka:Ro) /'karo/ caro and ('kar:Ro) /'karro/ carro˚ ('pa:la) /'pala/ pala and ('pal:la) /'palla/ palla˘ We can see that ('ka:za) /'kaza/ casa and ('kas:sa) /'kassa/ cassa do not constitute a minimal pair, in modern neutral pronunciation (but only in traditional pronunciation or… as far as spelling is concerned). 3.3.1.6. In regional pronunciations in the whole of Italy, in checked syllables in an intoneme, it is quite frequent to find a length shifting from the consonant to the vowel element: ('pa;sso, 'paasso) /'passo/ passo˚ ('pa;sta, 'paasta) /'pasta/ pasta˚ ('ka;nto, 'ka;˙to, 'ka;«to, 'kaa-) /'kanto/ canto˚ ('di;rti, 'diirti) /'dirti/ dirti˚ ('mo;lto, 'moolto) /'molto/ molto˚ for the neutral ('pas:so, 'pas:ta, 'kan:to, 'dir:ti, 'mol:to). Above all in the south, it is typical to find diphthongization, or doubling, of the vocoid (in checked syllables and in a preintoneme as well), but over all in un-checked syllables (which are shown here generally; but can be seen in é 9-15 of MaPI and in the dialect phonosyntheses in é 16 of NPT/HPh): ('pa;ane, 'pa;åne)

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/'pane/ pane˚ ('ve;Ido, 've;edo) /'vedo/ vedo˚ ('do;Uve, 'do;ove) /'dove/ dove˚ for the neutral ('pa:ne, 've:do, 'do:ve)… In the north, geminates, do not often have su‚cient length, even where vowel length does not present the lengthening mentioned at the beginning of this section: (af'fatto, af'fa;tto) /af'fatto/ a‡atto. In the central-southern areas, there can be other self-geminant consonants (Ô § 3.3.1.5.); which takes place more widely for /b, G/ – in parts of the centre for /j/ too: ('rOb:ba, 'rO;bba) /'rOba/ roba˚ (lab'bar:ka, lab'ba;rka) /la'barka/ la barca˚ ('viG:Gil™, 'vi;GGil™) /'viGile/ vigile˚ (laG'Gak:ka, laG'Ga;kka) /la'Gakka/ la giacca˚ ('nOj:ja, 'nO;jja) /'nOja/ noia˚ (daj'jE:Ri) /da'jEri/ da ieri˚ for the neutral ('rO:ba, la'bar:ka, 'vi:Gil™, la'Gak:ka, 'nO:ja, da'jE:Ri). In Rome (and other central areas), instead, we can find the degemination of /r/, in broad and typical accents: ('ko:ReRe) /'korrere/ correre˚ (e'ro:Re) /er'rore/ errore˚ (a'ro:ma) /ar'roma/ a Roma (with co-gemination, Ô § 3.3.2.1.), for the neutral ('kor:ReRe, eR'ro:Re, aR'ro:ma). Co-gemination 3.3.2.1. We will now briefly introduce an example of interlexical consonant gemination, choosing the most significant from other similar types, occurring in neutral Italian. Traditionally it is (widely) known as ra‡orzamento sintattico çsyntactic strengtheningÇ or raddoppiamento fonosintattico çphonosyntactic doublingÇ, but it is best defined as co-gemination, the occurrence of which, in neutral pronunciation, gives us: (ak'ka:za) /ak'kaza/ a casa˚ (faf'fred:do) /faf'freddo/ fa freddo˚ (™v've:Ro) /Ev'vero/ è vero. In order to explain this, it is worth first considering examples such as (Gak'ke, tRep'pjE:de) /Gak'ke*, trep'pjEde/ giac>é˚ treppiede, which do not pose any problems as the pronunciation and the spelling correspond. However, we can also find cases such as (Gak'kjEs:to, tRep'pjE:di) /Gak'kjEsto, trep'pjEdi/ già ºesto˚ tre piedi. Furthermore, we also have: (am'met:to) /am'metto/ ammetto and (am'me) /am'me*/ a me as well, which both derive from the Latin sequences /dm/ –admitto˚ ad me– giving /mm/, by assimilation, which operated within words and between them. ˛erefore, one or more of the final consonants assimilated to the first consonant of the following word, as the assimilation of certain di‡erent consonants in a word occurred; indeed, even septem and octo gave sette and otto in Italian (/pt, kt/ = /tt/). Hence, as we have had /am'me*/ from ad me, also /trek'kapre/ comes from tres capræ. Even /E*/ è (from Lat. est) causes co-gemination as in è vero, as seen above. Separately, in phonemic transcriptions, these words are indicated, as just seen, by /*/: /'tre*, E*/ (here tre çthreeÇ has the phonic stress marked, because generally it is stressed, as in (&sono'tre) /sono'tre*/ sono tre çthey're threeÇ, unless it immediately precedes another stress, as in tre capre çthree goatsÇ /trek'kapre/ (from a theoretical structure //'tre 'kapre//, unlike English /'†é, davvero, soprattutto]˚ is often

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believed –even by Italians from the central-southern areas– that it is to be avoided; in that case, one should consider even normal lexical gemination (which is distinctive, Ô § 3.3.1.5.) abnormal and unsuitable. Clearly, in the central-southern areas, there are regional di‡erences which are contrary to neutral use. In particular, the most systematic and widespread use is met in Tuscany (which, however, is not totally homogeneous), followed by Rome; the other central-southern areas follow, all of them with local, more or less strong di‡erences. ˛e most normal type of co-gemination, in modern neutral pronunciation, is generally represented by a sort of compromise or of average, based on Roman use (including the cases of de-gemination of articles and pronouns, formed by /lé/: la˚ lo˚ le˚ li˚ l']˚ with further simplifications. ˛e kind of co-gemination which is more similar to traditional pronunciation (Ô § 3.3.5.3), follows Tuscan usage. A few other examples follow, including one of de-gemination (given as the last one): (pjuf'fOr:te) /pjuf'fOrte/ più forte˚ (cit&takkos'tjE:Ra) /cittakkos'tjEra/ città costiera˚ (&tRenta'trek koRRi'do:Ri) /trenta'trek korri'dori/ trentatré corridori˚ (™l'la:na) /El'lana/ è lana˚ (&™los'tes:so) /Elos'tesso/ è lo stesso. In modern neutral pronunciation, come çlike, asÇ (appositive and comparative with nouns and pronouns) is co-geminant, as well: (&komek'ka:ni, &komev've;Ri 'ka:ni, &komet'te) /komek'kani, komev'veri 'kani, komet'te*/ come cani˚ come veri cani˚ come te˘ Stress 3.3.3.1. Generally, in Italian, stress is assigned to rhythm groups, according to (lexical) word stresses. Rhythm groups are stress groups (Ô § 3.2.7, 6.4.2, 12.1, 13.2-3 of NPT/HPh) made up of a syllable with strong –or primary– stress, and others with weak –or secondary– stress, as in: (&peRfetta'men:te) /perfetta'mente/ perfettamente˚ (in'trE:no) /in'trEno/ in treno˚ (&peRil'ka:ne) /peril'kane/ per il cane˚ (&v™Rsola&finedel'me:ze, &v™Rsola'fi;ne del'me:ze) /vErsolafinedel'meze, vErsola'fine del'meze/ verso la fine del mese˘ ˛e last example shows that, according to the prominence given to certain parts of sentences, the number of rhythm groups can change, as in (un&nwøvo'li:bRø) /unnwOvo'libro/ un nuovo libro ça new bookÇ, compared to (un'nwO;vo 'li:bRø) /un'nwOvo 'libro/ ça book (which is) newÇ, written in the same way (un nuovo libro), but with di‡erent prominence, corresponding to a semantic gradation, where in the second case, nuovo takes on greater importance. ˛e communicative importance given to nuovo can be even greater, in an utterance that, in its written form, remains – once more – the same (given the considerable deficiency of current punctuation): (un'nwO:vo2 'li:bRø23) /un'nwOvo, 'libro./. ˛e introduction of the post-stress syllables of the continuative ((2) /,/) and conclusive ((23) /./) intonemes were necessary here, because the new greater prominence is given, in this case, by the presence of two intonemes, for a single utterance. (Let us also note the presence of the full chrone, even in the first rhythm group, bear-

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ing a continuative intoneme, (O:).) On the other hand, the communicative prominence would still increase, by using a conclusive intoneme, for the first rhythm group too: (un'nwO:vo23 'li:bRø23) /un'nwOvo. 'libro./. 3.3.3.2. Going back to the examples of the rhythm groups given above, we can observe that unstressed syllables (or rather, with weak stress), and those with half-stress (¤ with mid or secondary stress), alternate in such a way as to have one or two weak phono-syllables amongst others with secondary (or primary) stress. Secondary stress is assigned rhythmically, bearing in mind –as far as possible– the position of the stress in the original forms (¤ fundamental forms, from which they derived {certainly not in an evolutive sense, from Latin}), as occurs in lexical compounds: (&pøRtasa'po:ne) /pOrtasa'pone/ portasapone˚ (pu&liSSis'kar:pe) /puliSSis'karpe/ puliß&arpe. In derivatives, instead, the origin counts for less than rhythmic reasons, even if, in case of a double possibility (rhythmic or original), the stress of the original form can exert a decisive influence: (&pata'ti:n™) /pata'tine/ patatine (notwithstanding (pa'ta:ta) /pa'tata/ patata), (&atten'qjo:ne) /atten'qjone/ attenzione (notwithstanding (at'tEn:to) /at'tEnto/ attento]˘ For syllables that follow a stressed syllable of a word, furthermore, they behave as follows: ('fab:bRo) fabbro, ('fab:bRika) fabbrica, ('fab:bRika&no, 'fab:bRika&mi) fabbricano˚ fabbricami, ('fab:bRikame&lo) fabbricamelo (let us also add a rather improbable ('fab:bRika&mice&lo) fabbricamicelo – Ô the end of § 6.4.2 in NPT/HPh]˘ 3.3.3.3. As regards the syllables of a word that precedes a stressed syllable, the spontaneous formation of a rhythmic alternation of weak and half-strong stresses is formed, going back towards the beginning of the word, starting from the strong syllable, of this kind: (ò{&à}à&àà&àà'à). However, given that polysyllabic words are generally derivatives or compounds, there is a clear and agreed tendency to place secondary stresses on the same syllables of the simple forms of the lexeme which are originally stressed. ˛e only exception, so to speak, is made up of the rhythmic tendency that interrupts both sequences of weak syllables that are too long, introducing some secondary stresses, and sequences of stressed syllables (¤ strong and half-strong), suppressing some secondary stresses or shifting them one or two syllables. Some examples: (&soce'ta) società, (ka&paci'ta) capacità, (pRo&babili'ta) probabilità, (be&ati'tu:din™) beatitudine, (&Raqqjo&naliQ&Qabili'ta) razionalizzabilità, (aR&tifi&cali'ta) artificialità, (u&tilita&Ristika'men:te) utilitaristicamente, (e&zeRcita'to:Re) esercitatore, (aR&tikolaq'qjo:ne) articolazione, (as&socaq'qjo:ne) associazione, (o&ceano'gra:fiko) oceanografico, (ka&RatteRiQ'Qa:bile) caratterizzabile, (in&telliGen'tis:sima) intelligentissima, (oS&Sillo'gram:ma) oßllogramma, (ef&feRveSSen'tis:simø) e‡erve&entissimo˘ Other examples: (do&loRo&zissima'men:te) dolorosissimamente, (as&tuta'men:te) astutamente, (im&maGinaq'qjo:ne) immaginazione, (mo&difikaq'qjo:ne) modificazione, (kom&poziq'qjo:ne) composizione, (ak&kjappafaR'fal:le) acºappafarfalle, (e~&c™-

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falo'gram:ma) encefalogramma, (&ultRakon&seRva'to:Re) ultraconservatore, (&inteRkon&tinen'ta:le, -&konti-) intercontinentale, (&pRemedi&tata'men:te, pRe&me-) premeditatamente, (pRe&køce'men:te, &pReko-) precocemente. 3.3.3.4. Considering isolated words, normal (¤ neutral, spontaneous) secondary stressing complies to the rules of lexical composition and derivation. However, obviously, there are also di‡erences in the distribution of secondary stresses, due to the rhythmic context in which the words are placed at any given moment. ˛erefore, if –in isolation– a form like partitocrazia is (paR&titokRaq'qi;a) –whereas (&paRti%tokRaq'qi;a) is a çfalse noteÇ, deriving from the lack of compound analysis– in actual sentences, there is some alternation: (&lapaR&titokRaq'qi;a, la&paRti&tokRaq'qi;a) la partitocrazia˚ ('molto as&tuta'men:te) molto astutamente, (pRo'cE;deRe &astuta'men:te)˚ procedere astutamente˚ ('vE˙go &m™Rkole'di) vengo mercoledì˚ (can'drOm meR&kole'di) ci andrò mercoledì˘ We will not broach the subject of two possible stress patterns for some words, ¤: /dia'triba ˙ di'atriba/ diatriba˚ /skle'rOzi ˙ s'klErozi/ &lerosi˚ /te'zEo ˙ 'tEzeo/ Teseo˚ /e'dipo ˙ 'Edipo/ Edipo; the interested reader is referred to DiPI. 3.3.3.5. Neutral Italian does not in any way accept strong stress on two contiguous syllables (in an intoneme), but attenuates the first, even by shifting it or, if necessary, it shifts it (without attenuation), as in the third (and fourth) variants given, which are possible, but less common: /fa'rOk 'kwesto = farOk'kwesto/ (&faRøk'kwes:to), (fa&Røk'kwes:to), ('faRøk 'kwes:to), ('fa;Røk 'kwes:to) farò questo, /skoper'kjO il'tetto = skoperkjOil'tetto/ (s&kopeRkjøil'tet:to), (s&kopeR&kjøil'tet:to), (s'kopeRkjø il'tet:to), (s'ko;peRkjø il'tet:to) &operºò il tetto, /nonnepo'tep 'pju* = nonnepotep'pju*/ (&nonne&potep'pju), (&nonnepo&tep'pju), (&nonne'potep 'pju), (&nonne'po;tep 'pju) non ne poté più, /bEn'kek k'reda = bEnkek'kreda/ (&b™˙kek'kre:da), (b™˙&kek'kre:da), ('bE˙kek 'kre:da) ben>é creda, /me'tad 'dOze = metad'dOze/ (&metad'dO:ze), (me&tad'dO:ze), ('metad 'dO:ze), ('me;tad 'dO:ze) metà dose˘ One aspect of attenuation, owing to rhythmic reasons, can concern the moving back of the reduced stress too, as seen in the following examples: /'vEngo 'dopo di'te* = 'vEngo dopodi'te*/ ('vE˙go &dopodi'te), ('vE˙go do&podi'te) vengo dopo di te˚ /'karo pa'pa* = karopa'pa*/ ('ka;Ro pa'pa), (&kaRopa'pa), (ka&Ropa'pa) caro papà˚ /lo'facco 'anke per'te* = lo'facco ankeper'te*/ (lo'facco &a˙kepeR'te), (lo'facco∞a˙&kepeR'te) lo faccio an>e per te˚ /si'kjama 'forse ko'zi = si'kjama forseko'zi*/ (si'kja;ma &foRseko'zi), (si'kja;ma foR&seko'zi) si ºama forse così? 3.3.3.6. In the case of syntagms like //fuG'Gi z'vElto// /fuGGiz'vElto/ (&fuGGiz'vEl:to, &fuGGiz'vEl:to÷ fuG&Giz'vEl:to) fuggì svelto çhe ran away quicklyÇ, compared to similar expressions as //'fuGGi z'vElto// /'fuGGiz 'vElto/ ('fuGGiz 'vEl:to) fuggi svelto çrun away quickly!Ç, there are slight phonetic and prosodic di‡erences, which alone, however, are not always able to maintain the distinction, as even in the case of fuggi svelto, attenuation of the first stress is possible, above all in fast pronunciation (&fuGGiz'vEl:to). Co-gemination does not apply with syllable structures like /éò_0/, which actually are syllabified /é_˘0/.

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In the case of //fuG'Gis 'subito// /fuGGis'subito/ (&fuGGis'su:bitø÷ fuG&Gis'su:bitø) fuggì sùbito çhe ran away at onceÇ, compared to /'fuGGi 'subito/ ('fuGGi 'su:bitø) fuggi sùbito çrun away at once!Ç, the co-gemination contributes a better distinction, in neutral pronunciation: //pa'gOt 'tutto// /pagOt'tutto/ (&pagøt'tut:tø, 'pagøt 'tut:tø, 'pa;gøt 'tut:tø÷ pa&gøt'tut:tø) pagò tutto˚ /'pago 'tutto/ ('pa;go 'tut:tø, &pago'tut:tø) pago tutto÷ //losen'tim 'male// /losentim'male/ (lo&sentim'ma:le, lo'sentim 'ma:le÷ &losen&tim'ma:le) lo sentì male˚ /lo'sEnti 'male, losEnti'male/ (lo'sEnti 'ma:le, lo&s™nti'ma:le) lo senti male˘ Lastly: //lostrap'pOv 'via// /lostrappOv'via/ (los&tRappøv'vi;a, los'trappøv 'vi;a÷ &lostRap&pøv'vi;a) lo strappò via˚ /los'trappo 'via, lostrappo'via/ (los'trappo 'vi;a, los&tRappo'vi;a) lo strappo via˘ Intonation 3.3.4. û 3.3 shows the preintonemes and intonemes in neutral Italian (both modern and traditional), which we will illustrate with simple examples: /./: (Ri'partono 'tutti 'sa:bato23) /ri'partono 'tutti 'sabato./ Ripartono tutti sabato. /?/: (¿Ri'partono 'tutti 'sa:bato21) /¿ri'partono 'tutti 'sabato?/ Ripartono tutti sabato? /÷/: (&seRRi'partono 'tutti 5sa:bato12| &mene'va;do a˙'ki;ø23) /serri'partono 'tutti 'sabato÷ mene'vado an'kio./ Se ripartono tutti sabato, me ne vado an>'io. In the north, regional intonation has consistent and varied shifts; in the south they are rather repetitive; while, in the center, they are more contained (and, generally, more similar to neutral patterns). ˛e major di‡erences are found in the suspensive intoneme, /÷/, as can also be seen in the phonosyntheses of é 16 of NPT/ HPh (and of é 10-15 of MaPI). û 3.3. Italian preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 5 1 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

Traditional neutral pronunciation 3.3.5.1. As already mentioned (in § 3.0.1), çtraditional neutral pronunciationÇ mainly follows Tuscan use, in particular ∫orentine, and dates back to the unification of Italy; therefore to about a century and a half ago, as quoted in dictionaries

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which, at that time were defined as of çTuscan languageÇ, more often than of çItalianÇ. ˛e peculiarities of traditional pronunciation, therefore, are more rigid than those of modern pronunciation (having less variations {and here, we relate above all the çstrangestÇ} and –at the same time– most çcapriciousÇ). The forms followed by * are found only in some dictionaries or specific lists. As regards the vowel phonemes /e, E÷ o, O/, some examples of words and endings follow. ˛e more bizarre forms are marked with simple (çorthoepicalÇ) written accents: A√èse˚ annèsso˚ auróra*˚ Bertóldo*˚ cè‡o˚ cócca çcorner, notchÇ, collètta˚ connètto˚ crèsima˚ enórme˚ esòso˚ fólla˚ Giórgio˚ gótta˚ gróppo˚ lèttera˚ mòccolo˚ nèsso˚ nórma*˚ órgano*˚ rócca çdista‡Ç, Rómolo˚ sgómino˚ siète˚ stòrpio˚ strènna˚ tè&hio÷ as well as the endings: amaró√olo˚ stètti˚ stèttero… As far as the distribution of /q, Q/ is concerned, the major traditional characteristic regards initial /q/ for many words like: zampa˚ zio˚ zoppo˚ zuc>ero˚ zucca÷ and internal /Q/, in cases such as: aguzzino˚ amazzone˚ brezza˚ ªribizzo˚ intirizzito˚ lazzi˚ lezzo˚ olezzo˚ pettegolezzo˚ ribrezzo˚ rubizzo˚ &orza˚ Ωarzo*˚ sozzo*˘ 3.3.5.2. ˛e greatest di‡erence, however, concerns the use of single /s/, within a word, between V (even if with /j, w/ before the second). ˛e most significant cases (including derivatives) are: asino˚ casa˚ ºesi˚ ºuso˚ cosa˚ così˚ desidero˚ desiderio˚ (il) fuso˚ mese˚ naso˚ peso˚ Pisa˚ posa˚ raso˚ riposo˚ riso, and adjective endings -ese˚ -oso˚ and verb endings -esi˚ -osi\ /in'glese/ in∫ese (but /fran'ceze/ francese!) /cinese'ria/ cineseria (but /borge'zia/ bor!esia!), /go'loso/ goloso˚ /cellu'losa/ cellulosa˚ /kurjosi'ta*/ curiosità÷ /'presi, -sero, -so/ presi˚ presero˚ preso (but /'lezi, -zero, -zo/ lesi˚ lesero˚ leso!), /impre'sarjo/ impresario˚ /'rosi, -sero, -so/ rosi˚ rosero˚ roso˚ /ris'posi, -sero/ risposi˚ risposero˚ /ro'sikkjo/ rosicºo (but /ero'zjone/ erosione!). However, in traditional pronunciation, we find /z/ in cases such as: biso√o˚ caso˚ ºesa˚ muso˚ paese˚ quasi˚ sposa˚ viso˚ misi˚ misero˚ (io) fusi˚ fusero˚ (ho) fuso˚ incisi˚ incisero˚ inciso… 3.3.5.3. Traditional co-gemination is more systematic and more widespread than modern co-gemination; indeed, it has a higher number of activating forms (as da\ da Milano /dammi'lano/; for the modern: /dami'lano/), and does not provide for de-gemination è la mia /Ella'mia/; modern: /Ela'mia/); what is more, the following are always co-geminant, too, come˚ dove˚ qual>e˚ sopra (unless they are used as nouns): come si fa? dove vai? qual>e volta˚ sopra quel tavolo /komessi'fa, dovev'vai, kwalkev'vOlta, soprakkwel'tavolo/ (but: il sopra del tavolo /il'sopra del'tavolo/); modern: /komesi'fa*, dove'vai, kwalke'vOlta, soprakwel'tavolo/). As far as accentuation is concerned, there are no particular peculiarities; any di‡erences are due to the fact that generations have passed, and, as one knows, the accentuation of learned terms and classical nouns are subject to trends of preference, which can be agreed upon to a greater or lesser extent, but are not under discussion: they are merely documentable (Ô the end of § 3.3.3.4). Intonation does not change, except for the possible adoption (by some) of Tuscan-type preintonemes (Ô the relative phonosyntheses in é 16).

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3.3.5.4. All characteristics of traditional pronunciation may be found, however, in MaPI and DiPI÷ this pronouncing dictionary shows the variants of the center (the linguistic center; but Abruzzo belongs to the upper south) regarding the distribution of /e, E÷ o, O÷ s, z÷ q, Q/ (including some peculiar stress patterns), indicating Tuscany, Umbria, the Marches, Latium and Rome respectively with: t, u, m, l, r (in square brackets). Traditional variants are identified, in DiPI, by a full-stop which appears before them, and which separates them from modern variants, given first (if di‡erent, otherwise they coincide), as, for example: çlettera /'lettera. -Et-/ {† E, ¨µ¬® e}Ç, ¤ /'lEttera/ in Tuscany and /'lettera/ in the rest of the center. ˛ere are at times more intricate variants, ™: çstorpio /s'torpjo. -O-/ {† O/o, ¨ o/O, µ¬® o}Ç. However, there is full agreement throughout the center for çbene /'bEne/Ç. Text 3.4.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in eight di‡erent çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (neutral) Italian pronunciations of (neutral British) English – this is the first step of the phonetic method (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Italian translation follows, in its neutral modern and traditional versions. ˛ree further accents are given: two are mediatic (respectively northern and central – of Milan and Rome), which, for segmental and intonational aspects, are not as broad as those presented –with vocograms and tonograms– in é 10 “ é 12 of MaPI (in which there are 23 regional versions, in é10-14). ˛e respective (dialectal) phonosyntheses in é 16 of NPT/HPh (looking at Milanese, § 16.15, and Roman, § 16.42) can also provide useful preliminary information. In northern mediatic pronunciation, stopstrictives often occur as sequences: (ts, dz÷ TS, DZ) (special symbols would be better: ((tS, dZ))). Lastly, the a‡ected accent (snobbish, § 3.4.9) is examined, as well, with a çFrench rÇ (generally, an approximant: labiodental, (V), or uvular, (˜), or uvularized labiodental, (◊), which has been chosen as a representative type, having both components) and other characteristics linked to that kind of pronunciation, as çtenserÇ but also çlaxerÇ V, at the same time (Ô û 3.4). ˛ey are realized –basically– by higher and more advanced vocoids than normal, which, in stressed syllables (and in preintonemes as well), are diphthongized, but with second elements rather central in their vocogram boxes, therefore, ending in di‡erent –opposite– positions from the initial ones. Furthermore, /c, G÷ S, {Z}/ are postalveo-palatal over-rounded, (&, 1, «, {»}); there is also çdrawlingÇ and splitting of the tonic –in the real tonetic sense– and posttonic syllables (sometimes even of the previous ones), in particular before a pause, and above all for intonemes when they are di‡erent from the conclusive ones. Lastly, we note a bigger pitch extension (which we will indicate paraphonically, with §(ˇ)@, at the beginning of each paragraph) and creaky voice in intonemes (¤ tonic and posttonic syllables), which is represented by the specific diacritic: (ü).

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û 3.4. A‡ected realizations of the Italian vowels. /i/ (i[i]) /e/ (e[e]), ({'ii/'uu…)™ò) /E/ (EE), (™{…'})

/u/ (u[u]) /o/ (o[o]), ({'ii/'uu…)øò) /O/ (OO), (ø{…'})

/a/ (a[a])

3.4.1. At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronunciation of Italian, by neutral British speakers, fluent in Italian (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and intonation elements which are typical of neutral British English (for reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciation of English, given first. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version of the Italian pronunciation of American English, with /a/ even for English /Ø/ (¤ ('Sat:$) instead of ('SOt:$), for shot) and so on, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could prepare both their own pronunciation of Italian and the foreign Italian accent of their language, as well. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12). Italian pronunciation (of English) 3.4.2. (&denøR'twin dende'san:$2 &weRdis'pju:ti˙g$2 wic'wOz des'trO˙:geR23| 'wE na'trE:velleR2 &k™ima5lO˙:g$12| 'rEp$ti na'wOr:m 'klOk:$23| &deja'grid:$2 d™tdi'wa nu'fErs[t] sak'si:d™d$2 im'mEikin de'trE:velleR2 'tEi kisklOk5kOf:$12| Sud'bi kon'si:deR™d$2 s'trO˙geR 'dEndi 'a:deR23|| 'dEn:2 denøR'twin:d$ 'blu2 ™'zar dezi'kud:$23| 'bat$ de'mO:Ri 5blu12| de'mO:r2 'klOz:li2 'did de'trE:velleR2 'fOl dis'klOk:2 ka'raundim$23| &™nd™t5las:t$12| &denøR'twin:d$2| ge'vap$ djat'tEmp$t$23| 'dEn de'san:2 So'na;ut$2 'wOr:m$li23| &™ndim'mi:djat$li2 de'trE:velleR2 tu'kOf fis'klOk:$23| end$'sO2 denøR'twin:d$2 &wøzo'blaiG$d$ &tukoM'fEs:2 'dEtde 'san$ wozdes'trO˙ge &Røvde'tu23| ¿'di;dju 'laik$21 ¿des'tO:Ri2| ¿&duju'wOn tu'i;Ri ta'gEn:$21|||)

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Italian text 3.4.3. Si bisticciavano un giorno il vento di tramontana e il sole, l'uno pretendendo d'esser più forte dell'altro, quando videro un viaggiatore, >e veniva innanzi, avvolto nel mantello. I due litiganti decisero allora >e sarebbe stato più forte º fosse riußto a levare il mantello al viaggiatore. Il vento di tramontana cominciò a so‚are con violenza; ma, più so‚ava, più il viaggiatore si stringeva nel mantello; tanto >e alla fine il povero vento dovette desistere dal suo proposito. Il sole allora si mostrò nel cielo, e poco dopo il viaggiatore, >e sentiva caldo, si tolse il mantello. E la tramontana fu costretta così a ricono&ere >e il sole era più forte di lei. T'è piaciuta la storiella? La vo˙amo ripetere? Modern neutral pronunciation 3.4.4. (si&bistic'ca:va&no2 ìu~'Gor:no2œ| il'vEnto di&tRamon'ta:na2| eil'so:le23 ì'lu:nø2 &pReten'dEndo &d™sseRpjuf'fOr:te2 del'lal:tRo23œ &kwando'vi;de&Ro uMvi&aGGa'to:Re23 &kevve'ni;va in'nan:qi2 av'vOlto &nelman'tEl:lo23|| i&dueliti5gan:ti12 de'ci:zeRø2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &kessa&R™bbes'ta;to pjuf5fOr:te12| kif&fosseRiuS'Si:tø2 alle'va;Re ilman'tEl:lo2 alvi&aGGa'to:Re23|| il'vEnto di&tRamon'ta:na2 &komi~'cO assof'fja:Re23 ì&koMvio'lEn:qa23œ| map'pjus sof5fja:va12| &pjuilvi&aGGa'to:Re2 &sistRi~'Ge;va &nelman'tEl:lo23\ 'tan:to2 ìke&alla5fi:n™12œ il'pO;veRo 'vEn:to2 do'vette de'zis:teR™23 ìdal&suopRo'pO:zito23œ|| il'so:le2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &simos'trOn ne¬'cE:lo23| ep&pøko'do:po2 ilvi&aGGa5to:Re12 ì&kessen'ti;va 'kal:do2œ ˚si'tOl:se23 ˚ilman'tEl:lo23| &ela&tRamon5ta:na12 &fukkos'tret:ta2 ìko'zi2œ| aR&Riko5noS:SeRe12| keil'so:le2\ &™Rapjuf'fOr:te23 ìdi'lE;i23œ|| ¿&t™ppja'cu:ta21 ¿&lasto'rjEl:la2| ¿&lavoL'La;mo Ri'pE:teRe21|||) Traditional neutral pronunciation 3.4.5. (si&bistic'ca:va&no2 ìu~'Gor:no2œ| il'vEnto di&tRamon'ta:na2| eil'so:le23 ì'lu:nø2 &pReten'dEndo &d™sseRpjuf'fOr:te2 del'lal:tRo23œ &kwando'vi;de&Ro uMvi&aGGa'to:Re23 &kevve'ni;va in'nan:qi2 av'vOlto &nelman'tEl:lo23|| i&dueliti5gan:ti12 de'ci:zeRø2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &kessa&R™bbes'ta;to pjuf5fOr:te12| kif&fosseRiuS'Si:tø2 alle'va;Re ilman'tEl:lo2 alvi&aGGa'to:Re23|| il'vEnto di&tRamon'ta:na2 &komi~'cO assof'fja:Re23 ì&koMvio'lEn:qa23œ| map'pjus sof5fja:va12| &pjuilvi&aGGa'to:Re2 &sistRi~'Ge;va &nelman'tEl:lo23\ 'tan:to2 ìke&alla5fi:n™12œ il'pO;veRo 'vEn:to2 do'vEtte de'sis:teR™23 ìdal&suopRo'pO:zito23œ|| il'so:le2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &simos'trOn ne¬'cE:lo23| ep&pøko'do:po2 ilvi&aGGa5to:Re12 ì&kessen'ti;va 'kal:do2œ ˚si'tOl:se23 ˚ilman'tEl:lo23| &ella&tRamon5ta:na12 &fukkos'tret:ta2 ìko'si2œ| aR&Riko5noS:SeRe12| keil'so:le2\ &™Rapjuf'fOr:te23 ìdi'lE;i23œ|| ¿&t™ppja'cu:ta21 ¿&lasto'rjEl:la2| ¿&lavoL'La;mo Ri'pE:teRe21|||)

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Northern mediatic pronunciation (Milanese) 3.4.6. (ßi&bißtit'tSa:vano2 ìu«d'Zo;Rno2œ| ilève«to di&tRamo«'ta:na2| eilèßo:le3 3 ì'lu:no2 &pRete«ède«do &dj™ßßeRpju'fO;Rte2 delèla;ltRo3 3œ &kwa«doèvi;deRo u«&vjaddZaèto:Re3 3 &keveèni;va in'na;«tsi2 avèvO;lto &n™lma«ètE;llo3 3|| i&duelitièga;«ti32 det'Si:fieRo2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &keßa&R™bbeß'ta;to pjuèfO;Rte32| ki&foßßeRiu'Si:to2 ale'va;Re ilma«'tE;llo2 al&vjadZaèto:Re3 3|| ilève«to di&tRamo«'ta:na2 &komi«'tSO aßofèfja:Re3 3 ì&ko«vjoèle;«tsa3 3œ| ma'pju ßofèfja:va32| &pjuilvjaddZa'to:Re2 &ßißtRi«èdZe;va &n™lma«ètE;llo3 3\ 'ta;«to2 ìke&allaèfi:ne32œ ilèpO;veRo 've;«to2 doèvEtte deèfii;ßteRe3 3 ìdal&ßuopRoèpO:fiito3 3œ|| il'ßo:le2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &ßimoß'tRO n™¬ètSe:lo3 3| e&pøko'dO:po2 il&vjaddZaèto:Re32 ì&keße«èti;va 'ka;ldo2œ ˚ßiètO;lße3 3 ˚ilma«ètE;llo3 3| &ela&tRamo«èta:na32 &fukoß'tRE;tta2 ìko'fii;2œ| a&Rikoèno:SeRe32| keil'ßo:le2\ &eRapjuèfO;Rte3 3 ìdièlE;i3 3œ|| ¿&tj™pjaètSu:ta21 ¿&laßto'RjE;lla2| ¿&lavo¬èja;mo Rièpe:teRe21|||) Central mediatic pronunciation (Roman) 3.4.7. (sib&bistic'ca:vano2 ìu~'Go;rno2œ| il'vEnto di&∂Ramon'ta:na2| eil'qo:le23 ì'lu:no2 &ÊRe∂en'dEndo &d™sseRpãuf'fO;rte2 de'la;ltRo2œ &âwando'vi;de&Ro uMvi&aGGa'∂o:Re23 &âevve'ni;va in'na;nqi2 av'vOlto &nelman'tE;llo23|| i&dueli∂i5ga;nti2 2 de'Si:seRo2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &âessa&Rebbes'ta;∂op pãuf5fO;rte2 2| kif&fosseRiuS'Si:∂o2 alle'va;Re ilman'tE;llo2 alvi&aGGa'∂o:Re23|| il'vEnto di&∂Ramon'ta:na2 &âomi~'cO assof'fãa:Re23 ì&âoMvio'lE;nqa23œ| map'pãus sof5fãa:va2 2| &pãuilvi&aGGa'∂o:Re2 &sistRi~'Ge;va &nelman'tE;llo23\ 'ta;nto2 ìâe&ala5fi:ne2 2œ il'pO;veRo 'vE;nto2 do'vette de'si;steRe23 ìdal&quoÊRo'ÊO:si∂o23œ|| il'qo:le2 ìal'lo:Ra2œ &simos'trO ne¬'cE:lo23| ep&pøâo'dO:Êo2 ilvi&aGGa5∂o:Re2 2 ì&âessen'ti;va 'âa;ldo2œ ˚si'tO;lqe23 ˚ilman'tE;llo23| &ela&∂Ramon5ta:na2 2 &fukkos'tre;tta2 ìâo'si;2œ| a&Riâo5noS:SeRe2 2| âeil'qo:le2\ &™Rappãuf'fO;rte23 ìdi'lE;i23œ|| ¿&t™ppãa'Su:∂a21 ¿&lasto'rãE;lla2| ¿&lavoj'ja;mo Ri'ÊE:∂eRe21|||) A‡ected pronunciation (Ô § 3.4.0) 3.4.8. §(ˇ)@ (si&bisti&'&a;aÑa&co2 ìu~'1oo¸coo2œ| il'vEnto di&t◊amon'ta;acaa2| eil'so;oVe23 ì'lu;ucø2 &p◊eten'dEEndo &d™sse◊pjuf'fOO¸te2 del'laaVt¸o23œ &kwando'vi;ide&◊o uMvi&a11a'to;o¸e23 &kevve'ni;iva in'naacqi2 av'vOOlto &nelman'tEEVVo23|| i&dueliti5gaacti12 de'&i;iëe¸ø2 ìal'lo;o¸a2œ &kessa&◊™bbes'taato pjuf5fOO¸tee12| kif&fosse◊iu«'«i;itø2 alle'va;a◊e ilman'tEEVVo2 alvi&a11a'to;o¸e23|| §(ˇ)@ il'vEEnto di&t◊amon'ta;aca2 &komi~'&OO assof'fja;a¸e23 ì&koMvio'lEEcqa23œ| map'pjus sof5fja;aÑaa12| &pjuilvi&a11a'to;o¸e2 &sist◊i~'1e;eva &nelman'tEEVVo23\ 'taacto2 ìke&alla5fi;ic™12œ il'pOOve◊o 'vEEcto2 do'veette de'ziiste¸™23 ìdal&suop◊o'pO;Oëito23œ|| il'so;oVe2

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ìal'lo;o¸a2œ &simos't◊OOn ne¬'&E;EVo23| ep&pøko'do;opo2 ilvi&a11a5to;o¸e12 ì&kessen'ti;iva 'kaaVÃo2œ ˚si'tOOVse23 ˚ilman'tEEVVo23| &ela&t◊amon5ta;aca12 &fukkos't◊eetta2 ìko'zii2œ| a◊&◊iko5noo««e¸ee12| keil'so;oVe2\ &™◊apjuf'fOO¸te23 ìdi'lEEi23œ|| §(ˇ)@ ¿&t™ppja'&u;uta21 ¿&lasto'◊jEEVVaa2| ¿&lavoL'La;amo ◊i'pE;Ete¸ee21|||) British pronunciation (of Italian) 3.4.9. (s¤&bIisT¤5chA;vÈ&n‘¨2 ì¯u~'Gø;[>]n‘¨2œ| ¤ı5v™nT‘¨ D¤&˛>åmØn'ThA;nå2| ™¤ı's‘¨l™I3 3 ì5l¯un‘¨2 &p>™IT™n'D™nD‘¨ &D™sÈ'phj¯;u 'fø;[>]T™I2 D™'lA;ı˛>‘¨23œ &kwA;nD‘¨5vIiDÈ&>‘¨ ¯uMvi&åGÈ'Thø;>™I23 &k™IvÈ5nIivÈ ¤'nA;ntsi2 È5vØıT‘¨ &n™ımån'Th™l‘¨23| Ii&D¯u™Il¤T¤'gA;nTi32 DÈ'chIizÈ>‘¨2 ìÈ'lø;>å2œ &k™IsÈ&>™b™I5sTA;T‘¨ &pj¯u'fø;[>]T™I32| khIi&fØs™I>i¯u'SIiT‘¨2 &ål¤5vA;>™I &¤ımån'Th™l‘¨2 &√ıvi&åGÈ'Thø;>™I3 3|| ¤ı5v™nT‘¨ D¤&˛>åmØn'ThA;nå2 &kØm¤~5ch‘;¨ åsÈ'fjA;>™I3 3 ì&kØMvi‘¨'l™ntså3 3œ| mÈ5phj¯u sÈ'fjA;vå32| 'phj¯;u ¤ıvi&åGÈ'Thø;>™I2 &sIis˛>¤~5G™IvÈ &n™ımån'Th™l‘¨23\ 'ThA;nT‘¨2 ìk™I&ålÈ'fIin™I32œ ¤ı5phØvÈ>‘¨ 'v™nT‘¨2 DÈ5v™T™I D¤'z¤sTÈ&>™I23 ìD√ı&s¯u‘¨p>È'phØz¤&T‘¨3 3œ|| ¤ı's‘¨l™I2 ìÈ'lø;>å2œ &sIimØ5s˛>‘;¨ n™ı'ch™l‘¨3 3| ™I&p‘¨k‘¨'D‘¨p‘¨2 &¤ıvi&åGÈ'Thø;>™I32 ì&kh™IsÈn5ThIivÈ 'khA;ıD‘¨2œ ˚s¤'ThØıs™I3 3 ˚&¤ımån'Th™l‘¨3 3| &™IlÈ&˛>åmØn'ThA;nå32 &f¯ukØ's˛>™Tå2 ìk‘¨'zI;i2œ| å&>Iikû'n‘¨SÈ&>™I32 kh™¤ı's‘¨l™I2\ &™>È'phj¯;u 'fø;[>]T™I3 3 ìD¤'l™;I3 3œ|| ¿&Th™pjÈ'ch¯uTå21 ¿&låsTÈ>i'™lå2| ¿&låvÈli5A;m‘¨ >¤'ph™TÈ&>™I21|||) American pronunciation (of Italian) 3.4.10. (s¤&bIisTÈ'chA;vÈ&nø¨2 ìUu~'Gø;ouc˚ (&ÅD\™©'+if) /adZEk'tif/ adjectif˚ (&s3mÖ'ºits) /símO'Kits/ SPnt-Moritz˚ (pid'zÅ) /pid'za/ pizza˚ (pi©'ni©) /pik'nik/ pique-nique˚ ('k∏©) /'kOk/ coq˚ (áÅ'áÅ) /ga'ga/ gaga˚ ('lŒ:á) /'lÕg/ langue˚ ('gºP) /'gKo/ gros˚ ('gºi) /'gKi/ gr¤˚ ('kúÅ©) /'klak/ clac! Before tautosyllabic C˚ (k, g) remain unchanged ({pro}velar), as can be seen in some of these examples. We find complete voicing assimilation to the second element (if diphonic), in cases such as: (&Ån™á'd∏t) /anEk'dOt/ anecdote˚ (&º™T/P'se) /KEdSo'se/ rez-de->a¨sée˚ (m™t'sì) /mEd'sí/ médecin˚ (&ÅpsÖ'ly) /absO'ly/ absolu˚ (&s™d'dÅm) /sEt'dam/ cette dame˚ ('k¯b d#/Œ'pÅN) /'kup dùSÕ'paN/ coupe de >ampagne˚ (/Åg'\¯:˜) /Sak'ZuK/ >aque jour˚ (&Åv™á'v¯) /avEk'vu/ avec vo¨. In these cases, a slowing down of the rate of speech can lead to only partial assimilation: (&Ån™ˆ'd∏t, &º™fl/P'se, m™∂'sì, &ÅÊsÖ'ly, &s™∂'dÅm, 'k¯Ê d#/Œ'pÅN, &Åv™ˆ'v¯). ˛is is the reason why, in phonemic transcriptions, we keep etymologic phonemes, whereas for V we indicate the actual timbres, as we use more precise symbols (despite dictionary –even pronunciation-dictionary– transcriptions which do not, however, consider intermediate articulations!). On the other hand, if the second segment is not diphonic (including /j/), the aforementioned voicing assimilation does not occur: (&Åv™©'n¯) /avEk'vu/ avec no¨˚ (&Åv™©'1¥i) /avEk'l¥i/ avec lui˘ Constrictives 4.2.3.1. ˛ere are three (diphonic) pairs, /f, v÷ s, z÷ S, Z/, as well as two isolated voiced phonemes, /j, K/ (instead of ç/J, º/Ç, the more çlegitimateÇ symbols), which we will see presently. We can observe that, usually, /s, z/ are articulated with the tip of the tongue raised, therefore, if we wanted to highlight this aspect, for discussion and teaching, we could resort to supplementary symbols, ((s, z)); but, the most important characteristic concerns /S, Z/, which, are generally, prevelarized postalveolar protruded, (/, \) (with a deeper timbre, caused by the lowering of the back of the tongue between the two articulatory strictures, postalveolar and prevelar). Examples: ('fE:˜) /'fEK/ fPre˚ ('vif) /'vif/ vif˚ ('sŒ) /'sÕ/ cent˚ ('vÅ:z) /'vaz/ vøe˚ ('/Å) /'Sa/ >at˚ ('pÅ:\) /'paZ/ page˘ Voicing assimilation (to the second element) also concerns diphonic pairs of constrictives: (n¯v'zÚ) /nuf'zÚ/ no¨ fa¤ons˚ ('ºP;s påÆfy'me) /'Koz paKfy'me/ rose parfumée˚ ('vÅ\ 'v,E,) /'vaS 'vjEj/ va>e viRlle˚ (/'sE) /Z'sE/ je sa¤÷ but we have (/f) /Sv/: (/'fÅl) /S'val/ >eval˚ (Å/'fe) /aS've/ a>evé˘ Slowing down, we can even have (n¯Ñ'zÚ,

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'ºP;Ω påÆfy'me, 'vÅ? 'v,E,, ?'sE÷ /'ÑÅl, Å/'Ñe). On the other hand, speaking quickly, we can find cases such as: (/™'pÅ) /Z{ùn}sE'pa/ je (ne) sa¤ pø. About /j/, it must be said immediately that, more than a real constrictive, it is a çsemi-constrictiveÇ, (,), indeed, it is placed half-way between the approximant, (j), and the truly (voiced) constrictive, (J) (definitely rarer in world languages): (',E:˜, i',E:˜) /'jEK, i'[j]EK/ hier˚ (©Å',e) /ka'je/ cahier˚ ('p¿e) /'pje/ pied˚ (,P',P) /jo'jo/ yo-yo˚ (&Åt#'¬,e) /at§'lje/ atelier˚ (fÅ'mi,) /fa'mij/ famille˚ (sÖ'lE,) /sO'lEj/ solRl˚ (f#¿'tÚ) /f§j'tÚ/ fSilleton˘ Before a pause, we often have (¿): (fÅ'mi¿, sÖ'lE¿). French phonotactics, contrary to that of other languages, also has /Sj, Zj/: ('/¿ì) >ien˚ (ºe'\,Ú) région˘ Sequences such as //0Ki'é, 0li'é// are given with (i',é), and therefore even the most appropriate and most modern phonemic transcription gives /i'jé/: (püi',e) prier˚ (püi',§:˜) priSr˚ (púi',Å) plia˚ (&sÅbli',e) sablier˘ Hence, (bºi',Œ) stands for both brillant and Briand÷ but we could –possibly– have (bºi'Œ) /bKi'Õ/ for Briand˚ in controlled pronunciation. Furthermore, we have: (pe'i, pe',i) /pe'[j]i/ pZs˚ (&Åbe'i, -e',i) /abe'[j]i/ abbZe˘ 4.2.3.2. As far as /K/ is concerned, neutral pronunciation has two taxophones (with devoicing, and other possibilities, which we will point out): the voiced uvular constrictive (º), before a stressed V˚ after a (tauto- or hetero-syllabic) consonant and after a pause; and the (voiced) uvular approximant, (˜), before an unstressed V˚ before a (heterosyllabic) consonant and before a pause. Some examples of the constrictive: (ºÅ'_,P) /Ka'djo/ radio˚ ('ºy) /'Ky/ rue˚ (pÅ'ºi) /pa'Ki/ Par¤˚ ('tüE) /'tKE/ très˚ (&püevi'z,Ú) /pKevi'zjÚ/ prév¤ions˚ (&p™lºi'nÅ:\) /pElKi'naZ/ pèlerinage˚ ('©ÅtX) /'katK/ quatre˚ ('s¯fX) /'sufK/ soufre˚ (º#'püŒ:dX) /Kù'pKÕdK/ reprendre˘ ˛ese examples demonstrate typical devoicing and complete voicelessness, too, in (X), between (even voiced) C and a pause. Slowing down, or enunciating, we can even have (ºï): ('li:vX, -vºï) /'livK/ livre˘ Some examples of the approximant: (&Å˜i've) /aKi've/ arriver˚ (&lÅ˜Å'_,P) /laKa'djo/ la radio˚ (påÆ'+i:˜) /paK'tiK/ partir˚ (Ö˜'v°Å:˜) /OK'vwaK/ au revoir˘ It must be immediately added that a frequent variant of (º) is the voiced uvular trill, (K) (and this may explain why we use /K/, which generally indicates the uvular place of articulation, to help to avoid foreign pronunciation): ('Ky, pÅ'Ki, 't»E, &p»evi'z,Ú, &p™lKi'nÅ:\, '©Åt', K#'p»Œ:d', 'li:v', -Kï); this is frequent after tautosyllabic C, above all /p, t, k/, ('k»°Å:˜) /'kKwaK/ croire˚ whereas after /b, d, g/ we also have the (voiced) uvular tap: ('bº^÷ 'br-÷ 'bK-) /'bK^/ brun˚ (dºÅ'pP÷ dr-÷ dK-) /dKa'po/ drap›˚ ('gºŒ÷ 'gr-÷ 'gK-) /'gKÕ/ grand˘ For emphasis (º, K) can substitute (˜) too: ('fE:˜÷ -º÷ -K) /'fEK/ fPre˘ Sometimes we can have the uvular constrictive trill, or tap, (˜, Í) (and the voiceless (º)), especially after /p, t, k/: ('g˜Œ, 'gÍŒ, 'tÜE, '©Åtº). On the other hand, we can also find a voiced velar semi-constrictive (with a voiceless velar constrictive, in a devoicing context): ('gyŒ, 't@E, '©Åtx).

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Approximants 4.2.4. Apart from the taxophone (˜) of /K/ (just treated with the constrictives), we have two central approximant phonemes, (¥) /¥/ (postpalatal rounded) and (°) /w/ (provelar rounded, for which the symbol (w) of velar rounded phone could quite easily be used, as in other kinds of pronunciation, treated at the end of this chapter; but the opportunity to demonstrate not negligible gradation would be lost): ('s¥i) /'s¥i/ su¤˚ ('~¥i) /'n¥i/ nuit˚ ('¬¥i) /'l¥i/ lui˚ ('l°i) /'lwi/ Lou¤˚ ('m°Å) /'mwa/ mo¤˚ ('p#Å) /'pwa/ po¤˚ ('s#Å:˜) /'swaK/ soir˘ ˛ese examples also show assimilation of voicing and place of articulation, as well as the important fact that /¥/ and /w/ are two di‡erent phonemes, di‡erent from /j/ too. Regarding /lw/, we can have by assimilation, (]°), with /l/ realized as semi-velar. ˛e /0K, 0l/ + /y, u/ sequences remain the same, with no insertion of approximants (contrary to what happens for //é'i, i'é//, which normally become /é'ji, i'jé/, § 4.2.3): (&Öpstüy'e) ob®ruer˚ (gly'Œ) gluant˚ (kú¯'e) clouée˚ (tü¯'Œ) trouant˘ Laterals 4.2.5. ˛ere is only one lateral phoneme (today, Ô § 4.2.1), (l) /l/, which assimilates for voicing (and, before /j, ¥/, for place of articulation): ('lyn) /'lyn/ lune˚ ('p#Ål) /'pwal/ poil˚ (Å'le) /a'le/ aller˚ ('bl°) /'bl°/ blS˚ ('kúe) /'kle/ clef˚ ('fúy) /'fly/ flux˚ (Åú'pì) /al'pí/ alpin˚ (™á'zŒ:pa) /Eg'zÕpl/ exemple˚ ('Ú:ka) /'Úkl/ oncle˚ ('Ú:ga) /'Úgl/ ongle˚ ('s¯fa) /'sufl/ sou·e˘ Slowing down, or enunciating, we can also have (lï): ('Ú:ga÷ -lï), between a voiced C and a pause. Sometimes, we can hear something in between, with (Í): ('ÚkÍ, 'Ú:gÍ). In /lj, l¥/ the articulation is prepalatal: (s¯'¬,e) /su'lje/ soulier˚ ('¬,°) /'lj°/ liS˚ ('¬¥i) /'l¥i/ lui. Often, in non-neutral pronunciation, /lj/ and /j/ tend to merge into /j/: (mi'¬,Ú÷ mi',Ú) million˚ (mi'¬,°÷ mi',°) miliS˚ therefore (s¯'¬,e) soulier and (&fyzi'¬,e) fïlier can correspond to (s¯',e) souiller˚ (&fyzi',e) fïller˘ Structures 4.3.0. ˛e greatest problems for segments are caused by the unstressed vowel phoneme graphically expressed by e (apart from some exceptional cases, as monsiSr˚ fa¤ons); whereas, with regard to phone groups –or connected speech– the phenomenon of lia¤on is typical (§ 4.3.3.1-3). ˛e (unstable) /ù/ phoneme 4.3.1.1. In neutral modern pronunciation, /ù/ is realized as an unstressed /§/ (û 4.1). ˛ere are various terms to indicate it, some less suitable than others, like: çschwa, e caduc, e muetÇ. Its use and distribution constitutes one of the main characteristics of the French phonological system, even if its phonemic status could be

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debatable. More often than not, it seems that /ù/ (#) is introduced, in pronunciation, to avoid long sequences of C which turn out to be di‚cult to pronounce. ˛erefore from a phonemic transcription such as //msj°, ddÕ, at'lje//, Â, we could actually have: (m#'s¿°, d#'dŒ, &Åt#'¬,e) monsiSr˚ dedans˚ atelier˚ as isolated forms; in connected speech, the most common forms are, for instance: (}≈'s¿°) /^m'sj°/ un monsiSr˚ (lÅd'dŒ) /lad'dÕ/ là dedans˚ whereas atelier remains the same. We could, on the other hand, start from a çfullÇ or çisolatedÇ form, that retains all these unstable e (which is the most common in the traditional reading of verse, and is even stronger in the way of speaking in the south of France, the Midi]˚ dropping all the possible /ù/, without complicating the pronunciation with di‚cult or impossible groups: //bOnù'tKi// bonnetrie˚ //ZùtùlùKù'di// je te le red¤˚ for the normal (bÖn'tüi, &/t#lº#'_i÷ &\#tú#˜'_i). Generally, in phonemic transcriptions in dictionaries, the /ù/ that do not drop in isolated forms are retained, omitting the others; hence, we can now see when, even those which are normally indicated, can drop. 4.3.1.2. In practice, the dropping of one or more /ù/ can occur if the consonant groups, which come in contact, can occur within the word, ™ /lst, ksj, kskl, kspK, ksplw, Kkw, Ks¥, KstK, Kmn/, Â, as in: (sÖús'tis) /sOls'tis/ sol®ice˚ (&™ázÅ©'s¿Ú) /Egzak'sjÚ/ exaction˚ (&™kskúÅ'me) /Ekskla'me/ exclamer˚ (&™kspüi'me) /EkspKi'me/ exprimer˚ (™ks'pú°Å) /Eks'plwa/ exploit˚ (p¨Æ'k#Å) /puK'kwa/ pourquoi˚ (p¨Æ'sÎit) /puK's¥it/ poursuite˚ (&syp™Æs'tüÅ) /sypEKs'tKa/ super®rat˚ (&ip™˜mne'zi) /ipEKmne'zi/ hypermnésie. It is generally possible to increase the number of C in contact, if when dropping /ù/, constrictives, approximants, laterals and nasals (but also stops) are added – before or after: (©is'sE;Æt 'sÅ÷ &©is#'s-) qui se sert de ça?˚ (\#n&l#˜_i'pÅ, \&n#lº#-) je ne le red¤ pø˚ (&ynp+it'fi,) une petite fille˚ (&+ynsüÅ'pÅ) tu ne serø pø˚ ([&i¬],Å&bPk¯d'mÚ:d) il y a b›coup de monde˚ (&Únpå˜'lE ©#t'sÅ) on ne parlPt que de ça˚ (&™s©#&\#úsÅ'vE, ™zá&\#ú-) e®-ce que je le sava¤?˚ (\mŒ'fi/) je m'en fi>e! Furthermore: (/&kü°Å'b,ì) je cro¤ bien˚ (s&n™pÅ'sy:˜) ce n'e® pø sûr˚ (s&©i[ú]t#'fP, s©it'fP) ce qu'il te faut˚ (s&tü3'lÅ) ce trPn là˚ (/&sÎikÚ'tŒd lÅ'v°Å:˜) je su¤ content de la voir [de l'avoir]˚ (/t#ld'mŒ:d, /&t#ld#'m-) je te le demande˚ (&s™á\#n&t#ldv™'pÅ, -d#v™-, s™©/&t#l) c'e® que je ne te le deva¤ pø˚ (lve'v¯, &l#-) levez-vo¨!˚ (m&nem°Å'lÅ, m#&ne-) menez-moi là!˚ (\'_i kúemÖ'+iv dlŒ'fŒn sÚpÅ'bÚ, -+if) je d¤ que lπ motifs de l'enfant ne sont pø bons˚ (&sY˜l#'bŒ, syl-) sur le banc˚ (si&\#nt#l_i'pÅ, &si/t#l-) si je ne te le d¤ pø˚ (il&m#ldmŒt'pÅ, in&m-, &inm#l&d#-) il ne me le demande pø. ©thin a word, we can find: (bÖn'tüi) bonneterie˚ (©Ås'ü∏l) cøserole˚ (Åm'ne) amener˚ (Å'púe) appeler˚ (\¯'ºe) jouerP˚ (pú™n'mŒ) plRnement÷ but: (&Œgl#'tE:˜) Angleterre˚ (&m™Ækü#'_i) mercredi˚ (&på˜l#'mŒ) parlement˚ (&fÖÆt#'mŒ) fortement˚ (&Œpú#'mŒ) amplement˘ For parle-m'en, we often have (på˜l'mŒ), which we can also hear for parlement˚ in fast or slow speech. 4.3.1.3. It is important to bear in mind the di‡erence that exists in French, for the /0/ + /m, n, K, l/ + /j/ sequences, that would be too heavy, hence, a stable /ù/ is inserted: (&sÖm#'¬,e) sommelier˚ (&n¯s#'m,Ú) no¨ semions˚ (&sŒt#'~,e) centenier˚

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(&v¯t#'~,e) vo¨ teniez˚ (&n¯s#'º,Ú) no¨ serions˚ (&v¯/Œt#'º,e) vo¨ >anteriez˚ (&ºi/#'¬,°) Ri>eliS˚ (&n¯zÅp#'¬,Ú) no¨ appelions˚ but (©Ås'p¿e) cøse-pieds˚ (s™t'p¿Es) cette pièce˚ (bÖn'+¿e) bonnetier˚ (/åÆ'+¿e) >arretier˚ (p™ú'+¿e) pelletier˘ ˛e same happens for /¥, w/: (/e&s#¬¥i'si) >ez celui-ci˚ (}&b¯d#'l°Å) un bout de loi÷ even if it is not unusual to hear: (&/es¥i'si) >ez celui-ci˚ (&}b¯'dl°Å), (&l#\°'dl°Å) le jS de l'oie˚ and similar phrases. ˛e /ù/ does not generally drop in the first syllable of names: ('l°i ˜#'nP) /'lwi Kù'no/ Lou¤ Renault˚ (&Å˜#'nÅ:˜) /aKù'naK/ à Renard˚ not even for de\ (&d#lÅ'ºi:v) /dùla'Kiv/ De la Rive˚ (m#&s¿°d#'gP:l) /mùsj°dù'gol/ M. De Gaulle÷ but if it is possible to simplify, it is done, on the radio and television too, even if it is a little stigmatized, as in: de De Gaulle which is nearly always (d#d'gP:l). Surnames usually resist better than first names, indeed, Renaud and Den¤, in appropriate contexts are often: (˜'nP, d'ni). However, we regularly find: (}˜'nÅ:˜) /^K'naK/ un renard˚ (snÚ'lÅ2 &v,ìd'gP:l) {(s#n-)} /sùnÚ'la, vjíd'gol/ ce nom-là vient de "Gaule&˚ (\&nepÅd'gP:l) /Znepad'gol/ je n'P pø de gaulπ (in a real or figurative sense), (P&bÖ˜dlÅ'ºi:v) /obOKdla'Kiv/ au bord de la rive÷ but: (ºi/'lE) /KiS'lE/ Ri>elet (obviously in the case of (&ºi/#'¬,°) /KiSù'lj°/ Ri>eliS, it is di‡erent). ˛e same happens before /*é/ (¤ çdisjunctiveÇ initial V˚ usually represented by the so called çaspirateÇ h and by the names of numbers): (l#e'ºP) /lùe'Ko/ le héro˚ (l#'Ú:z) /lù'Úz/ le onze˘ Taxophonics 4.3.2.1. In a sentence, the way in which /ù/ behaves, ¤ retained or inserted or dropped, makes its position within a word peculiar. Doubtlessly, in these cases, pronunciation is influenced by spelling, as well, with its internal e; whereas word-ending e, which are not usually pronounced in isolated forms, can make one (think one should) prefer to drop it even in syntagms, compounds and common phrases. In certain words, /ù/ does not drop, even if the result of the drop would give a rather simple consonant group: (&n¯p#'zÚ) no¨ pπons˚ but (n¯v'zÚ) no¨ fa¤ons÷ (&lÅ©#'ºEl) la querelle˚ but (&}púÖ'tÚ) un peloton÷ (&def#'mEl) dπ femellπ˚ but (l™f'nEtX) lπ fenêtrπ˘ Furthermore, because of the disjunctive h, (&yns©yú'+y:˜) une sculpture˚ but (&yn#'Ú:t) une honte÷ (&s™tspúŒ'd§:˜) cette splendSr˚ but (&s™t#å˜'_,Es) cette hardiπse (we can have (&s™t-å˜'_,Es), too). ˛ere are also cases such as (d™'bEús 'üi:z) dπ bellπ cer¤π˚ (&d#nº#v'ni;Æ ©#ú's#Å:˜) de ne revenir que le soir÷ on the other hand, spelling without -e makes the pronunciation of the following seem superior: ('pÅ˜á d™'püì:s, 'pÅÆ©) Parc dπ Princπ˚ ('Å˜á d#tüi',Ú:f, 'ÅÆ©) arc de triom#e˚ (&¯˜z'blŒ) ours blanc˚ ('fil≈ pÖlÖ'nE) film polona¤˚ (+i'/§˜D '\P:n) T-shirt jaune˚ instead of the more natural ('pÅÆ©# d™'püì:s, 'ÅÆ©# &d#tüi',Ú:f, '¯Æs# 'blŒ, 'film# &pÖlÖ'nE, +i'/§ÆT# '\P:n), which are thus often considered less good, because of the spelling, while, above all ('¯Æs# 'blŒ), for rhythmic reasons too, is more than legitimate; ('ÅÆ©#t tüi',Ú:f) (with -C Ce (0#0)) is at times stigmatized as uneducated. Normally, the following cases can be seen in slow, careful

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pronunciation; otherwise, in fast pronunciation, dropping prevails: ('p∏st ü™s'tŒ:t, -t# ˜-) /'pOst KEs'tÕt/ po®e re®ante˚ ('Åúp ≈Å˜i'+im, -p# mÅ-) /'alp maKi'tim/ Alpπ Maritimπ˚ ('/Å˜l d#'gP:l, -l# d#-) /'SaKl dù'gol/ ≥arlπ de Gaulle˘ Let us further consider examples (due to rhythmic reasons) such as: (&pÖÆt≈ŒtP, -Æt#m-) /pOKt[ù]mÕ'to/ porte-mant›˚ (&pÖÆtküe',Ú, -Æt#k-) /pOKt[ù]kKe'jÚ/ porte-crZon˚ with /[ù]/, but (&pÖÆt#'púym) /pOKtù'plym/ porte-plume÷ and, hence, even (&©ÅÆt#'d∏:˜) /kaKtù'dOK/ carte d'or˚ and certainly not *(kaR'dO:r) (also) in the Italian advertisements for Carte d'Or (which in French, would be car d'or (&©Å˜'d∏:˜)); however, (&©Å˜d'd∏:˜) is possible, too. ˛e cases are increasing where, before a pause, one pronounces a non-etymologic /ù/, which is not present in spelling, above all after voiced C, in particular the sonants: (P'tEl, -l#, Ö-) /o'tEl, O-/ hôtel˚ (s™˜'vi:˜, -˜#) /sEK'viK/ servir˚ (bÚ'\¯:˜, -˜#) /bÚ'ZuK/ bonjour! 4.3.2.2. ‹en, in connected speech, a word ends in /0Kò, 0lò/ and is then followed by another which begins with /ò0/, in slow and wary pronunciation, /ù/ is inserted; but normally, even /K, l/ are dropped: ('©Åt 'fÅm÷ '©Åtü#) /'katK 'fam/ quatre femmπ˚ (&ynPt'f#Å÷ y&nPtü#-) /ynotK'fwa/ une autre fo¤˚ (&m™ddP'tEl÷ 'mEtü# d-) /mEtKdo'tEl/ maître d'hôtel˚ (l#'pP;v bÖ'n∏m, ú'p-÷ l#'pP;vº#) /lù'povK bO'nOm/ le pauvre bonhomme˚ (i≈'sŒ;p ©#'nÚ÷ &ilm#'sŒ;bl#) /ilmù'sÕbl kù'nÚ/ il me semble que non˚ (&3pÖ'sib d#ú'fE:˜÷ -ibl#) /ípO'sibl dùl'fEK/ impossible de le fPre˚ (ú'p§b _itÅ'li÷ l#'p§pú#) /lù'p§pl dita'li/ le pSple d'Italie˘ In cases such as /vOtKùp'n°/ votre pnS˚ apart from a slow and wary (&vÖtü#p'n°), we also have (vÖp'n°, -t'n°, vÖtp'n°), and (&vÖtp#'n°), considered rather uneducated because of the di‡erence with its spelling. Decidedly uneducated (and intentionally joky) is (&™©s#'püE, -e) for (™ks'püE) exprès˚ whereas (™s'püE, -e) is rather fast colloquial. As seen (in the previous section), we have to have /0ùùj/ in a word (/ù/ refers to sonants: /m, n, K, l/), but it is not valid in sentences: (s™l'm,ì) c'e® le mien˚ (&i[ú]fPl'~,e, fP-) il faut le nier˚ (&i[l]zŒ'+¿En '¬,°) ils en tiennent liS˚ (in'vÅl 'º,ì, &iln#-) ils ne valent rien˘ However, one can definitely also have: (&d#n#'º,ì 'fE:˜) de ne rien fPre˚ (&\#nd#'mŒ;d# 'º,ì) je ne demande rien˚ and even: (&s™l#'m,ì), (&i[ú]fPl#'~,e, fP-), (&i[l]zŒ'+¿En# '¬,°), (in'vÅl# 'º,ì, &iln#-). Let us also consider: (&bÖnÅpåÆt#'mŒ '/P) bon appartement >aud˚ (&bÖnÅ'pÅÆt ≈Œ'/P, -t#) Bonaparte man>ot˘ If the context does not create any ambiguity, we can easily have bon appartement >aud (&bÖnÅpåÆt'mŒ '/P). 4.3.2.3. For sequences of monosyllabic words with /ùò/ [le˚ je˚ me˚ te˚ se˚ ce˚ de˚ ne]˚ there are often clear, general preferences, but not absolute, such as: (\#n÷ \n#) je ne˚ (\#m, \m#) je me˚ (\#l, \l#) je le˚ (d#l) de le˚ (d#n) de ne˚ (d#m) de me˚ (d#t) de te˚ (d#s) de se˚ (d#s, ts#) de ce˚ (©#l) que le˚ (©#n) que ne˚ (©#m) que me˚ (©#s) que se/ce˚ (©#t) que te˚ (s©#) ce que\ (&d#nº#v'ni;Æ ©#ú's#Å:˜) de ne revenir que le soir˚ (&m°Å\#n&s™©#d'_i:˜) moi je ne sa¤ que te dire˚ (&\#ns™'º,ìt s#tüy'kúÅ) je ne sa¤ rien de ce truc là˘ For /Z/ in je me le demande˚ we find (&\#ml#d'mŒ:d) and (\&m#ld#'mŒ:d)÷ the lat-

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ter is at times considered less advisable; similarly, for the second forms in: (\l#'v°, \#l'v°) je le vSx˚ (\#≈'+¿ì, \m#-) je me tiens˚ (/&tÅv™'_id v#'ni;˜, -'_i d#v'ni:˜) je t'ava¤ dit de venir (spelling influences the çchoiceÇ of preferably retaining word-internal /ù/). ˛e second forms here are, thus, also çuneducatedÇ: (/'kü°Å÷ #/'kü°Å) je cro¤˚ (\mŒ'fU÷ &#\-) je m'en fo¨˚ (l™'mEá d#lÅ'ºy, l™'mE ©#dlÅ'ºy) lπ mecs de la rue˚ (&dek¯'vºi;˜ l#'mÚ:d, &dek¯'vºi; ˜#l'mÚ:d) découvrir le monde˚ ('püŒd l#me'tüP, 'püŒ d[º]#l-) prendre le métro˚ (i'mEt ú#'püi, i'mEt [ü]#ú'püi) y mettre le prix (if it could be confused with ils mettent le prix (i'mEt ú#'püi), the /K/ does not drop), (i[ú]'/EÆ/ s#©i[l]'v°, i[ú]'/EÆ/#s ©i[l]'v°) il >er>e ce qu'il vSt÷ actually, the second forms are often more çnaturalÇ, but –alas– di‡erent from the spelling! In the case of forms such as (&Åb°Å'mŒ) aboiement˚ (\n™'t#Å) je nettoie˚ (i[l]'v°Å) ils voient˚ (/pe'ºe) je pZerP [pPerP]˚ (©i[ú]'s#Å) qu'ils soient˚ (&©#+y'E, ©#'+ÎE, ©#'tE) que tu Pπ÷ forms such as (&Åb°Å,'mŒ, \n™'t#Å,, i[l]'v°Å,, /p™,'ºe, ©i[ú]'s#Å,) and (&©#+y'E,, ©#'+ÎE,, ©#'tE,) are certainly çuneducatedÇ. 4.3.2.4. In some cases, in French, we have geminated C in derived words: (&tü°Åz¿™m'mŒ) tro¤ièmement˚ (n™t'te) netteté˚ (&ekú™˜'ºÅ, &™-) éclPrera (Ô (&ekú™'ºÅ, &™-) éclPra]÷ in the future and conditional of courir˚ mourir˚ quérir (and prefixed forms, but not other verbs with -rr-): (/k¯˜'ºE) je courra¤ (Ô imperfect (/k¯'ºE) je coura¤˚ and also, (/p¯'ºE) je pourra¤]÷ furthermore, in cases such as: (lÅd'dŒ) là-dedans (Ô (lÅ'dŒ) la dent], (+ym'mŒ) tu me mens (Ô (+y'mŒ) tu mens˚ (&+ynmŒ'pÅ) tu ne mens pø], (&™llÅ'_i) elle l'a dit (Ô (&™lÅ'_i) elle a dit]÷ obviously, even: (&p#+it'tÅba) petite table˚ (&p#+itÅ'blP) petit tabl›˘ Lastly we have gemination (or lengthening) to give emphasis: (˚1s™pÌpÅÆ£fE3 3, ˚1s™Ìp:Å-) c'e® parfPt! Gemination is possible, to maintain distinction, in the case of the imperfect indicative and the present subjunctive, compared to the present indicative: (&n¯kü°Å,',Ú) no¨ croyions˚ (&v¯kü°Å,',e) vo¨ croyiez (Ô (&n¯kü°Å',Ú) no¨ croyons˚ (&v¯kü°Å',e) vo¨ croyez]÷ to avoid ambiguity in cases such as: (&lÅssi'ºi) l'Assyrie˚ (&lÅsi'ºi) la Syrie÷ to insist on a prefix (especially negative): (&illi'ziba) ill¤ible˘ Gemination can even be found where it is not needed, for graphic geminates, in bookish words (but spontaneous and not a‡ected pronunciation carefully avoids such geminations): (vi'lÅ, -l'lÅ) villa˚ (gºÅ'mE:˜, -m'm-) grammPre˚ (&Å_i's¿Ú, &Åd_i-) addition˚ (i'lystX, il'l-) illu®re÷ it is equally improper, though common, to geminate the pronoun l' (which neutral pronunciation –obviously– avoids) in cases such as: (&\#lle'vy, &+yllÅ'_i, n¯l&lÅvÚ'sÛ), for: (\le'vy) je l'P vu˚ (&+ylÅ'_i) tu l'ø dit˚ (n¯&lÅvÚ'sÛ) no¨ l'avons su˘ 4.3.2.5. French presents consonant sequences with di‡erent places of articulation, which present considerable problems for many foreign people; it is useful to look at the example we have just seen of (&Å_i's¿Ú, &Åd_i-) addition˚ as well as (&Ån™á'd∏t) anecdote˚ (Å©&+ivi'te) activité˚ (/'kü°Å) je cro¤˚ and many other previous examples and future ones. ˛e assimilation of voiced stops, between (either oral or nasalized) V and C, which become N (except in very controlled pronunciation, dominated by spell-

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ing) is considerable and typical: (}n&mi©i'lP) /^dmiki'lo/ un demi kilo˚ (Ån'mì) /ad'mí/ à demPn˚ (t¯n'mEm) /tud'mEm/ tout de même˚ (Œ&tü3nmŒ'\e) /ÕtKídmÕ'ZE/ en trPn de manger˚ (yn'gºŒ;n me'zÚ) /yn'gKÕd me'zÚ/ une grande ma¤on˚ (lŒn'mì) /lÕd'mí/ lendemPn˚ (d™'gºŒ;n 'dÅm) /dE'gKÕd 'dam/ dπ grandπ damπ˚ (lÅ'/Œ;m dÅ'mi) /la'SÕb[K] da'mi/ la >ambre d'am¤˚ (kÚ'm,ì) /kÚ'bjí/ combien˚ (&intÚ;≈'pÅ, &iút-, il&n#-) /ilnùtÚb'pa/ il ne tombe pø˚ (l™'lŒ;˙ mÖ'dEñ) /lE'lÕg mO'dEKn/ lπ languπ modernπ˚ (yn'lÚ;˙ 'áE:˜) /yn'lÚg 'gEK/ une longue guerre˘ For voiceless stops, we have assimilation of places of articulation in the same way, while we can have voicing, devoicing, or voicelessness, for the type of phonation (again, as well as a slower or more controlled possibility, which corresponds to the phonemic transcription ): (&}≈+i'k¯, &})-) /^pti'ku/ un petit coup˚ (m3n'nŒ, -n'nŒ, -£'nŒ, m3'nŒ) /mít'nÕ/ mPntenant˚ (v3n'd°, -n'd°, -£'d°) /vít'd°/ vingt-dSx˚ ('bŒ;~ pe&˜ife'ºi©, -) p-) /'bÕk peKife'Kik/ banque péri#érique˚ (\#n&m#tüÚm'pÅ, -≈'pÅ, -)'pÅ) /ZùnmùtKÚp'pa/ je ne me trompe pø˘ Lastly, this assimilation can occur even before a V\ (pŒ'nŒ) /pÕ'dÕ/ pendant˚ (t¯l&mÚn™'lÅ) /tulmÚdE'la/ tout le monde e® là˚ as even before a pause: (t¯l'mÚn) /tul'mÚd/ tout le monde˚ (mÅ'lŒ:˙) /ma'lÕg/ ma langue˘ It can also be found between a non-nasalized V and N\ (&mÅnm°Å'zEl) /madmwa'zEl/ mademo¤elle˚ (&m™nm°Å'zEl) /mEdmwa'zEl/ mπdemo¤ellπ˚ (&º#nmŒ'de) /KùdmÕ'de/ redemander˚ (&Ånmi'ºe) /admi'Ke/ admirer˚ (&_,ÅNnÖs'+i©, -˙n-) /djagnOs'tik/ diagno®ic˚ (&Œ\Œm'mŒ) /ÕZÕb'mÕ/ enjambement˚ and adverbial -ment: (fü°Ån'mŒ) /fKwad'mÕ/ froidement˚ (vÅ˙'mŒ) /vag'mÕ/ vaguement˚ (&kÚpú™n'mŒ, -n'mŒ, -£'mŒ) /kÚplEt'mÕ/ complètement˘ Let us also note cases such as (l°i'©Em püÖ'/ì, -mp p-) /lùwi'kEnd pKO'Sí/ le week-end pro>Pn˘ 4.3.2.6. In fluent, familiar speech, there are certain reductions (even for stress), which simplify speech, without compromising communication; instead, by slowing down speech, pronunciation can correspond to the phonemic transcription: (s't∏m) /sE'tOm/ cet homme˚ (st#'fÅm) /sEt'fam/ cette femme˚ (Ås't§:˜) /asE't§K/ à cette hSre˚ (stÅ'_i:˜) /sEta'diK/ c'e®-à-dire˚ ({m™}p&t™t, -tX) /{mE}p°'tEtK/ [ma¤] pSt-être˚ (Å&°Å:˜) /a'vwaK/ avoir˚ (°Å'lÅ, v'lÅ) /vwa'la/ voilà˚ (vlÅPT'/P:z, &°ÅlÅ-) /vwalaotK'Soz/ voilà autre >ose˚ (≈&s¿°, )'s-, p's-) /mù'sj°/ monsiSr˚ (&k¯te'm°Å) /ekute'mwa/ écoutez-moi˚ (s©yz™'m°Å) /Ekskyze'mwa/ excëz-moi˚ (s¿¯&púE) /silvu'plE/ s'il vo¨ plaît˘ In a preintoneme, /swa'sÕt/ soixante is currently reduced to ('s#Œ;t), especially in compounds: (s#Œt'sis, &s#Œd_iz'n§f, -n_-) 66˚ 79˘ Furthermore: (pÅs'©#, &pÅs©#, &pÅs©, &Ås©, s©#, s©, sk) /paKs[ù]kù/ parce que˚ (&™s©#, s©#) /Eskù, skù/ e®-ce que {(p¨Æ'k#Ås ©#&+y_i'sÅ) pourquoi e®-ce que tu d¤ ça?]˚ (sÎi'si) /sùl¥i'si/ celui-ci˚ (&pi) /'p¥i/ pu¤˚ (&pis©#, -s©, -sk) /'p¥isk/ pu¤que˚ ([™]'bì) ç/[E]'bí/Ç [eh] bien (bin˚ bi'n would be better), ('pÛ) /'ply/ pl¨ (possibly: p'¨]˚ (mŒ&fì) /mEÕ'fí/ ma¤ enfin [m'enfin]˚ (mÅ&l∏;˜) /mEa'lOK/ ma¤ alors [m'alors]˚ (&bŒ) ç/'bÕ/Ç bon! (ban! would be better), (&nŒ) ç/'nÕ/Ç non! (nan! would be better), ('°™, -E, -e, -É) /*'wE, -e/ oua¤!˚ (&k∏;˜) /Õ'kOK/ encore˚ (st#&mŒ, /t#-) /Zystù'mÕ/ ju®ement˘ Other examples: (dmÅ&~,E;˜, t≈-) /dùtutma'njEK/ de toute manière˚ (tfÅ&sÚ) /dùtutfa'sÚ/ de toute façon˚ (Æ&k#Å) /puK'kwa/ pourquoi˚ (+y˜™l&mŒ) /natyKEl'mÕ/ naturellement˚ (s&≈Œ) /s§l'mÕ/ sSlement˚ (D&\¯:˜) /tu'ZuK/ toujours˚ (s&pÅ, &pÅ) /nEs'pa/

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n'e®-ce pø?˚ (D&\Å) /de'Za/ déjà˚ (D\°'ne) /deZ°'ne/ déjSner˚ (™s&púi©Å's¿Ú, s&p-) /Eksplika'sjÚ/ explication˚ (\™'s¿Ú) /ZEs'tjÚ/ ge®ion˚ (&©Åt) /'katK/ quatre˚ (©™©'f#Å) /kElkù'fwa/ quelquefo¤˚ (©™©'/P:z) /kElkù'Soz/ quelque >ose˚ (†tÅ'kU) /tuta'ku/ tout à coup˚ (†tÅ'l§:˜) /tuta'l§K/ tout à l'hSre˚ (†tP'púy[s]) /tuto'ply[s]/ tout au pl¨˚ (Å™á'v¯) /avEk'vu/ avec vo¨˘ More still: (/Îi'lÅ, /sÎi-, //i-) /Zùs¥i'la/ je su¤ là˚ (\¥ie'_i÷ \,e-) /Zùl¥ie'di/ je lui P dit˚ (&tÅ˜e'zÚ) /tyaKe'zÚ, t¥a-/ tu ø ra¤on˚ (t™'f¯, te-) /tyE'fu, t¥E-/ tu π fou˚ (t&s™) /ty'sE/ tu sa¤˚ (&+yÅv™'_i, &+¥Å-, &tÅ-) /tyavE'di, t¥a-, ta-/ tu ava¤ dit˚ (l™'b,ì) /ilE'bjí/ il e® bien˚ (v&zÅve'vy) /vuzave'vy/ vo¨ avez vu˚ (v*&zÅ˜e'te) /vuvuzaKe'te/ vo¨ vo¨ arrêtez?˚ (nó&zŒnÅ'lÚ) /nunuzÕna'lÚ/ no¨ no¨ en allons˚ (&isÚ'bÚ) /ilsÚ'bÚ/ ils sont bons˚ (&izÚ'püi) /ilzÚ'pKi/ ils ont pr¤˚ (,Å) /ilja, ja/ il y a˚ (&,ŒnÅ'vE) /iliÕna'vE, ilj-, j-/ il y en avPt (uneducated even (&,ÅnÅ'vE)). In fast speech, y˚ si˚ ni˚ tu˚ ou, oú˚ before a V˚ often and usually, have consonant variants (often condemned by schools, all because of disguising spelling): (si™l'v°, s¿™-) /siEl'v°, sjE-/ si elle vSt˚ (niÅ'n¯, ~,Å-) /nia'nu, nja-/ ni à no¨˚ (¯Å'¬,Ú, °Å-) /ua'ljÚ, wa-/ ou à Lyon˚ (¯™'tEl, °™-) /uE'tEl, wE-/ oú-e®-elle?˚ (i[ú]&fPiÅ'le, -P,Å-, -P+-) /ilfoia'le, -oja-, -ot-/ il faut y aller˘ In rapid speech, between nasalized V, continuous C can be nasalized a little, but it is not worth transcribing as it is barely perceptible: (&mÚ\Œ'bÚ) /mÚZÕ'bÚ/ mon jambon˚ (Œ'vì) /Õ'ví/ en vPn; the same occurs for oral V preceded and followed by N\ (nÖ'nEt) /nO'nEt/ nonnette˚ (y&nÅnimi'te) /ynanimi'te/ unanimité˘ On the other hand, in other languages, such as English, Spanish, Italian, the nasalization –of V between N– is more obvious, but this too, is hardly worth mentioning as it occurs quite automatically. An alveolar semi-lateral, /l/ (¬), is possible for the grammemes (articles or pronouns) le˚ la˚ les˚ lui (non-final) preceded by the grammemes par˚ pour˚ sur˚ vers: (&på˜l™f'nEtX, -˜¬™-÷ &p¨˜¬¥i'_i:˜, -˜¬¥i-÷ &sY˜lÅ'tÅba, -˜¬Å-÷ &v™˜l#'s°Å:˜, -˜¬#-) /paKlef'nEtK, puKl¥i'diK, syKla'tabl, vEKlù'swaK/ par les fenêtres˚ pour lui dire˚ sur la table˚ vers le soir˘ çLiaisonÇ 4.3.3.1. For the all-important lia¤on, it must be said that it concerns, to di‡erent degrees, all types of pronunciation: from a minimum of linking in familiar speech, to a maximum which can be found in classic poetry (a certainly more elaborate language). More or less in between, we can find current conversation (real language). Lia¤on only occurs within rhythm groups, between words which are linked from a morphosyntactic and semantic point of view. Some are obligatory, others impossible, some optional, depending on the style of diction and the choices of the speaker. ˛e most normal and frequent linking occurs with: /z/ [s˚ x˚ z]˚ /t/ [t˚ d]˚ /n/ [n]\ (&lezÅ'mi) lπ am¤ (“ mπ˚ tπ˚ sπ˚ dπ˚ cπ]˚ (&d°'z§:˜) dSx hSrπ˚ (™&+ilÅ'le) e®-il allé?˚ (&}gºŒ't∏m) un grand homme˚ (&p¿etÅ'tE:˜) pied-à-terre˚ (&Œne'te) en été˚ (&mÚnÅ'mi) mon ami (“ ton˚ son÷ once (&mÖnÅ-) was neutral, but today it is no longer so, although this pronunciation is still widely used), (&ÚnÅ'tŒ) on attend˚ (&}nP'tEl) un hôtel (“ aucun hôtel]˚ (&º,3nÅ'fE:˜) rien à fPre˚ (&b,3nÅ'se) bien øsez˘

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Other forms with nasalized V do not link, except bon and adjectives such as plRn˚ vPn˚ ancien˚ certPn˚ pro>Pn˚ soudPn˚ vilPn (but they lose their nasality): (&bÖnÅ'mi) bon ami˚ (&Œpú™'nE:˜) en plRn Pr˚ (l#&m°Å,™'nÅ:\) le Moyen-Âge˘ We never find lia¤on after et, or before the names of numbers or a çdisjunctiveÇ h, (or çaspiratedÇ h, because it was pronounced like that… centuries ago!) and generally, before w˚ y\ (eÅ'l∏:˜) et alors˚ (¬¥ie'El) lui et elle˚ (&iúsÚ'Ú:z) ils sont onze˚ (l#'^) le un˚ (l#'¥it) le huit˚ (dee'ºP) dπ héros˚ (Œ'P) en haut˚ (&}°is'©i) un wh¤ky˚ (}',P:t, }',∏t, }',Å©) un ya>t÷ and (}'°i) un oui, as well. Even in current conversation, it is obligatory to link a noun with the çdeterminantsÇ that precede it: (le'z∏m) lπ hommπ˚ (&sez°Å'zP) cπ o¤›x˚ (te'z,°) tπ ySx˚ (le&zPtü#'z∏m, &lezPd'z∏m) lπ autrπ hommπ˚ (&l#˜zÅ'mi) lSrs amiπ˚ (&d°zÅ'mi) dSx am¤˚ (°ºŒ'z∏m) dπ grands hommπ˚ (}&gºŒtÅ'mi) un grand ami˘ Subject pronouns and verbs are linked: (&n¯zÅ'vÚ) no¨ avons˚ (&v¯zÅ'le) vo¨ allez˚ (il'zEm, i'zEm) ils Pment (Ô (i'lEm) il Pme]˚ (&ÚnÅ'vE) on avPt˚ (\Œ&nepå˜'le) j'en P parlé˚ (™&+ilv#'ny, &™+iv'ny) e®-il venu?˚ (&Ú+il'vy, &Ú+i'vy) ont-ils vu?˚ (p°'tÚ) pSt-on? 4.3.3.2. ˛ere is a case in which pronunciation does influence spelling, and this should be remembered. It occurs in nearly all imperatives, without -s when isolated, but with /z/ for the pronouns y and en: vø-y (vÅ'zi), pensπ-y (&pŒs#'zi), mangπ-en (&mŒ\#'zŒ)… As well as forms such as va-t'en! (with elision of the pronoun te) we find analogical çeuphonicÇ t's in questions whith subject-auxiliary inversion: e®-il?˚ but Pme-t-on?˚ viendra-t-elle?˚ convPnc-t-il?… Similarly, the adverbs très˚ tout˚ bien are linked to adjectives (or adverbs) modified by them: (&tü™zy'+il) très utile˚ (&t¯tŒ'+¿e) tout entier˚ (b,3&nÅtŒ'+if) bien attentif˘ Instead, pø˚ pl¨˚ moins˚ trop˚ fort˚ øsez˚ jama¤ can link or not; but in normal conversation they do not usually do so: (&pÅ[z]Œ'k∏:˜) pø encore˚ (&tüPetü°Åt'≈Œ, tüÖ&pe-) trop étroitement˘ In fixed expressions they obviously link; for instance, pl¨˚ as in (&púyz¯'m°ì) pl¨ ou moins˚ which is always so. (Monosyllabic) prepositions and conjunctions link to the forms that follow them: (&Œni'vE:˜) en hiver˚ (&dŒz}'m°Å) dans un mo¤˚ (sŒ'zEl) sans elle˚ (/e'z°) >ez Sx˚ (/e&z}nÅ'mi) >ez un ami÷ (kŒ&+il™v'ny) quand il e® venu (but linking is only possible with the interrogative adverb, as in (kŒ&[t]™s©il™v'ny) quand e®-ce qu'il e® venu?÷ but not in ('kŒ ™+ilv#'ny, ™+iv'ny) quand e®-il venu?˚ so as to avoid /tété/). If the prepositions and conjunctions are polysyllabic, a lia¤on is equally only possible: (&Åpü™Å&v°ÅÆ/Œ'te, Å&pü™zÅ&v°ÅÆ/Œ'te) après avoir >anté˚ (d#&vŒynme'zÚ, -Œ+y-) devant une ma¤on˘ ˛ere is linking with dont˚ en, too: (l#/'fÅl dÚ+i&lÅpå˜'le) le >eval dont il a parlé÷ and en˚ y have a çpre-liaisonÇ: (&pü#nÚ'zŒ) prenons-en˚ (&n¯zi's∏m) no¨ y sommπ˘ ©th auxiliaries and semiauxiliaries, lia¤on, though possible, is becoming more and more unusual in current conversation. It nearly always occurs between e® (and often sont˚ ont] and a following adjective or past participle, especially with allé\ (s™&t3pÖ'siba) c'e® impossible˚ (i[ú]&sÚtÅ'le) ils sont allés˚ (&i[l]lÚ'+Û) ils l'ont S (e ils l'ont tu). ˛ere are even some fixed expressions which require linking: (le&/Œzeli'ze) lπ ≥amps-Élyséπ˚ (&leze&tÅzy'ni) lπ États-Un¤˚ (&vizÅ'vi) v¤-à-v¤˚ (d#&tŒzŒ'tŒ) de temps en temps˘

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4.3.3.3. On an uneducated level, lia¤on behaves in a particular fashion, in as much as it is less frequent, but with analogical non-neutral extensions; furthermore, it generally marks the plural. ˛erefore, monosyllables link with /z/: (le'z,°) lπ ySx (and so ySx is çnormallyÇ ('z,°), even when isolated), (&izÅ'ºi:v) ils arrivent˘ Among the monosyllabic verbs, ont˚ sont do not link, whereas su¤ and e® optionally do: (&izÚ'y) ils ont S˚ (™[ú]&sÚÅ'le) ellπ sont alléπ˚ (i&l™Å˜i've, -™tÅ-) il e® arrivé˚ (/Îie'te, -ize-) je su¤ été (which is uneducated, for j'P été÷ but (/Îi&Åbºy'+i) je su¤ abruti]÷ an adjective links with the noun: (&bÚzÅ'mi) bons am¤˚ but sans may link or not: (sŒÅ'v°Å:˜, &sŒzÅ-) sans avoir÷ tout and on˚ mon˚ ton˚ son link: (&t¯t™'b,ì) tout e® bien˚ (Ú'nÅ) on a˚ (&mÚnÅ'mi) mon ami˘ ˛ere are even analogical improper cases such as: *(&p°za'p°) /p°a'p°/ pS à pS˚ *(i&vÅte'v,ì) /ilvae'vjí/ il va et vient˚ *(&ifP&dºÅtÅ'le) /ilfodKaa'le/ il faudra aller˚ *(le&zÅ˜i'kP) /leaKi'ko/ lπ haricots˚ *(&s™tÚ't°) /sEÚ't°/ c'e® hontSx˚ *(/Îi&te˜3'te) /Zùs¥ieKí'te/ je su¤ érRnté˚ *(t™l'mŒ zÅmy'zŒ) /tEl'mÕ amy'zÕ/ tellement amänt˚ *('vì 'z∏m) /'ví 'tOm/ vingt hommπ˚ *('©Åd zÖfi's¿e) /'katK Ofi'sje/ quatre o‚ciers˚ *('sŒ 'z§f) /'sÕ 't°/ cent œufs˘ Considerations on stress 4.3.4.1. It is merely in theory that French only has a primary stress at the end of each rhythm group. ˛e previous examples have quite thoroughly shown the use of secondary stress in French rhythm groups; they generally alternate, moving back from the primary stress. Let us now consider some other examples and some structural di‡erences. We normally find: (&mŒ\eŒ'k∏:˜) mangez encore˚ (yn&p#+it'fi,) une petite fille˚ (&lÅmit'p¿E:˜) l'ami de Pierre˚ unless there are two rhythm groups (to emphasize the first part, for a particular reason): (mŒ'\e Œ'k∏:˜, &ynp#'+it 'fi,, lÅ'mi d#'p¿E:˜). Let us also note such as cases: (&lÅmÖÆ'sy:˜) la morsure˚ (lÅ&mÖÆ'sy:˜, lÅ'm∏;Æ 'sy:˜) la mort sûre÷ (Ú&sŒde'g¯t) on s'en dégoûte˚ (Ú'sŒ de'g¯t) on sent dπ gouttπ÷ (&lÅk¯'l§:˜) la coulSr˚ (&_yv3'º¯:\) du vin rouge˚ (&lÅk¯'l§;˜ _yv3'º¯:\) la coulSr du vin rouge˚ (\v¯'dºE _y'vì 'º¯:\) je voudra¤ du vin rouge˘ Traditional teaching describes the French stress in rhythm groups as follows: with no emphasis, there is a primary stress on the last syllable, and, for the rest of the rhythm group, the lexemes reduce their stress to secondary, whereas grammemes lose it completely. To native speakers, this distribution sounds a bit too çpreciseÇ, çtext-bookÇ; it is actually, a kind of mid-way between two kinds of transcriptions for the examples, seen above, respectively with one or more intonemes: (mŒ&\eŒ'k∏:˜, ynp#&+it'fi,, lÅ&mit'p¿E:˜). In reality, as we have seen, there are certain rhythmic needs, for which the use of secondary stresses is quite di‡erent. 4.3.4.2. Besides, an emphatic stress is shown by the addition (rather than by the çshiftÇ) of a strong stress on the first syllable of the word (which is di‡erent from the stressed syllable) and the gemination (or lengthening, especially between V] of the initial C; even if the word is spelled with an initial V, the C is there any-

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way, inasmuch as we have V (öé). Traditionally, we speak of çaccent d'insistance a‡ectiveÇ (¤ with an imperative preintoneme and a half-high first stressed syllable in the preintoneme): (¡1s™fÌfÖ˜%mi£dÅba3 3, ¡1s™Ìf:Ö-) c'e® formidable!˚ (¡Ìm:Å%Ni£fi©3 3, ¡1mÌmÅ-) magnifique!˚ (¡1s™tÌtÖ£_,°3 3, ¡1s™öÌöÖ£_,°3 3, -™Ìt:-, -™Ìö:-) c'e® odiSx!˚ (¡1©™úÌk:üe£tì3 3÷ -úkÌkü-) quel crétin!˚ and of çaccent d'insistance intellectuelleÇ (¤ with an emphatic preintoneme): (˚yn'ºEga2\ 'ö:Åp%sÖ£ly3 3) une règle absolue!˚ (˚s#&si™p'pÅÆf™%t#"mŒ %k∏£ºEkt3 3, -™'p:Å-) ceci e® parfPtement correct! In cases such as c'e® odiSx! we can also hear (¡1s™tÌöÖ-), above all as a ridiculous çhabitÇ which is typical of people in the media. Intonation 4.3.5. û 4.3 gives the preintonemes and the four intonemes of neutral French. It can be noted that, compared to other languages (and variants of French itself), instead of four preintonemes, there are five. Indeed, for partial questions, as well as the normal (echo-like) anticipation of the interrogative rise, we find a general falling movement, from half-high (similar to that of an imperative preintoneme, except for the obvious and correct di‡erence of echo anticipation). A more çstructuredÇ solution, rather than adding a fifth preintoneme, would be a split in two (something like ç/»¿/Ç and ç/”¿/Ç, or even ç/¿/Ç and ç/¿¿/Ç, or ç/¿¡/Ç, or ç/¡¿/Ç), leaving the task of clarifying the çoddityÇ to observation — explanations. We prefer a more concrete approach (Ô § 11.9). A careful examination of all the preintonemes (and intonemes), as well as of the symbols is revealing. It is worth carefully observing the position of the pretonic syllable of the continuative and conclusive intonemes: although it does not manage to be really high, it is significantly raised, and the auditory e‡ect is noteworthy, as well (even if not immediate), so much so that it contributes to giving the utterance a sort of prominence, (too) often mistaken for stress. As we will see, for the çmediaticÇ accent, such prominence is increased by the half-lengthening of the V in the pretonic syllable (again, without any particular û 4.3 Modern neutral French preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (% ç 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 • 1 1)

/& / (& 1 1 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 5 1 1)

/¡ / (¡ 1 1 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (% ' 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

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stress). We only give examples of the three marked intonemes (referring the imperative and emphatic preintonemes to § 4.3.4). As can be seen in the transcriptions of the text (§ 4.5), there is the çmidÇ parenthesis, as well (Ô § 13.24 of NPT/HPh): /./: (\v°Å'le Psi%neçmÅ3 3) /Zv°a'le osine'ma./ Je vSx aller au cinéma. /?/: (¿[&™s©#]v¯&på˜%le'b,ì füŒ•sE1 1) /¿[Eskù]vupaKle'bjí fKÕ'sE?/ [E®-ce que] vo¨ parlez bien frança¤? – (¿på˜&le%v¯'b,ì füŒ•sE1 1) /¿paKlevu'bjí fKÕ'sE?/ Parlez-vo¨ bien frança¤? – (&1kÖÌmŒ tÅleçv¯3 3) /&kO'mÕ tale'vu./ Comment allez-vo¨? /÷/: (Ú&p°i%Å'le Œv°Å5+y:˜1 1 %¯Å'p¿e3 3) {(-°%,Å-, %°Å-)} /Úp°ia'le Õvwa'tyK÷ ua'pje./ On pSt y aller en voiture, ou à pied. Other accents 4.4.0. It will be interesting to compare what has just been said –about neutral pronunciation– to other pronunciations which present more or less di‡erent characteristics. çInternationalÇ accent 4.4.1.1. For teaching purposes, the çinternationalÇ accent could be even more appropriate than the neutral accent seen so far, inasmuch as it is considerably less influenced by Paris and, therefore, undoubtedly nearer to many other varieties of pronunciation, once any marked peculiarities have been eliminated. ˛erefore, an çinternationalÇ pronunciation might even be more advisable (and, generally, easier to pick up and command), giving unquestionably valuable results, as long as there is coherence within all elements and no improvisation or variation among di‡erent types (including the usual interference, not only phonological, but due to spelling). ˛e vocogram in this section gives the çinternationalÇ vowel articulations which, as can be observed immediately from the comparison with û 4.1, are less marked; in particular, this refers to (u, o, O) which are back and not back-central; even (a) is less peculiar, as it is central, even if fronted. ˛e nasalized vowels are still four, (í, ^, ú, Ú). In the figure there are two grey markers, for /’E, ’í, ’O/ (¤ unstressed – a third would be for /’§, ’^/, which, however, coincides with /ù/); but could be removed to simplify the structure. As a matter of fact, there are two satisfactory practical solutions, as, given the lack of stress, either quite spontaneously we already have the lower-mid timbre ((™, ™, #, }, ø), which we prefer to use); or the higher-low timbre ((E, í, §, ^, O)), if weakened, could be acceptable. ˛erefore, it is better not to introduce less important taxophones, keeping (i, y, u, a) in the context /’éK˘/: (&oZu˜'d¥i) aujourd'hui÷ avoiding devoicing too. Let us look at some examples, only for the cases in which there is a phonetic di‡erence with the neutral (given in round brackets): ('lu) {('l¯)n} loup˚ ('o) {('P)n}

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›˚ ('nOt) {('n∏t)n} note˚ ('la) {('lÅ)n} là˚ (d#'dú) {(d#'dŒ)n} dedans˚ ('bjí) {('b,ì)n} bien˚ (bj™'to) {(b,3'tP)n} bientôt˚ (pa˜'ti) {(påÆ'+i)n} parti˘ 4.4.1.2. ˛e çinternationalÇ accent presents more general and natural simplifications for consonants as well; indeed, the preconsonantal nasals can be homorganic, and we can do without all the peculiar taxophones, such as the stop taxophones; furthermore, /j, K/ could always be approximants, (j, ˜) (or perhaps, even (K); while substantial use of (º) is not as good; /w/ is velar rounded, (w). Even for /S, Z/, of course, (S, Z) su‚ce (instead of (/, \)). ˛e frequent devoicing of sonants is not necessary either, whereas for the devoicing of diphonic pairs something in between would do: (yM'fam) {(yn'fÅm)n} une femme˚ (&y˙kã'vat) {(&ynküÅ'vÅt)n} une cravate˚ (ty'di) {(+y'_i)n} tu d¤˚ (kaut'Su) {(©Å¯T'/U)n} caout>ouc˚ ('kOk) {('k∏©)n} coq˚ ('gid) {('áid)n} guide˚ ('pje) {('p¿e)n} pied˚ ('kij) {('©i,)n} quille˚ ('ã:˜÷ 'Ka:K) {('ºÅ:˜)n} rare˚ ('t˜u, 'tKu) {('tü¯)n} trou˚ ('mwa) {('m°Å)n} mo¤÷ (m™∂'sí, &an™â'dOt) {(m™t'sì, &Ån™á'd∏t)n} médecin˚ anecdote˘ ˛e length of vowels and consonants corresponds to the neutral accent, but can be more attenuated, aiming at, above all, avoiding the di‡erences in length due to interference from the mother tongue. Liaisons may be less frequent and intonation, less peculiar, is shown in the given tonogram. /u/ (u[:])

/i/ (i[:]), /y/ (y[:]) /e/ (e), /°/ (°[:]) /ù/ (#) /E, í/ (E[:], í[:]) {(’™, ’™)} /§, ^/ (§[:], ^[:]) {(’#, ’})} /a/ (a[:])

/o, Ú/ (o[:], Ú[:]) /O/ (O[:]) {/’O/ (ø)} /Õ/ (ú[:]) / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ç 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 5 1 1)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

çMediaticÇ accent 4.4.2.1. ˛is accent is spread by television and radio. It is based on the Parisian accent, and shares quite a few characteristics with modern neutral, although it shows further evolution which moves it further away from the çinternationalÇ accent (§ 4.4.1).

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It also manifests some fluctuation both towards and away from neutral; however, we show it here in its most typical form, indicating some internal di‡erences too, for instance of an uneducated or suburban level (a peculiarity of the Parisian banliSe). In this section the vocogram is given of the vowels for which there are definitely gradations (comparing it to fig 4.1, of neutral); here, we bring your attention to the major di‡erences. ˛e fronting of /u, O/ (%, @) (and /’O/ (ê), ¤ unstressed) is evident; the (anti-clockwise) rotation of /í, Õ, Ú/ (a, _, œ), (and /’Õ/ (Ô)), is just as evident, as is the absence of /^/ which merges with /í/ (a), or varies between the two, even with an intermediate realization (not shown explicitly in the vocogram) (8), with slight rounding. (In the fluctuations towards the neutral accent, we have (£), as well; or (Õ), ¤ with a slight derounding). ˛e /EK, §K, OK/ sequences often shift back one box: (Ä[:]‰, ’É‰÷ @[:]‰, ’ê‰÷ ∏[:]‰ ’Ö‰÷). Furthermore, note in the vocogram the values for a\ (even if with individual fluctuations) the distinction is generally maintained between /a/ and /A/, which traditional neutral had adopted. However, the timbres (of Parisian and) of the çmediaticÇ accent are: /a/ (å), but (Ä) for /aK[0]é, wa/, and /'A[0]ò/ (å), but /’A/ (A) (in the banliSe˚ we have /wa/ (’°A, '°å), often /aKò/ (å:‰) ar(C)˚ even more often /ajò/ (å:,), but (ås¿œò) for /AsjÚ/ -ation˚ of traditional neutral). Some examples follow (where t indicates traditional neutral): ('t°) {('tU)n} tout˚ ('n@t) {('n∏t)n} note˚ (bê'n@:‰) {(bÖ'n§:˜)n} bonhSr˚ (&P\T‰'_¥i, -ê‰-) {(&P\¨˜'_¥i)n} aujourd'hui˚ ('b,a) {('b,ì)n} bien˚ (\Ô't_) {(\Œ'tŒ)n} j'entend˚ ('bœ) {('bÚ)n} bon˚ (P'©a, -8) {(P'©^)n} aucun˘ Others: ('pÄ:‰) {('pE:˜)n} père˚ ('p@:‰) {('p§:˜)n} pSr˚ ('p∏:‰) {('p∏:˜)n} port˚ ('p@ú 's∏:‰) {('p∏ú 's∏:˜)n} Paul sort˚ (pÄ'‰i) {(pÅ'ºi)n} Par¤˚ (pÄ”'+i:‰) {(påÆ'+i:˜)n} partir˚ (v°Ä'lå) {(v°Å'lÅ)n} voilà˚ ('s#Ä:‰) {('s#Å:˜)n} soir˚ ('©å:‰) {('©Å:˜)n} car˘ Also: (på'på) {(pÅ'pÅ)n} papa˚ (pA'så:\) {(pÅ'sÅ:\)n} pøsage˚ ('g‰å) {('gºÅ)n, ('gºA)t} grø˚ ('g‰å:s) {('gºÅs)n, ('gºA:s)t} grøse˚ ('_,å:ba) {('_,Åba)n, ('_,A:ba)t} diable˘ For the banliSe accent; (v°A'lå) {(v°Å'lÅ)n} voilà˚ ('s#A:‰) {('s#Å:˜)n} soir˚ ('kå:‰) {('©Å:˜)n} car˚ ('på:,) {('pÅ,)n} pPlle˚ (t”å'vå:,) {(tüÅ'vÅ,)n, (-A:,)t} travPl˚ (p”ê&nœs¿å's¿œ) {(püÖ&nÚs¿Å's¿Ú)n, (-s¿A-)t} prononciation˘ ˛ere is a strong tendency to merge /eò, Eò/ into /e/ (but with many oscillations due to hypercorrection and undecidedness; some even use the intermediate timbre, (™), always or above all for -P): (p%'le) /pu'lE/ poulet˘ 4.4.2.2. For the C, as well as for /K/ (as seen in some examples), which is typically (‰), but can be –as well as in neutral– even (˜), especially to give emphasis: ('‰y) {('ºy)n} rue˚ ('t”%) {('tü¯)n} trou˚ ('©åtx) {('©ÅtX)n} quatre÷ we must add that on an uneducated level, the çpalatalizationÇ of /t, d÷ k, g/ is much more evident, with articulations going from stops to stopstrictives, (⁄, Á÷ ›, k): (⁄y'Ái) {(+y'_i)n} tu d¤˚ ('mEk) {('mE©)n} mec˚ ('›id) {('áid)n} guide; /w/ is provelar rounded, (°): ('m°Ä) /'mwa/ mo¤. ˛e length in the mediatic accent, apart from what has already been said for the neutral one, presents a typical half-lengthening of the vocoid of the unchecked pretonic syllable, ¤ the syllable that precedes the stressed syllable of an intoneme (of-

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ten this prosodic phenomenon is incorrectly described as a shift of stress from the last syllable to the penultimate in a rhythm group): (%pÄ;'‰i) {(%pÅ'ºi)n} Par¤˚ (&pÄ%‰i;'z,a) {(&pÅ%˜i'z,ì)n} par¤ien (in these examples, even for neutral French, we explicitly highlight the marked height of the pretonic syllable, which is almost half-high in the two accents, but in the çmediaticÇ one there is also the half-lengthening, seen above). ˛e tonogram gives the intonation of the çmediaticÇ accent: make all the necessary considerations, paying a (fair) bit of attention. /i/ (i[:], ’I‰˘) /u/ (%[:], ’T‰˘) (+/’OK˘/) /y/ (y[:], ’Y‰˘) /e/ (e), /°/ (°[:]) /o/ (P@[:]), /Ú/ (œ#[:]) /’§, ù/ (#) /O/ (@[:], ’ê) {/OK/+(∏[:]‰, ’Ö‰)} /E/ (E[:], ’™) {/EK/+(Ä[:]‰, ’É‰)} /Õ/ (_@[:], ’Ô@) /§/ (§[:], ’#) {/§K/+(@[:]‰, ’ê‰)} /A/ (å[:0]ò, ’A) /aK{0}é, wa/ (Ä[:]), /a/ (å[:]), /í, ^/ (a[:]) /Eò/ (E, ≠e), -aiò (vb.) (e, ±≠™, ≠E) / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (% ç 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/& / (& 1 1 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 5 2 2)

/¡ / (¡ 1 1 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (% ' 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

Southern accent (Marseilles) 4.4.3.1. We will now look at one of the accents which is furthest from the neutral accent (but also from the çinternationalÇ and çmediaticÇ ones): Marseilles French as a good representative of the pronunciation of the Midi˘ As can be seen from the vocogram, the V are few: seven plus /ù/. ˛ere is no phonemic opposition between /e, E÷ °, §÷ o, O/; least of all between /a, A/. For /E, ◊, O/ we always have (e, °, o) (even in unstressed syllables), except in stressed syllables followed by C (with or without /ù/), where we find (™, #, ø). For /a/ there is a central timbre, (a). ˛e articulation of /ù/ is unrounded central, (È), except in contact with /K/, where there is rounding, (+); it corresponds to every e in the spelling (except for Ve\ amie = ami˚ (a'mi)}, and it often appears between C. Furthermore, the nasalized V, /í, ^, Ú, Õ/, are nothing but a sequence of oral vowels and a nasal contoid homorganic to the following C÷ but, before a pause,

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we find the semi-provelar, («). ˛e timbre of the çnasalizedÇ vowels is: (e, °, o, å) in unstressed syllables, (™, #, ø, a) in stressed syllables, but (™e, #°, øo, aå) in absolute final (stressed) syllables. ˛e only kind of normal lengthening, apart from emphasis, is the half-lengthening, in an intoneme, of the V (followed by a C, with or without /ù/), and the diphthongization of the çnasalizedÇ V in absolute final position before a pause. In less broad pronunciation, the lengths can be more similar to those of neutral pronunciation (as the timbres and the distribution of /'E, '§, 'O÷ ’E0, ’§0, ’O0/, as well). Some interesting examples follow: ('tu) {('tU)n} tout˚ ('tre) {('tüE)n} très˚ (te'r™e«) {(t™'ºì)n} terrPn˚ (s°l'maå«) {(s#l'mŒ)n} sSlement˚ (&promÈ'nadÈ) {(püÖm'nÅd)n} promenade˚ ('v™e«) {('vì)n} vin˚ (&bjene'me) {(&b,3ne'me)n} bien-Pmé˚ ('m™ns) {('mì:s)n} mince˚ (o'k#°«) {(P'©^)n} aucun˚ (l°n'di) {(l}'_i)n} lundi˚ ('#mblÈ) {('^:ba)n} humble˚ (mo«'nøo«) {(mÚ'nÚ)n} mon nom˚ ('nømbr+) {('nÚ:bX)n} nombre˚ (òån'taå«) {(\Œ'tŒ)n} j'entend˚ ('lampÈ) {('lŒ:p)n} lampe˚ ('di;r) {('_i:˜)n} dire˚ ('vwa;r) {('v°Å:˜)n} voir˚ (pÈ'n°) {(p'n°)n} pnS˚ (&òÈtÈ&lÈdÈ'mandÈ) {(/&t#ld#'mŒ:d)n} je te le demande˚ (&òÈnÈ&tÈl+&r+dÈ'mandÈ 'pa) {(\#n&t#lº#d&mŒn'pÅ)n} je ne te le redemande pø˘ A less broad accent can have some partially nasalized V in stressed syllables: ('m™ens) {('mì:s)n} mince˚ (ëi'™e«) {('/¿ì)n} >ien˚ ('#JmblÈ) {('^:ba)n} humble˚ ('br#J«) {('bº^)n} brun˚ ('laAmpÈ) {('lŒ:p)n} lampe˚ ('baA«) {('bŒ)n} banc˚ ('nøÚmbr+) {('nÚ:bX)n} nombre˚ ('bøÚ«) {('bÚ)n} bon. 4.4.3.2. For the consonants, we can observe that all the taxophones of neutral pronunciation are not present; furthermore: /n/+/0/ (m, M, n, ~, N, ˙), /nm, nK/ («m, «r), /S, Z/ (ë, ò), /j/ (j), /w/ (°), /N, nj/ (~j), /Ni/ (ni), /lj, l¥/ (¬j, ¬¥), /'[0]/+/jé, ¥é, wé/ ([0])+(i'é, y'é, u'é), /K/ (r) (even (‰), especially before a consonant; and, in less broad accent, also (K, ˜)}: (åM'v™;r) {(Œ'vE:˜)n} envers˚ ('ba˙kÈ) {('bŒ:©)n} banque˚ (å«'ri) {(Œ'ºi)n} Henri˚ (òÈ'ë™rëÈ) {(\#'/EÆ/)n} je >er>e˚ (&trava'je) {(&tüÅvÅ',e)n} travPller˘ ˛e banlieu accent has /t, d/ (+, _) + /i, j, y, ¥/, and /K/ tendentially voiceless (3) (and (x, ', ˜)). Furthermore: (mon'ta~jÈ) {(mÚ'tÅN)n} montagne˚ (&ma~je'rizmÈ) {(&mÅ~,e'ºis))n} maniér¤me˚ (¬je'zøo«) {(¬,e'zÚ)n} lia¤on˚ (k¥i'zi;nÈ) {(©Îi'zin)n} cu¤ine˚ (&òÈsy'i) {(\#'sÎi, /'sÎi)n} je su¤˚ (ly'i) {('¬¥i)n} lui˚ (lu'i) {('l°i)n} Lou¤˚ (bi'™e«) {('b,ì)n} bien˚ ('ra;r+, '‰a;‰+) {('ºÅ:˜)n} rare˘ Hence, (j) is maintained well only before a non-final V; indeed, we generally have: ('p™i) {('pE,)n} pZe˚ (pe'i) {(pe',i)n} pZs˘ Consonant clusters are simplified, as in: (di'r™;k) {(_i'ºEkt)n} direct˚ (di'r™;t) {(_i'ºEkt)n} directe˚ (os'ky;r) {(Öp's©y:˜)n} obscur˚ (&aòek'ti;f) {(&ÅD\™©'+if)n} adjectif˚ (se'tambr+) {(s™p'tŒ:bX)n} septembre÷ (a've) {(Å'vE©)n} avec÷ but: (sò) in words such as: dix˚ six˚ alors˚ lors˚ gens˚ Sx˚ cSx˚ cours˚ vers˚ jad¤˚ av¤˚ moins˚ Roux˚ Poux˚ †iers˚ Arno¨˘ ˛ere is no devoicing, as can be seen in the examples given, neither for V, nor for C. Lia¤on is rare, as a matter of fact, it only occurs with /z/ in articles, pronouns and plural masculine adjectives; however, there is no concept of a çdisjunctive hÇ, hence, the use of linking and elision, ™: (le'zø;mÈ) {(l™'z∏m)n} lπ hommπ˚ (&meza'mi) {(&mezÅ'mi)n} mπ am¤˚ (&noza'mi) {(&nPzÅ'mi)n} nos am¤˚ (&l°rza'f™;r+)

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{(&l#˜zÅ'fE:˜)n} lSrs a‡Prπ˚ (&vuzi're) {(&v¯zi'ºe)n} vo¨ irez˚ (&i[l]za've) {(&i[l]zÅ'vE)n} ils avPent˚ (&diza'mi) {(&_izÅ'mi)n} dix amiπ˘ Furthermore: ('gro zani'mo) {('gºP zÅni'mP)n} gros animaux˚ ('gran zåM'faå«) {('gºŒ zŒ'fŒ)n} grands enfants˚ (i[l]&nuzåm'parlÈ) {(i[l]&n¯zŒ'pÅ˜l)n} il no¨ en parlent÷ besides: (le&zari'ko) {(&leÅ˜i'kP)n} lπ haricots˚ (&°ne'ro) {(}e'ºP)n} un héro˘ ˛e identity of lexemes in sentences remains distinct, with no resyllabification, contrary to what happens with grammemes: (°m'b™l wa'zo) {(}'bE l°Å'zP)n} un bel ois›˚ ('bø« ape'ti) {('bÖ nÅpe'+i)n} bon appétit˚ (&°«-wa'zo) {(&}-n°Å'zP)n} un ois›˚ (™&laòy're) {(™&lÅ\y'ºe)n} elle a juré˘ ˛e tonogram gives the intonation of Marseilles accent. /i/ (i), /y/ (y)

/u/ (u)

/e, E/ (eò, ™0, ™0È, ’e) /°, §/ (°ò, #0, #0È, ’°) /í/ (™ö0, ™e«ò, ’eö) /^/ (#ö0, #°«ò, ’°ö) /a/ (a)

/o, O/ (oò, ø0, ø0È, ’o) /ù/ (È, r+, +r) /Ú/ (øö0, øo«ò, ’oö) /Õ/ (aö0, aå«ò, ’åö) / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

Canadian accent (Québec) 4.4.4.1. ˛e accent we describe here is the normal, or rather çneutral CanadianÇ pronunciation. ˛ere are quite a few other variants (which fill two other vocograms, given in § 4.6.3), which are both broader (and decidedly broader, or uneducated), and even less broad, that aim for neutral European or international French; there could be many (and quite di‡erent) things to add, but it seemed better to simplify and present this accent homogeneously, as done with the others. However, the variants will be included in a specific book on French pronunciations. Before examining the timbres of the vowels, it must be said that in Canada both /A/ and /E:/ still exist, and /e:/ can even be found. For /A/, apart from traditional cases (still transcribed thus in dictionaries), as: ('på∏t) {('pÅt)n, ('pA:t)t} pâte˚ ('tå∏/)n {('tÅ/), ('tA:/)t} tâ>e˚ ('må∏l) {('mÅl)n, ('mA:l)t} mâle, compared to ('pÅt) {('pÅt)n} patte˚ ('tÅ/) {('tÅ/)n} ta>e˚ ('mÅl) {('mÅl)n} malle÷ (&påqi'sªe) {(&pÅ+i's¿e)n,

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(&pA-)t} pât¤sier÷ we also have an expansion of its frequency, to practically all cases of /a|, wa|, av|, az|, as|, aZ|, aj|, aö|, aK|, ’aK/ (with possible fluctuation, especially for /av|, az|/ and -ation˚ which have both /A/ and /a/). ˛ere is actual neutralization too, as for: ('kå) which goes for both ('©Å) {('kA)t} cø and ('©Å) {('©Å)t} k÷ however, the contextual distribution –with ç/A/Ç in an intoneme– leads to situations such as: ('sÅ '\E≈ 'så) ça… j'Pme ça˘ ˛ere is fluctuation between (wå|) and (wÅ|) (the latter is generally considered to be more uneducated), up to (w™), decidedly dialectal: ('mwå÷ 'mwÅ÷ 'mw™) moi˘ ˛e çoldÇ opposition between /E/ and /E:/ is stable, we have for example: ('mEt5) /'mEtK/ mettre˚ ('mE™t5) /'mEtK/ {/'mE:tK/t} maître÷ ('fEt) /'fEt/ fPte˚ ('fE™t) /'fEt/ {/'fE:t/t} fête˚ ('sEn) /'sEn/ sPne˚ ('sE™n) /'sEn/ {/'sE:n/t} scène (which now, in neutral European French, is only: ('mEtX, 'fEt, 'sEn)n); whereas for the çnewÇ opposition constituted by ç/e:/Ç, we have examples such as: ('neI\) ç/'ne:Z/Ç nRge˚ ('bReI©) ç/'bKe:k/Ç bréque (or brake] (/'nEZ, 'bKEk/n ('nE:\, 'bºE©)n). 4.4.4.2. In checked stressed syllables in /v, z, Z, K, vK/, all recurring V are realized as diphthongs (here are only some examples): ('lIiv5) /'livK/ livre˚ ('pYyR) /'pyK/ pur˚ ('RUu\) /'KuZ/ rouge˚ ('Rå∏\, 'RÅå\) /'KaZ/ rage (('li:vX, 'py:˜, 'º¯:\, 'ºÅ:\)n). ˛e same occurs for /E:, e, °, o, A/ in an intoneme for any checked syllables (without repeating examples): ('f°Yt5) /'f°tK/ fStre˚ ('\oUn) /'Zon/ jaune (('f°:tX, '\P:n)n), and even in a preintoneme for unchecked syllables (again, without repetition): (&ÅR™e'te) /aKe'te/ arrêter˚ (neI'\e) /ne'Ze/ nRger˚ (f°Y'tÍe) /f°'tKe/ fStré˚ (\oU'nå∏t5) /Zo'natK/ jaunâtre˚ (få∏'/e) /fa'Se/ fâ>é ((&Å˜e'te, ne'\e, f°'tüe, \P'nÅtX, fÅ'/e)n). In the broader or more uneducated accent, there is even the fusion of these two characteristics, whereby for an unchecked syllable in a preintoneme, the V often diphthongize if followed by /v, z, Z, K, vK/ (the first vocogram of § 4.6.3 shows (™e', #°', øo')): (&ÅqIi'Re) /ati'Ke/ attirer˚ (\Yy\'mÅA) /ZyZ'mÕ/ jugement˚ (&epUu'ze) /epu'ze/ épo¨ée˚ (t™e'R™e) /tE'Kí/ terrPn˚ (b#°'Re) ç/b§'Ke/Ç bSrrée˚ (°Y'R°) /°'K°/ hSrSx˚ (&øRløo'\E™R) /OKlO'ZEK/ horlogère˚ (&ekÍÅå'ze, -å∏-) /ekKa'ze/ écrøé÷ or if they are /e, °, o/ (even when non-derived or in syntagms): (leI'pªe) /le'pje/ lπ pieds˚ (d°Y'm™e) /d°'mí/ dSx mPns˚ (soU'få) /so'fa/ sofa˘ Nasalized V diphthongize in an intoneme (¤ both in tonic and pretonic syllables), but they are short in a preintoneme: ('f™e) /'fí/ fin˚ (s™e'qYyR) /sí'tyK/ cRnture˚ (o'©}J) /o'k^/ aucun˚ (}J'\UuR) /^'ZuK/ un jour˚ (mÓ9'nÓ9) /mÚ'nÚ/ mon nom˚ (\ÅA'tÅA) /ZÕ'tÕ/ j'entends÷ (&™fi'ni) /ífi'ni/ infini˚ (&}nÅ'mi) /^na'mi/ un ami˚ (&mÓnÅ'mi) /mÚna'mi/ mon amie˚ (Å&nÅtÅA'dÅA) /ÕnÕtÕ'dÕ/ en entendant (('fì, s3'+y:˜, P'©^, }'\¯:˜, mÚ'nÚ, \Œ'tŒ÷ &3fi'ni, &}nÅ'mi, &mÚnÅ'mi, Œ&nŒtŒ'dŒ)n). 4.4.4.3. Another notable peculiarity is that /i, y, u/ in a checked syllable (stressed or not), are lower-high: ('vIf) /'vif/ vif˚ ('lYn) /'lyn/ lune˚ ('tUt) /'tut/ toute {('vif, 'lyn, 't¯t)n), as even in the first unchecked syllable of a word or a rhythm group: (fI'lIp) /fi'lip/ Philippe˚ (Y'nI©) /y'nik/ unique˚ (kU'zIn) /ku'zin/ coïne˚ and also in other subsequent unchecked syllables, in words or rhythm groups that end in checked syllables: (&pÍImI'qIiv, pÍI≈'q-) /pKimi'tiv/ primitive˚ (&\YRI'QI©, \YR'Q-) /ZyKi'dik/ juridique÷ other examples: (&mInIs'tE™R, mIns-) /minis'tEK/ mini®ère˚ (&Å-

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k.s'qI©) /akus'tik/ acou®ique {(fi'lip, y'ni©, k¯'zin÷ &püimi'+i:v, &\y˜i'_i©÷ &minis'tE:˜, &Åk¯s'+i©)n). ˛e less broad accent can limit the occurrence of (I, Y, U) only in checked syllables, or only in stressed checked syllables, as well; the decidedly less broad accent, and more controlled, could have no (I, Y, U) at all. Again, /i, y, u/ present two other peculiarities (except in slow or controlled speech); indeed, when unstressed, they are devoiced between voiceless C, in checked or unchecked syllables: (&kÓfN'qYyR) /kÚfi'tyK/ confiture˚ (&åÍqNs'qI©) /aKtis'tik/ arti®ique˚ (&QIspÛ'te) /dispy'te/ d¤puté˚ (&deku'på∏\) /deku'paZ/ découpage {(&kÚfi'+y:˜, &ÅÆ+is'+i©, &_ispy'te, &dek¯'pÅ:\)n). ˛ey can be dropped between a constrictive or sonant and another C, or between a stop and a non-stop (even other V˚ above all, /e/): (&pÍøfe's§#R, pÍøf's-) /pKOfE's§K/ profπsSr˚ (&Yniv™Ísi'te, &Ynv™Ís'te) /ynivEKsi'te/ université˚ (&Åbili'te, &ÅbIú'te) /abili'te/ habilité˚ (&mÅNI'fI©, mÅ˚'-, mÅJ'-, mÅ9'-) /maNi'fik/ magnifique˚ (bI'zå∏R, b'z-) /bi'zaK/ bizarre˚ (pø&pylå∏'sªÓ9, &pøpúå∏-) /pOpyla'sjÚ/ population˚ (e&pyRå∏'sªÓ9, &epÍå∏-) /epyKa'sjÚ/ épuration˚ (&bujø'ne, bjø-) /bujO'ne/ bouillonner˚ (&pinÅ'je, pnÅ-) /pina'je/ pinPller˚ (&øRe'je, øR'je) /OKe'je/ orRller˚ (&lÅkø'mOd, lÅ©'≈Od) la commode {(&püÖf™'s§:˜, &yni&v™Æsi'te, Å&bili'te, &mÅNi'fi©, bi'zÅ:˜, pÖ&pylÅ's¿Ú, e&py˜Å's¿Ú, &b¯,Ö'ne, &pinÅ',e, &Ö˜e',e, &lÅkÖ'm∏d)n). Even /ù/ drops more often than in European French: ('lY© s+pÍø'mEn, 'lYks p-) Luc se promène {('ly© s#püÖ'mEn)n}, and presents even distributions which are often considered uneducated, like: ('fE™R+ú 'f¨) fPre le fou {('fE;˜ l#'fU)n}. Furthermore, there is generally no vowel adjustment: (™'me, ™'mE) –in a broader accent (™e-)– {(e'me, ™'mE)n} Pmé˚ Pma¤˘ /i/ (i, I, Ii), /y/ (y, Y, Yy)

/u/ (u, U, Uu)

/e/ (e, eI), /°/ (°, °Y) /í/ ('™e, ™e', ’™), /ù/ (+) /E/ (E, E™, ’™) /§/ (§, §#, ’#), /^/ ('}J, }J', ’}) /a/ (Å, Åå), /Õ/ ('ÅA, ÅA', ’Å)

/o/ (o, oU) /O/ (O, @ @Oø, ’ø) @ /Ú/ ('/Ó9, Ó9' / , ’Ó) / /A/ (å, å∏)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

4.4.4.4. For the C, besides the examples already given, we can observe that /nj, n¥/ are (~j, ~¥) (on a broad, uneducated level /nj/ becomes /N/): (pÅ'~je) /pa'nje/ panier˚ (ÅA'~¥i) /Õ'n¥i/ ennui {(pÅ'~,e, Œ'~¥i)n); /N/ varies between (N) and (J): (mÓ9'tå∏N, -'tå∏J) /mÚ'taN/ montagne˚ (&Ås™N'mÅA, &Ås™J'-) /ÕsEN'mÕ/ ensRgnement

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{(mÚ'tÅN, &Œs™N'mŒ)n). Furthermore, /w/ is (w): ('mwå) /'mwa/ mo¤˘ Of all the stops, /t, d/ present a typical stopstrictive realization, (q, Q), before /i, y÷ j, ¥/: ('qIp) /'tip/ type˚ ('QYyR) /'dyK/ dur˚ ('qª™e) /'tjí/ tiens˚ (kÓ9'Q¥IiR) /kÚ'd¥iK/ conduire {('+ip, '_y:˜, '+¿ì, kÚ'_¥i:˜)n)˘ It is possible for this articulation not to extend beyond the rhythm group or word: (s™'tIl, s™'qIl) /sE'til/ Sept-Îlπ (® ('sE 'tIl) /'sE 'til/ sept îlπ]˚ (dI'må∏\, QI-, -Åå\) /di'maZ/ d'imagπ (® ('Qi 'må∏\, -Åå\) /'di 'maZ/ dix magπ]˘ On an uneducated level we can find (+, _) also before /e, E, a, í, Õ/: (dÅ'te, _Å'+e) dater {(dÅ'te)n), and even (⁄, Á) before /j, ¥/: ('⁄ª™e, kÓ9'Á¥IiR). In Canadian French too, we find /k, g/ (©, á) (with (k, ›) on an uneducated level) before front V (up to /Õ, ù/) and before a pause: ('á§l) /'g§l/ guSle˚ ('kO©) /'kOk/ coq˘ Before a pause, stops can be unreleased: ('©Åp, -pæ) /'kap/ cap˚ ('dÅt, -tæ) /'dat/ date˚ ('RO©, -©æ) /'KOk/ roque˚ ('lÅAá, -áæ) /'lÕg/ langue˚ ('RYd, -dæ) /'Kyd/ rude˘ At times, /p, t, k/ can be çaspiratedÇ, after a pause or if initial in stressed syllables (which we mark here with (0·)): (p·÷'p·It5) /py'pitK/ pupitre˚ (t·ø&tÅli't·e, &t·øtÅú't·e) /tOtali'te/ totalité˚ (&k·åRÅ'k·Ol) /kaKa'kOl/ caracole {(py'pitX, tÖ&tÅli'te, &©Å˜Å'k∏l)n). Even in the many English words, currently used in Canadian French, /tS, dZ/ remain as sequences (T/, D\): (T'/Iip, T'/Ip) /t'Sip/ >eap˚ (D'\Iin, D'\In) /d'Zin/ jeans÷ the second variants are more assimilated, as also occurs with: ('qIim, 'qIm) /'tim/ team˘ In Canadian French, /j/ is an approximant; /K/ is typically an alveolar tap, (R): ('Rå∏R) /'KaK/ rare, which constitutes traditional and neutral Canadian pronunciation; however, it is often uvular (approximant, trill or constrictive, (˜, K, º), especially in less broad pronunciation, or in the mediatic one, or even verging on modern, spreading from the city of Québec). In English words, we often find the uvularized velar (or the prevelar one – both with a slight postalveolarization and labialization, as in the Canadian English pronunciation), (Qd, retira son manteQ. C'e® Pnsi que la b¤e dut reconnaître que le solRl étPt le pl¨ fort dπ dSx. Tu ø Pmé cette hi®oire? Tu vSx la réentendre? Neutral French pronunciation 4.5.3. (lÅ'bi; z™ú%sÖ'lE,2\ s#&_ispy'tE2 ‘}'\¯:˜2’| &püe%tŒ'dŒ2 ‘'l^ kÖm'lP:tX2’| &™tú#%púyçf∏:˜3 3| &lÖÆs©i[l]'vi;Æ &sÅ%vŒ'se2 }&v°Å%,Åç\§:˜3 3| &Œv%lÖ'pe dŒ&sÚ%mŒçtP3 3|| le&d°zÅd%v™Æ'sE:˜2 &de%si'dE:Æ3 3 ‘tÅ'l∏:˜2’| ©#s&ü™de%kúÅ'ºe v35©§:˜1 1| s#'¬¥i2 ‘©iú%pü#'m,e2’ på˜%v,3'dºE Ål[#]&¬¥if™%˜Pçte3 3|| lÅ'bi:z2 s#çmi3 3 ‘Å'l∏:˜2’\ Å%s¯'fú™t2 t¯t%seçf∏üs3 3| m™&púy™ús¯5fúE1 1| 'púyl v°Å%,Å'\§:˜2 s#s™'ºE dŒ&sÚ%mŒçtP3 3|| &tŒtesi5b,ì1 1| ‘&©Å%lÅ'fì2’ &lÅ%pP;v'bi:z2\ &_Y˜%nÚ'se Åse&z3%tŒçs¿Ú3 3|| &l#%sÖ'lE,2 s#mÚ'tüÅ2 ‘Å'l∏:˜2’\ %dŒúçs¿El3 3| ™l&v°Å%,Å'\§:˜2 ‘©iP&b¯d}%mÖ'mŒ2’ &kÖmŒ'sE Å[Å]v°ÅÆ5/P1 1| ˚&º#%+içºÅ3 3 ˚sÚ%mŒçtP3 3|| &s™t3'si kúÅ'bi:z2\ &_YÆkÖ'nEt ©#ú%sÖ'lE,2 ™&t™úpúyçf∏:˜3 3 ìdeçd°3 3œ|| ¿+ÎÅe•me1 1 ‘¿s™%+is't#Å:˜2’| ¿+y&v°lÅ˜eŒ•tŒ:dX1 1|||) çInternationalÇ French pronunciation 4.5.4. (la'bi; z™lsø'lEj2\ s#&dispy'tE2 ‘}'Zu:˜2’| &p˜etú'dú2 ‘'l^ køm'lo:t˜2’| &™tl#plyçfO:˜3 3| &lø˜ski[l]'vi;˜ &savú'se2 }&vwajaçZ§:˜3 3| &úvlø'pe dú&sÚmúçto3 3|| le&d°zadv™˜'sE:˜2 &desi'dE:˜3 3 ‘[t]a'lO:˜2’| k#s&˜™dekla'˜e v™5k§:˜1 1| s#'l¥i2 ‘kilp˜#'mje2’ pa˜vj™'d˜E al[#]&l¥if™õçte3 3|| la'bi:z2 s#çmi3 3 ‘a'lO:˜2’\ asu'fl™∂2 tutseçfO˜s3 3| m™&ply™lsu5flE1 1| 'plyl vwaja'Z§:˜2 s#s™'˜E dú&sÚmúçto3 3|| &tú[t]esi5bjí1 1| ‘&kala'fí2’ &lapov[˜#]'bi:z2\ &dyñÚ'se ase&z™túçsjÚ3 3|| &l#sø'lEj2 s#mÚ'tã2 ‘a'lO:˜2’\ dúlçsjEl3 3| ™l&vwaja'Z§:˜2 ‘kio&bud™mø'mú2’ &kømú'sE a[a]vwa˜5So1 1| ˚&˜#tiçã3 3 ˚sÚmúçto3 3|| &s™t™'si kla'bi:z2\ &dY˜kø'nEt[˜#] k#lsø'lEj2 ™&t™lplyçfO:˜3 3 ìdeçd°3 3œ|| ¿t¥ae'me21 ‘¿s™tis'twa:˜2’| ¿ty&v°la˜eú'tú:d˜21|||) çMediaticÇ, Parisian French pronunciation 4.5.5. (lå'bi; z™ú%sê;'lE,2\ s#&_is%py;'te2 ‘%a;'\%:‰2’| &p”e%tÔ;'d_2 ‘'la %kêm'lP:tx2’| &™tú#%púy;çf∏:‰3 3| &lê”s©i[l]'vi;” &så%vÔ;'se2 a&v°Ä%,å;ç\@:‰3 3| &Ôvlê'pe dÔ&sœ%mÔ;çtP3 3|| le&d°zåd%vÉ”'sÄ:‰2 &de%si;'dE:”3 3 ‘%tå;'l∏:‰2’| ©#s&”™dekúå'‰e %va;5©@:‰2 2| %s#;'¬¥i2 ‘©iú%p”#;'m,e2’ pÄ‰v,a'd‰e ål&¬¥if™%‰P;çte3 3||

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%lå;'bi:z2 %s#;çmi3 3 ‘%å;'l∏:‰2’\ å%s%;'fú™t2 t%t%se;çf∏”s3 3| m™&púy™ús%;5fúe2 2| 'púyl v°Ä%,å;'\@:‰2 s#s™'‰e dÔ&sœ%mÔ;çtP3 3|| &tÔtesi;5b,a2 2| ‘&©å%lå;'fa2’ &lå%pP;v'bi:z2\ &_Y‰%nœ'se åse&za%tÔ;çs¿œ3 3|| &l#%sê;'lE,2 s#%mœ;'t”å2 ‘%å;'l∏:‰2’\ %dÔúçs¿El3 3| ™l&v°Ä%,å;'\@:‰2 ‘©iP&b%da%mê;'m_2’ &kêmÔ'se å[å]v°Ä”5/P2 2| ˚&‰#%+i;ç‰å3 3 ˚sœ%mÔ;çtP3 3|| &s™ta'si %kúå;'bi:z2\ &_Y”kê'nEt ©#ú%sê;'lE,2 ™&t™ú%púy;çf∏:‰3 3 ì%de;çd°3 3œ|| ¿+Îåe;'me21 ‘¿s™%+is't#Ä:‰2’| ¿+y&v°lÄ‰eÔ;'t_:dx21|||) Southern pronunciation: Marseilles 4.5.6. (la'bi; zelÈso'l™;j2\ sÈ&dispy'te2 ‘°~'òu;r2’| &pretån'daå«2 ‘'l#°˙ komÈ'lø;tr+2’| &™t[r+]lÈply'fø;r3 3| &lorski[l]'vi;r+ &savån'se2 °M&vwaja'ò#;r3 3| &aMvÈlo'pe dån&so«mån'to3 3|| le&d°[z]adver's™;r+2 &desi'd™;r3 3 ‘ta'lø;r[s]2’| kÈs+&redekla're ve˙Ìk#;r2 2| sÈ'l¥i2 ‘ki&lÈpr+'mje2’ parvjen'dre alÈ&l¥if™ro'te3 3|| la'bi;zÈ2 sÈ'mi3 3 ‘a'lø;r[s]2’\ 2asu'fle2 dÈ&tutÈse'førsÈ3 3| &meply&™lÈsuÌfle2 2| 'ply lÈvwaja'ò#;r2 sÈse're dån&so«mån'to3 3|| &tåntesiÌbj™e«2 2| ‘&kala'f™en2’ la&pøvr+'bi;zÈ2\ dy&r+non'se ase&zentån'sjøo«3 3|| &lÈso'l™;j2 sÈmon'tra3 3 ‘a'lø;r[s]2’\ &dånlÈ'sj™l3 3| elÈ&vwaja'ò#;r2 ‘kio&bude«mo'maå˙2’ &komån'se a[a]vwarÌëo2 2| ˚&r+ti'ra3 3 ˚so«mån'to3 3|| &seten'si kÈla'bi;zÈ2\ &dyr+ko'nEt[r+] kÈ&lÈso'l™;j2 e&telÈply'fø;r3 3 ìdeçd°3 3œ|| ¿t¥ae'me21 ‘¿s™tis'twa;r+2’| ¿ty&v°lareån'tandr+21|||) Canadian pronunciation 4.5.7. (lÅ'bIi z™úsø'lEj2\ s+&QIspÛ'tE2 ‘}J'\UuR2’| &pÍetÅA'dÅA2 ‘'l}J køm'loUt52’| &™tú+púÛ'fOøR3 3| &løÍs©i'vIiÍ &sÅvÅA'se2 }&vwÅjÅ'\§#R3 3| &Åvlø'pe dÅ&sÓmÅA'to3 3|| le&d°zÅdv™Í'sE™R2 &desi'dE™R2 ‘tÅ'lOøR2’| ©+s&Í™dekúÅ'Re v™eÌ©§#R2 2| s+'¬¥i2 ‘©IúpÍ+'mje2’ pÅRvj™e'dRE Ål[+]&¬¥if™RoU'te3 3|| lÅ'bIiz2 s+'mi3 3 ‘Å'lOøR2’\ Ås¨'fú™t2 t.tse'fOÍs3 3| m™&púy™ús¨ÌfúE2 2| 'púYl vwÅjÅ'\§#R2 s+s™'RE dÅ&sÓmÅA'to3 3|| &tÅ[t]esiÌbj™e2 2| ‘&©ÅlÅ'f™e2’ &lÅpoUv'bIiz2\ &QYRnÓ9'se Åse&z™tÅA'sªÓ93 3|| &l+sø'lEj2 s+mÓ9'tÍÅ3 3 ‘Å'lOøR2’\ dÅú'sªEl3 3| ™l&vwÅjÅ'\§#R2 ‘©io&budJmø'mÅA2’ &kømÅA'sE Å[Å]vwåÍÌ/o2 2| ˚&R+qi'RÅ3 3 ˚sÓmÅA'to3 3|| &s™t™e'si kúÅ'bIiz2\ &QYÍkø'nEt ©+úsø'lEj2 ™&t™úpúÛ'fOøR3 3 ìdeçd°Y3 3œ|| ¿qÎÅe'me21 ‘¿s™qNs't‹å∏R2’| ¿qy&v°lÅReÅA'tÅAd521|||) English pronunciation of French 4.5.8. (lÈ5bI;iz2 &™¤ısÈ'l™;I2\ sÈ&D¤spj¯'Th™;I2 ‘‘;~'Z¨;å2’| &ph>™ITØ˙'DØ;˙2 ‘5l‘:˙ &khØm'l‘¨˛>å2’| &™˛>ÈlÈ5phl¯;u 'fø:3 3| 5lø;sk ¤ı'v¤;å sπvØ˙'s™;I2 ‘;˙&vwA;jÈ'Z‘:3 3| &Ø˙vÈlØ5ph™;I DØ˙-

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&sø;˙mØ˙'Th‘;¨3 3|| l™I'D‘: πDvÈ's™;‘3 3 &D™Is¤'D™;‘3 3 ‘È'lø:2’| &kh™IsÈ5>™;I D™IklÈ'>™;I vπ˙'kh‘:32| sÈl¯'I;i2 ‘5khI;i lÈp>È'mj™;I2’ &phA;vjπn'Ã>™;I A;lÈl¯'I;i &f™‘>‘¨'Th™;I3 3|| lÈ5bI;iz2 sÈ'mIiT3 3 ‘È'lø:2’\ &πsÈ'fl™;I2 DÈ5Th¯uT s™I'fø;s3 3|| &m™I5phl¯;u ™ısÈ'fl™;I32| 5phl¯;u lÈ&vwA;jÈ'Z‘:2 sÈsÈ5>™;I DØ˙&sø;˙mØ˙'Th‘;¨3 3|| 5ThØ;˙ ™I&sIibi'π;˙32| ‘&khπlÈ'fπ;˙2’ lÈ5ph‘¨v>È 'bI;iz2\ 5Dj¯u >Ènø;˙'s™;I È&s™Izπ˙TØ˙si'Ø;˙3 3|| lÈsÈ'l™;I2 sÈmø;˙'˛h>A:2 ‘È'lø:2’\ &DØ˙lÈsi'™ı:3 3| ™IlÈ&vwA;jÈ'Z‘:2 ‘&khIiÈ5b¯;u D‘;˙m‘¨'mØ;˙2’ &khØmØ˙5s™;I A;v¯'A: 'S‘;¨32| ˚>ÈT¤'>A:3 3 ˚&sø;˙mØ˙'Th‘;¨3 3|| &s™ITπ˙5sI;i kh™Ilå'bI;iz2\ 'Dj¯;u >ûkû5n™˛>û &kh™IlÈsÈ'l™;I2 ™5T™;I lÈ'phl¯;u 'fø:3 3 ìD™I'D‘:3 3œ|| ¿&Thj¯A;™I'm™;I21 ‘¿&s™T¤sT¯'A:2’| ¿Thj¯u'v‘: lÈ&>™IØ˙'ThØ˙Ã>å21|||) Appendix: further accents 4.6.0. We would like to add some further information: about the a‡ected Parisian accent, in the form of phonosynthesis; and about the Parisian variants of the banliSπ˚ compared to mediatic Parisian (Ô § 4.4.2.1-2 “ § 4.5.2.3); lastly about Canadian variants (Ô § 4.4.4.1-5 “ § 4.5.2.5). In NPT/HPh, you can find the phonosyntheses of Acadian French (acadien˚ east Canada, § 21.10) and cadien, Cajun (from Louisiana, § 21.16). A‡ected Parisian 4.6.1. ˛is accent can be heard from representatives of the aristocracy and upper classes, but is not usually highly valued. We give the realizations of the vowels /i/ (i{:}, ’I˜˘) /y/ (y{:}, ’Y˜˘) /e/ (e), /°/ (°{:})

/u/ (u{:}, ’U˜˘) /Ú/ (Ú{:}), /o/ (oï{:}) /O/ (O{:}, ’ø) /Õ/ (Õ{:}) (“ ('aò, ’a˜, ’ã, ’˜wa))

/E/ (E{:}, ’™), /í, ^/ (π{:}) /§/ (§{:}, ’#), /ù/ (#) /a/ ('Aò, 'A0ò, a', ’Å) / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ì 2)

/./ (% ç 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ì 2)

/?/ (2 • 2 1)

/& / (& 1 1 5 2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 5 1 1)

/¡ / (¡ 1 1 5 1 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (% ' 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 1 ' 2 1 Ì 2)

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and intonation, which should be carefully compared to the neutral realizations (and, possibly, to the others). Generally, the articulation has less tension than normal, above all in a preintoneme, which also has a higher speed than average, contrary to what happens in an intoneme, which gives a lengthening of the initial contoid of the tonic syllable (¤ stressed in an intoneme), ('0:), and also for V˚ there is often a doubling, in an intoneme, which adds to the normal length: (é, é;, é:) = (éé, é;é, é:é). ˛e tonograms show the characteristics of intonation; the utterance is quite emphatic, with paraphonic expansions. On the whole, the V are a little further back than the neutral (especially the front and back ones, as the approximant /w/ (w), as well, instead of the neutral (°)), and the traditional pronunciation /E:/ can be maintained; furthermore, for /a/, we have ('Aò, 'A0, a', ’Å) (but often we have (a) even in ('aò, ’a˜, ’ã, ’˜wa)); /í, ^/ are (π); /K/ (˜) (and (˜), for (Æ, ü, X)), often /t, d/ = (4, 7) and /lò/ = (ı). In unstressed syllables, for /p, t, k÷ f, s, S/ we have (p, Ï, k÷ É, s, S); /N, j/ (N, ,) are maintained; we do not find (+, _÷ ©, á), but (4, 7÷ ´, Ò). Parisian variants of the çbanlieuesÇ 4.6.2. Compared to mediatic Parisian, the major vowel di‡erences concern: /í ˙ ^, Õ, Ú/ (Å÷ Ô, ’œ÷ Ú); /O/ (,, ’∑); /EK, §K, OK/ with an intermediate timbre, even in stressed syllables, (™, #, ∑); /a/ (å), in all contexts, and /A/ (å, ’∏), including the changes /wa/ (°å, ’°∏), often also /aKò/ (å:‰) >ar[C]≥, very often /ajò/ (å:,), but (å's¿Úò) -ation˘ ˛e lengthening of a V in a pretonic syllable is less marked or less systematic: (2éò') (or even (2é')), instead of (2é;'). /i/ (i[:], ’I‰˘) /y/ (y[:], ’Y‰˘) /e/ (e), /°/ (°) /E/ (E, ’™, ™[:]‰) /ù/ (ê), /§/ (@, ’ê, ê[:]‰) /a/ (å[:]) /í, ^/ (Å[:])

/u/ (%[:], ’T‰˘) /o/ (P), /Ú/ (Ú[:]) /Õ/ (Ô[:], ’œ[:]) /O/ (,[:], ’∑, ∑[:]‰) /A/ (å[:], ’∏)

Canadian variants 4.6.3. As well as what has already been given in § 4.4.4.1-5 “ § 4.5.2.5, we add both some broader variants (≠, ≠≠, ≠≠≠) and less broad variants (±): /e, °, o, A/ (±ee', ±°°', ±PP', ±AA'); /wA/ (wå, ≠wù, ±wÅ) (çdialectalÇ (≠≠≠w™)); as also /EK0/ = /≠≠≠aK0/ is çdialectalÇ; /u/ (±¯, ±¨¯, ±¨, ±P, ±P¨), /O/ (±’Ö, ±∏, ±∏Ö). We can observe the use of (≠≠¤, ≠≠T, ≠≠¨) (considerably centralized), which is independent from the moderate systematic advancement of back phonemes (of ç±Ç type). We also indicate the uvulo-postalveolarized velar rounded realization of /Kò/ (= (). ˛e marker corresponding to (å) is also valid for reduced forms with /a/, as a possible variant: (∂ås) /das/ das. We have intentionally not placed it in the monophthong vocogram (û 5.1), also to avoid confusion with the –quite frequent, but not recommendable– use of ç(å)Ç to indicate our (‰, …) (or, at best, (√), see û 5.1 and the first part of § 5.1, and the second part of § 5.2). û 5.2. German diphthongs.

/eI/ (e:, ±™I)

/ae/ (ae) {(’åe)}

/oU/ (o:, ±øU) /OY/ (OY) {(’ÖY)} {/’a/ (å)} /ao/ (ao) {(’åo)}

5.1.4. In French loanwords with original nasalized vowels, we more normally find regular German timbres of /E, §, a, O/ (according to stress force) followed by /˙/: ('thE˙) /'tE˙/ TRnt˚ (pha‰'f§˙) /paK'f§˙/ Parfum˚ (öa˙'sa˙bÍ) /a˙'sa˙bÍ/ Ensemble˚ (Êø˙'bO˙) /bO˙'bO˙/ Bonbon˘ Assimilation is possible, too, as in (öan'sambÍ, Êøm'bO˙)); although in more careful pronunciation real nasalized vocoids are possible, but generally followed by /˙/: ('thí˙, pha‰'f^˙, öÅ˙'sÅ˙bÍ, Ê9˙'bÓ˙). In a more careful –but less frequent– kind of pronunciation, actual nasalized vocoids may occur, without any N. ˛ey are long or half-long if stressed, and short if unstressed: ('thí:, pha‰'f^:, öÅ'sÅ:bÍ, Ê9'bÓ:); in words ending in -on and -an˚ even a completely Germanized pronunciation is frequent with /o:n, a:n/: (Êal'khO˙, -o:n÷ -Ó˙÷ -Ó:) /bal'kO˙, -o:n/ Balkon˚ (e'khüa˙, -a:n÷ -Å˙÷ -Å:) /e'kKa˙, -a:n/ Ekran. In addition, when nasalization is present, words with /a˙/ can show timbres that are closer to the French ones: (ö˙'s˙:bÍ, öŒ'sŒ:bÍ, ö˙˙'s˙˙bÍ, öŒ˙'sŒ˙bÍ), ('Sans[¢], -a˙-, -˙˙-, -Œ˙-, -˙:-, -Œ:-) /'Sa˙s[È]/ ≥ance (in words such as this, /Èò/ can drop). Consonants 5.2. û 5.3 shows the necessary consonant articulations which are needed for a good German pronunciation, including taxophonic variants. ˛e examples will even show the devoicing of voiced stops, after pauses or voiceless consonants and of voiced constrictives only after voiceless consonants.

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û 1.9-15, instead, give the orograms, grouped by manners of articulation, of all the contoids given in the chapters of this volume (even as secondary, occasional, or regional variants) for the 12 languages treated. ˛is exposition makes the necessary comparisons between di‡erent languages more immediate.

(n) n ö m (M) F pb 47 ∫ q c Ô ƒ (6) f v _ s z S Z ß ([) ó ‹ (R) l

(~)

(À)

˙ kg Â (,) /x/ /j/

pharyngealized uvular laryngeal

uvular

velar

palatal

prepalatal


alveolar

denti-alveolar

dental

labiodental

bilabial

û 5.3. Table of German consonants.

(,) (ö) (X º) (‰) h /K/

(¬) +(º, ¸, n) “ /õ, ó/ (õ, è, ó, «, ô, ?÷ :, !, õ, ò, ô, /, ¡, |, ˘) (Ô û 1.9.1)

Nasals 5.2.1.1. ˛ere are three phonemes for this manner of articulation, /m, n, ˙/, with a certain number of taxophones by assimilation ((m), (m, M, n, n, ~, ˙, ,), and (˙, ,)): ('man) /'man/ Mann˚ ('hEmt) /'hEmt/ Hemd˚ ('ve:m) /'ve:m/ wem˚ ('naen) /'naen/ nRn˚ (k'ni:) /k'ni:/ Kn¤˚ ('qhe:n) /'qe:n/ zehn˚ ('thüI˙kô) /'tKI˙kó/ trinken˚ ('öam&bi;tó) /'anbi:dó/ anb¤ten˚ ('fYMf) /'fYnf/ fünf˚ ('öUns) /'Uns/ uns (strictly (('öU˙s)), but (n) is su‚cient), (∂i'thant¢) /di'tantÈ/ d¤ Tante (strictly ((fli'4han4¢))), ('vYnSó) /'vYnSó/ wün(en, (khøn'ºa:d¢) /kOn'Ka:dÈ/ Konrade, ('mY~Â«) /'mYnÂó/ Mün>en˚ ('öa˙Ín) /'a˙Ín/ a«eln˚ ('lE˙st) /'lE˙st/ lä«®˚ ('lE˙…) /'lE˙Ú/ lä«er˚ ('zI˙ô) /'zI˙ó/ si«en˚ ('qhU˙¢) /'qU˙È/ Zu«e˚ (Ê¢'dI˙U,) /bÈ'dI˙U˙/ Bedi«u«˚ ('qhaetU,) /'qaetU˙/ ZRtu«˚ ('qhaetU,?) /'qaetU˙ó/ ZRtu«en˘ (For /U˙ò, U˙óò/ we have (U,ò, U,?).) Please, note that the sequence /nj/ –and /lj/ as well– has two di‡erent realizations in stressed syllables, for tautosyllabic (after /é:/) or heterosyllabic (after /é/) elements: ('li:n,¢) /'li:njÈ/ Lin¤˚ (Sam'pha~,…) {((-a~-,…))} /Sam'panjÚ/ ≥ampagner. In lexical compounding, even for the negative prefix un-, in slow — accurate pronunciation, people try to maintain (n), whereas –currently– it is assimilated to the place of articulation of the following C˘ As an actual compromise, here we will show that it is possible to have articulations which maintain an apical contact but add secondary coarticulations (without full contacts). ˛ese coarticulations are: bilabial (º), labiodental (¸), velar (n): ('öUm&b™ndIÂ, 'öUº-) /'UnbEndIÂ/ unbändig˚ ('öUM&vI‰kúIÂ, 'öU¸-) /'UnvIKklIÂ/ unwirk-

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li>˚ ('öU˙g¢&ºe;gÍt, 'öUn-) /'UngÈKe:gÍt/ u«eregelt˘ Below, we will find that a couple of these phones occur as intense too, (/, ¡). In other cases, with less di‡erent coarticulations, assimilation (which is often considered to be less recommendable, on pure graphical and morphological bases) appears to be less noticeable, thus it is applied in a spontaneous though unconscious way. 5.2.1.2. Including two intense nasal phonemes too, /õ, ó/ (instead of //Èm, Èn//), we have five of them, with all their various taxophones ((õ) for /õ/, and (õ, è, ó, «, ô, ?) for /ó/) ('öa:tõ) /'a:tõ/ Atem˚ ('zi:bõ) /'zi:bó/ s¤ben˚ ('ne:mõ) /'ne:mó/ nehmen˚ ('Sa‰fè) /'SaKfó/ (arfen˚ ('hO∫ès) /'hO∫ós/ Hoπens˚ ('khaqó) /'kaqó/ Ka˛en˚ ('∂u:dó) /'du:dó/ Duden (rigorously (('flu:7~))), ('phancó) /'pancó/ pan˛en˚ ('öap&ÊºEnó) /'apbKEnó/ abbrennen˚ ('m™:+Â«÷ 'mE:+-) /'mE:tÂó/ Mäd>en˚ ('fúi:gô) /'fli:gó/ fl¤gen˚ ('za:gô) /'za:gó/ sagen˚ ('qhaetU,?) /'qaetU˙ó/ ZRtu«en˚ ('ÊºI˙ô) /'bKI˙ó/ bri«en˚ ('vIº?, -º¡, -I‰,, -I‰n) /'vIKó/ wirren˚ ('qha:ló) /'qa:ló/ zahlen˚ ('âe:ó) /'ge:ó/ gehen˘ Let us observe, however, that there are cases where intense nasals are less favored, as results from such forms as ('ÊIndód¢n) /'bIndódÈn/ bindenden (with theoretical sequences of (M), ('ÊIndódó), which are possible in faster speech, but mostly not in intonemes). As can be seen, it is more convenient to distinguish between /M/ and /Èö/. It is su‚cient to know that, if pronunciation becomes slower or more controlled, it is easy to go back to (ó), or (¢n): from ('zi:bõ, 'za:gô) to ('zi:bó, 'za:gó) and ('zi:b¢n, 'za:g¢n), or from ('qha:ló, 'âe:ó) to ('qha:l¢n, 'âe:¢n). However, generally, except in intonemes, forms such as gehen can even become ('âe:n). 5.2.1.3. In the previous section, we have shown up to six taxophones for the two intense nasals, /õ, ó/. At first sight, they might seem to be excessive; nevertheless, by concretely considering actual phonetic reality, it is clear that only in quite approximate transcriptions could it be possible to renounce them. Besides, in order not to complicate things çwithout reasonÇ, even nine could be useful, indeed: (:, !, õ, ò, ô, /, ¡, |, ˘). (All this without considering a denti-alveolar ((~)), for which a simple (ó) is su‚cient, as in (&öaen¡'gu:tó 'tha˙k) ((&öaen¡'gu:4~ '4ha˙k)) /aenó'gu:tó 'ta˙k/ Rnen guten Tank.) However, we will show them only here, since these examples belong to actual sentences taken from passages of connected speech, and we will put them in double square brackets that indicate an objective precision, but perhaps a less pressing one. We are dealing with sequences where /ó, õ/ and the tautosyllabic C before them, /˘0M˘/, determine their exact place of articulation, (õ, è, ó, «, ô, ?), just as in the examples seen above. Even the initial C of following syllables a‡ect the result, by coarticulation, in a more or less evident way, according to the places of articulation directly involved. ˛is happens every time two phones come into contact with one another; and, of course, this is done to render pronunciation more fluent and natural (certainly not to further complicate life!). Among the taxophonically relevant actual cases in German, after experiencing

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all possibilities, the following instances are worthwhile mentioning and exemplifying. As a matter of fact, should they not be applied, the result would be articulatory straining, indeed. 5.2.1.4. For practical reasons, we will start from /0ó/ (0õ). We can see that when they are followed by labiodentals (/∫, f, v/), the coarticulation of (õ) and (∫, f, v) produces an intense labiodentalized bilabial ((:)): (('zi:b: '∫he:‰7¢)) /'zi:bó '∫e:KdÈ/ s¤ben Pferde˚ (('zi:b: 'fE4…)) /'zi:bó 'fEtÚ/ s¤ben Vetter˚ (('zi:b: 'va:gô)) /'zi:bó 'va:gó/ s¤ben Wagen˘ ‹en /0ó/ (0õ) is followed by laminal C, /t, d, q, z, n, l/, we have a denti-alveo–bilabial ((!)): (('zi:b! '4ha:g¢)) /'zi:bó 'ta:gÈ/ s¤ben Tage˚ (('zi:b! '7e:&ma‰k)) /'zi:bó 'de:maKk/ s¤ben DM˚ (('zi:b! 'qhIm…)) /'zi:bó 'qImÚ/ s¤ben Zimmer˚ (('zi:b! 'nEÂ4¢)) /'zi:bó 'nEÂtÈ/ s¤ben Nä>te˚ (('zi:b! 'lEn7…)) /'zi:bó 'lEndÚ/ s¤ben Länder˘ ≈nally, for /0ó/ (0õ) + /k, g, K/, we find an intense velarized bilabial nasal ((ò)): (('zi:bò 'khaqó)) /'zi:bó 'kaqó/ s¤ben Ka˛en˚ (('zi:bò 'gE˙¢)) /'zi:bó 'gE˙È/ s¤ben Gä«e˚ (('zi:bò 'º™:7…÷ 'ºE:-)) /'zi:bó 'KE:dÚ/ s¤ben Räder˘ 5.2.1.5. As far as /0õ/ (0õ) -em is concerned (which is not derived by assimilation, but is original, for //0Èm//), three groups deserve careful attention. In fact, for /0õ/ (0õ) + /∫, f, v/, we find a labiodental (è): (mIt&∂i;zè'∫he:‰t) /mItdi:zõ'∫e:Kt/ mit d¤sem Pferd˚ (öIn&di;zè'valt) /Indi:zõ'valt/ in d¤sem Wald˘ For /0õ/ (0õ) + /t, d, q, z, n, l/, once again, we have a denti-alveo–bilabial ((!)): ((qhu&7aen!'qhIm…)) /qudaenõ'qImÚ/ zu dRnem Zimmer˚ ((bae&7i;z!'lIÂt)) /baedi:zõ'lIÂt/ bR d¤sem Li>t˘ For /0õ/ (0õ) + /k, g, K/, a velar–bilabial ((õ)): ((fo‰&maenõ'khO∫)) /fo:Kmaenõ'kO∫/ vor mRnem Koπ˚ ((mI4&flaenõ'ºI˙)) /mItdaenõ'KI˙/ mit dRnem Ri«˘ 5.2.1.6. For /0ó/ (0ó) + /p, b, m/, for the third time we find a denti-alveo–bilabial ((!)): (('âu:4! 'phüaes)) /'gu:tó 'pKaes/ guten PrRs˚ (('âu:4! 'bal)) /'gu:tó 'bal/ guten Ball˚ (('âu:4! 'mO‰gô)) /'gu:tó 'mOKgó/ guten Morgen˘ For /0ó/ + /∫, f, v/, we have a labiodentalized alveolar ((/)): (('âu:4/ '∫hle:g…)) /'gu:tó '∫le:gÚ/ guten Pfleger˚ (('âu:4/ 'fa˙)) /'gu:tó 'fa˙/ guten Fa«˚ (('âu:4/ 'vaen)) /'gu:tó 'vaen/ guten WRn˘ For /0ó/ + /k, g, K/, we find a velarized alveolar ((¡)): (('âu:4¡ 'khEl…)) /'gu:tó 'kElÚ/ guten Keller˚ (('âu:4¡ 'gas4)) /'gu:tó 'gast/ guten Ga®˚ (('âu:4¡ 'ºo:4&Ñaen)) /'gu:tó 'Ko:tvaen/ guten RotwRn˘ Besides, for /0ó/ (0ô) + /p, b, m/, we again find a velar–bilabial ((õ)): ((&âe;gõ'pho:ló)) /ge:gô'po:ló/ gegen Polen˚ ((&âe;gõ'bElg,«, -jó)) /ge:gô'bElgjó/ gegen Belg¤n˚ ((&âe;gõ'mEksi&ko)) /ge:gô'mEksiko/ gegen Mexiko˘ For /0ó/ (0ô) + /∫, f, v/, we find a labiodentalized velar ((|)): ((&âe;g|'∫han4)) /ge:gô'∫ant/ gegen Pfand˚ ((&âe;g|'füa˙k&üaeÂ)) /ge:gô'fKa˙kKaeÂ/ gegen FrankrR>˚ (('âe:g|&va‰4)) /'ge:gôvaKt/ Gegenwart˘ For /0ó/ (0ô) + /t, d, q, z, n, l/, we have a denti-alveolarized velar ((˘)): (('âe:g˘&4hael)) /'ge:gôtael/ GegentRl˚ ((&âe;g˘'7ºae)) /ge:gô'dKae/ gegen drR˚ ((&âe;g˘'qhñae)) /ge:gô'qvae/ gegen zwR˚ ((&âe;g˘'zEks)) /ge:gô'zEks/ gegen se7˚ ((&âe;g˘'nOYn)) /ge:gô'nOYn/ gegen nSn˚ (('âe:g˘&laes4U,)) /'ge:gôlaestU˙/ GegenlR®u«˘

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5.2.1.7. In the case of /0ó/ (0è) + /∫, f, v/, obviously, things do not change: (m¢t'Sa‰fè 'fo:tos) /mIt'SaKfó 'fo:tos/ mit (arfen Fotos÷ equally, for /0ó/ (0è) + /t, d, q, z, n, l/: (m¢t'Sa‰fè 'qh™:nó÷ 'qhE:-) /mIt'SaKfó 'qE:nó/ mit (arfen Zähnen˘ Instead, for /0ó/ (0è) + /k, g, K/, we have a velarized labiodental ((ô)): ((m¢t'Sa‰fô 'khúI˙ô)) /mIt'SaKfó 'klI˙ó/ mit (arfen Kli«en˘ For /0ó/ (0«) + /p, b, m/, for the fourth time we find a denti-alveo–bilabial ((!)): (('m™:+Â!&p™nz,o&na;4, -a˙-, -Å˙-, -Å-, -s,-÷ 'mE:+-)) /'mE:tÂópenzjona:t, -a˙-, -sj-/ Mäd>enpensionat÷ besides, + /∫, f, v/, we have a labiodentalized alveolar ((/)): (('m™:+Â/&füOYntúIÂ÷ 'mE:+-)) /'mE:tÂófKOYntlIÂ/ mäd>enfrSndli>÷ then, + /k, g/, we have a velarized alveolar ((¡)): (('m™:+Â¡&khúas¢÷ 'mE:+-)) /'mE:tÂóklasÈ/ Mäd>enklasse˘ For /0ó/ (0?) + /p, b, m/, we find for the third time a velar–bilabial ((õ)): (('qhae4U˙õ &publi'qhi:º?, -º¡, -‰,, -‰n)) /'qaetU˙ó publi'qi:Kó/ ZRtu«en publiz¤ren˘ For /0ó/ (0?) + /∫, f, v/, we again have a labiodentalized velar ((|)): (('qhae4U˙| f…'khaofè)) /'qaetU˙ó fÚ'kaofó/ ZRtu«en verkQfen˘ Lastly, for /0ó/ (0?) + /t, d, q, z, n, l/, once again we find a denti-alveolarized velar ((˘)): (('qhae4U˙˘ 'le:zó)) /'qaetU˙ó 'le:zó/ ZRtu«en lesen˘ In grammemes (and frequent lexemes), as in˚ Rn˚ von˚ ins˚ uns˚ dann˚ (on˚ Montag, in current speech, it is not at all rare that /én/ + /[0]˘, [0]˘/ becomes (◊n, –n, –) (with progressively stronger nasalization, up to a complete dropping of /n/): (öIns'khi:no, öIs-) /Ins'ki:no/ ins Kino… Stops 5.2.2.1. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs, /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/, which are peculiar because in word-final position (and in postnuclear position, but with some çodditiesÇ that we will see) only the voiceless elements occur. In addition, /p, t, k/, after pauses and in stressed syllables (not preceded by /s, S/ that belong to the same lexeme), are çaspiratedÇ. Besides, /t, d/ are denti-alveolar (and rigorously the most appropriate symbols would be ((4, 7)), but it is su‚cient to use (t, d), unless it is thought to be important to insist on this nuance). Here are some examples: (pha'phi:‰) /pa'pi:K/ Pap¤r˚ ('phúaq) /'plaq/ Pla˛˚ ('SpüEÂ«) /'SpKEÂó/ spre>en˚ ('halp) /'halp/ halb˚ ('öapt) /'apt/ Abt˚ (öIÂ'pha‰k¢) /IÂ'paKkÈ/ i> parke˚ ('öUnt) /'Unt/ und˚ ('lu:p¢) /'lu:pÈ/ Lupe˚ ('öEb¢) /'EbÈ/ Ebbe˚ ('ÊIt¢) /'bItÈ/ bitte÷ ('tho:t) /'to:t/ Tod˚ ('thüe:tó) /'tKe:tó/ treten˚ ('Stüa:s¢) /'StKa:sÈ/ Stra•e˚ ('laet) /'laet/ LRd˚ (¢s'thüI˙kt) /Ès'tKI˙kt/ es trinkt˚ ('laed…) /'laedÚ/ lRder˚ ('∂a˙kô) /'da˙kó/ danken˚ ('khInt) /'kInt/ Kind˚ ('khüaes) /'kKaes/ KrRs˚ (∂ås'khi:no) /das'ki:no/ das Kino˚ ({öae˙}k'nal) /{aen}k'nal/ (Rn) Knall˚ (â¢'bI‰g¢) /gÈ'bIKgÈ/ Gebirge˚ ('âI˙) /'gI˙/ gi«˘ 5.2.2.2. ‹at is too often described as çaspirationÇ of stops before pauses, is actually nothing but the çexplosionÇ of the phones (that we will show only here with ($)), not çaspirationÇ, which is a di‡erent thing: ('skalp$) /'skalp/ Skalp˚ ('tha:t$) /'ta:t/ Tat˚ ('khEk$) /'kEk/ ke$˘ Some authors go as far as to indicate something like

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ç('thaphth¢, 'ºYthl¢)Ç, for ('thapt¢) /'taptÈ/ tappte˚ ('ºYtú¢) /'KYtlÈ/ rüttle˚ when they simply want to hint at the fact that the transition from one stop to another, or to any other phone, can be audible, that is çexplodedÇ (('4hap$4$¢, 'ºY4$ú¢)); but there is certainly no need to mark such things. By assimilation, in /pf, pv/, we have (]) + /f, v/: ('öa]&fal) /'apfal/ Abfall (di‡erent from (∫) /∫/)˚ ('öa]&Ñe;‰tó) /'apve:Któ/ abwerten˘ In addition, as we have seen for /n/ (§ 5.2.1), even /t, d/ assimilate to a following C: ('mIk&âIft) /'mItgIft/ Mitgi⁄˚ ('mIk&kømõ) /'mItkOmó/ mitkommen˚ ('mIp&ÊºI˙ô) /'mItbKI˙ó/ mitbri«en˚ ('mIp&≈™nS) /'mItmEnS/ Mitmen(˚ ('Êºo:k&khaofè) /'bKo:tkaofó/ Brot kQfen˚ ('Êºo:p&ÊºI˙ô) /'bKo:tbKI˙ó/ Brot bri«en˘ Note that we have (+) in: ('m™:+Â«÷ 'mE:+-) /'mE:tÂó/ Mäd>en˘ 5.2.2.3. Let us also consider: ('öap&úaot) /'aplaot/ AblQt˚ ('öapúa&ti;f) /'aplati:f/ Ablativ˚ ('öap&üu;f) /'apKu:f/ Abruf˚ (öat'ÑE‰p) /at'vEKp/ Adverb˚ (&öat≈i'ºa:l) /atmi'Ka:l/ Admiral˚ ('Sto:f&úaen) /'Sto:flaen/ StovlRn˚ ('li:p&úo;s) /'li:plo:s/ l¤blos˚ ('ºe:k&úo;s) /'Ke:klo:s/ reglos˚ ('m°:kúIÂ) /'m°:klIÂ/ mögli>˚ ('ni:túIÂ) /'ni:tlIÂ/ n¤dli>˚ ('hantúU,) /'hantlU˙/ Handlu«˚ ('öy:púIÂ) /'y:plIÂ/ übli>˚ ('va:knIs) /'va:knIs/ Wagnis˚ but: ('laebnIq) /'laebnIq/ LRbniz˚ ('ºe:dn…) /'Ke:dnÚ/ Redner˚ ('âe:gn…) /'ge:gnÚ/ Gegner˚ ('va:gn…) /'va:gnÚ/ Wagner˚ ('öa:dl…) /'a:dlÚ/ Adler˚ ('öa:dlIÂ) /'a:dlIÂ/ adlig˚ ('öa:dlIg¢) /'a:dlIgÈ/ Adlige˚ ('O‰dnU,) /'OKdnU˙/ Ordnu«˚ ('ºe:gl…) /'Ke:glÚ/ Regler˚ (zIg'na:l) /zIg'na:l/ Signal˚ (&zIgna'thu:‰) /zIgna'tu:K/ Signatur˚ ('öe:bn¢) /'e:bnÈ/ ebne˚ ('öy:bºIÂ) /'y:bKIÂ/ übrig˘ Actually, in this second group of forms, the consonantal sequences are voiced because they belong to the same lexeme (with a possible diachronic drop of /È/ -e-]\ reden˚ gegen˚ Wagen˚ Adel˚ Regel˚ Orden˚ eben˚ über˘ On the contrary, in the first group we have combinations (which may be clear or opaque) with grammemes (¤ prefixes or su‚xes), so we will consider only three cases: Ab-[lQt]˚ [üb]-li>˚ from üben˚ and [Wag]-nis˘ Words of lofty or foreign origin generally maintain a voiced stop before sonants: /bl/ Double˚ mobl¤ren˚ Problem˚ publik˚ Republik˚ sublim˚ Tablett˚ Variable÷ /bK/ Algebra˚ Fabrik˚ Kabrio˚ Kobra˚ Libretti®˚ Soubrette˚ Vibration˚ Zebra÷ however /bK, pK/ Abrasion˚ Abrasit and /pK, bK/ abrupt÷ /dK/ Adresse˚ Hydrant˚ Madrider˚ Madrigal˚ Melodrama˚ Quadrant˘ Other cases: /gm/ Dagmar˚ Dogma˚ Egmont˚ Fragment˚ Magma˚ Paradigma˚ Phlegma˚ Pigment˚ Pragmatik˚ Pygmäe˚ Segment˚ Sigma˚ Stigma÷ /gn/ Agno®iker˚ Diagnose˚ ignor¤ren˚ indign¤rt˚ kognitiv˚ Magnat˚ Magnol¤˚ Magnus˚ Physiognom¤˚ prägnant˚ Stagnation˚ and /gn, ˙n/ inkognito˚ Magnesit˚ Magnesium˚ magneti(˚ Signal˚ signikant÷ /gl/ eglomis¤ren˚ H¤rogly#e˚ Iglu˚ Negligé˚ and /˙l/ e«li(˚ Jü«li«˚ lä«li(˚ and /˙Í/ Si«le÷ /gK/ agrari(˚ Agronom¤˚ Allegro˚ Diagramm˚ Emigrant˚ Migräne˚ Regress˚ Sa«ria˚ Telegraf˘ But we have: /tm/ Admiral˚ Kadmium˘ In addition: /p, b/ Abort [= Abtritt]˚ aboral˚ abort¤ren˚ and /kn, gn/ ErRgnis˚ in spite of /kn/ Befugnis˚ Wagnis˚ ZSgnis˘ 5.2.2.4. From the examples provided, we see that German has a çglottalÇ stop too (or çglottal catchÇ, but laryngeal stop is better) (ö): (&öyb…'öal, &öY-) /y[:]bÚ'al/ ü-

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berall˚ (â¢'öO‰k) /gÈ'OKk/ Georg (more frequently, ('âe:ø‰k) /'ge:OKk/), (Ê¢'öaeló) /bÈ'aeló/ beRlen˚ (the'öa:t…) /te'atÚ/ †eater˚ (f…'öaen) /fÚ'aen/ VerRn˚ ('vael [ö]IÂ'öaos&öa‰baet¢) /'vael IÂ'aosaKbaetÈ/ wRl i> QsarbRte˚ ('öIs 'öaoX &öaen[ó]'öa∫Í) /'Is 'aox aenó'a∫Í/ iss Q> Rnen Aπel˘ ˛is phone precedes every V which is syllable-initial (thus with no C before that, always in the same syllable), either in stressed or unstressed position, either in lexemes or grammemes, even in sentences. It is mostly noticeable after pauses and in stressed syllables; if pronunciation becomes more relaxed, (ö) may be missing but only in completely unstressed syllables (and we indicate it here as ([ö])), provided composition is not evident. As can be seen, it also occurs within lexemes, in the context /é'é/ (é'öé), but not if the stress is weak: ('öaf¢) /'afÈ/ A‡e˚ ('öap&öa;‰t) /'apa:Kt/ Abart˚ (f…'öaXtó) /fÚ'axtó/ vera>ten˚ (Ê¢'öaXtó) /bÈ'axtó/ bea>ten˚ (d™s&öavu'öi:º?, -º¡, -‰n, -‰,) /dEsavu'i:Kó/ desavou¤ren˚ (∂e'öEMfazIs) /de'EmfazIs/ Deem#asis˚ (öant'öa:qidUm) /ant'a:qidUm/ Antacidum˚ (&öant[ö]a'qhi:t) /anta'qi:t/ Antacid˚ ('öaosö…≤zó) /'aosÚle:zó/ Qserlesen˚ ('mUnt&öa;‰tó) /'mUnta:Któ/ Mundarten˘ ˛us we have: (thea'thüa:lIS) /tea'tKa:lIS/ theatrali(˚ but (&theöa-) only in a kind of… theatrical pronunciation. In addition, we find (ö) even if the V is çdeepÇ or assimilated, as in (…) /Ú/, for //ÈK//, provided it is an initial syllabic nucleus: ({qhu}ö…'fa:º?, -º¡, -‰n, -‰,) /{qu}Ú'fa:Kó/ [zu] erfahren˘ But we have: (öae'nand…) /ae'nandÚ/ Rnander˚ with non-morphemic syllabification, which is acknowledged by the new orthography as well. Further useful examples: (&ö…'öa‰&baetó) /ŒK'aKbaetó/ erarbRten˚ ('öaofö…&Ste;U,) /'aofŒKSte:U˙/ Aufer®ehu«˚ ('vi:d…ö…&öo;b…,, -…n) /'vi:dÚŒKo:bÚn/ w¤dererobern˚ ('âlat&öaes) /'glataes/ GlattRs˚ (la˙'ne:z¢&öaes) /la˙'ne:zÈaes/ La«neseRs˚ ('âa˙&öa;‰t) /'ga˙a:Kt/ Ga«art˚ ('qhOlö…&h°;U,) /'qOlÚh°:U˙/ Zollerhöhu«˚ (khlo'öa:k¢) /klo'a:kÈ/ Kloake˚ (&öide'öa:l) /ide'a:l/ ideal˘ 5.2.2.5. ˛e existence of pairs such as (f…'öaezó) /fÚ'aezó/ verRsen and (f…'ºaezó) /fÚ'Kaezó/ verrRsen could lead one to think that (ö) is a phoneme, /ö/; but it is not so, even because it can be omitted, as generally happens in Switzerland, South Tyrol/Alto Adige, Austria, and Bavaria. Even in neutral familiar speech, it is maintained better in fully stressed syllables: (∂i[ö]…'gEnqU,) /diÚ'gEnqU˙/ d¤ Ergänzu«˚ ('StU‰m [ö]Un'dºa˙, [ö]¢n-, -'∂-) /'StUKm Unt'dKa˙/ Sturm und Dra«˚ (&öIÂ[ö]…'öa‰&baet¢) /IÂÚ'aKbaetÈ/ i> erarbRte˘ However, normally (ö) never occurs before postverbal pronouns: ([öI]Â'vaes¢s) /IÂ'vaesÈs/ i> wR• es˚ ('le:zIÂ, -Ω-) /'le:z[È]IÂ/ les' i>˘ On the other hand, in final half-stressed syllables, after V˚ it is certainly possible to have: ('mIÂa&ö™l, -&öe;l). ˛e banal mistake of not considering (ö) a çsoundÇ, simply because it does not correspond to any grapheme, is to be avoided completely! For good phonetics, clear ideas are needed, and above all it is necessary to use one's ears, not one's eyes… ˛erefore, it is wrong to talk about a çvocalic onsetÇ for (öé), in opposition to an çaspirated onsetÇ for (hé), as for instance, in: (f…'öaltó) /fÚ'altó/ veralten˚ (f…'haltó) /fÚ'haltó/ verhalten˘ Phonetically, they are not di‡erent from (f…'faló) /fÚ'faló/ verfallen\ they are all

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(0é), although the phonemic transcriptions do not use ç/ö/Ç, but just for the sake of simplicity. Actually, for teaching purposes, it could be more useful to write it, especially if no real phonetic transcription is added to the phonemic one. However, if only one type of transcription is used, it is decidedly more recommendable to also write (ö) or /ö/, especially for important cases. A possible variant of (öé{:/0}, ö…) is (ü, ü:, üó, 0): (&öIÂö…'öa‰&baet¢, &öIÂö™‰'ö-), (&IÂ0'aé&baet¢, &IÂ™é'aé-) /IÂŒK'aKbaetÈ/ i> erarbRte˚ (öIÂ'öant&Ñø‰t¢), (IÂ'act-) /IÂ'antvOKtÈ/ i> antworte˚ (&ide'a:l) /ide'a:l/ ideal˘ ˛erefore, we have (ö) which fuses with the voiced segments of a syllable, and realizes them as creaky. For native speakers, this phonation type sounds similar to the sequences we have seen. (In Danish, something similar occurs, although in the opposite direction: ®@d {Ô § 17.36 of NPT/HPh} entails a distinctive use of creaky voice for voiced phonemes, (ü, ó); however, certain speakers change these phones into (éö, 0ö) sequences, with (ö) in second place.) 5.2.2.6. It is interesting to note that (ö) can also occur mainly as a substitute of /t/ (but of /d, p, k/ as well), when preceded — followed by /ö, M/. Even variants with creaky intense nasal segments occur ((≠, =, ±)), which represent a frequent compromise, as we will see. ˛e cue and most examples are taken from Kohler (1994), with integrations and changes, both for the transcriptions and contexts of occurrence: ('öaeMf…&Standó, -nn=, -nöó) /'aenfŒKStandó/ Rnver®anden˚ ('fo:‰&handó, -nn=, -nöó) /'fo:Rhandó/ vorhanden˚ ('StUndó, -nn=, -nöó) /'StUndó/ Stunden˚ ('öEndó, -nn=, -nöó) /'Endó/ Enden˚ ('öEntó, -nöó, -nn=) /'Entó/ Enten˚ ('kh§ntó, -nöó, -nn=) /'k§ntó/ könnten˚ ('∂a˙kô, -˙öô, -˙~±) /'da˙kó/ danken˘ Further examples: ('lOYÂp&pU˙któ, -˙tó, -˙öô, -˙~±) /'lOYÂtpU˙któ/ LS>tpunkten˚ ('qhEntn…, -nön…) /'qEntnÚ/ Zentner˚ ('khlEmpn…, -mön…) /'klEmpnÚ/ Klempner˚ ('thaozõp '≈e;t…, -õö '≈-, -≠ 'm-) /'taozótme:tÚ/ tQsend Meter˚ (Ê¢'öamtó, -mptó, -möõ, -m≈≠) /bÈ'amtó/ Beamten (not for (Ê¢'öamt¢, -mpt¢) /bÈ'amtÈ/ Beamte]˘ More: (&öInöaen'nOYÈs 'öamt 'öaeM&fy;º?, -ampt, -amp, -º¡, -‰,, -‰n) /Inaen'nOYÈs 'amt 'öaenfy:Kó/ in Rn mSes Amt Rnführen˚ ('phU˙któ, -˙tó, -˙öô, -˙~±) /'pU˙któ/ Punkten˚ ('lOYtnant, -ön-) /'lOYtnant/ LStnant˚ (mIp'≈Ind¢stós, mIö-) /mIt'mIndÈstós/ mit minde®ens˚ ('hIntó, -nöó, -nn=) /'hIntó/ hinten˚ (&mItnõ, -önõ) /&mItnõ/ mit 'nem˚ ('öaX&qhe;ntó, -öó, -n=, -&qen-, -q™n-, -q¢n-, -qó-) /'axqe:ntó/ a>˛ehnten˘ 5.2.2.7. In addition: ('khOmt ∂aeM'füOYnt&≈It, -mp&≈It, -mö&≈-) /'kOmt daen'fKOYntmIt/ kommt dRn FrSnd mit?˚ (öe‰'khOmt 'nIÂt, -mö, ö™‰'-, ö…'-) /e:K'kOmt 'nIÂt/ er kommt ni>t˚ (&zInt≈aen¢'Su:¢ 'hi:‰, -mp≈-, -mö≈-) /zIntmaenÈ'Su:È 'hi:K/ sind mRne S>uhe h¤r?˚ (&vI‰zót'nu:‰ 'qhñae, -óö'n-) /vIKzInt'nu:K 'qvae/ wir sind nur zwR˘ ˛erefore, we add the /tó/ context, not preceded by /n/, but by another voiced (or even voiceless) phoneme: ('ható, -öó) /'ható/ hatten˚ ('ÊItó, -öó) /'bItó/ bitten˚ ('Êi:tó, -öó) /'bi:tó/ b¤ten˚ ('va‰tó, -‰öó) /'vaKtó/ warten˚ ('vOltó, -löó) /'vOltó/ wollten˚ ('vUstó, -öó) /'vUstó/ wus®en˚ ('lYftó) /'lYftó, -öó/ lü⁄en˘ ‹en (=òö) combine, they can become (öòö): (öUnt&öIlUstüa'qh¿o:nó, öUnö&öI-) /UntIlUstKa'qjo:nó/ und Illu®rationen˚ ('füae&tha;k 'öa:bõt, -a;ö 'öa:-) /'fKaeta:k 'a:bót/

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FrRtag abend˚ (mIt&öInt…'sIti, mIö&öIn-) /mItIntÚ'sIti/ mit Intercity˚ (mIt&öi‰,'öElt…,, mIö&ö-) /mIt'i:Kó 'EltÚn/ mit ihren Eltern˘ Stopstrictives 5.2.3.1. German has three voiceless stopstrictives, (∫, q, c) /∫, q, c/. From a descriptive and teaching point of view, it is not a good thing to exclude them from the phonemic inventory and consider them as phonemic sequences such as ç/pf, ts, tS/Ç; also because these sequences do exist in the language (as we will see)! More often, /q/ is articulated with lowered tip of the tongue, whereas /c/ is with raised tip (but it is not necessary to use a special symbol (c)). ˛e three of them are all çaspiratedÇ after pauses or in stressed syllables, except after a tautomorphemic /s/: ('∫hEf…) /'∫EfÚ/ Pfe‡er˚ ('∫húanq¢) /'∫lanqÈ/ Pflanze˚ ('SIM∫è) /'SIm∫ó/ (imπen˚ ('khO∫) /'kO∫/ Koπ÷ ('qhaet) /'qaet/ ZRt˚ (na'qh¿o:n) /na'qjo:n/ Nation˚ ('nIÂq) /'nIÂq/ ni>_˚ ('sqe:n¢) /'sqe:nÈ/ Szene÷ ('chEÂ¢) /'cEÂÈ/ T(e>e˚ ('chElo÷ 'SE-) /'cElo÷ 'SE-/ Cello˚ ('∂OYc) /'dOYc/ dS˛˚ ('phac¢) /'pacÈ/ Pa˛e˘ Let us now see some cases of /pf, tS/ (]f, tS): ('öa]f…&la˙ô) /'apfÚla˙ó/ abverla«en˚ (ö™nt'SpInó, ö¢n-) /Ent'SpInó/ en_pinnen˚ (ö™nt'SúUs, ö¢n-) /Ent'SlUs/ En˛luss˘ However, in fast speech they can become (∫, c): ('öa∫…&la˙ô, ö™nc'pInó, ö¢n-, ö™nc'úUs, ö¢n-) (generally without çaspiratingÇ the following stopstrictives or stops, as also in: (ö™nt'SUldIgU,, -n'cU-, ö¢n-) /Ent'SUldIgU˙/ En˛uldigu«˚ Ô § 5.3.2.5 as well). Instead, German has no ç/G/Ç, but /tZ/, which occurs in loanwords: (t'Ëi:ns) /t'Zi:ns/ Jeans˚ (&khilimant'Ëa:ºo) /kilimant'Za:Ko/ KilimanÃaro˚ ([öIm]t'ËU˙Í) /[Im]t'ZU˙Í/ [im] D(u«el÷ especially in current pronunciation, (tË) /tZ/ can alternate with /tS, c/. Constrictives 5.2.4.1. ˛ere are five diphonic pairs: (f, v÷ s, z÷ S, Z÷ Â, ,÷ º, X). Generally, /s, z/ are articulated with lowered tip of the tongue, whereas /S, Z/ are with raised tip (but it is not necessary to use special symbols as (x, ç)). Strictly speaking, (Â) could be considered not to be a phoneme (by çsimplyÇ introducing a çjuncture phonemeÇ, as we will see shortly). In addition, (,) is actually a çsemi-constrictiveÇ phone (even if it were indicated with (J)). On the other hand, functionally, (º) belongs to the particular category of sonants, and to the çvibrantÇ group; as a matter of fact, one possible realization is exactly (K) /K/. ˛us it is important to clearly know the relations among the various constrictive elements. ˛erefore, it is not di‚cult –in this case, thanks to spelling as well– to see that (Â, X) are in (almost) complementary distribution. On the other hand, even (,) has close relationships (mostly in northern speech) with (Â) and also (X, k) (even with (g, Ÿ) as well, which in the North realize /g/ together with (,), that belongs to the phoneme /j/ too).

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But let us see some examples: ('fYMf) /'fYnf/ fünf˚ ('vas) /'vas/ was˚ ('ºaesó) /'Kaesó/ rR•en˚ ('ºaezó) /'Kaezó/ rRsen˚ ('zo:n) /'zo:n/ Sohn˚ ('S°:n) /'S°:n/ (ön˚ ('Staen) /'Staen/ StRn˚ ('thIS) /'tIS/ ‰(˚ (Ze'ni:) /Ze'ni:/ Gen¤˚ (e'tha:Z¢) /e'ta:ZÈ/ Etage˚ ('Êu:X) /'bu:x/ Bu>˚ ('Êy:Â…) /'by:ÂÚ/ Bü>er˚ ('ÊaX) /'bax/ Ba>˚ ('ÊEÂ¢) /'bEÂÈ/ Bä>e˚ ('ºu:IÂ) /'Ku:IÂ/ ruhig˚ ('ºaoºIs) /'KaoKIs/ RQris˘ 5.2.4.2. ˛ere are three more approximant taxophones for slit constrictives, which occur before /s, S/, and we will notate them with their çcommittedÇ variants as well (which are more demanding), because they are not really necessary, although very frequent and çtypifyingÇ. It would not be useless to acquire them to obtain a smoother pronunciation: (&, â, ˜) /f, Â, x/: ('öao&&Sibõ, 'öaof&Sibõ) /'aofSi:bó/ Qf(¤ben˚ ('h°:âst, 'h°:Âst, -ÂÀt) /'h°:Âst/ hö>®˚ ('ºaoX&Sp™k, 'ºao˜&Sp™k) /'KaoxSpEk/ RQ7pe$˘ In preintonemes (¤ not in intonemes), forms such as Qf˚ i>˚ mi>˚ di>˚ si>˚ -ig˚ -i>˚ -li>˚ -zig˚ S>˚ Q>˚ do>˚ no>˚ in current speech, often have (&, â, ˜) /f, Â, x/, irrespective of the context just seen. Quite rightly, German pronouncing dictionaries clearly indicate both (Â) /Â/ and (X) /x/ – it is necessary to provide precise indications, not mysterious algebraic formulae. In fact, unless through an appropriate morphonological knowledge, there would be no way to tell the di‡erence between ('thaoÂ«) /'taoÂó/ TQ>en [->en] çsmall ropeÇ and ('thaoX?) /'taoxó/ tQ>en çto plungeÇ, or ('khu:Â«) /'ku:Âó/ Kuh>en [->en] çcalfÇ and ('khu:X?) /'ku:xó/ Ku>en çcakeÇ. 5.2.4.3. ˛e su‚x -ig is (IÂ) /IÂ/, even when followed by C (except for those belonging to su‚xes which contain (Â)): ('kh°:nIÂ) /'k°:nIÂ/ König˚ ('öaenIâst, -Âst, -ÂÀt) /'aenIÂst/ Rnig®˚ (f…'öaenIÂt) /fÚ'aenIÂt/ verRnigt˚ ('qhñanqIâst¢, -Âst¢, -ÂÀt¢) /'qvanqIÂstÈ/ zwanzig®e÷ but: ('kh°:nIkúIÂ) /'k°:nIklIÂ/ königli>˚ ('kh°:nIk&üaeÂ) /'k°:nIkKaeÂ/ KönigrR>˚ ('kh°:nIgIn) /'k°:nIgIn/ Königin˘ However, it is possible to find ('kh°:nIÂ&üaeÂ), and even –fairly systematically– (Ik) /Ik/: ('kh°:nIk, 'öaenIkst, f…'öaenIkt, 'qhñanqIkst¢), which is the only pronunciation really accepted in southern Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, in initial position too: ('Âe:mIS, 'k[h]-) >emi(˚ ('Âi:na, 'k[h]-) ≥ina˘ ˛e graphic sequence 7 has two di‡erent phonic structures: within lexemes we find (ks) /ks/: ('vEksÍn) /'vEksÍn/ we7eln˚ ('vaeksÍ) /'vaeksÍ/ WR7el˚ ('öOks¢) /'OksÈ/ O7e˚ ('zEks) /'zEks/ se7˚ ('fUks) /'fUks/ Fu7˚ (∂…'daks) /dÚ'daks/ der Da7 çbadgerÇ, while we have: (Xs) and (âs, Âs, ÂÀ) /xs, Âs/, when s is a grammeme: (∂¢s'∂aXs) /dÈs'daxs/ des Da7 çof the roofÇ, (∂¢s'phEâs, -Âs, -ÂÀ) /dÈs'pEÂs/ des Pe7 ç(black) pitchÇ. /s, z/ are mostly articulated with lowered tip of the tongue; but, for /sÂ/, we have (ÀÂ): ('ÊIÀÂ«) /'bIsÂó/ bis(en÷ and, except in slow speech, for /sS, sZ/, we have (SS, SË): ('öaeS&Süa˙k) /'aesSKa˙k/ Eis(rank˚ ([öI]Â≈US'SnEl 'vEk) /IÂmUs'SnEl 'vEk/ i> muss (nell weg˚ (&∂aSËe'ni:) /dasZe'ni:/ das Gen¤. /S, Z/ are with raised tip (((x, ç))). In addition, in the /kv, qv, Sv/ sequences, /v/ is more often realized as bilabial, (6): ('khñac) /'kvac/ Qua˛˚ ('qhñae) /'qvae/ zwR˚ ('SñEst…) /'SvEstÚ/ S>we®er˘ In neutral German, /j/ is semi-constrictive, in all contexts: (',a:‰) /'ja:K/ Jahr˚ (&ma,o-

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'n™:z¢÷ -E:-) /majo'nE:zÈ/ Majonäse/MayonnPse˚ (öIn&tona'qh¿o:n) /Intona'qjo:n/ Intonation˘ 5.2.4.4. For /K/, it is necessary to add a few observations, both on our notation and phonemic interpretation. ˛e çgenericÇ phonemic symbol seems to be useful in indicating its normal place of articulation, which is uvular – and the most recommendable, for teaching purposes. As far as its manner (of articulation) is concerned, the voiced constrictive one, (º), is normal (and the most recommendable as well). For emphasis, or for individual peculiarities, it is certainly possible to have a (voiced) uvular trill: (K). On the other hand, among native speakers it is not rare to find (voiced) alveolar articulations: a tap, (R), or a trill, (r) (mostly in the South, and Austria and Switzerland). However, before stressed or unstressed V˚ we will transcribe only (º) /K/: ('ºaoºIs) /'KaoKIs/ RQris˚ ('ÊºI˙ô) /'bKI˙ó/ bri«en. After tautosyllabic V˚ instead, we will always transcribe (‰) (voiced pharyngealized uvular approximant) for /K/, which is intense after C or diphthongs, (…) /Ú/: ('vi:‰) /'vi:K/ wir˚ ('vI‰) /'vIK/ wirr˚ ('mae…) /'maeÚ/ MRr (like MRer˚ Meyer]˚ ('ÊEs…) /'bEsÚ/ besser˚ (h…'fo:‰) /hÚ'fo:K/ hervor. Many phonemic traditions have considered //ÈK//, mostly in parallel with //Èn, Èm, Èl//, which we prefer to transcribe and interpret as (ó, õ, Í) /ó, õ, Í/, although we are perfectly aware that, in slower or emphatic speech, (¢n, ¢m, ¢l) are possible, and (Èº÷ ÈK÷ È˜) as well – even ç(¢R)Ç, or rather (ÙR, ÙR) (in Switzerland) and (Ù‰, Ùº, Ù˜) (in Austria). Contrary to what we do –and Kohler (1977, 1995”) and others as well– several authors distinguish between (éº) and (é:‰) (¤ ç/ér/Ç and ç/é:å/Ç, above all in teaching textbooks), but we do not think it is the best proposal, also because it is more complex and far from being the most widespread pronunciation (Ô § 5.1.1 too). For the prefixes er-˚ her-˚ ver-˚ zer-˚ we will transcribe ({0}…) /{0}Ú/, since it is the normal and most recommendable pronunciation, although in pronouncing dictionaries (except the Ÿ∂∑å) we still find ç/{0}Er, {0}Eå/Ç. A slow, careful, or emphatic, pronunciation –with ({0}™‰) /{0}EK/– can be safely inferred from our notation as well. Diaphonemically, though, we might use /{0}Œ‰/. Approximants 5.2.5. For this manner of articulation, the most important German phoneme is certainly (h) /h/, which often has the voiced variant, among voiced phones (especially in non-primary-stressed syllables): ('haos) /'haos/ HQs˚ (â¢'haem) /gÈ'haem/ gehRm˚ ('da:&ha;b/vI‰, -H-) /'da:ha:bóvi:K/ da haben wir…˚ ('öUn&hael, -H-) /'Unhael/ UnhRl˚ ('vIlh™lm, -H-) /'vIlhElm/ Wilhelm˘ Notice, however, cases like: ('âe:ó) /'ge:ó/ gehen˚ ('ºu:IÂ) /'Ku:IÂ/ ruhig˚ ('za:) /'za:/ sah˘ Graphically, h is a device often used to indicate that the preceding V is long, mostly before m˚ n˚ l˚ r (the so-called çDehnungs-hÇ): ('ne:mõ) /'ne:mó/ nehmen˘ In addition to the variant of /v/, (6), occurring in the sequences /kv, qv, Sv/ (§

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5.2.4.3), we will briefly say something about other possible variants for /0j, yé, u'öé, o'a/: ('fe:º,«, -ºjó) /'fe:Kjó/ Fer¤n˚ (na'qh¿o:n, -'qhªo:n, -qi'o:n) /na'qjo:n/ Nation˚ (qhya'no:z¢, qh¥a-) /qya'no:zÈ/ Zyanose˚ (&manu'öEl, -u'El, -'njEl, -'nwEl) /manu'El/ manuell˚ (thoa'lEt¢, thja-, thwa-) /toa'lEtÈ/ Toilette˘ Laterals 5.2.6. In German neutral pronunciation we find only (l) /l/ (with the corresponding intense one, (Í) /Í/) and the variant (¬), before (Â, ,) (the last one is heterosyllabic only): ('lant) /'lant/ Land˚ ('fOl) /'fOl/ voll˚ (fa'mi:l,¢) /fa'mi:ljÈ/ Famil¤˚ (va'nI¬,¢) {((-nI¬-,¢)) and (-Il¢)} /va'nIl[j]È/ Vanille˚ ('mI¬Â) /'mIlÂ/ Mil>˚ ('hElt) /'hElt/ Held˚ ('öe:zÍ) /'e:zÍ/ Esel˚ ('∂u:dÍn) /'du:dÍn/ dudeln˘ Structures 5.3.0. In this part, we will make the necessary observations for pronouncing words in actual sentences. ˛us, we will deal with assimilation, reduction, stress, and intonation. Reduced forms 5.3.1.1. In spontaneous speech, grammemes, in addition to gradually reducing their stress, may even attenuate vowel timbres and lose some consonants or syllables. Grammemes include: articles, personal pronouns, possessive adjectives, particles, a‚xes, prepositions, short conjunctions and adverbs – and some other similar forms, such as geworden˚ spaz¤ren˚ and greetings. We will give some examples, mostly taking them from Kohler (1977, 1995”, § 6.3.2), by modifying and completing both their inventory and variants, including the transcriptions. In the original publications, these are limited to the segments in question, whereas we will adapt them to our own style. ˛e examples come in useful to show mechanisms and possibilities, rather than absolute necessities. (&mI[t]∂õ'hUnt) mit dem Hund (∂ó'gu:tó 'gast) den guten Ga® (&Inõ'ga‰tó) in dem Garten (&öIst#'vI‰kúIÂ) i® es wirkli>? (&has∂¢sâ¢'ze:ó) ha® du's gesehen? (…&hatódI'qhaetU˙ g¢'Saot) er hat in d¤ ZRtu« ge(Qt (…&zøldó'fa:t…&ºu;fè) er soll den Vater rufen (∂…'man [ö]¢ndI'füao) der Mann und d¤ FrQ ([I]Â'úasó 'ºe:dó) i> lass ihn reden ([I]Â&[h]abõ g¢'ze:ó, Âamg-) i> hab' ihn gesehen

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([I]Â'phakôm…&ma;l) i> pa$ ihn mir mal ('las« ',U,? &døX'üe:dó) lass den Ju«en do> reden ('âi:põ 'khInd…n&døX våsqU'öEsó) gib den Kindern do> was zu essen ('phakô 'khInd…n&døX våsqU'öEsó&öaen) pa$ den Kindern do> was zu essen Rn ([I]Â&kanó nIÂ[t]'se:ó, -'Ω-) i> kann ihn ni>t sehen (…Is'öalb…n, -…,) er i® albern˚ (…"öIs 'öalb…n, -…,) er ì® albern (…Is&nIÂIn…'la:g¢) er i® ni>t in der Lage˚ (…Is"nIÂ[t ö]In…'la:g¢) er i® nì>t in der Lage (vås&[h]as[t]∂¢g¢'za:kt) was ha® du gesagt? (&hå[t]∂…'le:º… g¢'SpüOX?) hat der Lehrer gespro>en? (zI'vo:nt &öIn[d]…'Stat) s¤ wohnt in der Stadt (&vI‰zó&öIn[d]I'Statâ¢&fa;º?, -º¡, -‰n, -‰,) wir sind in d¤ Stadt gefahren (&vI‰zó&öaof[∂]…'Stüa:s¢) wir sind Qf der Stra•e ('mo:ni&kas â¢'khOmõ) Monika i® gekommen ('phe:t…s â¢'khOmõ) Peter i® gekommen (&™…sâ¢'khOmõ) er i® gekommen ('khU‰tIs â¢'khOmõ, -t#) Kurt i® gekommen ('haenºIÂIs â¢'khOmõ, -Â#) HRnri> i® gekommen (zo;&hat…g¢'SpüOX?) so hat er gespro>en˚ (zo;&hat¢™‰g¢'SpüOX?) so hatte er gespro>en (zo;&ha;pt…g¢'za:kt) so habt ihr gesagt˚ (zo;&hat…I‰g¢'za:kt) so hat er ihr gesagt (&hapt…M&vasâ¢'h°:‰t) habt ihr denn was gehört? (&has∂¢&I‰dè&vasâ¢'ge:bõ) ha® du ihr denn was gegeben? (&has∂ó&d™˙g¢'ze:ó) ha® du ihn denn gesehen? (&has∂õd™M&vasâ¢'ge:bõ) ha® du ihm denn was gegeben? ('ve:‰ håtó&d™˙g¢'ze:ó) wer hat ihn denn gesehen? (&vas'ÑOlóz¢&d™n, &vas'ÑOlózó) was wóllen S¤ denn?˚ (&vas'ÑOló 'zi:&d™n) was wollen Sìe denn? (&vas'ÑOlóz¢d™n&da;, &vas'ÑOlózó&da;) was wóllen S¤ denn da?˚ (vås&Ñøló'zi:dó&da;, vås&Ñøló'zi:n&da;) was wollen Sìe denn da? (vås'≈aX∂ó 'phe:t…) was ma>t denn Peter?˚ (vås'≈aX[p] 'phe:t…&d™n) was ma>t Peter denn? (vås'ÑOlt…m d™˙'ge:bõ) was wollt ihr ihm denn geben? (vås'sOlIÂI‰ d™˙'ge:bõ, vås'ΩOlIÂ‰˙ 'ge:bõ, -s'Ω-, -'s-) was soll i> ihr denn geben? (™‰&ha∂åsâ¢'maXt) er hat das gema>t (zI&ha∂åsâ¢'maXt) s¤ hat das gema>t (&hat…&∂asâ¢'maXt) hat er das gema>t? (&hats¢&∂asâ¢'maXt) hat s¤ das gema>t? (∂…'le:º… &hatós'hOYt¢ 'nIÂq 'öaofâ¢≥bõ) der Lehrer hat uns hSte ni>_ Qfgegeben (∂ó'thIS 'StElèvI‰ öIndI'öEk¢2| ∂ó'Süa˙kô dI'öandÈº¢3 3) den ‰( ®ellen wir in d¤ E$e, den S>rank in d¤ andere (∂…'thIS ‘∂™‰öódI'öEk¢&Ste;t’) der ‰(, der in d¤ E$e ®eht… (∂ó'thIS ‘∂¢MvI‰ódI'öEk¢ g¢'StElt&haõ’) den ‰(, den wir in d¤ E$e ge®ellt haben…

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(vås'≈aX?&did™n&da;) was ma>en d¤ denn da? (∂ås'≈Us∂e;‰&zaen, &∂as≈Us'∂e:‰&zaen) das muss der sRn (öI‰&hapt'So:˙ g¢'tha:n) ihr habt (on getan ('ha;pt… &dasâ¢'maXt) habt ihr das gema>t? ([I]&ÂapI‰dåsâ¢'ge:bõ, [I]&Âap…-) i> hab' ihr das gegeben ([I]&ÂabõI‰'fo:‰g¢&St™lt) i> hab' ihn ihr vorge®ellt (zI&hatI‰'khúaetâ¢&vaSó) s¤ hat ihr KlRd gewa(en ('h°:º?vI‰ns '≈O‰gô 'füy:, 'h°:ºèv-, -ós) hören wir uns morgen früh ('vOlózi [z]IÂ'thüEfè) wollen S¤ si> tre‡en? (vi'ge:ts, -q) w¤ geht's? [-t es?] (ö™‰&[ö]IstIndô'khEl…&öae~g¢&dºU,?, &ö™‰s[ö]I˙ô-) er i® in den Keller R«edru«en (ö™‰&[ö]IstIn¢ô'khEl…&öae~g¢&dºU,?, &ö™‰s[ö]Iôô-, -˙ô-) er i® in Rnen Keller R«edru«en (ö™‰&ha∂…&,a;g¢'za:kt2 ∂ås…'khOmt) er hat dir ja gesagt, dass er kommt (∂ås&hat…g¢'thüOYmt) das hat er getrTmt (&∂a;hå∂…&öapa'ºa:tâ¢&Stüaekt) da hat der Apparat ge®rRkt (∂a&hapt…&vasÑ…'zOYmt) da habt ihr was versTmt ('thy:‰n 'tho:‰) Tür und Tor ('le:bõõ 'tho:t, -õó) Leben und Tod ('vaen¢˙ g¢'za˙) WRn und Gesa« (∂ås'ha:põ 'gu:t) das Hab und Gut ('öE∫Íõ 'bI‰nó) ∏πel und Birnen (öaen'thIS¢n [ö]aem'bEt, -Un) Rn ‰( und Rn Bett ('fYMf¢n 'qhñanqIÂ, -Mvè, -mõ) fünfundzwanzig ('nOYn¢n 'qhñanqIÂ, -nó) nSnundzwanzig ('zi:bõm 'qhñanqIÂ, -mõ) s¤benundzwanzig ('qhñae HUn…'qhñanqIÂ, n¢-) zwRhunder˛wanzig (&v™n¢s5üe:gn¢t1 1 ∂¢M'fa:ºèvI‰2 &mI∂…'ba:n3 3) (v¢ns-) wenn es regnet, dann fahren wir mit der Bahn˘ 5.3.1.2. Here is a list of reduced forms; it is fairly complete, which could even seem to be too analytical. However, it is of paramount importance to carefully examine all the modifications given, in order to grasp the mechanism. It is obvious that the most çnormalÇ forms, in this list, are not the first given, but some of the succeeding ones, in suitable conditions. aber ('öa:b…, &öa;b…, &öab…, &ab…, &a6…) also ('öalzo, &öalzo, &alzo, &azo) an ('öan, &öan, an, ån), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) am˚ an dem ('öandõ, &öandõ, &adõ, 'öaõ, 'öam, &öam, am, åm) ans˚ an's˚ an das ('öandås, &öandås, &andås, 'öans, &öans, ans, åns) an'n˚ an den ('öandó, &öandó, &andó,

'öanó, &öanó, &anó, aó, an:, ån:) an'r˚ an der ('öand…, &öand…, &and…, 'öan…, &öan…, &an…) an die ('öandi, &öa-, &a-, -ani, -I, -¢) auf ('öaof, &öaof, &aof, aof, åof) aufs˚ -f's˚ -f das ('öaof∂as, 'öaof∂ås, &öaof¢s, &öaof#, &öaofs, &aofs, öaofs, aofs, åofs) aufm˚ auf'm˚ -f dem ('öaof∂õ, 'öaofõ,

5. german

&öaofõ, &aofõ) aufn˚ auf'n˚ -f den ('öaof∂ó, 'öaofè, &öaofè, &aofè) auf der˚ -f'r ('öaof∂…, 'öaof…, &öaof…, &aof…) auf die˚ -f'ie ('öaof∂i, -fi, &öao-, &ao-, -I, -¢) auf Wiedersehen! (öaof'Ñi:d…&ze;ó, -&ze;n, -zen, öåof-, ≥'Ñid…-, 'Ñid…-, 'Ñi‰-) aus ('öaos, &öaos, &aos, aos, åos) ausm˚ -s'm˚ -s dem ('öaos∂õ, 'öaosõ, &öaosõ, &aosõ) ausn˚ -s'n˚ -s den ('öaos∂ó, 'öaosó, &öaosó, &aosó) aus der˚ -s'r ('öaos∂…, 'öaos…, &öaos…, &aos…) bR ('Êae, &Êae, Êae, Êåe), (b-) bRm˚ -i dem ('Êaedõ, &Êaedõ, 'Êaeõ, 'Êaem, &Êaeõ, &Êaem, Êaem, Êåem), (b-) bR'n˚ -i den ('Êaedó, &Êaedó, &Êaeó, &Êaen, Êaeó, &Êaen, Êaen, Êåen), (b-, -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) bR'r˚ -i der ('Êaed‰, &Êaed‰, 'Êae‰, &Êae‰, Êae‰, Êåe‰, Êå‰), (b-) bin ('ÊIn, &ÊIn, ÊIn, Ê¢n, Êõ), (b-) bist ('ÊIst, &ÊIst, ÊIs, Ê¢s, Ê#, 6Is, 6¢s, 6#), (b-) da ('∂a:, &∂a;, &∂a, ∂a, ∂å), (d-) da- (∂a-, ∂å-, ∂¢-), ('∂a:&-, 'da:&-), (d-) [-bR˚ -na>˚ -von˚ -vor˚ -zu˚ …) (∂a'º-, ∂å'º-, ∂È'º-), ('∂a:&º-, 'da:&º-), (d-) [-ran˚ -rauf˚ -raus˚ -rin˚ -rum˚ …) dann ('∂an, &∂an, ∂an, ∂ån, ∂¢n), (d-, -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) das˚ 's ('∂as, &∂as, ∂as, ∂ås, ∂¢s, ¢s, #, s), (d-), ([-) (only after V] das (rel.) ('∂as, &∂as, ∂as, ∂ås, ∂¢s), (d-) das (dim.) ('∂as, &∂as, ∂as), (d-) dass ('∂as, &∂as, ∂as, ∂ås), (d-) dRn ('∂aen, &∂aen, ∂aen, ∂åen), (d-, -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) dRne ('∂aen¢, &∂aen¢, &∂åen¢, &∂ån¢), (d-) dRnem˚ dR'm ('∂aenõ, &∂aenõ, &∂aemõ, &∂åenõ, &∂åemõ, &∂ånõ, &∂å-

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mõ, ∂aem:, ∂åem), (d-) dRnen˚ dR'n ('∂aenó, &∂aenó, ∂aen:, ∂aen, ∂åen), (d-÷ -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) dRner ('∂aen…, &∂aen…, &∂åen…, &∂ån…, &∂¢n…, &∂ó…), (d-) dRnes ('∂aen¢s, &∂aen¢s, &∂åen¢s, &∂ån¢s, &∂¢n¢s, &∂ó¢s), (d-) dem˚ 'm ('∂e:m, &∂e;m, &∂em, ∂em, ∂™m, ∂¢m, ∂õ, öõ, õ), (d-), ([-) (only after V] dem (rel.) ('∂e:m, &∂e;m, &∂em, ∂em, ∂™m, ∂¢m, ∂õ), (d-) dem (dim.) ('∂e:m, &∂e;m, &∂em, ∂em), (d-) den˚ 'n ('∂e:n, &∂e;n, &∂en, ∂en, ∂™n, ∂¢n, ∂ó, öó, ó), (d-, -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,), ([-) (only after V] den (rel.) ('∂e:n, &∂e;n, &∂en, ∂en, ∂™n, ∂¢n, ∂ó), (d-, -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) den (dim.) ('∂e:n, &∂e;n, &∂en, ∂en), (d-, -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) denen ('∂e:nó, &∂e;nó, &∂enó, ∂en:, ∂en, ∂™n, ∂¢n), (d-÷ -m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) denn ('∂En, &∂™n, ∂™n, ∂¢n, ∂ó, ó, n), (d-÷ m, M, ~, ˙, ,) (the most reduced forms are not used when preceded by words in N÷ whereas, in final position, they are used when they occur after unstressed pronouns; instead, in non-final position˚ they occur after stressed pronouns too) der˚ 'r ('∂e:‰, &∂e;‰, &∂e‰, ∂e‰, ∂™‰, ∂…), (d-), ([-) (only after V] der (rel.) ('∂e:‰, &∂e;‰, &∂e‰, ∂e‰, ∂™‰), (d-) der (dim.) ('∂e:‰, &∂e;‰, &∂e‰, ∂e‰), (d-) deren ('∂e:º?, &∂e;º?, &∂eº?, -º¡, ∂e‰,, ∂™‰,, -‰n, ∂…,, ∂…n), (d-, -m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) des˚ 's ('∂Es, &∂™s, ∂™s, ∂¢s, ∂#, ∂s, #, s), (d-), ([-) (only after V] des (rel.) ('∂Es, &∂™s, ∂™s, ∂¢s), (d-) des (dim.) ('∂Es, &∂™s, ∂™s), (d-) dessen ('∂Esó, &∂™só, &∂¢só), (d-) desto ('∂Esto, &∂™sto, &∂™so), (d-) di> ('∂IÂ, &∂IÂ, ∂IÂ, ∂Iâ), (d-), ([-) (on-

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ly after V] die ('∂i:, &∂i;, &∂i, ∂i, ∂I, ∂¢), (d-), ([-) (only after V] die (rel.) ('∂i:, &∂i;, &∂i, ∂i, ∂I), (d-) die (dim.) ('∂i:, &∂i;, &∂i, ∂i), (d-) diese ('∂i:z¢, &∂i;z¢, &∂iz¢, &∂Iz¢), (d-) diesem ('∂i:zõ, &∂i;zõ, &∂izõ, &∂Izõ), (d-) diesen ('∂i:zó, &∂i;zó, &∂izó, &∂Izó), (d) dieser ('∂i:z…, &∂i;z…, &∂iz…, &∂Iz…), (d-) dieses ('∂i:z¢s, &∂i;z¢s, &∂iz¢s, &∂Iz¢s), (d-) dir ('∂i:‰, &∂i;‰, &∂i‰, ∂I‰, ∂…), (d-), ([-) (only after V÷ the most reduced forms do not occur in final position) do> ('∂OX, &∂øX, ∂øX, ∂¢X), (d-) du ('∂u:, &∂u;, &∂u, ∂u, ∂U, ∂¢), (d-), ([-) (only after V÷ the most reduced forms do not occur in final position) dur> ('∂U‰Â, &∂U‰Â, ∂U‰Â), (d-) dur>s˚ -h das ('∂U‰Â∂ås, '∂U‰Â∂¢s, '∂U‰Â#, '∂U‰Âs, &∂U‰Âs, ∂U‰Âs, -ÂÀ, -âs), (d-) dur>'n˚ -h den ('∂U‰Â∂ó, &∂U‰Â∂ó, '∂U‰Â«, &∂U‰Â«), (d-) dur> die ('∂U‰Â∂i, &∂-, -I, -¢), (d-) eben ('öe:bõ, &öe;bõ, &öebõ, öeõ, öem, em) Rn˚ 'n ('öaen, &öaen, aen, ¢n, ó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) Rne˚ 'ne ('öaen¢, &öaen¢, &aen¢, &ån¢, &¢n¢, ó¢, n¢) Rnem˚ R'm˚ 'nem ('öaenõ, &öaenõ, &aenõ, &aemõ, &ånõ, &åmõ, öaem:, aem:, aem, åem, åm, n¢m, ¢m, õ) Rnen˚ R'n˚ 'nen ('öaenó, &öaenó, &aenó, öaen:, öaen, aen, åen, ån, n¢n, nó, ó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) Rner˚ 'ner ('öaen…, &öaen…, &aen…, &åen…, &ån…, &¢n…, ó…, n…) Rnes˚ 'nes ('öaen¢s, &öaen¢s, &aen¢s, &åen¢s, &ån¢s, &¢n¢s, ó¢s, n¢s) Rnmal ('öaen&ma;l, &öaenmal, -ål, -å, -mm-, &óm-, &õm-) ent- (ö™nt-, ™nt-, ¢nt-, ót-) [-wi$eln˚


-gegen˚ …) er ('öe:‰, &öe;‰, &öe‰, e‰, ™‰, …) ((…) only when not preceded by (¢, ‰, …) /È, K, Ú/÷ the most reduced forms do not occur in final position) er- (ö™‰'ö-, ™‰'ö-, …'ö-) [-arbRten˚ -übrigen˚ …) (ö™‰'-, ™‰'-, …'-) [-klären˚ -saufen˚ …) es˚ 's ('öEs, &ö™s, ™s, ö¢s, ¢s, #, s) (the most reduced forms occur in final position too, in many cases) eu> ('öOYÂ, &öøYÂ, öøYÂ, øYÂ, øYâ, ÖYÂ, ÖYâ) euer ('öOY‰, &öøY‰, öøY‰, øY‰, ÖY‰) eure ('öOY‰, &öøY‰, öøY‰, øY‰, ÖY‰) eurem ('öOYºõ, &öøY-, &öøY‰m, öøY-, öøYõ, øY-, ÖY-) euren ('öOYº?, -º¡, &öøY-, &öøY‰,, -‰n, öøY-, øY-, ÖY-) eurer ('öOYº…, &öøY-, öøY…, øY…, ÖY…) eures ('öOYº¢s, &öøY-, &öøY‰s, öøY‰s, øY-, ÖY-) für ('fy:‰, &fy;‰, &fy‰, fY‰, fY, f…) fürs˚ -r's˚ -r das ('fy:‰dås, 'fy:‰d¢s, 'fy:‰d#, 'fy:‰s, &fy;‰s, &fy‰s, fY‰s, fYs, f…s) für den˚ -r'n ('fy:‰dó, 'fy:‰?, 'fy:‰,, &fy;‰,, &fy‰,, fY‰,, f…,, fYn), (-m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) für die ('fy:‰di, &fy;-, &fy-, &fY-, -I, -¢) gar ('âa:‰, &âa;‰, &âa‰, âa‰, âa, â…), (g-) gegen ('âe:gó, -gô, ≥-, &ge-, âeô), (g-) gegens˚ -n's˚ -n das ('âe:gódås, 'âe:gód¢s, 'âe:gós, -gôs, ≥-, &ge-, âeôs), (g-) gegen die ('âe:gódi, -ón-, -ó-, ≥-, &ge-, -I, -¢), (g-) geworden (â¢'vO‰dó, â¢&vø‰dó, â¢&vø‰,), (g-÷ -m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) guten Abend! ('âu:tó 'öa:bõt, &âu;tó'ö-, &âut-, &âUt-, &âUd-, âUn'ö-, âô'ö-, ô'ö-, ó'ö-, [-]'öa:mt, [-]'öamt), (g-) guten Morgen! ('âu:tó 'mO‰gô, &âu;tó'm-, &âut-, &âUt-, &âUd-, -õ'm-, âUn'm-, -m'm-, âô'm-, ô'm-, ó'm-, õ'm-, 'm-, [-]'mO‰,, [-]'mO,), (g-) guten Tag! ('âu:tó 'tha:k, &âu;tó'tha:k, &âut-, &âUt-, &âUd-, âUn'th-, âô'th-, ô'th-,

5. german

ó'th-, 'th-, -ak, -aö), (g-) habe˚ -b' ('ha:b¢, &ha;b¢, &hab¢, &ha6¢, hab, håb, &a6¢, ab, åb) (forms with /h/ = (`) do not occur in rhythm-group initial position) haben ('ha:bõ, &ha;bõ, &habõ, haõ, ham, am, åm, õ, m) (forms with /h/ = (`) do not occur in rhythm-group initial position; the last, more reduced, forms occur after wir] habt ('ha:pt, &ha;pt, &hapt, hapt, håpt, apt, åpt) (forms with /h/ = (`) do not occur in rhythm-group initial position) hast ('hast, &hast, hast, has, ast, as, åst, ås) (forms with /h/ = (`) do not occur in rhythm-group initial position) hat ('hat, &hat, hat, håt, at, åt, t) (forms with /h/ = (`) do not occur in rhythm-group initial position; the last, more reduced, form occurs after er] her- (h™'º-, hÈ'º-) [-an˚ -auf˚ -aus˚ -Rn˚ -über˚ -unter˚ …) (h™‰'-, h…'-) [-bR˚ -na>˚ -vor˚ -zu˚ …) Herren˚ mRne Damen und (&maen¢'da:mó öUnt'hEº?, -º¡, måen¢-, m¢n¢-, ¢n'hE‰,, -‰n) hin- (hI'n-, h¢'n-) [-an˚ -auf˚ -aus˚ -Rn˚ -über˚ -unter˚ …) ('hIn&ö-) [-arbRten˚ …) (hIn'-, h¢n-') [-zu˚ …)˚ (-M'-) [-weg˚ …) ('hIn&-) [-rR>en˚ …)˚ (-m&-) [-passen˚ …)˚ (-˙&-) [-kommen˚ …) hier- (hi'º-), ('hi:&º-) [-an˚ -auf˚ -aus˚ -in˚ -über˚ -unter˚ …) (hi‰'-), ('hi:‰&-) [-bR˚ -dur>˚ -her˚ -mit˚ -vor˚ -zu˚ …) hier ('hi:‰, &hi;‰, &hi‰, &hI‰, hi‰, hI‰) hinter ('hInt…, &hInt…) hinterm˚ -r dem ('hInt…dõ, 'hInt…õ, 'hInt…m, &hInt…m) hintern˚ -r den ('hInt…dó, 'hInt…?, 'hInt…,, &hInt…,), (-m, -M, -~, -˙) hinters˚ -r das ('hInt…dås, 'hInt…d¢s,

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'hInt…d#, 'hInt…s, &hInt…s) hinter die ('hInt…di, -I, -¢) -hundert (-&hUnd…t, -hUn…t, -HUn…t, -HUn…t, -Un…t) -hundert- (-&hUnd…t-, -hUn…t-, -HUn…t-, -HUn…-, -Un…-, -¢n…-, -n…-, -n¢-) i> ('öIÂ, &öIÂ, IÂ, Â) ((Â) + verb: i> wR•; verb + (IÂ): wR• i>) ihm ('öi:m, &öi;m, &öim, im, Im, ¢m, õ) (the most reduced forms do not occur in final position) ihn ('öi:n, &öi;n, &öin, in, In, ¢n, ó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) (the most reduced forms do not occur in final position) ihnen˚ I- ('öi:nó, &öi;nó, &öinó, öin:, öin, in, In), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) ihr ('öi:‰, &öi;‰, &öi‰, I‰, …) ((…) only when not preceded by (¢, ‰, …) /È, K, Ú/; in addition, (…) only when enclitic, immediately after verbs; the most reduced forms do not occur in rhythm groups which are in intonemes, in neutral pronunciation) ihr (poss.) ('öi:‰, &öi;‰, &öi‰, I‰) ihre ('öi:º¢, &öi;º¢, &öiº¢, &Iº¢) ihrem ('öi:ºõ, &öi;ºõ, &öiºõ, &Iºõ, öi‰m, I‰m) ihren ('öi:º?, &öi;º?, &öiº?, &Iº?, -º¡, öi‰,, i‰,, I‰,, -‰n), (-m, -M, -~, -˙) ihrer˚ I- ('öi:º…, &öi;º…, &öiº…, &Iº…) ihres ('öi:º¢s, &öi;º¢s, &öiº¢s, &Iº¢s) in ('öIn, &öIn, In, ¢n, ó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙) im˚ in dem ('öIndõ, &öIndõ, &öInõ, &öImõ, 'öIõ, 'öIm, &öIm, Im, ¢m, õ) ins˚ in das ('öIndås, 'öInd¢s, 'öInås, 'öIn¢s, 'öIn#, 'öIns, &öIns, Ins, ¢ns, ós) in den˚ in'n ('öIndó, &öIndó, &Indó, 'öInó, &öInó, &Inó, Ió, In:, ¢n, ó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) in der˚ in'r ('öInd…, &öInd…, &Ind…, 'öIn…, &öIn…, &In…, I…, ¢…) in die ('öIndi, &öI-, &I-, &Inni, &Ini, -I, -¢, óI) ist ('öIst, &öIst, öIst, Ist, Is, ¢s, #, s) (only V or intense C + (s)) ja (',a:, &,a;, ,a, ja, jå)

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jedo> (,e'dOX, ,™-, ,¢-, j-) je˛t (',Eqt, &,™qt, ,™q, ,¢q, j-) mal ('ma:l, &ma;l, &mal, mal, mål, ma, må) -mal (-ma;l, -mal, -mål, -ma, -må) mehr ('me:‰, &me;‰, &me‰, m™‰) mRn ('maen, &maen, maen, måen), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) mRne ('maen¢, &maen¢, &måen¢, &mån¢) mRnem˚ mR'm ('maenõ, &maenõ, &maemõ, &måenõ, &måemõ, &månõ, &måmõ, maem:, måem) mRnen˚ mR'n ('maenó, &maenó, maen:, maen, måen), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) mRner ('maen…, &maen…, &måen…, &mån…, &m¢n…, &mó…) mRnes ('maen¢s, &maen¢s, &måen¢s, &mån¢s, &m¢n¢s, &mó¢s) mi> ('mIÂ, &mIÂ, mIÂ, mIâ) mir ('mi:‰, &mi;‰, &mi‰, mI‰, m…) (the most reduced forms do not occur in rhythm groups which are in intonemes, in neutral pronunciation, not even when they are enclitic after verbs) mit ('mIt, &mIt, mIt, m¢t) mit dem˚ -t'm ('mIt∂õ, 'mItõ, &mItõ, &mI∂õ, &mIdõ, &mI[õ, &mIpõ, &mIÊõ, &mIbõ, mIõ, mIm) mit den˚ -t'n ('mIt∂ó, 'mItó, &mItó, &mI∂ó, &mIdó, &mI[ó, mIó, mIn), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) mit der˚ -t'r ('mIt∂…, 'mIt…, &mIt…, &mI∂…, &mId…, &mI[…, mI…, mI‰) musste ('mUst¢, &mUst¢, &mUs¢) na> ('na:X, &na;X, &naX, naX, nåX) na> dem˚ -h'm ('na:X∂õ, 'na:Xõ, &na;Xõ, &naXõ) na> den˚ -h'n ('na:X∂ó, 'na:X?, &na;X?, &naX?) na> der˚ -h'r ('na:X∂…, 'na:X…, &na;X…, &naX…) neben ('ne:bõ, ≠bõ, &nebõ, &neõ, nem) nebens˚ -n's˚ -n das ('ne:bõdås, 'ne:bõd¢s, 'ne:bõd#, 'ne:bõs, ≠bõs, &ne-


bõs, &neõs, nems) neben dem˚ -n'm ('ne:bõdõ, 'ne:bõbõ, 'ne:bõõ, 'ne:bõm, ≠bõm, &nebõm, &neõm, neõ, nem) neben den˚ -n'n ('ne:bõdó, 'ne:bõõ, 'ne:bõn, ≠bõn, &nebõn, &neõn, neõm, neõ, nem), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) neben der˚ -n'r ('ne:bõd…, 'ne:bõ…, ≠bõ…, &nebõ…, &neõ…, &nem…) neben die ('ne:bõdi, ≠bõdI, &nebõI, &neõI, &nemI, -¢) nRn ('naen, &naen, naen, nåen), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) ni>t ('nIÂt, &nIÂt, nIÂ) ni>_ ('nIÂq, &nIÂq, &nIÂs) (nix ('nIks) /'nIks/ is a familiar lexical variant, not a reduced form of ni>_) nie ('ni:, ∋, &ni, ni, nI) nun ('nu:n, νn, &nun, nun, nUn, n¢n, nU), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) nur ('nu:‰, ν‰, &nu‰, nu‰, nU‰) oder ('öo:d…, &öo;d…, &öod…, &od…, &ød…, &¢d…, -[…) ohne ('öo:n¢, &öo;n¢, &öon¢, &on¢) (on ('So:n, &So;n, &Son, Son, Søn, S¢n, Só), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) sRd ('zaet, &zaet, zaet, zået) sRn ('zaen, &zaen, zaen, zåen), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) sRne ('zaen¢, &zaen¢, &zåen¢, &zån¢) sRnem˚ sR'm ('zaenõ, &zaenõ, &zaemõ, &zåenõ, &zåemõ, &zånõ, &zåmõ, zaem:, zaem, zåem) sRnen˚ sR'n ('zaenó, &zaenó, zaen:, zaen, zåen), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) sRner ('zaen…, &zaen…, &zåen…, &zån…, &z¢n…, &zó…) sRnes ('zaen¢s, &zaen¢s, &zåen¢s, &zån¢s, &z¢n¢s, &zó¢s) sRt ('zaet, &zaet, zaet, zået) si> ('zIÂ, &zIÂ, zIÂ, zIâ, IÂ, Iâ) (the last two forms are used after sie/Sie] sie˚ S- ('zi:, &zi;, &zi, zI, z¢) sind ('zInt, &zInt, zIn, z¢n, zó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,)

5. german

so ('zo:, &zo;, &zo, zo, zø, z¢) soll ('zOl, &zøl, zøl, zø) sonst ('zOnst, &zønst, zøns, z¢ns) -tägigen (-&th™;gIgô, -t™g-, -g¢g-, -ggô, -gô) [zwR-˚ drR-˚ …) über (unstressed) (&öyb…-, &öY-, -6-) überm˚ -r'm˚ -r dem ('öy:b…dõ, &öy;b…dõ, 'öy:b…õ, 'öy:b…m, &öy;b…m, &öyb…m, &Yb…m, -6…m) übern˚ -r'n˚ -r den ('öy:b…dó, &öy;b…dó, 'öy:b…?, 'öy:b…,, &öy;b…,, &öyb…,, &Yb…,, -6…,), (-m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) übers˚ -r's˚ -r das ('öy:b…dås, 'öy:b…d¢s, 'öy:b…d#, 'öy:b…s, &öy;b…s, &öyb…s, &Yb…s, -6…s) über die ('öy:b…di, -I, -¢, &öy;-, &öy-, &Y-, -6…-) um ('öUm, &öUm, Um) ums˚ um's˚ um das ('öUmdås, 'öUmd¢s, 'öUmd#, 'öUms, &öUms, Ums) um'n˚ um den ('öUmdó, 'öUmõ, &öUmõ, Uõ, Um:, Um) um die ('öUmdi, &öU-, U-, -I, -¢) und ('öUnt, &öUnt, &öUn, Un, ¢n, ó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) -und- (-&öUnt-, -&öUn-, -Unt-, -Un-, -¢n-, -ó-), (-m-, -M-, -~-, -˙-, -,-) uns ('öUns, &öUns, &Uns, ¢ns, ós, ns) (the most reduced forms do not occur in rhythm groups which are in intonemes, in neutral pronunciation) unser ('öUnz…, &öU-, &U-) unsere ('öUnzÈº¢, &öU-, &U-, -zº¢) unserem ('öUnzÈºõ, &öU-, &U-, -zº-, -…m, -zõ) unseren ('öUnzÈº?, -º¡, &öU-, &U-, -zº-, -…,, -zó) unserer ('öUnzÈº…, &öU-, &U-, -zº…, -…‰) unseres ('öUnzÈº¢s, &öU-, &U-, -zº¢s, -z¢s) unter ('öUnt…, &öUnt…, &Unt…) untern˚ -r den ('öUnt…dó, 'öUnt…,, &öUnt…,, &Unt…,), (-m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) unterm˚ -r'm˚ -r dem ('öUnt…dõ, 'öUnt…m, &öUnt…m, &Unt…m) unters˚ -r's˚ -r das ('öUnt…dås, 'öUnt…d¢s, 'öUnt…d#, 'öUnt…s, &öUnt…s, &Unt…s)

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ver- (f™‰'ö-, f…'ö-) [-Rsen˚ -arbRten˚ …) (f™‰'-, f…'-) [-rRsen˚ -lassen˚ …) von ('fOn, &føn, føn, f¢n, fó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) vom˚ -n dem ('fOndõ, 'fOnõ, 'fOmõ, 'fOm, &føm, føm, f¢m, fõ) von'n˚ -n den ('fOndó, 'fOnó, &fønó, føó, føn:,), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) von'r˚ -n der ('fOnd…, 'fOn…, &føn…) vor ('fo:‰, &fo;‰, &fo‰, fo‰, fø‰, f…) vorn˚ -r den ('fo:‰dó, 'fo:‰,, &fo;‰,, &fo‰,, fo‰,, fø‰,, f…,), (-m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) (Ô adv. ('fO‰n, &fø‰n)} vors˚ -r das ('fo:‰dås, 'fo:‰d¢s, 'fo:‰d#, 'fo:‰s, &fo;‰s, &fo‰s, fo‰s, fø‰s, f…s) vor'm˚ -rm˚ -r dem ('fo:‰dõ, 'fo:‰nõ, 'fo:‰mõ, 'fo:‰m, &fo;‰m, &fo‰m, fo‰m, fø‰m, f…m) vor'r˚ -r der ('fo:‰d…, 'fo:…, &fo;…, &fo…, fo…, fø…) vor die ('fo:‰di, &fo;-, &fo-, -I, -¢) vor- (fo'º-) [-an˚ -auf˚ -aus˚ -in˚ -über˚ …) (fo‰'ö-) [-ab˚ -Rnst÷ -arbRten˚ -Rlig˚ …) (fo‰'-) [-bR˚ -weg˚ …) (fo‰'-), ('fo:‰&-) [-her˚ -hin˚ -zu˚ …) während ('v™:º?t, &v™;-, -º¡t, 'v™:‰,t, -‰nt, &v™;-, v™-÷ 'vE:-) was (non-interrogative) ('vas, &vas, vas, vås) wegen ('ve:gô, &ve;gô, &vegô, veô) wRl ('vael, &vael, vael, våel, vål) wem ('ve:m, &ve;m, &vem, vem, v™m) wen ('ve:n, &ve;n, &ven, ven, v™n), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) wenn ('vEn, &v™n, v™n, v¢n), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) wer ('ve:‰, &ve;‰, &ve‰, ve‰, v™‰) werden ('ve:‰dó, &ve;‰dó, &ve‰dó, &ve:‰n, ve‰n, v™‰n, -‰,), (-m, -M, -n, -~, -˙) werde ('ve:‰d¢, &ve;‰-, &ve‰-, ve‰t) werdet ('ve:‰d¢t, &ve;‰-, &ve‰-) wider ('vi:d…, &vi;d…, &vid…, &vId…) wider- (unstressed) (&vid…-, &vId…-)

206

wie ('vi:, &vi;, &vi, vi, vI) wie viel ('vi:fil, vi'fi:l, &vifIl, vI&fil, &vifÍ) wieder ('vi:d…, &vi;d…, &vid…, &vId…) wieder- (unstressed) (&vid…-, &vId…-) will ('vIl, &vIl, vIl, vI) wir ('vi:‰, &vi;‰, &vi‰, vI‰, v¤‰, v¢‰, v…) (the most reduced forms do not occur in rhythm groups which are in intonemes, in neutral pronunciation, not even when they are enclitic after verbs) wird ('vI‰t, &vI‰t, vI‰t, v¤‰t, v¢‰t, v…t) wirst ('vI‰st, &vI‰st, vI‰st, v¤‰st, v¢‰st, v…st, -s) wo ('vo:, &vo;, &vo, vo, vø) wo- (vo'-, vø'-, v¢'-) [-bR˚ -her˚ -hin˚ -vor˚ -zu˚ …) (vo'º-, vø'-, vÈ'-), ('vo:&º-) [-ran˚ -rauf˚ -raus˚ -rüber˚ -runter˚ …) worden ('vO‰dó, &vø‰dó, vø‰n, -‰,), (-m, -M, -~, -˙) wurden ('vU‰dó, &vU‰n, vU‰n, -‰,), (-m, -M, -~, -˙) wurde ('vU‰d¢, &vU‰-, &v…-) wurdest ('vU‰d¢st, &vU‰-, &v…-, -s) wurdet ('vU‰d¢t, &vU‰-, &v…-) würden ('vY‰dó, &vY‰n, vY‰n, vT‰n, -‰,), (-m, -M, -~, -˙)


würde ('vY‰d¢, &vY-, vY‰t, vT‰t) würdest ('vY‰d¢st, &vY-, -s) würdet ('vY‰d¢t, &vY-) -zehn (-qe:n, -qe;n, -qen, -q™n, -q¢n, -qó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙) -zehnte (-qe:nt¢, -qe;n-, -qen-, -q™n-, -q¢n-, -qó-) zer- (q™‰-, q…-) [-fahren˚ -rinnen˚ …) zu ('qhu:, &qu;, qu;, qu, qU, q¢) zum˚ zu dem ('qhu:dõ, &qu;dõ, &qudõ, &qUõ, 'qhUm, &qUm, qUm, q¢m, qõ) zur˚ zu der ('qhu:d…, &qu;d…, &qud…, 'qhu:‰, &qu;‰, qu;‰, qu‰, qU‰, qw…, q…) zu'n˚ zu den ('qhu:dó, 'qu;dó, 'qudó, 'qhu:ó, 'qhu:n, &qu;n, qu;n, qun, qUn, q¢n, qó), (-m, -M, -~, -˙, -,) -zu- (-qu-, -qU-, -q¢-) [ab…holen˚ …) zusammen (qhu'zamõ, qu-, qU-, q¢-) zwar ('qhña:‰, &qña;‰, &qña‰, qña‰, qña, qñ…) -ren˚ -r'n (after –short or long– stressed V˚ where /Kó/ (º?, º¡) becomes /Kn/ (‰,), through ç/Ún/Ç) (-'é[:]º?, -'é[:]º¡, -'é[:]‰,, -'é[:]‰n), (-m, -M, -~, -˙).

Taxophonics 5.3.2.1. ˛ere are various other ways of simplifying words –and above all sentences– which make speech easier and more fluent, but less çclearÇ to foreigners. It is important, thus, to know the mechanisms implied, both to understand better and move closer to the native speakers' genuine pronunciation, and to be understood better. Following Kohler (1977, 1995”, § 6.3.1), we will give several cases, by appropriately integrating and completing them. We have already seen that sequences of (MM) /MM/, in fast speech, are possible only in preintonemes: (∂I'öapâ¢S&nItóó 'ºo:zó) d¤ abge(nittenen Rosen˚ but: ('nIm dI'öapâ¢S&nItó¢n) nimm d¤ abge(nittenen˘ 5.3.2.2. Often -e (¢) /È/ of the present-tense first person singular is dropped, provided this does not produce any (M) (¤ intense nasal): ([öI]Â'≈aX) /IÂ'max[È]/ i> ma>'˚ ('maXIÂ) /'max[È]IÂ/ ma>' i>˚ ([öI]Â'hab¢s â¢'ze:ó, -Ê-) /IÂ'hab[È] ÈsgÈ'ze:ó/ i>

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hab' es gesehen˚ ('ha:bIÂ, -ÊIÂ) /'ha:b[È]IÂ/ hab' i>˚ ('le:zIÂ, -ΩIÂ) /'le:z[È]IÂ/ les' i>˚ and ('ö§fnIÂ) /'§fn[È]IÂ/ ö‡n' i>, ('öa:t≈IÂ) /'a:tm[È]IÂ/ atm' i>˚ but: ([öI]Â'ö§fn¢) /IÂ'§fnÈ/ i> ö‡ne, ([öI]Â'öa:t≈¢) /IÂ'a:tmÈ/ i> atme; in the past tense, -e (¢) /È/ may be dropped, before an enclitic i>, provided the verb does not end in -ete (¢t¢) /ÈtÈ/: ('maXtIÂ) /'maxt[È]IÂ/ ma>t' i>˚ ('∂U‰ftIÂ) /'dUKft[È]IÂ/ dur⁄' i>˚ but: ('ö§fn¢t¢&öIÂ) /'§fnÈtÈIÂ/ ö‡nete i>˚ ('öa‰&baet¢t¢&öIÂ) /'aKbaetÈtÈIÂ/ arbRtete i>˘ Even -e (¢) /È/ belonging to nouns may often be dropped while maintaining the C voiced or half-voiced: ('li:bUn 'laet, -Ê-) /'li:b[È] Unt'laet/ L¤b' und LRd˘ We have already dealt with the assimilation of place of articulation to a following C for /t, d, n, ó, s/ (§ 5.2.1-2 “ 5.2.4). We have also mentioned some alternations, especially for approximants and /K/ (§ 5.2.4-5). 5.3.2.3. As already seen, /ó/ assimilates to a preceding C÷ but /n/ remains unchanged when -e- /È/ (¢) is dropped (and a voiced syllable-final –but lexeme-internal– C does not become voiceless): ('khOmõ) /'kOmó/ kommen˚ ('le:bõt) /'le:bót/ lebend˚ ('öe:bõ) /'e:bó/ eben (but: ('öe:bn¢) /'e:bnÈ/ ebne˚ unchanged); ('fa˙ô) /'fa˙ó/ fa«en˚ (',u:gôt) /'ju:gót/ Jugend˚ (f…'lo:gô) /fÚ'lo:gó/ verlogen (but: (f…'lo:gn¢) /fÚ'lo:gnÈ/ verlogne˚ unchanged). Even double assimilation occurs (but not in intonemes): (öaof'öe:bõõ 'Stüa:só) /aof'e:bóÈn 'StKa:só/ Qf ebenen Stra•en˚ (∂I'öae˙g¢&Súa:gôô 've:g¢) /di'ae˙geSla:góÈn/ d¤ R«e(lagenen Wege˘ Even after nasals (which may be intense or not), /t, d/ can assimilate, if they are unexploded: ('hEmt, -mpæ) /'hEmt/ Hemd˚ ('hEmdó, -mbõ) /'hEmdó/ Hemden˚ (∂I',u:gót 'öaM&fOY…n, ∂I',u:gôkæ) /di'ju:gót 'anfOYÚn/ d¤ Jugend anfSern˚ (∂I'ge:gót 'öan&ze:ó, ∂I'ge:gôkæ) /di'ge:gót 'anze:ó/ d¤ Gegend ansehen˚ (∂I'ge:gódó 'öan&ze:ó, ∂I'ge:gôgô) /di'ge:gódÈn 'anze:ó/ d¤ Gegenden ansehen˚ (Ê¢'öamtó, -mpõ) /be'amtó/ Beamten˚ (Ê¢'haoptó, -ppõ, -põ) /bÈ'haoptó/ behQpten˚ (∂I'le:bódó 'laedó, -bõbõ) /di'le:bódÈn 'laedó/ d¤ Lebenden lRden˘ 5.3.2.4. Frequently, the sequence /gn/ assimilates as well (and also /bn, dn/, even if preceded by N˚ with a subsequent reduction): (#'üe:gn¢t, #'üe:˙n¢t) /Ès'Ke:gnÈt/ es regnet˚ ('öagn™s, 'öa˙n™s) /'agnEs/ Agnes˚ (mag&nifi'qhEnq, ma˙&n-, -IfI-) /magnifi'qEnq/ Magnifizenz˚ (zIg'na:l, zI˙'na:l) /zIg'na:l/ Signal, ('va:gn…, 'va:˙n…) /'va:gnÚ/ Wagner÷ ('öe:bn¢, 'öe:mn¢) /'e:bnÈ/ ebne˚ ('le:bót, -mõt) /'le:bót/ lebend˚ ('ºe:dn…, 'ºe:nn…) /'Ke:dnÚ/ Redner˚ ('ve:‰dó, -nó) /'ve:Kdó/ werden˚ ('fIndó, 'fInó) /'fIndó/ finden˚ ('hEmdó, -mbõ, -mõ) /'hEmdó/ Hemden (Ô above). Even sequences of N + a voiced stop can undergo nasal assimilation: (no'vEmb…, -mm…) /no'vEmbÚ/ November˚ ('öUmb¢&haltó, 'öUmm¢-) /'UmbÈhaltó/ umbehalten˚ (qhUm'bae&Spi;l, -m'm-) /qUm'baeSpi:l/ zum BRsp¤l˚ ('ÊUnd¢s&Êa˙k, 'ÊUnn¢s-) /'bUndÈsba˙k/ Bundesbank˚ ('vandÈº…, 'vannÈ-) /'vandÈKÚ/ Wanderer˚ ('vUnd…&ba;‰ 'vUnn…-) /'vUndÚba:K/ wunderbar˚ (qhU'mInd¢st, -Inn¢st) /qu'mIndÈst/ zuminde®˚ ('öU˙g¢&vIs, 'öU˙˙¢-) /'UngÈvIs/ u«ewiss˚ ('öa˙g¢≥bõ, 'öa˙˙¢-) /'a˙gÈge:bó/ a«egeben˚ ('öa˙≥bõ, 'öa˙&˙e;-) /'a˙ge:bó/ a«eben˚ ('öU˙ga‰, 'öU˙˙a‰) /'öU˙gaK/ U«ar˘ 5.3.2.5. A /t/ occurring between C˚ in non-slow speech, is generally dropped: ('ºEsúIÂ) /'KEstlIÂ/ re®li>˚ ('SüIfúIÂ) /'SKIftlIÂ/ (ri⁄li>˚ ('ºEÂúIÂ) /'KEÂtlIÂ/ re>tli>˚

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(Ê¢'öaXúIÂ) /bÈ'axtlIÂ/ bea>tli>˚ ('öEnlIÂ) /'EntlIÂ/ endli>˚ ('vEl&khu;gÍ) /'vEltku:gÍ/ Weltkugel (but: ('halp&khu;gÍ) /'halpku:gÍ/ Halbkugel˚ ('halp&qhaet) /'halpqaet/ HalbzRt]˚ ('vI‰tSaf ö¢Mfi'nanqó) /'vIKtSaft Untfi'nanqó/ Wir˛a⁄ und „nanzen˚ ('öEM&vU‰f) /'EntvUKf/ Entwurf˚ ('öaens 'StüItó, -nS 'S-, -n 'S-) /'aenst 'StKItó/ Rn® ®ritten˚ (qhU'mInd¢s 'qhñae) /qu'mIndÈst 'qvae/ zuminde® zwR˚ (',Eq qU'haoz¢) /'jEqt qu'haozÈ/ je˛t zu HQse˚ (ÊÈ'ºEÂtIÂt¢, -ÂIÂ¢) /bÈ'KEÂtIÂtÈ/ bere>tigte˘ In unstressed positions, we frequently find reduced forms (Ô § 5.3.1.2) without /tò/ for i®˚ ni>t˚ und˘ Even /q/, after C˚ can become (s): ('glanq, -ns) /'glanq/ Glanz˚ (…'hElqt, -lst) /Ú'hElqt/ erhält®˚ ('sqe:n¢, 'sse:-, s'se:-) /'sqe:nÈ/ Szene˚ (qhU'mInd¢s 'sñae) /qu'mIndÈst 'qvae/ zuminde® zwR˚ (',Eq sU'haoz¢) /'jEqt qu'haozÈ/ je˛t zu HQse˚ (&∂asqU'StEndIg¢, &∂assU-) /dasqU'StEndIgÈ/ das zu®ändige˚ ('h°:Âst qU'füi:dó, -Âs sU-) /'h°:Âst qu'fKi:dó/ hö>® zufr¤den˘ ˛e most frequent case occurs after /ö/, for stops and stopstrictives: (…'hEltst, -lqt, -lst) /Ú'hEltst/ erhält®÷ in addition: ('khaM∫, -M]f, -Mf) /'kam∫/ Kamπ˚ ('glanq, -nts, -ns) /'glanq/ Glanz˚ ('ganq, -nts, -ns) /'ganq/ ganz˚ (ö™M'∫ha˙ô, ö™M]'fa-, ö™M'fa-) /Em'∫a˙ó/ emπa«en˚ ('thüEnc, -nS) /'tKEnc/ Tren>÷ more: ('mUmps, -ms) /'mUmps/ Mumps˚ ('phüOmpt, -mt) /'pKOmpt/ prompt˚ (ö™nt'SUldIgô, ö™n'S-) /Ent'SUldIgó/ en˛uldigen (Ô § 5.2.3.1, too), ('sfI˙ks, -˙s) /'sfI˙ks/ S#inx˚ ('phU˙kt, -˙t) /'pU˙kt/ Punkt˘ 5.3.2.6. In fast speech, between vowels and in unstressed syllables, /b, g/ can be realized as (6, Ÿ): ('ha:b¢, -6¢) /'ha:bÈ/ habe˚ ('le:g¢, -Ÿ¢) /'le:gÈ/ lege÷ /t/ can become ([): ('ÊIt¢, 'ÊI[¢) /'bItÈ/ bitte˘ Under the same conditions, voiceless stops and constrictives may become half-voiced or totally voiced: (∂ås&hat…'dOX â¢'maXt, -∂-, -d-) /dashatÚ'dOx gÈ'maxt/ das hat er do> gema>t˚ (∂åS'Sa:fIÂ '∂OX&nIÂt, -Ñ-, -v-, ∂å'S-) /das'SafIÂ 'dOxnIÂt/ das (a‡' i> do> ni>t˚ (∂ås&≈UsIÂ'≈aX?, -Ω-, -z-) /dasmUsIÂ'maxó/ das muss i> ma>en˚ (∂ås'≈aXIÂ '∂OX&nIÂt, -ü-, -º-) /das'maxIÂ 'dOxnIÂt/ das ma>' i> do> ni>t (obviously, because of ambiguity for native speakers –which, however, does not coincide with foreigners' ambiguity!– this typical fast-speech neutralization is avoided). After pauses, voiced constrictive phonemes remain unchanged; whereas, after voiceless C they become half-voiced (but more often /z/ becomes voiceless): ('vi:n) /'vi:n/ W¤n˚ (∂ås'Ñas…) /das'vasÚ/ das Wasser˚ ('qhñanqIÂ) /'qvanqIÂ/ zwanzig˚ ('zi:bõ) /'zi:bó/ s¤ben˚ ('ºa:t&sa;m, -t'Ω-) /'Ka:tza:m/ ra_am˚ (&ZU‰na'lIst) /ZUKna'lIst/ Journali®˚ (t'ËU˙Í) /t'ZU˙Í/ D(u«el˚ (',a:) /'ja:/ ja˚ (∂ås'¿a:‰) /das'ja:K/ das Jahr˚ ('ºo:t) /'Ko:t/ rot˚ ('Süa˙k) /'SKa˙k/ 6rank˘ After voiceless stops, /K/ may become (X) (while phonotactically remaining /FK/): ('phüaes, 'phXaes) /'pKaes/ PrRs˚ ('thüe:tó, 'thXe:tó) /'tKe:tó/ treten˚ ('khüaes, 'khXaes) /'kKaes/ KrRs˘ Voiced stops are realized as half-voiced, both after pauses and after voiceless C: ('ÊU‰k) /'bUKk/ Burg˚ ('mEs&Êa;‰) /'mEsba:K/ messbar˚ ('∂e:nU,) /'de:nU˙/ Dehnu«˚ (&∂as∂u'öEt) /dasdu'Et/ das Duett˚ ('âu:t) /'gu:t/ gut˚ ('öaos&âe:ó) /'aosge:ó/ Qsgehen˘ 5.3.2.7. Geminates, whether normal or with an intense element, can be simplified. ˛us, N in final position: ('khOmõ, -m:, -m) /'kOmó/ kommen˚ ('öe:bõ, -mõ,

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-m:, -m) /'e:bó/ eben˚ ('nEnó, -n:, -n) /'nEnó/ nennen˚ ('hE˙ô, -˙:, -˙) /'hE˙ó/ hä«en˚ ('le:gô, -˙ô, -˙:, -˙) /'le:gó/ legen˘ Please, note that kommen and nennen can become identical with komm! and nenn! – however, in case of ambiguity, obviously, distinct forms are used. Geminates derived by assimilation can be reduced when they occur between stressed and unstressed syllables: ('li:bõs&Ñe;‰t, -mõ-, -õ-, -m-) /'li:bósve:Kt/ l¤benswert˚ ('ÊUnd¢s≈inIs&te;º,Um, -nn-, -n-, -mI-) /'bUndÈsminIste:KjUm/ Bundesmini®erium˚ ('öand…s, -nn-, -n-) /'and…s/ anders˚ ('öa˙g¢≥bõ, -˙˙-, -˙-) /'angÈge:bó/ a«egeben˘ In addition to ('Stüo:&m™˙¢) /'StKo:mE˙È/ Strohme«e˚ we can also have ('Stüo:m&m™˙¢, -&m-) /'StKo:mmE˙È/ Stromme«e˚ with possible reduction; however, in case of ambiguity, no reduction occurs. Geminate stops can be reduced to their second element, when they are very similar: ('öap&ÊIlt, 'öa&ÊIlt) /'apbIlt/ Abbild˚ ('ºa:t&∂aM∫…, 'ºa:&∂-) /'Ka:tdam∫Ú/ Raddamπer˚ ('mIt&thaeló, 'mI&th-) /'mIttaeló/ mittRlen˚ ('mIt&qh™;ló, 'mI&qh-) /'mItqE:ló/ mi˛ählen˚ ('vEk&khømõ, 'vE&kh-) /'vEkkOmó/ wegkommen˚ ('vEk&âe:ó, 'vE&â-) /'vEkge:ó/ weggehen˘ ˛e same holds for grooved constrictives: (∂ås'sElb¢, ∂ås'Ω-, ∂å's-) /das'zElbÈ/ dasselbe˚ (∂ås'SIf, ∂åS'S-, ∂å'S-) /das'SIf/ das 6i‡˚ ('öaes&Süa˙k, -S&S-, -&S-) /'aesSKa˙k/ Eis(rank˘ Instead, the /Âs/ sequence, as we have already seen, has a couple of possible variants: ('h°:Âst, -âst, -ÂÀt) /'h°:Âst/ hö>®˚ whereas /sÂ/ is only slightly modified: ('ÊIÀÂ«) /'bIsÂó/ bis(en˘ 5.3.2.8. From the above, a phonation-type di‡erence can become almost functional in three ways: ('öap&ÊIlt, 'öa&ÊIlt) /'apbIlt/ Abbild˚ in comparison with ('öa:pÍ) /'a:pÍ/ Apel and ('öa:bÍ) /'a:bÍ/ Abel˘ Let us also consider: ('mEndÍ&zo;n) /'mEndÍzo:n/ Mendelsohn˚ ('mEndÍs&so;n, -Ís&Ω-, -Í&s-) /'mEndÍszo:n/ Mendelssohn˘ If the geminates are produced by assimilation of place (of articulation), they can be reduced (provided the syllable of the first element is unstressed): (&öImmu'ze:ó, &öImu-) /Immu'ze:ó/ in Museen˚ (mIk'kha‰l, mI'kh-) /mIt'kaKl/ mit Karl˚ (&magnifi'qhEnq, &ma˙n-, &ma˙˙-, &ma˙-, -IfI-) /magnifi'qEnq/ Magnifizenz˚ (qhUm'bae&Spi;l, -m'm-, -'m-) /qUm'baeSpi:l/ zum BRsp¤l˚ (qhu&mInd¢s'∂as&∂a;, -Inn-, -In-) /qu'mIndÈst 'dasda:/ zuminde® das da˘ We have, though: ('öam&m™ldó) /'anmEldó/ anmelden˚ ('mIk&khømõ) /'mItkOmó/ mitkommen˚ ('Êºo:k&khaofè) /'bKo:tkaofó/ Brot kQfen˚ ('ºa:kâ¢&fa:º?, -º¡, -&fa;‰,, -‰n) /'Ka:tgÈfa:Kó/ Rad gefahren˚ ('öam&bIndó, 'öam&m-) /'anbIndó/ anbinden˚ ('öagn™s, -˙n-, -˙˙-) /'agnEs/ Agnes˚ ('öa˙≥bõ, 'öa˙&˙-, -e;mõ, -e;õ, -e;m) /'ange:bó/ a«eben˚ ('ÊUnd¢s, -nn-) /'bUndÈs/ Bundes˚ ('vandÈº…, -nn-) /'vandÈKÚ/ Wanderer˘ 5.3.2.9. In sequences of /n, l/ + voiceless constrictives, homorganic (and homo-phonic) stops can be inserted (although this characteristic denotes a less careful pronunciation which it is better not to follow): ('öamt, -mpt) /'amt/ Amt˚ ('âams, -mps) /'gams/ Gams˚ ('ºamS, -mpS) /'KamS/ Ram(˚ ('zEMf, -M]f) /'zEnf/ Senf˚ ('âans, -nts, -nq) /'gans/ Gans, ('∂i:nst, -ntst, -nqt) /'di:nst/ D¤n®˚ ('mEnS, -ntS, -nc) /'mEnS/ Men(˚ ('ma~Â, -~+Â, -~k) /'manÂ/ man>˚ ('hE˙t, -˙kt) /'hE˙t/ hä«t˚ ('hE˙st, -˙kst) /'hE˙st/ He«®˚ (…'hElst, -ltst, -lqt) /Ú'hElst/ erhell®˘ ˛is frequently occurs for /nz, lz/ as well: ('öUnz…, -ndz…, -nQ…) /'UnzÚ/ unser˚ ('öalzo, -dzo, -Qo) /'alzo/ also˘

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5.3.2.10. Certainly, the transcriptions seen thus far are useful to conveniently separate German spelling from its phonic structure, which might seem rather strange to foreigners. But this is reality. Here are some examples for reflection: ('öap&üaez¢) AbrRse˚ ('th™:kúIÂ÷ 'thE:k-) tägli>˚ ('mUnt&öa‰tó) Mundarten˚ ('öUn&öaofüIÂtIÂ, -f&üIÂ-) unQfri>tig˚ (f…'öap&üe;dU,) Verabredu«˚ (Ê¢'öa:p≈õ, -t≈õ) beatmen… It is obvious then that German has very complex consonant sequences; here we will give just one example: ('hE‰ps[t]&Êl™t…) Herb®blätter˘ Please, note carefully even the spelling sh /s˘h/: ('land¢s&haos÷halt) /'landÈshaoshalt/ LandeshQshalt. Stress 5.3.3.1. In long words and in sentences, there are unstressed syllables that alternate with stressed or half-stressed ones. Even rhythm groups follow the same principle; and all this is already clear from the transcriptions we have given. German compounds have particular patterns. ˛e most normal and widespread one shows a primary stress on the prominent syllable of the first lexeme and reduced stresses on the ex-prominent syllables of succeeding lexemes. Here are some examples of two-lexeme compounds: ('SIf&fa;‰t) 6i‡fahrt˚ ('∂aM∫&SIf) Damπ(i‡˚ ('Êa:n&ho;f) Bahnhof˚ ('öaezó&ba;n) Eisenbahn˚ ('ho:X&∂OYc) Ho>dS˛˚ ('füy:&StYk) Früh®ü$˚ ('öaoto&ba;n) Autobahn˚ (fa'mi:l,ó&na;m¢) Famil¤nname˚ ('mUnt-ha‰&mo;ni&ka) Mundharmonika˚ ('Su:&maX…) 6uma>er˘ It is useful to note that phonemic transcriptions, which do not mark secondary stresses, naturally imply such a reality. ˛erefore, pronunciations as the following for four of the compounds just seen are typically foreign-like (in this case Italian): ç('Sif:faRt, 'dam:Sif, 'ba:nof, 'Ok:døic)Ç. We cannot help ending with an observation on the compound 6uhma>er and its derived family name 6uma>er˚ which is generally pronounced by Spanish-, Portuguese-, and Italian-speaking people with peculiar stress patterns that we will illustrate here using the Italian ones: currently ç(Su'ma:keR), up to an ugly hybrid, which is neither German nor Romance: ç('Su:maxeR)Ç. 5.3.3.2. Let us also consider: (Âe'mi:&fa;z…) ≥em¤faser˚ (Âe'mi:&v™‰k) ≥em¤werk˚ ('â°:t¢&öInsti&thu;t) GoethRn®itut˚ ('fa:‰&phúa;n) Fahrplan˚ ('öan&Stalt) An®alt˚ ('mIt&tha;k) Mittag˚ ('fa:t…&lant) Vaterland˚ ('fElt&≈a‰Sal) Feldmar(all (and often ('fElt≈a‰&Sal, &fElt'≈a‰Sal) for rhythmic reasons). With three lexemes (paying attention that the kind of stress we mark here as (÷) is weaker than (&) and is not normally written, even because it can be completely reduced, although its syllable maintains the original characteristics of length, vowel timbre, and consonant consistency, including possible çaspirationÇ): (Âe'mi:÷fa;z…&v™‰k) ≥em¤faserwerk˚ ('mIt÷tha;ks&qhaet) MittagszRt˚ ('fa:t…÷lants&li;b¢, -nq-) Vaterlandsl¤be˘ More: ('vIlt÷Sñae˙s&khø∫) Wild(wRnskoπ˚ ('SñIm&öan÷Stalt) 6wimman®alt˚ ('na:X&≈It÷tha;k) Na>mittag˚ ('öalt&ho;X÷∂OYc) Altho>dS˛˚ ('haopt&öaof÷âa;b¢)

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HQptQfgabe˚ ('StOY…&öaen÷ne;m…) StSerRnnehmer˚ ('vElt&öan÷SaoU,) Weltan(Qu«˚ ('âElt&öan÷la;g¢) Geldanlage˚ ('na:X&öa‰÷baetó) na>arbRten˘ 5.3.3.3. However, rhythm often produces changes, especially in intonemes. ˛us, stress patterns as the following are actually more frequent, although they are not always fully perceived (or accepted): ('SñIm÷öan&Stalt, 'na:X÷≈It&tha;k, 'öalt÷ho:X&∂OYc, 'haopt÷öaof&âa;b¢, 'StOY…÷öaen≠m…, 'vElt÷öan&SaoU,, 'âElt÷öan&la;g¢, 'na:X÷öa‰&baetó), and (&vIlt'Sñae˙&khø∫), too. With four lexemes we can have: ('öaezó÷ba;M&fa;‰÷phúa;n) Eisenbahnfahrplan˚ ('na:X÷≈It÷tha;ks&qhaet) Na>mittagszRt÷ but rhythm often makes ('na;X÷≈It&tha;ks÷qhaet), or even (na;X'≈It÷tha;ks&qhaet) preferable. With five or six (lexemes): ('khüaft&fa;‰&qhOYk 'haft&∫húIÂtf…&zIÂÈºU,) Kra⁄fahrzSgha⁄pfli>tversi>eru«˚ ('Spi:l&va;º? 'öaosó&handÍsâ¢&z™l÷Saft) Sp¤lwarenQ•enhandelsgesell(a⁄˚ ('ho:X&ÑakuUm 'lIÂt&Êo;gô&S≈™lq÷öo;fè) Ho>vakuum-Li>tbogen-6melzofen˘ ˛ey generally attenuate the beginning, becoming: (&khüaft÷fa;‰'-, &Spi;l÷va;º?'-, &ho;X÷ÑakuUm'-). 5.3.3.4. ˛ere are even cases where secondary stresses actually determine the meaning of certain compounds: ('∂aM∫÷SIf&fa;‰t) Damπ(i‡fahrt çsteamboat voyageÇ, ('∂aM∫&SIf÷fa;‰t) Damπ(i‡fahrt çsteam navigationÇ. In cases such as these, of course, rhythmic fluctuations are less frequent, although context must (and can) help very much. We also find some compounds which do not bear primary stress on their first lexeme, as: (&,a;‰'qhe:nt) Jahrzehnt˚ (&öo;st…'mo:n&ta;k) O®ermontag˚ (&Sña‰q'Ñaes) (warzwR•˚ (&ºo;t'khüOYq&Sñ™st…) RotkrSz(we®er˚ (&za;‰'bºYkô) Saarbrü$en˘ Others have more than one primary stress: ('Êlao 'gºy:n) blQ-grün, ('∂Um 'StOlq) dumm-®olz˚ ('Súe:sñIÂ 'hOlStaen) 6leswig-Hol®Rn÷ however, they can become (&Êlao'gºy:n, &∂Um'StOlq, &Súe;sñIÂ'hOlStaen), mostly in preintonemes. Let us observe: ('Êlao 'gºy:n) blQ-grün çblue and green (¤ two colors put alongside, as in a flag or sports †-shirt)Ç and ('Êlao&gºy:n) blQgrün çbluish green, water green (¤ two colors blended together, as painters do)Ç. 5.3.3.5. ˛e faster speech becomes, the more non-primary stresses can be reduced — dropped, mostly in preintonemes. On the contrary, if speech becomes slower, the stresses can be restored. In particular in intonemes, the last non-strong stress can often be strengthened (we will mark it only here with (“)): ('öaoto“ba;n÷ 'öan“Stalt÷ 'öalt&ho;X“∂OYc÷ 'haopt&öaof“âa;b¢)÷ besides, ('öaezó÷ba;M&fa;‰“phúa;n, -“fa;‰÷phúa;n÷ &Spi;l&va;º?'öaosó&handÍsâ¢&z™l“Saft, -â¢“z™l÷Saft÷ &ho;X&ÑakuUm'lIÂt&Êo;gô&S≈™lq“öo;fè, -“S≈™lq÷öo;fè). ˛ere are frequent cases of (homographic) compounds with (stressed or unstressed) prefix grammemes, which (in their unitary –non-inflected– forms) is the most important element of semantic di‡erentiation: überse˛en »('öy:b…&z™qó) çto pass overÇ, ”(&öyb…'zEqó, &öY-) çto translateÇ, umfahren »('öUM&fa;º?, -º¡, -a;‰,, -a;‰n) çto run downÇ, ”(öUM'fa:º?, -º¡, -a:‰,, -a:‰n) çto drive/sail roundÇ. Generally, compounds with unstressed monosyllabic su‚xes have /I, È, ó, õ, Í,

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Ú/, even without secondary stresses (except for rhythmic reasons, when several unstressed syllables are arranged in sequence, as happens for (-laen) -lRn˚ (-U,) -u« as well): ('v§Â«túIÂ) wö>entli> (('v§Â«t&úIÂ«, -÷úIÂ«) wö>entli>en]. 5.3.3.6. Other unstressed monosyllabic su‚xes always bear a secondary stress: [(-&ba;‰) -bar˚ (-&haft) -ha⁄˚ (-&haet) -hRt˚ (-&kaet) -kRt˚ (-&la˙) -la«˚ (-&lI˙) -li«˚ (-&lo;s) -los˚ (-&ma;l) -mal˚ (-&za;l) -sal˚ (-&za;m) -sam˚ (-&Saft) -(a⁄˚ (-&tu;m) -tum˚ (-&føl) -voll˚ (-&v™‰q) -wär_]÷ for example: ('ºaen&haet) RRnhRt˚ ('öEnt&úo;s) endlos˘ Let us further consider (and notice that not fully stressed grammemes have no çaspirationÇ): (-IÂ&kaet) -igkRt˚ (-&haftIÂ÷kaet) -ha⁄igkRt˚ (-&lo;zIÂ÷kaet) -losigkRt˘ ˛ere are further rhythmic oscillations: ('öam&m™‰kU,?, 'öamm™‰&kU,?) Anmerku«en˚ ('öa‰&baetÈ&ºInó, 'öa‰baetÈ&-) ArbRterinnen÷ mostly with un-\ ('öUn&öan÷St™ndIÂ, 'öUn÷öan&St™ndIÂ) unan®ändig˚ ('öUM&fo‰÷zIÂtIÂ, 'öUM÷fo‰&zIÂtIÂ) unvorsi>tig˚ as for unQfri>tig (at the end of § 3.2), for which emphasis or emotion often produce: (&öUnöan'St™ndIÂ, &öUnöaof'üIÂtIÂ, &öUMfo‰'zIÂtIÂ). Let us finally recall that German words are not all stressed on their first syllable (as too hastily certain textbooks çdescribeÇ or çprescribeÇ), mostly for prefixed forms or (even old) loanwords: (zo'fO‰t) sofort˚ (â¢'nao) genQ˚ (â¢'fUndó) gefunden˚ (mo'mEnt) Moment˚ (ma'Si:n¢) Ma(ine÷ (phüo'fEso‰) Professor (with its çtroublesomeÇ (&phüof™'so:º?, -º¡, -‰,, -‰n) Professoren]˘ In addition, we find forms such as: (∂a'bae) dabR˚ (hI'naos) hinQs˚ (vo'he:‰) woher˚ which for emphasis become: ('∂a&bae, 'hI&naos, 'vo&he;‰). 5.3.3.7. Another characteristic of German stressing is final çdestressingÇ of verbal forms, mainly auxiliaries and modals (and suchlike), infinitives and past participles. As a matter of fact, instead of an çexpectableÇ stress pattern, which can normally be found –in various languages– at the end of intonemes, we find this kind of çdestressingÇ which corresponds to the following typology. With compound verbal forms (thus including: future, conditional, passive, modals with dependent infinitives): das 'dür⁄e 'ri>tig &sRn÷ s¤ 'mag 'Re>t &haben÷ s¤ 'soll &sehr 'tü>tig &sRn÷ i> &habe 'Cola be&®ellt÷ er i® '(lafen ge&ga«en÷ i> &habe es 'ni>t ge&wollt÷ i> &bin na> 'Rom ge&fahren÷ er wird 'wohl zu 'HQse &sRn÷ er &i® ver'ha⁄et &worden˘ Also: er &hat ihn 'fahren &lassen÷ s¤ &hatten mir den 'Br¤f '(rRben &helfen÷ das 'Auto &wird bis 'morgen repa&r¤rt÷ i> muss 'je˛t na> 'HQse &gehen÷ i> &würde 'gern 'Rot&wRn &trinken÷ i> &habe ihn 'fahren ge&lehrt÷ &will® du ins 'Kino &gehen? Naturally, the çstrangeÇ e‡ect of destressing increases when there is more than one infinitive form: 'Karin hat den 'Br¤f &(rRben &müssen÷ s¤ &hätten 'ni>t &kommen &sollen÷ i> &habe um '3 &Uhr '(lafen &gehen &müssen˘ 5.3.3.8. Cases such as the following are interesting too: 'ma>en S¤ d¤ 'Re>nu« &fertig˚ 'halten s¤ d¤ 'Pässe be&rRt˚ where the non-conjugated form of the verb is an indeclinated adjective; the old orthography used to give: fertigma>en˚ berRthalten˚ instead of: fertig ma>en˚ berRt halten˘ For subordinate clauses, we have conjugated forms in the last position, infinitive

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ones with um … zu: s¤ 'kann 'ni>t &kommen, &wRl s¤ 'morgen &sehr 'früh 'Qf&®ehen &muss (except when dependent infinitives are more than two: s¤ i® &sehr 'müde, &wRl s¤, 'hSte 'Morgen, 'sehr &früh hat 'Qf&®ehen &müssen÷ i> 'ho‡e, &dass er d¤ 'Re>nu« &hat be'zahlen &können÷ i> 'ho‡e, &dass s¤ &Rne 'nSe 'Wohnu« hat 'finden &können]÷ i> 'für>te, &dass er 'Re>t &hat÷ der 'Arzt &wollte 'wissen, &ob er '‡ber ge&habt &habe÷ s¤ 'sagt, dass &ihre 'Kinder im 'Garten &sp¤lten÷ i> 'glQbe, &dass s¤ 'ni>t 'h¤r &i®÷ i> 'wR•, dass er vor &zwR 'Jahren &ope'r¤rt &worden &i®÷ i> 'brQ>e 'ni>t zu &antworten÷ es i® 'immer 'besser, 'pünktli> &anzu&kommen÷ um 'pünktli> &anzu&kommen, &müssen wir d¤ 'U-&Bahn &nehmen˘ ˛e constructions with modals and infinitives in the last position are to be noticed too: du 'sollte® zum 'Arzt &gehen˘ With inflected separable verbs, postponed particles generally bear primary stresses ((')); however, it is often weaker (up to a secondary degree), thus we will indicate it here with (“): s¤ 'kommt 'morgen {an˚ i> 'lege es {bR˚ du 'ruf® {an˚ er 'gab den 'Kamπ {Qf˚ das 'Da> 'spri«t {über˘ Let us add some typical examples, since the concepts expressed by some words can (or must) come out: 'Anna darf 'ni>t &mitkommen÷ der 'Br¤f &wurde von 'mir ge&(r¤ben. More: &kann man 'h¤r 's>wimmen? (two concepts), however: 'können S¤ Kla'v¤r &sp¤len? something like… çto pianoÇ; 'morgen˚ &muss i> 'fl¤gen÷ i> muss 'morgen &fl¤gen [¤ fl¤gen is already known). ‹en no complement or predicate is present, destressing certainly does not occur, as in the following sentences, where verbs are preceded only by words (and concepts) with very low information power: 'kann i> 'mal telefo'n¤ren?÷ er 'fuhr in d¤ 'Fer¤n, um &si> zu er'holen÷ er 'l¤• das Re®Q'rant, 'ohne zu be'zahlen÷ 'bitte, 'blRben S¤ &do> 'si˛en˘ Let us further consider the following examples: das i® be'®immt 'unab&si>tli> ge&(ehen÷ er hat ge'sagt, dass es 'unab&si>tli> ge&(ehen &i®÷ er hat ge'sagt, dass es 'unab&si>tli> ge&ma>t &worden &i®÷ er hat ge'sagt, dass es 'unab&si>tli> ge&ma>t &worden sRn &kann÷ er hat ge'sagt, dass es 'unab&si>tli> ge&ma>t &worden sRn &könnte˘ Here, the particular syntactic structure of German subordinate clauses, with verb phrases at the end of sentences, makes it possible for the last primary stress to be followed by a considerable number of syllables. Intonation 5.3.4. û 5.4 shows neutral German intonation. Each tonogram must be analyzed very carefully. Here we will simply provide examples for the three marked intonemes. In § 5.3.1.1, the third and fourth utterance (of the second group of examples, before the reduced-form list) show mid-pitch parentheses (Ô § 13.24 of NPT/HPh), which is also typical of German and French. Here is another example: … und, &wenn es 'mögli> zu 'ma>en &wäre, … Others may be found in the transcriptions of the text (§ 5.5): /./: (öIÂ'su:X¢ öaem'm°:bÍg¢&S™ft3 3) /IÂ'zu:xÈ aen'm°:bÍgÈSEft./ I> su>e Rn Möbelge(ä⁄. /?/: (¿'khOmõzi öaos'ö°:st…&ºaeÂ1 1) /¿'kOmózi aos'°:stÚKaeÂ?/ Kommen S¤ Qs Ö®errR>?

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/÷/: (¿'fa:º?zi naX5∂YsÍ&dø‰f1 1| {ö&o;d…'mak∂¢&bU‰k3 3}) /¿'fa:Kózi na:x'dYsÍdOKf÷ {o:dÚ'makdÈbUKk.}/ Fahren S¤ na> Düsseldorf oder Magdeburg? û 5.4. German preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 1 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 5 1 1)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

Other accents 5.4.0. As we have already said, we think it important to present, in addition to neutral pronunciation, at least some accents, not only for useful comparisons, but also to be ready to grasp the pronunciation characteristics of German outside the former çWest GermanyÇ. We will start from former çEast GermanyÇ (ex ∂∂®, ¤ the present-day north-eastern part of reunified Germany), to Austria, Switzerland, and South Tyrol (or Alto Adige), to understand di‡erent accents better and more quickly. ˛ese observations could even be useful in order to acquire a more typical accent among the last three, mainly if somebody wanted (or had) to be in preferential contact with those inhabitants, more than with those of Germany. It could also be interesting to see –in NPT/HPh– the phonosyntheses of Pennsylvania German˚ or çPennsylvania DubÇ (as it is called, § 21.12) and various Germanic dialects spoken in Germany (NPT/HPh § 17.27), Austria (NPT/HPh § 17.28), Switzerland (NPT/HPh § 17.20), Luxembourg (NPT/HPh § 17.22), France (NPT/HPh § 17.21), and Italy (NPT/HPh § 16.2, 16.12, 16.15-6, 16.18). North-eastern-Germany German 5.4.1.1. ˛e first vocogram shows the vowels of the ex-∂∂® mediatic (and neutral) accent. It is not the local pronunciation of Berlin or of Saxony. As will be seen shortly, by comparing this vocogram with that of û 5.1, long stressed V are actually monotimbric diphthongs, or vocalic doublings, with a slight upward movement. Besides, /E, E:, §, O/ are slightly closer (su‚ciently so to use di‡erent phonetic symbols: (™, ™™, #, ø)). We just give some examples to directly show the di‡erence, thanks to phonetic transcriptions: ('fi;il) /'fi:l/ v¤l˚ ('ze;eó) /'ze:ó/ sehen˚ ('Sp™;™t) /'SpE:t/ spät˚ and: ('Êa;an) /'ba:n/ Bahn˚ ('zo;o) /'zo:/ so˚ ('âu;ut) /'gu:t/ gut˚ ('thy;y‰) /'ty:K/ Tür˚ ('S°;°n) /'S°:n/ (ön˘

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˛e two realizations of /È/ are slightly lower: ('öUnz‘ºÈ, -ndz-, -nQ-) /'UnzÈKÈ/ unsere÷ whereas, the possible vocalization of /K, Ú/ is closer: ('vas…, -x‰, -x˜, -xº, -x) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˘ 5.4.1.2. By comparing the vocogram provided, it can be seen that the second elements of /ae, ao, OY/ are more central (and even lower for /OY/): (aÙ, aP, ø+). In addition, especially the first element of /ao/ is slightly backer and the first of /OY/ is slightly higher, and indeed it crosses the edge towards the upper box: ('öaÙs) /'aes/ Eis˚ ('ÊlaP) /'blao/ blQ˚ ('nø+) /'nOY/ nS˘ ˛ere is little di‡erence for the two xenophonemes /eI, oU/; while, for the possible first-element variants of /’ae, ’ao, ’a÷ ’OY/ they coincide. We add for C that there is quite a frequent change of voiceless constrictives (and /z/), after /n, l/, into homorganic sequences of stops + constrictives, or even into real stopstrictives (Ô § 5.3.2.9). ≈nally, before pauses, /kò/ can be realized as a (pre)velar stopstrictive (w, ∞): ('khüi;ik, -w, -∞) /'kKi:k/ Kr¤g˚ ('tha;ak, -w, -∞) /'ta:k/ Tag˚ ('qhu;uk, -w, -∞) /'qu:k/ Zug˘ However, all these realizations are not at all recommendable. ˛e tonogram shows intonation, which sounds slightly less peculiar than the çwesternÇ neutral one, approaching what may be called çinternationalÇ. /u:, ’u/ (u;u, u) /U/ (U) /o:, ’o/ (o;o, o) /È/ (È, ‘˘º, º‘, ºÈò) /O/ (ø, ’ø) /Ú/ (…) {“ (x)}

/i:, ’i/ (i;i, i), /y:, ’y/ (y;y, y) /I/ (I), /Y/ (Y) /e:, ’e/ (e;e, e), /°:, ’°/ (°;°, °) /E/ (™, ’™), /§/ (#, ’#)÷ /E:/ (™;™, ’™;) /a/ (a), /a:/ (a;a)

/oU/* (o;o, ±øU) /OY/ (ø+) {(’Ö+)} {/’a/ (å)} /ao/ (aP) {(’åP)}

/eI/* (e;e, ±™I) /ae/ (aÙ) {(’åÙ)} / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 5 2 1)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

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Austrian German 5.4.2.1. ˛is accent is the çmediaticÇ one, which prevails in radio and television broadcastings and is half-way between the slightest and broadest accents. ˛ese observations are drawn from our (growing) sound archives. çLongÇ monophthongs are realized as geminate or doubled vocoids and have a shorter duration although gemination gives an impression of greater fullness, which almost equalizes true length: not (é:), but (éé). It is at once clear even that the articulations corresponding to /I, Y, U÷ E[:], §, O/ are closer than in neutral German, so much so that they are represented as (i, y, u÷ ™[™], #, ø) (in less broad accents we find (I°, Y°, U°÷ E[E]°, §°, O°), with the unstressed variants (™, #, ø), slightly closer than in neutral pronunciation): ('fiS) /'fIS/ „(˚ ('fyMf) /'fYnf/ fünf˚ ('hunt) /'hUnt/ Hund˚ ('™lf) /'Elf/ elf˚ ('Sp™™t) /'SpE:t/ spät˚ ('q6#lf) /'qv§lf/ zwölf˚ ('øft) /'Oft/ o⁄˘ Certain words have /e:/ (ee) for /E:/. 5.4.2.2. Both /a/ and /a:/ are back-central: ('StAt) /'Stat/ Stadt˚ ('StAAt) /'Stat/ Staat (in less broad accents we find (a, aA) (and (Å, ÅÅ) in refined, or a‡ected, ones), whereas in broader ones we have: (å, åå) and (Ø, ØØ) as well (which will certainly be noted at once). Austrian traditional dialects generally present phonemic opposition between a back a and a fronter one, both short and long. It is possible to find this timbre distinction in language too, where the back timbre is used in traditional words, whereas the fronter one is used in loanwords and neologisms, as happens for instance in Bank\ /'bA˙k/ ('ÊA˙k) çbenchÇ, /'ba˙k/ ('Êa˙k) çbank, gambling tableÇ. A very broad accent has /e:, °:, o:/ (eÙ, #°, øo): ('vee, ≠'veÙ) /'ve:/ weh˚ ('Ê°°, ≠'Ê#°) /'b°:/ Bö˚ ('soo, ≠'søo) /'zo:/ so˘ 5.4.2.3. /È/ is realized as (Ù, È), with the possible vocalization of /K, Ú/ (å) (with consonantal accompaniments too); thus we have: ('unsÈºÙ) /'UnzÈKÈ/ unsere and ('vAs…, -å‰, -å˜, -åº, -å) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˘ ˛e symbol (å) corresponds to the one currently used, though less rigorously, in neutral German as well, for (√), which on the contrary is appropriate for less broad Austrian accents that have (√ï) (and even (x÷)); whereas the broadest accents have (a[í]). It is to be noted that (Ù) /È/ is front-central, ¤ considerably fronter than in neutral German. ˛e most refined or a‡ected accents may reach (Ùº, Ù√) for /ÈK, Ú/ (Ô the last vocogram but one). Moving to diphthongs, we can see that /OY/ has just a higher first element, while /ae, ao/ are decidedly di‡erent, (ÄÙ, åø): ('ÄÙs) /'aes/ Eis˚ ('Êlåø) /'blao/ blQ˚ ('nøY) /'nOY/ nS˘ Less broad accents have, (ÅÙ, Aø, O°), respectively, while the broadest ones have (EÙ, ∏ø, √Y) (as in Vienna, where even (πÉ, Øø, ∏ê) occur, and even (O,), as a compromise, and (@°, §°) as well). Xenophonemes are slightly closer than in neutral German: /eI, oU/ (ee, ™i÷ oo, øu). 5.4.2.4. In the second vocogram, two further typical diphthongs are evident (although marked in grey, since they only occur in local family and place names), (iÙ, uÙ) /iÈ, uÈ/: ('∂iÙks, '∂iiks) D¤x˚ ('ºuÙq, 'ºuu™q) Rue˛˘ No variant of /ae, ao, OY/ in

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reduced forms are given, because they tend to remain as indicated; nevertheless, we have shown /’a/ (√), which is possible in reduced forms. In comparison with neutral German, there are some di‡erences in phonemic length too, as in: ('Alt…&tum) /'altÚtu:m/ Altertum˚ ('Spiil&Êa‰) /'Spi:lba:K/ sp¤lbar˚ ('hA‰q) /'ha:Kq/ Harz˚ ('ÊA‰S) /'ba:KS/ Bar(˚ ('Sust…) /'Su:stÚ/ 6u®er÷ (âÙ'Sloos) /gÈ'SlOs/ Ge(loss/-o•˘ /u:, ’u/ (uu, u) /U/ (u) f /o:, ’o/ (oo, o) /È/ (Ù, ºÙò, ºÈ, È˘º) /O/ (ø, ’ø) /Ú/ (…) {“ (å)} /a/ (A), /a:/ (AA)

/i:, ’i/ (ii, i), /y:, ’y/ (yy, y) f /I/ (i), /Y/ (y) /e:, ’e/ (ee, e), /°:, ’°/ (°°, °) /E/ (™, ’™), /§/ (#, ’#), /E:/ (™™, ’™;)

/uÈ/* (uÙ)

/iÈ/* (iÙ)

/oU/* (oo, ±øu) /OY/ (øY) {/’a/ (√)} /ao/ (åø)

/eI/* (ee, ±™i) /ae/ (ÄÙ)

/i:, ’i/ (±ii, ±i), /y:, ’y/ (yy, y) /I/ (±I), /Y/ (Y) /e:, ’e/ (±ee, ±e), /°:, ’°/ (±°°, ±°) /E/ (±E, ±’™), /§/ (±§, ±’#) /E:/ (±EE, ±’™;)

/e:/ (≠≠eÙ, ee), /°:/ (≠≠#°) /ae/ (±ÅÙ, ≠EÙ, ≠≠πÉ) /…/ (±±Ù√, ±x, ≠a)

/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/?/ (2 Ç 1 2)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 2 1)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2) /u:, ’u/ (±uu, ±u) /U/ (±U) /o:, ’o/ (±oo, ±o) /È/ (±Ù, ±ºÙò, ±Èº, ±ºÈ) /O/ (±O, ±’ø) /Ú/ {(…) “) (±√) /a/ (±a), /a:/ (±aA)

/ÈK-/ (±±Ùº-) /o:/ (≠≠øo) /OY/ (O°, O,, ≠√Y, ≠≠∏ê, ≠≠@°, ≠≠§°) /ao/ (±Aø, ≠∏ø, ≠≠Øø) /a[:]/ (±±Å[Å], ≠å[å], ≠≠Ø[Ø])

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˛e last two vocograms show both less broad ((±)) vowel realizations (up to some a‡ected ones, (±±)), and –on the contrary– some of the broadest realizations ((≠)). 5.4.2.5. Moving to C˚ we find that often /˙ò, ˙0/ become /˙kò, ˙k0/ (but they are not recommendable): ('qÄÙtu˙, -˙k) /'qaetU˙/ ZRtu« (however, even without (k), the nasal is always velar, not uvular, in /Kó/ as well: (SpA'qiiºô, -ii‰˙, -ii‰n)). /t, d/ are more dental than denti-alveolar: (∂e't™kto‰) /de'tEktoK/ Detektor÷ often /kò, kl, gl/ can be prevelar or retracted palatal (and /kò/ may even become stopstrictive, but these variants are best avoided): ('tAAk, -´, -∞, -©, -k) /'ta:k/ Tag˚ ('∂u˙kl…, -”´l-, -N©-) /'dU˙klÚ/ dunkler˚ ('ºeeâl…, -"l-, -ˆl-) /'Ke:glÚ/ Regler˘ Voiceless stops and stopstrictives are not çaspiratedÇ (except in less broad pronunciations), as we have just seen for /q/: ('pool) /'po:l/ Pol˚ ('toon) /'to:n/ Ton˚ ('kint) /'kInt/ Kind˚ ('∫unt) /'∫Unt/ Pfund˚ ('cAko) /'cako/ T(ako˘ Voiced stops are half-voiced, (Ê, ∂, â); but they can also be (b, d, g), between voiced phones, again in less broad accents; however, in the broadest ones, we generally find (p, t, k): ('ÊuuÊÙ, -6Ù) /'bu:bÈ/ Bube (often we have (é6é) /ébé/), ('∂uu∂ó) /'du:dó/ Duden˚ ('âeeâô) /'ge:gó/ gegen. On the other hand, within words, b˚ d˚ g followed by heterosyllabic /n, l/ can become /b, d, g/ (instead of /p, t, k/, as in neutral German pronunciation, which has neutralization): ('ø‰∂nu˙) /'OKdnU˙/ Ordnu«˚ ('m°°âliÂ) /'m°:klIÂ/ mögli>. No glottal stop is used, except in less broad accents: (iÂ'™sÙ) /IÂ'EsÈ/ i> esse˚ (te'AAt…) /te'a:tÚ/ †eater˘ 5.4.2.6. Among constrictives, we find a greater variation (than in neutral German) for v˚ mostly when initial: ('v™‰s, 'f-) /'fEKs/ Vers˚ ('fiip…, 'v-) /'vi:pÚ/ Viper˘ Normally, /z/ is /s/ (s) (while we find (Ω, z) only in less broad accents, and more easily after C]\ ('sAAgô) /'za:gó/ sagen˚ ('Also) /'alzo/ also˚ ('ºÄÙsó) /'Kaezó/ rRsen (then identical to ('ºÄÙsó) /'Kaesó/ rR•en]˘ In words such as Stil˚ Strateg¤˚ unlike neutral German, /st/ is preferred to /St/: ('stiil) /'Sti:l/˚ (&stºAte'gii) /StKate'gi:/ (although they are both used, in both accents). In addition, /j/ is an approximant, (j): ('jAA) /'ja:/ ja; generally, /x/ is velar, (x): ('nAAx) /'na:x/ na>. For /KÂ/ we have /Kx/: ('∂u‰x) /'dUKÂ/ dur>; for /-IÂ/ we have /-Ik/: ('q6Anqik) /'qvanqIÂ/ zwanzig˚ for /òÂ/ we find /k/: ('kiinA) /'Âi:na/ ≥ina˚ but: (me&lA~Âo'lii) /mela˙ko'li:/ Melan>ol¤˘ Often /Â/ is realized as a postpalatal, (…), mostly in Vienna. ˛e most widely used articulation for /K/ is a uvular constrictive, (º), with the possibility of postnuclear vocalization (as seen in the first part of this section), which coexists with a fairly widespread alveolar trill or tap, (R, r) (even velarized, (R, 5)). ˛is is mainly a non-urban characteristic (but also widespread in Vienna, although alternating with (º, K)), which is best avoided, even if it does not sound peculiar: ('ºAA‰÷ 'RAAR, 'rAAr, -AAå) /'Ka:K/ rar˘ Although, of course, it is certainly not recommendable, we want to mention that the typical broad cennese l is a velarized alveolar unilateral, (÷), which may occur in every position, although it normally alternates with (l), even in the broad-

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est and most typical speakers. In the broadest accents (as in the traditional local dialect – see the cennese phonosynthesis, § 17.28 of NPT/HPh]˚ we find velar (ı, ”), in the sequences /kl, gl÷ kÍ, gÍ/. In cennese pronunciation again, in addition to (“) (and (”)), we often find it vocalized in (,) (as in the dialect): ('Spiiâ”, -â,, 'ees“, -s,) /'Spi:gÍ, 'e:zÍ/ Sp¤gel˚ Esel. 5.4.2.7. In non-neutral pronunciation, simple word-internal voiceless intersyllabic /0/, after (short) stressed V, are realized as restrained (but evident) geminates, which we indicate with superscript symbols of the first element, in the variant form notated only here, (00): ('Støpõ÷ 'Støppõ) /'StOpó/ ®oppen˚ ('v™t…÷ 'v™tt…) /'vEtÚ/ Wetter˚ ('tA∫…÷ 'tA∫∫…) /'ta∫Ú/ taπer˚ ('siqó÷ 'siqqó) /'zIqó/ si˛en˚ ('vAs…÷ 'vAss…) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˚ ('vASó÷ 'vASSó) /'vaSó/ wa(en˚ ('siÂ…÷ 'siÂÂ…) /'zIÂÚ/ si>er˚ ('mAxô÷ 'mAxxô) /'maxó/ ma>en˘ ˛e insertion of a homorganic stop between /n, l/ and voiceless constrictives or /z/ (Ô § 5.3.2) is possible, although not particularly widespread. ˛ere are some di‡erences in stressing: (kA'fee) /'kafe÷ ka'fe:/ Ka‡ee˚ ('lAAÊø‰, lA'Êoo‰) /la'bo:K/ Labor˚ (tA'ÊAk) /'ta[:]bak÷ ta'bak/ Tabak˚ (pø‰'tii‰, pø‰'tjee) /pOK'tje:/ Port¤r÷ Motor ('mootø‰, mo'too‰) /'mo:to:‰, mo'to:‰/˘ Austrian intonation is easily recognized because of its (slightly rising) half-low stressed syllables and (falling) mid unstressed syllables, occurring between them in preintonemes; mostly the interrogative intoneme (and the suspensive one too) have particular movements, which can be seen in the tonogram. Swiss German 5.4.3.1. Even for this accent we will add, when relevant but without further figures, some more non-neutral characteristics, taken from our sound archives. ˛e main accent illustrated is the mediatic one – something in between the broadest “ most local ones and a neutralized, unmarked, accent – expressly acquired. ˛e first vocogram shows the short and long çmonophthongsÇ; actually, in this accent çlongÇ vowels are diphthongs with narrow movements: ('fiil) /'fi:l/ v¤l˚ ('f5yy) /'fKy:/ früh˚ ('âuut) /'gu:t/ gut˚ ('Êeet) /'be:t/ Beet˚ ('°°l) /'°:l/ Öl˚ ('Ñoo) /'vo:/ wo˚ ('SpEEt) /'SpE:t/ spät (which is very stable and typical) ('StaAt) /'Sta:t/ Staat˘ ˛e last two have non-neutral broad variants: (πE) and (åå) (or (åA) as well, which is typical of Bern, and (ù∏), typical of Zurich). (˛e phonosynthesis in § 17.20 of NPT/HPh shows the characteristics of Zurich 6wyzertü˛ {which is Alemannic}, with still more di‡erent realizations.) Among short V, /I, Y, U/ have closer realizations (i, y, u): ('fiS) /'fIS/ „(˚ ('fyMf) /'fYnf/ fünf˚ ('hun∂) /'hUnt/ Hund÷ /E, §, O/ are relatively open: ('Elf) /'Elf/ elf˚ ('q6§lf) /'qv§lf/ zwölf˚ ('Oft) /'Oft/ o⁄ (with unstressed taxophones (™, #, ø)). For the spelling ä˚ we can also find a broad non-neutral realization (π): ('fElt, ≠'fπlt) /'fElt/ fällt÷ /a/ is back-central (A) (which, in broad marked pronunciation, is rounded too, (ù), or fully back, (å)): ('StAt) /'Stat/ Stadt˘

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5.4.3.2. For /È/ we have (Ù), in every context, since /K/ is not uvular: (âÙ'5aA∂Ù) /gÈ'Ka:dÈ/ gerade˚ ('unsÙRÙ) /'UnzÈKÈ/ unsere˚ ('unsÙR) /'Unz…/ unser˘ Besides, we generally find (-Ùn, -Ùm, -Ùl) for /ó, õ, Í/: ('faARÙn) /'fa:Kó/ fahren˚ ('looΩÙm) /'lo:zõ/ losem˚ ('eeΩÙl) /'e:zÍ/ Esel˘ Only in very careful pronunciation, can we find (ó, õ, Í), and (…, √‰, √˜, √º) as well, even for speakers lacking /K/ (º). Neutral Swiss diphthongs are /ae, ao, OY/ (aÙ, Ao, OI): ('aÙΩ) /'aes/ Eis˚ ('ÊlAo) /'blao/ blQ˚ ('nOI) /'nOY/ nS÷ in the broadest accents we find: /ae/ (EI, ÄI), /ao/ (ÄU, ∏U), /OY/ (êI, oÙ). Xenophonemes are decidedly closer than in neutral German: /eI, oU/ (ee, ei÷ oo, ou). /i:, ’i/ (ii, i), /I/ (i) /y:, ’y/ (yy, y), /Y/ (y)

/u:, ’u/ (uu, u), /U/ (u) /o:, ’o/ (oo, o)

/e:, ’e/ (ee, e), /°:, ’°/ (°°, °) /È/ (Ù, ÙR, RÙ), /Ú/ (ÙR) /E/ (E, ’™), /§/ (§, ’#), /E:/ (EE, ’™;)

/O/ (O, ’ø) /a:/ (aA), /a/ (A) /uÈ/ (uÙ)

/iÈ/ (iÙ), /yÈ/ (yÙ) /eI/* (ee, ±ei)

/oU/* (oo, ±ou) /OY/ (OI) {(’ÖI)} {/’a/ (√)} /ao/ (Ao) {(’åo)}

/ae/ (aÙ) {(’åÙ)}

/I/ (±I), /Y/ (±Y) /E/ (≠™), /§/ (≠#) /ae/ (≠EI, ≠ÄI, ≠Åi) /E:, E/ >ä≥ (≠πE, ≠π)

/ / (2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/./ (2 ç 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/?/ (2 Ì 1 2)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/÷/ (2 ç 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

/U/ (±U) /OY/ (≠êi, ≠∏i, ≠øI, ≠oÙ) /O/ (≠ø) /ao/ (≠ÄU, ≠å¯, ≠åo, ≠∏U) /a:/ (≠ù∏, ≠åå, ≠åA) /a/ (≠ù, ≠å)

In the second vocogram again, three further typical diphthongs are evident (although marked in grey, since they only occur in local family and place names), (iÙ, yÙ, uÙ) /iÈ, yÈ, uÈ/: ('∂iÙt) D¤th˚ ('5yÙâ) Rüegg˚ ('huÙp) Huep˘ Except in less marked

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–or a‡ected– accents, often /y:, y, yÈ/ become /i:, i, iÈ/. In the same figure, possible realizations of reduced forms of /ae, ao, OY, a/ are given: (åÙ, ao, Ö¤, √). In comparison with neutral German, there are some words with short V, as in: ('A5t) /'a:Kt/ Art˚ ('flOs) /'flo:s/ √o• [√oss\ in Switzerland • is not used], ('jAâ∂) /'ja:kt/ Jagd˚ ('nun) /'nu:n/ nun˚ ('∫E5∂) /'∫e:Kt/ Pferd˚ ('fO5) /'fo:K/ vor˚ ('ÑE5∂Ùn) /'ve:Kdó/ werden˚ ('E5∂Ù) /'e:KdÈ/ Erde˚ ('Ñuks) /'vu:ks/ Wu7˚ ('qE5tliX, -á) /'qhE:‰tlIÂ/ zärtli>˘ ˛e last vocogram shows broad realizations of /E, E:, a, a:÷ ae, ao, OY/ (and less broad ones of /I, Y, U/). 5.4.3.3. Moving to C˚ we have to say that /t, d/ are decidedly dental: (∂e'tEktoR) /de'tEktoK/ Detektor÷ whereas, /k/ is (k, w, ∑, k): ('kin∂, 'w, '∑-, 'k-) /'kInt/ Kind˚ ('sAk, -w, -∑, -k) /'zak/ Sa$; please, note that in the transcription of § 5.5.2.4 (and § 5.5.1.2), we write (∑), to insist on this typical realization (although it tends to be avoided in neutral-like pronunciations, perhaps resorting to a velar stop-semi(con)strictive, (˜), which is half-way between (k) and the other stopstrictives indicated). /p, t, k÷ ∫, q, c/ are not çaspiratedÇ (unless çaspirationÇ is voluntarily used): ('pool) /'po:l/ Pol˚ ('toon) /'to:n/ Ton˚ ('kuu, 'w, '∑-, 'k-) /'ku:/ Kuh˚ ('∫un∂) /'∫Unt/ Pfund˚ ('qeen) /'qe:n/ zehn˚ ('cAkko) /'cako/ T(ako. Furthermore, (ö) is lacking, except in less marked and less typical accents: (te'aAtÙR) /te'a:tÚ/ †eater˚ (iX'EssÙ, iá-) /IÂ'EsÈ/ i> esse÷ as can be seen, though, lexeme and grammeme boundaries are respected; only in very broad pronunciations resyllabification is possible: (i'XEssÙ, i'á-). Voiced C of diphonic pairs are actually half-voiced, (Ê, ∂, â÷ Ñ, Ω, Ë), even before pauses or when syllable-final (where, in neutral German, they are neutralized and change to /p, t, k÷ f, s, S/). ˛erefore, we generally find /s/ for /z/, after pauses or C\ ('ÊuuÊÙ) /'bu:bÈ/ Bube˚ ('ÊuuÊ) /'bu:p/ Bub˚ ('∂uu) /'du:/ du˚ ('un∂) /'Unt/ und˚ ('5ee∂Ùn) /'Ke:dó/ reden˚ ('ÊooâÙn) /'bo:gó/ Bogen˚ ('taAâ) /'ta:k/ Tag˚ (âÙ'Ñin) /gÈ'vIn/ Gewinn˚ ('leeΩÙn) /'le:zó/ lesen˚ ('saAâÙn) /'za:gó/ sagen˚ ('ÊinsÙ) /'bInzÈ/ Binse˚ ('paAËÙ) /'pa:ZÈ/ Page˘ 5.4.3.4. Often, /f/ occurs instead of (neutral) /v/: (no'fEmÊÙR) /no'vEmbÚ/ November˚ (f™n'tiil) /vEn'ti:l/ Ventil˚ (ful'kaAn, -w, -∑-, -k-) /vUl'ka:n/ Vulkan˘ For sp˚ ®˚ internal or final we have /sp, st/, but in broad accents we find /Sp, St/: (k'nOspÙ, ≠-SpÙ) /k'nOspÈ/ Knospe˚ (Êist, ≠-iSt) /bIst/ bi®˚ ('âEstÙRn, ≠-St-) /'gEstÚn/ ge®ern˘ Generally, for internal /S/ (after stressed short V, like for the other C] we have (SS): ('muSSÙl) /'mUSÍ/ Mu(el÷ for 7 /ks/, in marked pronunciation it is fairly possible to have ç/xs/Ç: ('fuks, ≠-Xs, ≠-ás) /'fUks/ Fu7˘ Only in less broad speech, can we find /Â/ (but articulated as postpalatal (…), or prevelar (¢)); whereas, normally, we have /x/ (X, á): ('milX, -á÷ ±-…, -±-¢) /'mIlÂ/ Mil>˚ ('AoX, -á) /'aox/ Q>˘ -ig is regularly /Ik/ (¤ ç/Ig/Ç; while /IÂ/ is decidedly rare and only voluntarily used): ('q6Anqiâ) /'qvanqIÂ/ zwanzig÷ and /òÂ/ is normally /k/: ('kiinA, 'w-, '∑-, 'k-) /'Âi:na/ ≥ina÷ /j/ is an approximant, /j/: ('jaA) /'ja:/ ja˘

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5.4.3.5. ˛e typical articulation of /K/ is uvularized alveolar, a trill in stressed syllables (5), and a tap in unstressed syllables (R), in every context, even after V\ ('5aA5) /'Ka:K/ rar˚ (Re'Akto[o]R) /Ke'akto:K/ Reaktor˘ In regional pronunciation (or, on the contrary, intentional pronunciation, under the influence of neutral German pronunciation), uvular realizations are possible: (º, K, ˜). In neutral pronunciation /l/ is always alveolar (whereas in non-neutral pronunciation we often find (], ı), before pauses or C]\ ('AllÙ) /'alÈ/ alle˚ ('leeÊÙn) /'le:bó/ leben˚ ('ÑOlf) /'vOlf/ Wolf˚ ('hEl) /'hEl/ hell˘ 5.4.3.6. In word-internal position, in neutral Swiss pronunciation, simple intersyllabic /0/, after short stressed V (both voiceless and voiced, and spelled as geminates >pp˚ bb÷ tt˚ dd÷ gg÷ ‡÷ ss÷ mm˚ nn÷ rr÷ ll≥, or represented with digraphs >$÷ π÷ ˛÷ >÷ «≥ or tri-/quadri-graphs >(˚ ˛≥), are realized as restrained (but perceptible) geminates, which we indicate with superscript symbols of the second element, (00), thus: ('immÙR) /'ImÚ/ immer˚ ('innÙn) /'Inó/ innen˚ ('hu˙˙ÙR) /'hU˙Ú/ Hu«er÷ and ('StOppÙn) /'StOpó/ ®oppen˚ ('k5AÊÊÙ) /'kKabÈ/ Krabbe˚ ('ÑEttÙR) /'vEtÚ/ Wetter˚ ('Ñi∂∂ÙR) /'vIdÚ/ Widder˚ ('5OââÙn) /'KOgó/ Roggen˚ ('sOkkÙn, -˜˜-, -ww-, -∑∑-, -kk-) /'zOkó/ So$en÷ ('tA∫∫ÙR) /'ta∫Ú/ taπer˚ ('siqqÙn) /'zIqó/ si˛en˚ ('â5EccÙn) /'gKEcó/ grä˛en÷ ('AffÙ) /'afÈ/ A‡e˚ ('ÑAssÙR) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˚ ('ÑASSÙn) /'vaSó/ wa(en˚ ('siXXÙR) /'zIÂÚ/ si>er˚ ('mAXXÙn) /'maxó/ ma>en÷ ('hA5RÙ) /'haKó/ harren÷ ('k6EllÙ) /'kvElÈ/ Quelle˘ For stressing, we have cases such as: ('AotooR, Ao'too5) /'aoto:K/ Autor˚ ('lAÊoo‰, lA'Êoo‰) /la'bo:K/ Labor˚ ('mootøR, mo'too5) /'mo:to:‰, mo'to:‰/ Motor˚ ('Êuff™t, Êuf'fEt) /bY'fe:/ Bu‡et˚ ('hOtt™l, ho'tEl) /ho'tEl/ Hotel˚ (nOI'jaA5) /'nOYja:K/ NSjahr˘ In addition, there are interesting words such as: (A&ÊønnÙ'mEnt) /abOnÈ'ma˙, -Å:/ Abonnement˘ Swiss intonation is easily recognized because of its (slightly rising) low stressed syllables and mid unstressed syllables, which continue the pitch movement at least in normal preintonemes; even the marked intonemes have particular movements – a close examination of the tonogram is highly recommended. South-Tyrol/Alto-Adige German 5.4.4.1. ˛e first vocogram shows the short and long monophthongs of South-Tyrolese mediatic pronunciation. Even for this accent it is immediately clear that the articulations corresponding to /I, Y, U÷ E[:], §, O/ are closer than in neutral German – so they are represented with (i, y, u÷ ™[:], #, ø) (in less broad accents we find (I°, Y°, U°÷ E[:]°, §°, O°), and unstressed (™, #, ø) only slightly closer than in neutral pronunciation): ('fiS) /'fIS/ „(˚ ('fyMf) /'fYnf/ fünf˚ ('hunt) /'hUnt/ Hund˚ ('™lf) /'Elf/ elf˚ ('Sp™:t) /'SpE:t/ spät˚ ('qV#lf) /'qv§lf/ zwölf˚ ('øft) /'Oft/ o⁄˘ 5.4.4.2. /a:/ is diphthongized: ('Stat) /'Stat/ Stadt˚ ('StaAt) /'Stat/ Staat (in less broad accents /a, a:/ are more similar to one another: (a, a:); whereas, in the broadest accents, near the dialects, we can also have (ù, Ø:) (which will certainly be noted at once; Ô § 16.15 of NPT/HPh, where the phonosynthesis of the South-Tyrolese

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dialect koiné is given). Generally, Tyrolese traditional dialects have phonemic opposition between a non-back a and a back rounded one, both short and long. It is possible to find this timbre distinction in the language too, where the back timbre is used in traditional words, whereas the non-back one is used in loanwords and neologisms, as happens for instance in Ball\ /'pØl/ ('pùl, 'pAl) çballÇ, /'pal/ ('pal) çdanceÇ. Very broad accents have /e:, o:/ (eI, oU) (as in the dialect): ('ve:, ≠'veI) /'ve:/ weh˚ ('soo, ≠'soU) /'zo:/ so (to these /°:/ (°Y) is added: ('p°°, ≠'p°Y) /'b°:/ Bö˚ which does not belong to the genuine dialect that has historically merged the front-central rounded series with the front one). On the other hand, the bourgeois dialect of Bolzano (Bozen) has restored /y:, Y, °:, §, OY/ (y:, y, °:, #, øY), under the influence of neutral German pronunciation, including /yÈ/ (yÙ, iÈ), by structural analogy. 5.4.4.3. /È/ is realized as (Ù, É), with the vocalization of /K, Ú/ (√) (with consonantal accompaniments too), and in the most broad pronunciations even (∏), as in the dialects (Ô the phonosynthesis); thus we have: ('unsÉºÙ) /'UnzÈKÈ/ unsere and ('vas…, -√‰, -√˜, -√º, -√÷ 'vùss∏, -∏‰, -∏˜, -∏º) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˘ It is important to note that (Ù, É) /È/, in less broad accents, given in the last vocogram, are realized slightly di‡erently (as other V are too) although they are represented by the same symbols. ≈nal -e (not only of verbs) and the first one in -ere(C)ò tend to be dropped (except in Val Pusteria, or Pustertal), especially in non-controlled pronunciation: ('ty:pÙ, 'ty:p) /'ty:pÈ/ Type (which can coincide thus with ('ty:p) /'ty:p/ Typ]˘ ˛e second vocogram shows the diphthongs of South Tyrolese German. ‹ile /OY/, in comparison with neutral German, di‡ers mostly in its second element that is unrounded, (O¤); /ae, ao/ are decidedly less wide, (aÙ, aP): ('aÙs) /'aes/ Eis˚ ('plaP) /'blao/ blQ˚ ('nO¤) /'nOY/ nS˘ In the dialect, for /ae, ao/, we have (aÙ, AP), but also (aP), which are even less wide; only in Bolzano the same is true for /OY/ (ø¤), since in traditional dialects it has merged into /ae/ (aÙ), or it is represented by /ui, oi/: ('nui) /'nui/ nui {= nS}, ('foiR) /'foiK) foir {= FSer}. ˛e xenophonemes are quite rarely used (and, if they are, it is in a completely intentional way): /eI, oU/ (e:, ±ei÷ o:, ±ou). 5.4.4.4. In the second vocogram, two further typical diphthongs are evident (although marked in grey, since they only occur in local family and place names), (iÙ, uX) /iÈ, uÈ/: ('tiÙtÍ, ±'∂iitÍ) D¤tl˚ ('wuXns, ±'ku:ns) Kuens˘ In the same diagram, the possible realizations of /ae, ao, OY, a/ (åÙ, åP, Ö¤, å), in reduced forms, have been marked. As already said, the last vocogram shows less broad vowel realizations ((±)), which are rather similar to the neutral German ones; however, this pronunciation is still recognizable, since the prosodic characteristics have typical di‡erences. ˛ere are di‡erent distributions too, as for instance /E/ in ('™‰st, 'E-÷ ≠'™∏St) /'e:Kst/ er®˚ ('∫™‰t, 'E-÷ ≠'∫™∏t) /'∫e:Kt/ Pferd (which in neutral German have /e:/: ('öe:‰st, '∫he:‰t)).

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a handbook of pronunciation ff /i:, ’i/ (i:, i), /I/ (i) /y:, ’y/ (y:, y), /Y/ (y)

/u:, ’u/ (u:, u), /U/ (u) f

/e:, ”e/ (e:, e), /°:, ’°/ (°:, °)

/o:, ’o/ (o:, o) /O/ (ø, ’ø) /Ú/ (…) {//ÈK// “ (√)} /a/ (a), /a:/ (aA)

/E/ (™, ’™), /§/ (#, ’#), /E:/ (™:, ’™;) /È/ (Ù, ºÙò, Éº-, ºÉ-)

/uÈ/* (uX)

/iÈ/* (iÙ) /eI/* (e:÷ ±ei)

/oU/* (o:÷ ±ou)

{/’a/ (å)}

/OY/ (O¤) {(’Ö¤)}

/ae/ (aÙ) {(’åÙ)}

/ao/ (aP) {(åP)}

/i:, ’i/ (±i:, ±i), /y:, ’y/ (±y:, ±y) /I/ (±I), /Y/ (±Y) /e:, ’e/ (±e:, ±e), /°:, ’°/ (±°:, ±°) /E/ (±E, ±’™), /§/ (±§, ±’#) /E:/ (±E:, ±’™;) /a/ (±a)÷ ƒ /a:/ (±a:) ‡

/ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 Ì 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 Ì 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 Ì 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2) /u:, ’u/ (±u:, ±u) /U/ (±U) /o:, ’o/ (±o:, ±o) /È/ (Ù, ºÙò, ±Éº-, ±ºÉ-) /O/ (±O, ±’ø) /Ú/ (…) {“ (±Éº, ±√)}

5.4.4.5. Moving to C˚ we find that generally internal /˙/ becomes /˙g/ (but it is not so in less broad accents): ('pºi˙âÙn, ±'ÊºI˙ô) /'bKI˙ô/ bri«en (however, even without (g), as in less broad accents, the nasal is always velar, not uvular). Especially in checked syllables with N (above all in stressed positions), V are nasalized in broad accents: ('vi:n, 'vi:n) /'vi:n/ W¤n˚ ('fa˙, 'fÅ˙) /'fa˙/ Fa«˘ /t, d/ are dental: (te't™kto‰) /de'tEktoK/ Detektor÷ often /òk, kò, kô/ are stopstrictives, or even stop-semi(con)strictives, velar (or postpalatal, near front V]\ ('kømõ, 'w-, '˜-) /'kOmõ/ kommen˚ ('søkô, 'søwÙn, -˜-) /'zOkô/ So$en˚ ('tik, -w, -˜, -k, -%) /'dIk/ di$˘ Voiceless stops and stopstrictives are not çaspiratedÇ (generally even in less broad accents) as we have just seen for /k/: ('po:l) /'po:l/ Pol˚ ('to:n) /'to:n/ Ton˚ ('kint, 'w-, 'k-) /'kInt/ Kind˚ ('∫unt) /'∫Unt/ Pfund˚ ('cako) /'cako/ T(ako˘ Phonemic voiced stops are voiceless in typical pronunciation, but half-voiced,

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(Ê, ∂, â) in less broad accents. However, between voiced phones, they are half-voiced, (Ê, ∂, â) (except, usually, in the dialects which –mostly– have (p, t, k/w), as in the broadest accents. Instead, in less broad accents they are voiced, (b, d, g)): ('pu:ÊÙ, ±-bÈ) /'bu:bÈ/ Bube˘ Half-voiced realizations are possible before internal /n, l/, too: ('O‰∂nu˙, 'm°:âliÂ) /'OKdnU˙, 'm°:klIÂ/ Ordnu«˚ mögli>. (In Bolzano, we can find (éBé, éƒé, éŸé) /ébé, édé, égé/: ('Êu:BÙ).) ˛ere is no (ö), except in less broad accents, where however it is less evident than in neutral German (and, in this case, we could mark it with a special symbol, (,)): (iÂ'™sÙ, ±,IÂ',EsÈ) /IÂ'EsÈ/ i> esse˚ (te'a;At…, ±te',a:-) /te'a:tÚ/ †eater˘ 5.4.4.6. For constrictives, it is to be noted that /z/ is normally /s/ (s) (generally, even in less broad accents, in Bolzano as well): ('sa;Aâô) /'za:gó/ sagen˚ ('also) /'alzo/ also˚ ('ºaÙsó) /'Kaezó/ rRsen (which becomes identical to ('ºaÙsó) /'Kaesó/ rR•en]˘ In initial position, before C˚ /s/ practically never occurs (substituted by /S/); and, as far as internal and final /st/ is concerned, in broad accents, as in the dialects, we typically find /St/: ('li:pstó, ≠-Stó) /'li:pstó/ l¤b®en˚ ('sønst, ≠-nSt) /'zOnst/ son®˘ However, in case they are heterolexemic, we have /st/: ('sams&taAw) /'zamsta:k/ Sam®ag (as in the dialects: ('sams&tiw, 'sùms&tik) /'samstik/ sam®ig]˘ For (tautosyllabic) /˘0v/, we have (0V): ('SV™st…) /'SvEstÚ/ 6we®er˚ ('qVaÈ) /'qvae/ zwR˚ ('kV™l) /'kvEl/ Quell÷ for /f/, it is possible to have /v/, besides in forms such as Vize (which, even in neutral German, may have the variant with /v/, although not prevailing), even for vò˚ against neutral phonemic rules, in cases such as positiv\ ('vi:qÙ, &posi'tiÑ). In addition, /j/ is approximant (j): ('ja;A) /'ja:/ ja; generally, /x/ is velar (x): ('na;Ax) /'na:x/ na>; /Â/ is maintained (even before /K/, contrary to what happens in Austria): ('tu‰Â) /'dUKÂ/ dur>; but, for /-IÂ/ we have /-Ik/ (except in less broad accents) ('qVanqik, -w, -k) /'qvanqIÂ/ zwanzig÷ for /òÂ/ we systematically find /k/: ('ki:na, 'w-, 'k-) /'Âi:na/ ≥ina˘ However, in the dialects, except in Bolzano, (Â) /Â/ does not exist at all. ˛e most widely used articulation for /K/ is a uvular constrictive, (º), which coexists with a fairly widespread uvular trill, (K), with the possibility of postnuclear vocalization (that, as we have already seen, is back-central (√) (or back, (∏), in the dialects and in the broadest accents). In absolute final position, after stressed V, in the dialects and in the broadest accents we have (R): ('ºa;A‰÷ -a;A√÷ ≠-a;AR÷ ≠-Ø:R) /'Ka:K/ rar˚ ('hi:‰÷ 'hi:√÷ ≠'hi:R) /'hi:K/ h¤r˘ 5.4.4.7. In non-neutral South-Tyrolese pronunciation, simple word-internal intersyllabic (voiceless, nasal and lateral) /0/, after (short) stressed V˚ are realized as restrained (but fairly evident) geminates, which we indicate with superscript symbols of the first element, in the variant form notated only here, (00): ('im…÷ 'imm…) /'ImÚ/ immer˚ ('Støpõ÷ 'Støppõ) /'StOpó/ ®oppen˚ ('v™t…÷ 'v™tt…) /'vEtÚ/ Wetter˚ ('ta∫…÷ 'ta∫∫…) /'ta∫Ú/ taπer˚ ('siqó÷ 'siqqó) /'zIqó/ si˛en˚ ('vas…÷ 'vass…) /'vasÚ/ Wasser˚ ('vaSó÷ 'vaSSó) /'vaSó/ wa(en˚ ('siÂ…÷ 'siÂÂ…) /'zIÂÚ/ si>er˚ ('maxô÷ 'maxxô) /'maxó/ ma>en˚ ('kV™lÙ÷ 'kV™llÙ) /'kvElÈ/ Quelle˘ ˛e insertion of a homorganic stop between /n, l/ and voiceless constrictives or /z/ (Ô § 5.3.2) is possible, although not particularly widespread.

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In lofty or foreign words, there is a frequent use of Italian –or Italian-like– structures: /gn/ = /nj/: (pºo~'jo:sÙ) /pKog'no:zÈ/ Prognose˚ (si~'ja;Al) /zIg'na:l/ Signal˚ (&ºesi~'ji:ºô, -º¡, -'ji:‰n, -‰n) /KezIg'ni:Kó/ resign¤ren÷ /t/ = /q/: (ti&ploma'qi:) /diploma'ti:/ Diplomat¤˚ (&kaºan'qi:) /gaKan'ti:/ Garant¤÷ /q/ = /c/: (m™‰'ce:∂™s) /mEK'qe:dEs/ Mercedes˚ (&pa‰ce'lo:na) /baKqe'lo:na/ Barcelona÷ /S/ = /sk/: ('ske:ma) /'Se:ma/ S>ema˚ (&skiqo'fºe:n) /Siqo'fKe:n, sÂi-/ S>izo#ren÷ /Z/ = /dZ/: (&tËu‰na'list) /ZUKna'lIst/ Journali®÷ /kv/ = /kw/ (kj) (in addition to (kV)): (kja‰'t™t) /kvaK'tEt/ Quartett˘ For V˚ we find: /y/ = /u/: (pu&ºokºa'qi:) /byKokKa'ti:/ Bürokrat¤÷ /Oy/ = /eu/: (eu'ºo:pa) /OY'Ko:pa/ Europa˚ (neu'tºa;Al) /nOY'tKa:l/ nStral˘ South-Tyrolese intonation is easily recognized because of its half-low stressed syllables, except the first one which is half-high; mostly the interrogative intoneme (and the suspensive one too) have particular movements, which can be seen in the tonogram. Text 5.5.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in some di‡erent (çnormalizedÇ) versions. We start with the (neutral) German pronunciation of (neutral British) English – this is the first step of the phonetic method (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e German translation follows, in its neutral version; then the north-eastern accent, followed by the Austrian, Swiss, and South-Tyrolese ones. ˛ese transcriptions would have been (visually) more di‡erent, if we had used the çspecialÇ (denti-alveolar) symbols ((4, 7, fl)), and instead of (‰, …) (for /K, Ú/) respectively the following possible variants: (√) (neutral), (x) (north-eastern), (å, a) (Austrian), (5, R) (Swiss), (√, ∏) (South Tyrolese). At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronunciation of German, by neutral British speakers, fluent in German (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and intonation elements which are typical of neutral British English (for reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciation of English, given first. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the German pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of German, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12). German pronunciation (of English) 5.5.1. (z¢'nO‰s 'ÑInt2 ö™ntΩ¢'zan2 v#‰dI'sp¿u:tI˙ 'vIc ÑøsΩ¢'StºO˙g…3 3| 'v™n öe'thºEf¢l…2 'khe:m ö™'lO˙2 ì'ºEpt öInöe'vO‰m 'khlo:k3 3œ| &zeö™'gºi:t2\ &z™tΩ¢'van hu'f§‰st Ωak'si:d¢t2

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öIm'me:kI˙ z¢'thºEf¢l…2 'the:k hIs'khlo:k 5öOf1 1| &SUtÊikøn'zi:d…fl "StºO˙g… &z™nzi'öaz…3 3|| 'z™n2 z¢'nO‰s 'ÑInt2 'Êlu:2 ö™Ω'ha‰t2 ö™shi'khUt3 3| &ÊatΩ¢'mO‰ hi5blu:1 1| z¢'mO‰ 'khlo:sli2 &dItΩ¢'thºEf¢l…2\ 'fo:lt hIs'khlo:k ö™'ºaonthIm3 3| ì&ö™nö™t'la[:]st2œ\ z¢'nO‰s 'ÑInt2 'âe:f 'öap Ωiö™'thEmpt3 3|| ì'zEn2œ z¢'zan 'SOn 'öaot3 3 ì'ÑO‰mli3 3œ| &ö™ntöI'mi:d,¢tli2\ ˚z¢'thºEf¢l… 'thUk 'öOf3 3 ˚hIs'khlo:k3 3|| ìö™nt'Ωo:2œ z¢'nO‰s 'ÑInt2 Ñøsöo'blaec tukøM'fEs2| &z™tΩ¢'zan3 3 vøsΩ¢'StºO˙g…3 3 ì&öøfΩ¢'thu:3 3œ|| ¿&∂It¿u'laek1 1 ¿z¢'StOºi2| ¿∂ju'vOn tu'hi:ºIt ö™'ge:n1 1|||) German text 5.5.2. Ein® ®ritten si> Nordwind und Sonne, wer von ihnen bRden wohl der Stärkere wäre, als Rn Wanderer, der in Rnen warmen Mantel gehüllt war, des Weges daherkam. S¤ wurden Rnig, dass derjenige für den Stärkeren gelten sollte, der den Wanderer zwi«en würde, sRnen Mantel abzunehmen. Der Nordwind bl¤s mit aller Ma>t, aber je mehr er bl¤s, de®o fe®er hüllte si> der Wanderer in sRnen Mantel Rn. Endli> gab der Nordwind den Kamπ Qf. Nun erwärmte d¤ Sonne d¤ Lu⁄ mit ihren frSndli>en Strahlen, und (on na> wenigen Augenbli$en zog der Wanderer sRnen Mantel Qs. Da mus®e der Nordwind zugeben, dass d¤ Sonne von ihnen bRden der Stärkere war. Hat dir d¤ Ge(i>te gefallen? Wollen wir s¤ w¤derholen? Neutral German pronunciation 5.5.3. ('öaenS2 'StüItózIÂ 'nO‰t&ÑInt2 öUn'zOn¢2| &ve‰f¢nöi!'baed/&vo;l d…'StE‰kÈº¢&v™;º¢3 3| &öalsåeM'vandÈº…2 ‘&de‰öInöaen/'va‰mõ 'mantÍ g¢'hYlt&Ña;‰2’ ∂¢s'Ñe:g¢s2 ∂å'he:‰&kha;m3 3|| zI&vU‰dó'öaenIÂ2| ∂as'∂e:‰&,e;nIg¢2 ‘&fY[‰]dó'StE‰kÈºô 'gEltó&zølt¢2’ &de‰d/'vandÈº… 'qhñI˙|&vY‰d¢2 &zaen!'mantÍ 'öapq¢≠mõ3 3|| ∂…'nO‰t&ÑImp 'Êli:s2\ mIt'öal…2 'maXt3 3|| &öab…,e'me:‰ ö™‰5bli:s1 1| &∂™sto'fEst…2 'hYlt¢zIÂ d…'vandÈº…2 ˚öIn&zaen!'mantÍ 'öaen3 3|| 'öEntúIÂ2 'âa:p ∂…'nO‰t&ÑIn2 ∂¡'khaM∫ 'öaof3 3|| 'nu:n2\ …'vE‰mt¢ dI'zOn¢2 dI'lUft2| mIti‰M'füOYntúIÂ«2 'Stüa:ló3 3|| öUn'So:n2 ‘na;X'Ñe:nIgô 'öaogõ&blIkô2’| ˚'qho:k3 3 ∂…'vandÈº…2 ˚&zaen!'mantÍ 'öaos3 3|| '∂a:2\ &mUst¢d…'nO‰t&ÑIn2 'qhu:≥bõ2\ &das∂I'zOn¢2| ‘&fønöi!'baedó2’| ∂…'StE‰kÈº¢&va;‰3 3|| ¿hat&∂I‰dIg¢'SIÂt¢2 ¿g¢'faló1 1| ¿'vOl/vI‰ zI'vi:d…&ho;ló1 1|||) Neutral north-eastern German pronunciation 5.5.4. ('öaÙnS2 'StüItózIÂ 'nø‰t&ÑInt2 öUn'zønÈ2| &ve‰fÈnöi!'baÙd/&vool d…'St™‰k‘ºÈ&v™™ºÈ23| &öalsåÙM'vand‘º…2 ‘&de‰öInöaÙn/'va‰mõ 'mantÍ gÈ'hYlt&Ñaa‰2’ ∂Ès'Ñe;egÈs2 ∂å'he;e‰&khaam23|| zI&vU‰dó'öaÙnIÂ2| ∂as'∂e;e‰&,eenIgÈ2 ‘&fY[‰]dó'St™‰k‘ºô 'g™ltó&zøltÈ2’

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&de‰d/'vand‘º… 'qhñI˙|&vY‰dÈ2 &zaÙn!'mantÍ 'öapqÈ&neemõ23|| ∂…'nø‰t&ÑImp 'Êli;is2\ mIt'öal…2 'maXt23|| &öab…,e'me;e‰ ö™‰5bli;is21| &∂™sto'f™st…2 'hYltÈzIÂ d…'vand‘º…2 ˚öIn&zaÙn!'mantÍ 'öaÙn23|| 'ö™ntúIÂ2 'âa;ap ∂…'nø‰t&ÑIn2 ∂¡'khaM∫ 'öaPf23|| 'nu;un2\ …'v™‰mtÈ dI'zønÈ2 dI'lUft2| mIti‰M'füø+ntúIÂ«2 'Stüa;aló23|| öUn'So;on2 ‘naaX'Ñe;enIgô 'öaPgõ&blIkô2’| ˚'qho;ok23 ∂…'vand‘º…2 ˚&zaÙn!'mantÍ 'öaPs23|| '∂a;a2\ &mUstÈd…'nø‰t&ÑIn2 'qhu;u&geebõ2\ &das∂I'zønÈ2| ‘&fønöi!'baÙdó2’| ∂…'St™‰k‘ºÈ&vaa‰23|| ¿hat&∂I‰dIgÈ'SIÂtÈ2 ¿gÈ'faló21| ¿'vøl/vI‰ zI'vi;id…&hooló21|||) Neutral Austrian pronunciation 5.5.5. ('ÄÙnS2 ÇStºitósiÂ 'nø‰t&vint2 un'sønÙ2| &ve‰fÙni!'ÊÄÙ∂/&vool ∂…'St™‰kÈºÙ&v™™ºÙ23| &AlsÄÙM'vAn∂Èº…2 ‘&∂e‰inÄÙn/ÇvA‰mõ ÇmAntÍ âÙ'hylt&vAA‰2’ ∂Ùs'veeâÙs2 ∂√'hee‰&kAAm23|| si&vu‰∂ó'ÄÙnik2| ∂As'∂ee‰&jeeniâÙ2 ‘&fy[‰]∂óÇSt™‰kÈºô 'â™ltó&søltÙ2’ &∂e‰∂/ÇvAn∂Èº… 'q6i˙|&vy‰∂Ù2 &sÄÙn!ÇmAntÍ 'ApqÙ&neemõ23|| ∂…Çnø‰t&vimp 'Êliis2\ mit'Al…2 'mAxt23|| &AÊ…jeÇmee‰ ™‰'Êliis21| &∂™sto'f™st…2 ÇhyltÙsiÂ ∂…'vAn∂Èº…2 ˚in&sÄÙn!'mAntÍ 'ÄÙn23|| '™ntliÂ2 ÇâAAp ∂…'nø‰t&vin2 ∂¡'kAM∫ 'åøf23|| 'nuun2\ …Çv™‰mtÙ ∂i'sønÙ2 ∂i'luft2| miti‰M'fºøYntliÂ«2 'StºAAló23|| un'Soon2 ‘nAAxÇveeniâô 'åøâõ&Êlikô2’| ˚'qook23 ∂…'vAn∂Èº…2 ˚&sÄÙn!'mAntÍ 'åøs23|| '∂AA2\ &mustÙ∂…'nø‰t&vin2 'quu&âeeÊõ2\ &∂As∂i'sønÙ2| ‘&føni!'ÊÄÙ∂ó2’| ∂…'St™‰kÈºÙ&vAA‰23|| ¿hAt&∂i‰∂iâÙ'SiÂtÙ2 ¿âÙÇfAló12| ¿Çvøl/vi‰ siÇvii∂…&hooló12|||) Neutral Swiss pronunciation 5.5.6. ('aÙnS2 çSt5ittósiX 'nO5t&vint2 un'sOnnÙ2| &veRfÙni!'ÊaÙ∂/&vool ∂ÙRçStE5∑ÙRÙ&v™™RÙ23| &AlsåÙM'vAn∂ÙRÙR2 ‘&∂eRinaÙn/çvA5mõ çmAntÍ âÙ'hylt&vaAR2’ ∂Ùs'veeâÙs2 ∂√çhee5&∑aAm23|| si&vuR∂ó'aÙni∑2| ∂As'∂ee5&jeeniâÙ2 ‘&fyR∂óçStE5∑ÙRó 'âEltó&søltÙ2’ &∂eR∂/çvAn∂ÙRÙR 'q6i˙|&vyR∂Ù2 &ΩaÙn!çmAntÍ çApqÙ&neemõ23|| ∂ÙRçnO5t&vimp 'Êliis2\ mit'AllÙR2 çmAXt23|| &AÊÙRjeçmee5 ™RçÊliis2 2| &∂™sto'fEstÙR2 çhyltÙΩiX ∂ÙR'vAn∂ÙRÙR2 ˚in&saÙn!çmAntÍ 'aÙn23|| 'EntliX2 çâaAp ∂ÙR'nO5t&vin2 ∂¡ç∑AM∫ 'Aof23|| 'nun2\ ÙRçvE5mtÙ ∂i'ΩOnnÙ2 ∂i'luft2| mitiRM'f5OIntliX?2 çSt5aAló23|| un'Soon2 ‘naAXçveeniâô 'Aoâõ&Êli∑∑?2’| ˚çqoo∑23 ∂ÙR'vAn∂ÙRÙR2 ˚&saÙn!çmAntÍ 'Aos23|| '∂aA2\ &mustÙ∂ÙR'nO5t&vin2 'quu&âeeÊõ2\ &∂As∂i'ΩOnnÙ2| ‘&føni!'ÊaÙ∂ó2’| ∂ÙRçStE5∑ÙRÙ&vaAR23|| ¿hAt&∂iR∂iâÙ'SiXtÙ2 ¿âÙÌfAlló12| ¿çvOll/viR siÌvii∂ÙR&hooló12|||)

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Neutral South Tyrolese pronunciation 5.5.7. ('aÙnS2 'StºitósiÂ 'nø‰t&vint2 un'sønÙ2| &ve‰fÙni!'ÊaÙ∂/&vo;l ∂…'St™‰wÉºÙ&v™;ºÙ3 3| &alsåÙM'van∂Éº…2 ‘&∂e‰inaÙn/'va‰mõ 'mantÍ âÙ'hylt&vaA‰2’ tÙs've:âÙs2 tå'he:‰&waAm3 3|| si&vu‰∂ó'aÙnik2| tas'te:‰&je;niâÙ2 ‘&fy[‰]∂ó'St™‰wÉºô 'â™ltó&søltÙ2’ &∂e‰∂/'van∂Éº… 'qVi˙|&vy‰∂Ù2 &saÙn!'mantÍ 'apqÙ≠mõ3 3|| t…'nø‰t&vimp 'pli:s2\ mit'al…2 'maxt3 3|| &aÊ…,e'me:‰ ™‰5Êli:s1 1| &t™sto'f™st…2 'hyltÙsiÂ ∂…'van∂Éº…2 ˚in&saÙn!'mantÍ 'aÙn3 3|| '™ntliÂ2 'wa;Ap t…'nø‰t&vin2 t¡'waM∫ 'aPf3 3|| 'nu:n2\ …'v™‰mtÙ ∂i'sønÙ2 ∂i'luft2| miti‰M'fºøYntliÂ«2 'Stºa;Aló3 3|| un'So:n2 ‘naAx've:niâô 'aPâõ&Êlikô2’| ˚'qo:w3 3 t…'van∂Éº…2 ˚&saÙn!'mantÍ 'aPs3 3|| 'ta;A2\ &mustÙ∂…'nø‰t&vin2 'qu:&âe;Êõ2\ &∂asti'sønÙ2| ‘&føni!'ÊaÙ∂ó2’| t…'St™‰wÉºÙ&vaA‰3 3|| ¿hat&ti‰∂iâÙ'SiÂtÙ2 ¿âÙ'faló1 1| ¿'vøl/vi‰ si'vi:∂…&ho;ló1 1|||) English pronunciation of German 5.5.8. ('aÙnsT2 5s˛>¤TÈnz¤S 'nø;D&v¤nD2 ¨nD'zØnå2| 5v™;‘ fØn&IinÈm'baÙDÈM&vÖ¨ı D™‘'sT™‘kû>È&v™‘3 3| &A;ısaÙM'vA;nDÈ>å2 ‘&D™‘>¤naÙnÈM5vA;mÈm 'månT® gû'h‘;ıT&vA;2’ DÈs'v™Igûs2 DÈ'h™;‘&khA;m3 3|| zIi&v¨ÈDÈn'aÙn¤S2| Dås'D™;‘&j™In¤gû2 ‘&f‘;DÈn5sT™‘kû>û˙ 'g™ıTó&zØıTå2’ &D™‘DÈM5vA;nDÈ>È 'thsv¤˙ûM&v‘;Då2 &zaÙnÈm5månT® 'åÊts¯&n™ImÈn3 3|| D™‘5nø;D&v¤mb 'blIis2\ m¤T'ålå2 'mA;xT3 3|| &A;bÈjÈ5m™;‘> ™‘'blIis32| &D™sT‘¨'f™sTÈ2 5h‘;ıTz¤S D™‘'vA;nDÈ>È2 ˚¤n&zaÙnÈm'månT® 'a;Ùn3 3|| '™nDl¤S2 'gA:b D™‘'nø;D&v¤n{D}2 Dû˙5khA;mpf 'aÖf3 3|| 'n¯;un2\ ™‘'v™‘mTÈ D¤'zØnå2 D¤'l¨fT2| m¤T&¤È'f>øÙnTl¤Só 's˛>A;lÈn3 3|| ¨n'S‘;¨n2 ‘nA;x5v™In¤gûn 'aÖgûm&bl¤kûn2’| ˚'tsh‘¨k3 3 D™‘'vA;nDÈ>È2 ˚&zaÙnÈm5månT® 'aÖs3 3|| 'DA:2\ &m¨sTÈD™‘'nø;D&v¤nD2 'ts¯u&g™IbÈn2\ &DåsD¤'zØnå2| ‘&fØnIinÈm'baÙDÈn2’| D™‘'sT™‘kû>È&vA;3 3|| ¿&håTD¤ÈD¤gû'S¤STû2 ¿gû'fålÈn21| ¿5vØlÈMv¤È zIi'vIiDÈ&h‘¨lÈn21|||)

6. Spanish 6.0. ˛e Spanish accents that will be dealt with are the neutral Iberian and the (central-southern) American versions. ˛ere are really very few di‡erences in neutral pronunciation; therefore a diaphonemic transcription is not necessary (whereas for Portuguese and English it is); the American variant simply has two phonemes less: /†, L/, which become /s, J/. ˛e former two symbols, however, are used diaphonemically, as they distinguish the two accents. Requiring informative symbols, to recall this phenomenon more clearly, one could resort to /†, L/, or –if inclined to a more international type of transcription– to /s, J/. On the other hand, again, to help foreigners, it is worth indicating the phonemes /b, d, g/ with /b, ò, g/, in contexts where they are realized as (B, ƒ, Ÿ). Placing /B, ∑, Ÿ/ (as seen in some text-books and dictionaries with transcriptions) is no good usage at all: because they are not phonemes, and because in the inflection of lemmata things do not remain constant. Although, even for Spanish, the number of speakers with çAmericanÇ accents is decidedly more consistent than for the Iberian ones, we prefer to consider the latter çprimaryÇ, because it is closer to the written word; therefore it is more advisable, for teaching purposes too, also for more coherent spelling, which, on the other hand, is a safer guide to pronunciation. Obviously, even the American accent has many internal variants, which we here consider to be non-neutral, even if, they are often more widespread than neutral pronunciation, which (as happens in every language) is decidedly minimal. Generally, these variants are not stigmatized in the way easily localized pronunciations are, nor do they have negative connotations, as each nation has its own çnationalÇ accent as well as regional variants. A more in-depth study of Spanish pronunciation will give the macro-koinés (at least seven for America), to be considered çneutralÇ, as well as more specific, regional variants. On the other hand, the non-neutral characteristics of Spanish are shared by most Hispanic American nations, and in Europe as well, so as to make the non-neutral accents more alike, even if they remain recognizable. For this reason, regarding Spanish, other accents will not be presented, other than the two neutral ones (as done, instead for German, which has more distinct accents, above all in Switzerland and Austria). However, recordings are being collected for a systematic description of the actual Spanish accents. In the meantime, the phonosynthesis of eastern Andalusian can be seen (in § 17.9 of NPT/HPh).

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Vowels 6.1.1.1. Spanish has only five vowel phonemes realized as shown in the first vocogram in û 6.1 (i÷ '™, ’e÷ a÷ 'ø, ’o÷ u) /i, e, a, o, u/. For e, o in the neutral Iberian-American accent, in stressed syllables, (™, ø) are normal, but, in unstressed syllables, we find (e, o). We therefore have examples such as: ('ßi)i ('si)a /'si/ sì˚ ('kRi;ßiß)i (-sis)a /'kRisis/ cr¤¤˚ ('mil) /'mil/ mil˚ (†eR'n™R)i (s-)a /†eR'neR/ cerner˚ (pa'p™l) /pa'pel/ papel˚ ('tj™Rr:a) /'tjeRr:a/ tierra˚ ('ß™iß)i ('s™is)a /'seis/ se¤˚ ('r:™ßto)i ('r:™s-)a /'r:esto/ rπto˚ ('t™;Xa)i (-xa)a /'texa/ teja˚ (de'XaR)i (-x-)a /òe'xaR/ dejar˚ ('ßj™mpRe)i ('s-)a /'sjempRe/ siempre˚ (a't™nto) /a'tento/ atento˚ (uß't™‡)i (us-)a /us'teò/ ¨ted˚ ('p™†)i (-s)a /'pe†/ pez˚ ('d™fiƒe)i (-z-)a /'òesòe/ dπde˚ ('k™;ßo)i (-so)a /'keso/ ¢πo˘ And: ('p™;Co) /'peco/ pe>o˚ (kom'pR™) /kom'pRe/ compré˚ ('anda) /'anda/ anda˚ (pa'ta;ta) /pa'tata/ patata˚ ('gøRr:a) /'goRr:a/ gorra˚ ('øi) /'oi/ hoy˚ ('r:ø;ßa)i (-sa)a /'r:osa/ rosa˚ ('ø;Xa)i (-xa)a /'oxa/ hoja˚ (mo'XaR)i (-x-)a /mo'xaR/ mojar˚ (fa'BøR) /fa'boR/ favor˚ ('ßøl)i ('s-)a /'sol/ sol˚ (r:a'†øn)i (-s-)a /r:a'†on/ razón˚ ('gølpe) /'golpe/ golpe˚ ('pø;Lo)i (-,o)a /'poLo/ poıo˚ (La'mø)i (,a-)a /La'mo/ ıamó˚ (de'kø;Ro) /òe'koRo/ decoro˚ ('tu;Bo) /'tubo/ tuvo˚ (r:u'møR) /r:u'moR/ rumor˘ 6.1.1.2. More çsophisticatedÇ descriptions, as those by Navarro Tomás, are, in actual fact, excessive; indeed, even acoustic data (which, often indicate di‡erences not heard by the human ear {not even natives'}), generally agree that there are only five realizations. In the pre-phonemic time, Navarro Tomás represented the stressed and unstressed vocoids with di‡erent symbols, including gradations dependent on their position in a checked or unchecked syllable, or because of contextual influences, leading back to only five elements. Normally, however, the hyper-di‡erentiated gradations come under the stressed ((i, ™, a, ø, u)) and unstressed ((i, e, a, o, u)) phones (Ô û 6.1 again). û 6.1. Spanish vowels (see text for the second vocogram). /i/ (i) /e/ (™, »™, ’e) /a/ (a)

/u/ (u) /o/ (ø, »ø, ’o)

/i/ (i) {((I))} /e/ (™) {((e, E))} /a/ (a) {((a, q÷ å))}

/u/ (u) {((u))} /o/ (ø) {((o, O))} /we/ (w™, wÉ, w‘, jê, ê÷ ’we, ’wÙ, ’wÈ, ’j+, ’+)

Resorting to special symbols (Ô û 8.12 of NPT/HPh), which indicate the intermediate gradations between our fundamental vocoids, however, we could usefully profit from some important indications, not only with reference to the second vocogram given (for which they would be undoubtedly more useful), but also for (i§, u§) ((I, u)) and for (a@, a#÷ a°) ((a, q÷ å)) (as it would be excessive to use (I, U÷ Å, A÷ å), and, for those which follow, (e, E÷ o, O)). For the articulation of e, o, stressed in pronunciation, there is considerable varia-

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tion (for speakers — words; Ô the second vocogram of û 6.1); indeed, sometimes (E°÷ O°) ((E, O)) can be found, especially in checked syllables, or in the /ei, oi÷ r:e, r:o÷ ex, ox/ sequences; or, (™°/e§) ((e)), (ø°/o§) ((o)), above all in unchecked syllables; and also for /e/ in checked syllables in /m, n÷ d÷ †, s/. However, it is not necessary to point these out, as their regular timbre, in a stressed position, (™, ø), is normal and safe, used by real natives (despite the variations). In unstressed syllables, in the same contexts, instead of ((E, O)), we obviously find (™, ø). For the sake of curiosity, and only here, we give some adapted cases which are pertinent to the aforementioned examples: ((†™R'nER)) /†eR'neR/ cerner˚ ((pa'pEl)) /pa'pel/ papel˚ (('tjERr:a)) /'tjeRr:a/ tierra˚ (('ßEiß))i (('sEis))a /'seis/ se¤˚ (('r:Eßto))i (('r:Es-))a /'r:esto/ rπto˚ (('tE;Xa))i (-xa)a /'texa/ teja˚ ((d™'XaR))i (-x-)a /òe'xaR/ dejar˚ (('ßjempRe))i ('s-)a /'sjempRe/ siempre˚ ((a'tento)) /a'tento/ atento˚ ((uß'te[‡]))i (us-)a /us'teò/ ¨ted˚ (('pe†))i (-s)a /'pe†/ pez˚ (('defiƒe))i (-z-)a /'òesòe/ dπde˚ (('ke;ßo))i (-so)a /'keso/ ¢πo˘ And: (('pe;Co)) /'peco/ pe>o˚ ((kOm'pRe)) /kom'pRe/ compré˚ (('gORr:a)) /'goRr:a/ gorra˚ (('Oi)) /'oi/ hoy˚ (('r:O;ßa))i (-sa)a /'r:osa/ rosa˚ (('O;Xa))i (-xa)a /'oxa/ hoja˚ (mø'XaR)i (-x-)a /mo'xaR/ mojar˚ ((fa'BOR)) /fa'boR/ favor˚ (('ßOl))i ('s-)a /'sol/ sol˚ ((r:a'†On))i (-s-)a /r:a'†on/ razón˚ (('gOlpe)) /'golpe/ golpe˚ (('po;Lo))i (-,o)a /'poLo/ poıo˚ ((La'mo))i (,a-)a /La'mo/ ıamó˚ ((de'ko;Ro)) /òe'koRo/ decoro˚ ((r:u'mOR)) /r:u'moR/ rumor˘ Also for /i, a, u/: ((ßen'tIR)) (ßen'tiR)i (s-)a /sen'tiR/ sentir, ((&aßIŸ'naR)) (&aßiŸ'naR)i (-s-)a /asig'naR/ øignar, (('I;Xo)) ('i;Xo)i (-xo)a /'ixo/ hijo, (('mIRr:å)) ('miRr:a) /'miRr:a/ mirra, (('r:I;ko)) ('r:i;ko) /'r:iko/ rico; (('ka;Nå)) ('ka;Na) /'kaNa/ caña, (('ma;Co)) ('ma;Co) /'maco/ ma>o, (('ma;,o)) ('ma;,o) /'maJo/ mayo, (('ka;Le)) ('ka;Le)i (-,e)a /'kaLe/ caıe, (('baile)) ('baile) /'baile/ baile; (('qlto)) ('alto) /'alto/ alto, (('mq;Xå)) ('ma;Xa)i (-xa)a /'maxa/ maja, ((kq'XOn)) (ka'Xøn) /ka'xon/ cajón, (('kqußå)) ('kaußa)i (-sa)a /'kausa/ caä, ((q'un)) (a'un) /a'un/ aùn, ((bIl'Bqo)) (bil'Bao) /bil'bao/ Bilbao, ((q'O;Rå)) (a'ø;Ra) /a'oRa/ ahora; (('tuRko)) ('tuRko) /'tuRko/ turco, (('Xuntå)) ('Xunta)i ('x-)a /'xunta/ junta, (('lu;Xo)) ('lu;Xo)i (-xo)a /'luxo/ lujo, ((tuR'r:On)) (tuR'r:øn) /tuR'r:on/ turrón, ((r:u'mOR)) (r:u'møR) /r:u'moR/ rumor. 6.1.1.3. After /'i, 'u/, /eò|, oò|/ remain (e, o), even if at times we can find (’™, ’ø) (in neutral pronunciation too): (fe'li;†eß)i (-ses)a /fe'li†es/ felicπ˚ ('r:i;ko) /'r:iko/ rico˘ Even in an unstressed syllable, above all next to /x, r:/, we can have the (™, ø) timbres, but, for neutral pronunciation, (e, o) are regular and adequate: (&Xela'ti;na)i (&x-)a /xela'tina/ gelatina˚ (koR'r:™o) /koR'r:eo/ correo. We also indicate a pronunciation which can be heard, above all in words of frequent usage, in not slow speech, the sequence /we/ can be pronounced (wÉ) (realizing a front-central vocoid); whereas in faster or less controlled speech, the sequence can be reduced to a single vocoid (¤ a central rounded (ê)), through progressive shifts: ('pw™;Blo, 'pwÉ;-÷ 'pw‘;-÷ 'pjê;-÷ 'pê;-) /'pweblo/ pueblo˚ ('nw™;Be, 'nwÉ;-÷ 'nw‘;-÷ 'njê;-÷ 'nê;-) /'nwebe/ nueve˚ (&aßta'lw™;Ÿo, -wÉ;-÷ -w‘;-÷ -jê;-÷ -ê;-)i (&as-)a /asta'lwego/ høta luego˚ (kweß'tjøn, -wÙ-÷ -wÈ-÷ -j+-÷ -+-)i (-s-)a /kwes'tjon/ cuestión. However, it is not appropriate to actively adopt this particular kind of pronunciation (which is shown in the central part of the second vocogram in û 6.1).

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Diphthongs 6.1.2.1. ˛e various possible diphthongs are biphonemic, with phonetic realizations corresponding to those of monophthongs, joined together (as in Italian): ('l™i) /'lei/ ley˚ (pei'na;ƒo) /pei'naòo/ peinado˚ ('øiŸo) /'oigo/ oigo˚ (&boiko't™o) /boiko'teo/ boicoteo˚ ('baile) /'baile/ baile˚ ('aula) /'aula/ aula˚ (au'ƒa†)i (-s)a /au'òa†/ audaz˚ ('d™uƒa) /'òeuòa/ deuda˚ (eu'X™;njo)i (-x-)a /eu'xenjo/ Eugenio˚ ('bøu) /'bou/ bou˚ including (di'Ria) /òi'Ria/ dirìa˚ (na'Bioß)i (-s)a /na'bios/ navìos˚ (&konti'nuo) /konti'nuo/ continùo… As far as diphthongs are concerned, we must be absolutely resolute because (strange though it may seem, in the third millennium), there are deep-rooted incorrect convictions, dragged through centuries, which are particularly çvaluedÇ even by Hispanic phoneticians. A look at how things really are, would (— could) be easy, by simply considering what is phonetic, exclusively in phonetic terms. Instead, the range of mixtures of omnipresent (and interfering) spelling and grammatical (not to speak of metrical and diachronic) considerations, still loom, resulting merely in the creation of chaos of a subject which sets itself apart in being clear and objective. 6.1.2.2. As said, Hispanic literature (not that it is alone – ¡unfortunately!) dedicates too much e‡ort in complicating what is quite simple. Indeed, instead of three very common structures, ¤ real diphthongs (('éé, &éé, ’éé)), hiatuses ((é'é, é&é)), and heterophonic sequences ((0é), such as, (jé), (wé), and the like), they continue to consider only two of them: çdiphthongsÇ (with fusion: çsyneresisÇ) and çhiatusesÇ (with separation: çdieresisÇ) but with strained interpretations of medieval origin, of a graphic-grammatical and graphic-metrical nature. Indeed (unless one is a çmagicianÇ and can do phonetics based on graphic-grammatical categories), in phonetic terms, it is absurd to speak about çdiphthongsÇ in the case of (—jé, —wé) (('bj™n) /'bjen/ bien˚ ('gwa;pa) /'gwapa/ %apa]. As a matter of fact, only (—éi, —éu) (('aiRe) /'aiRe/ aire˚ ('kaußa)i (-sa)a /'kausa/ caä] are real diphthongs, as any ('éé, &éé, ’éé) sequences are (('auto) /'auto/ auto˚ (&auto'Buß)i (-s)a /auto'bus/ autobùs˚ (au't™ntiko) /au'tentiko/ auténtico]˚ and it is just as absurd to speak of çhiatusesÇ for ('ié, 'ué), given that only (i'é, u'é) are real hiatuses, as any other (é'é, é&é) sequence ((pa'iß)i (-s)a /pa'is/ paìs]˚ compared to (pai'ßa;no)i (-s-)a /pai'sano/ pa¤ano˚ a real diphthong. One can, therefore, not trust literature that only uses two categories (¤ diphthong and hiatus) and, what is more, who dangerously mix them, so as to include heterophonic sequences in çdiphthongÇ, and the real diphthong in çhiatusÇ… Obviously, (real) triphthongs are sequences of three vocoids ('ééé), with prominence on the first element (certainly not (é'éé, éé'é), nor –even– ('jéé, 'wéé), or (éjé, éwé)), which, instead, occur in ('bw™i) /'bwei/ buey˚ (&paRa'Ÿwai) /paRa'gwai/ Para%ay˘

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Consonants 6.2.0. û 6.2 gives the consonant articulations, of the two neutral accents, which are necessary for satisfactory Spanish pronunciation. Instead, û 1.9-15, give orograms, grouped by manners of articulation of all the contoids given in the chapters of this volume, even as secondary, occasional or regional variants of the 12 languages dealt with.

C {‚}

†i (∑)i sa (z)a (ß)i (fi)i (ƒ) R|r: (l) l

(˙) k g

(›) /J/|(,)

uvular

velar round.

N

velar

(~)

prevelar

alveolar

n

palatal

(n) t d

postalveopalatal

ö m (M) F pb Ô ƒ f _ ß (B) ó ‹

dental

labiodental

bilabial

û 6.2. Table of Spanish consonants.

(,)i

xa (Ÿ)

(X)i

(ò) j|(ã) (¬)

(F)

w|(j)

Li

+ (N, M, M, º, ∫) Ô text

Nasals 6.2.1.1. ˛ere are three nasal phonemes, /m, n, N/, with various taxophones for /n/ (m, M, n, ~, N, «, ˙, ,) (û 1.9.1-2; («) is semi-provelar without full contact; we could add dental ((˙)), before /t, d÷ †/, for which, however, (n) is su‚cient; below, we add five more taxophones, (N, M, º, M, ∫), for nasal heterorganic sequences): ('ma;no) /'mano/ mano˚ ('ni;No) /'niNo/ niño˚ (um'p™Rr:o) /um'peRr:o/ un perro˚ (im'bj™Rno) /im'bjeRno/ invierno˚ (iM'fj™l) /in'fjel/ infiel˚ (&konten'd™R) ((-˙te˙-)) /konten'deR/ contender˚ (kon'†™ñto) ((-˙'†-))i (-s-) ((-˙'s-))a /kon'†ebto/ concepto˚ (kon'ß™;Xo)i (-s™;xo) ((-˙'s-))a /kon'sexo/ consejo˚ ('ønr:a) /'onr:a/ honra˚ ('a~Co) ((-nC-)) /'anco/ an>o˚ ('køN›uXe)i (-xe)a /'konJuxe/ cónyuge˚ (uN'›u˙ke) /un'Junke/ un yun¢e˚ (&koNLe'BaR)i (-N›-, -NJ-)a /konLe'baR/ conıevar˚ (u«'w™;Bo) /un'webo/ un huevo˚ ('ba˙ko) /'banko/ banco˚ ('t™˙go) /'tengo/ tengo˚ ('fRa,Xa)i (-˙xa)a /'fRanxa/ franja˘ ˛e articulation of /N/ is palatal, as in Italian, but short (not self-geminant, as in neutral Italian; even if, at times, it can geminate a little (NN), after a stressed V˚ which is then short): ('ba;No÷ 'baNNo) /'baNo/ baño (Ô Italian ('baN:No) /'baNNo/ bagno]˘ As for /nòw/, even with the prefixes cons-, ins-, trans-, the most normal and suitable articulation is with («): (&ko«ßtRu◊'†jøn)i (-«stRu◊'sj-)a /konstRug'†jon/ construcción˚ (i«ß'tante)i (-s-)a /ins'tante/ instante˚ (&tRa«ßfoR'maR)i (-s-)a /tRansfoR'maR/ transformar÷ obviously forms such as (&†iRku«ß'tan†ja)i (&siRku«s'tansja)a /†iRkuns'tan†ja/ circunstancia are included in this case. For the first elements of /mn, nm/ sequences, we find some further taxophones,

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with double articulations ((N), alveolar–bilabial, in a more precise pronunciation style, whereas a performance corresponing to the phonemic structure would sound extremely pedantic, "˝&), or with coarticulations ((M, º), respectively alveolarized bilabial and labialized alveolar) or with semi-articulations ((M, ∫)), in a more spontaneous and less controlled kind of pronunciation (û 1.9.1-2): ('iNno, 'iMno, 'iMno÷ ˝'imno) /'imno/ himno˚ (koN'mi;Ÿo, koM-, koº-, ko∫-÷ ˝kon-) /kon'migo/ conmigo˘ For /nò/, neutral pronunciation gives (n), even if the velar realization, which remains non-neutral, is very common, above all in America; for word-final written -m, we can also find (N, M, M, º, ∫) (the labialized taxophones are due to the spelling), even if (n) is neutral and considered more traditional (probably because of the spelling): (a◊'†jøn)i (-sj-)a /ag'†jon/ acción˚ ('alBun, -uN, -uM, -uM, -uº, -u∫) /'albun/ álbum˘ It is important to note that before, a pause, the vibrations of the vocal folds stop at the same time as the o‡set of the tip of the tongue from the alveolar ridge (therefore, something like (-nÈ, -n…, -nO) is not at all acceptable). Stops 6.2.2.1. Spanish has three diphonic pairs of stops, (p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g) /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/: ('pa;ßo)i (-so)a /'paso/ pøo˚ ('b™;ßo)i (-so)a /'beso/ bπo˚ (um'b™;ßo)i (-so)a /um'beso/ un bπo˚ (tu't™o) /tu'teo/ tuteo˚ (do'løR) /òo'loR/ dolor˚ (&kondo'løR) /kondo'loR/ con dolor˚ ('kaldo) /'kaldo/ caldo˚ ('kø;Ce) /'koce/ co>e˚ (go'Ri;la) /go'Rila/ gorila˚ (&u˙go'Ri;la) /ungo'Rila/ un gorila˘ However, the voiced stops, are realized as such only after a pause, after a nasal, and in the (homorganic) sequence /ld/, as the previous examples demonstrate. As a matter of fact, in all other contexts, the çnormalÇ realization is approximant, (B, ƒ) /b, d/, or constrictive, (Ÿ) /g/ (unless one speaks slowly, with precision or emphasis): ('lø;Bo) /'lobo/ lobo˚ (eß&ta'Bj™n)i (es-)a /es'ta 'bjen/ πtá bien˚ ('b™RBo) /'beRbo/ verbo˚ ('alBa) /'alba/ alba˚ ('pø;BRe) /'pobRe/ pobre˚ (&añßo'lu;to)i (-ñs-)a /abso'luto/ absoluto˚ (ßu'Bli;me)i (s-)a /su'blime/ sublime˚ (&ßuB-le'BaR)i (&s-)a /sub-le'baR/ sublevar (in this example, the prefix still sounds as if it is separate), (oñ'taR) /ob'taR/ optar (both b and v are always /b/ (b, B): Spanish does not have ç/v/Ç). More examples: ('tø;ƒo) /'toòo/ todo˚ (peR'ƒ™R) /peR'òeR/ perder˚ ('ma;ƒRe) /ma'òRe/ madre˚ ('d™fiƒe)i (-z-)a /'òesòe/ dπde÷ (lofi'ƒ™;ƒoß)i (loz'ƒ™;ƒos)a /los'òeòos/ los dedos˚ (&aƒmi'RaR) /aòmi'RaR/ admirar˚ (aƒ'møßfeRa)i (-s-)a /aò'mosfeRa/ atmósfera˚ (&a‡Xe'ti;Bo)i (&a‡xe-)a /aòxe'tibo/ adjetivo÷ ('i;Ÿo) /'igo/ higo˚ (la'Ÿ™Rr:a) /la'geRr:a/ la %erra˚ ('a;Ÿwa) /'agwa/ a%a˚ (el'Ÿølpe) /el'golpe/ el golpe˚ ('kaRŸo) /'kaRgo/ cargo˚ ('ßi;Ÿlo)i ('s-)a /'si-glo/ siglo˚ ('diŸno, 'di˙no) /'òig-no/ digno˚ ('t™Ÿnika, -˙n-) /'tegnika/ técnica (for /gn, kn/, (-«n-) is also possible), (a◊'tøR) /ag'toR/ actor˚ (&di◊†jo'a;Rjo)i (-◊s-)a /òig†jo'naRjo/ diccionario˘ Before a front V and /j/, /k, g, g/ realize as prevelar, by normal assimilation, but it is not necessary to systematically use the special symbols ((´, Ò, Ú)): (ki'taR) /ki'tar/ ¢itar˚ ('kj™;Ro) /'kjeRo/ ¢iero˚ ('gia) /'gia/ %ìa˚ ('a;Ÿila) /'agila/ á%ila˘ In a true intervocalic position, we currently have a semi-constrictive articulation, ((y)) (and ((g))): ('a;Ÿo) (('a;yo)) /'ago/ hago (and ('a;Ÿila) ((-gi-)) /'agila/ á%ila]˘

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6.2.2.2. In word-final position, (‡) /ò/ is weak (¤ articulated with less tension, ((d)), as well as devoiced, ((D)), unless it is followed by voiced phones): ('ß™‡)i ('s-)a /'seò/ sed˚ (a'Bla‡) /a'blaò/ hablad÷ often it drops in: (uß't™[‡])i (us-)a /us'te[ò]/ ¨ted˚ (ma'ƒRi[‡]) /ma'òRi[ò]/ Madrid, and in nouns with /éòò/ (not monosyllabic nouns): (beR'ƒa[‡]) /beR'òaò/ verdad˚ (biR'tu[‡]) /biR'tuò/ virtud˘ Furthermore, in the masculine ending -ado(s)˚ the articulation is just as attenuated (up to (`), çzeroÇ, in familiar pronunciation, above all the Iberian one, but not systematically; generally, in American pronunciation, the drop is considered to be non-neutral): (Le'Ÿa[;ƒ]o)i (,e'Ÿa;ƒo)a /Le'gaòo/ ıegado˚ (ßol'da[;ƒ]oß)i (sol'da;ƒos)a /sol'daòos/ soldados˘ As seen, before a voiceless C (or before a possible pause), /b, ò, g/ are devoiced: (oñ'taR, &a‡Xe'ti;Bo, a◊'tøR) (from the previous section). Due to an excessive influence of writing, above all in the American accent, some articulate /b, ò, g/ as (p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g) (with voicing in relation to the spelling), before heterosyllabic C (which, instead, represent a completely normal neutralization): (oñ'taR, op-), (&ßuB-le'BaR, -b-)i (&s-)a, (&aƒmi'RaR, &ad-), (aƒ'møßfeRa, at-)i (-s-)a, (&a‡Xe'ti;Bo, &ad-)i (-xe-)a÷ ('diŸno, 'dig-), (a◊'tøR, ak-). Again, for the same reason, with a further (and more serious) removal from the real phonic structure, due to improper spelling influence (or because of regional accents, ™ from Valencia, (v), and from Paraguay, (V)), especially in American pronunciation, some introduce the ç/v/ phonemeÇ in Spanish, which has not existed for centuries: (&embi'aR÷ ≠&eMvi'aR) /embi'aR/ enviar˘ It is evident that the use we make of /b, ò, g/ is not diaphonemic, as the two accents substantially coincide; it is moreover, interphonemic, because it is supposed to show where their realization is not a stop, to help foreigners use it correctly, without strained deductions (and, often, incorrect – and therefore, the source of endless problems). Stopstrictives 6.2.3. ˛ere is only one stopstrictive phoneme, voiceless postalveo-palatal, (C) /c/ (which, compared to postalveo-palatal protruded (c) /c/, of English or neutral Italian does not have labial protrusion: ('l™;Ce) /'lece/ le>e˚ (mu'Ca;Co) /mu'caco/ mu>a>o˚ (&CaCa'Ca) /caca'ca/ >a->a->á˘ ˛e regional change from /c/ to (ë) is typically Andalusian and Caribbean. Phonetically, there is another palatal stopstrictive, (›), which is voiced, and realizes the constrictive phoneme /J/, which only occurs after a pause or after /n, l/: ([koN]'›™Rr:o) /[kon]'JeRr:o/ (con] hierro˚ (&iN›™◊'†jøn)i (-sjøn)a /inJeg'†jon/ inyección˚ ([eL]'›u˙ke) /[el]'Junke/ (el) yun¢e˘ Often, in familiar (and neutral) pronunciation, after pauses, we also find (J) (real constrictive) or a semi-stopstrictive, (W), or even a stop-semi-strictive, (Ÿ): ('J™Rr:o, 'Ju˙ke÷ 'W-, 'Ÿ-); the same can occur, in the order (›, Ÿ, W, J), after /n, l/: (koN'›™Rr:o, koN'Ÿ-, koN'W-, koN'J-), (&iN›™◊'†jøn, &iNŸ™-, &iNW™-, &iNJ™-)i (-sjøn)a, (eL'›u˙ke, eL'Ju-).

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Constrictives 6.2.4.1. ˛ere are five constrictive phonemes; four are voiceless: (f) /f/, (†i, sa) /†/, (ßi, sa) /s/ and (Xi, xa) /x/; whereas (,) /J/ is voiced (palatal) and, if the truth be told, only semi-constrictives, as it is half-way between an approximant, (j), and the real constrictive ((J); but rarer in various languages). (f) /f/ does not pose any problems, even if, often, American and Iberian speakers realize it as a bilabial (constrictive, (å), or approximant, (F)): ([&uM]fa'BøR÷ [&um]åa-÷ [&um]Fa-) /[un]fa'boR/ (un) favor˘ 6.2.4.2. ˛e others need further explanations. Indeed, (†) /†/i is neutral only in the Iberian accent, whereas in the American accent it becomes /s/: (†a'pa;to)i (sa-)a /†a'pato/ zapato˚ ('†j™;lo)i ('sj-)a /'†jelo/ cielo˚ ('di;†e)i (-se)a /'òi†e/ dice˚ ('lu†)i ('lus)a /'lu†/ luz˘ Starting from an American, or international type of transcription, it could be more appropriate to use the diaphoneme /s/: /sa'pato, 'sjelo, 'òise, 'lus/. Before voiced C˚ the articulation becomes voiced: (Xu∑'ŸaR)i (xuz'ŸaR)a /xu†'gaR/ juzgar˚ ('lu∑ ƒo'Ra;ƒa)i ('luz)a /'lu† òo'Raòa/ luz dorada÷ naturally before sonants, in the American accent, (s) is preferred (as for /s/; Ô the following section): ('dj™∑mo)i (-smo)a /'òje†mo/ diezmo˘ 6.2.4.3. For /s/ the place of articulation changes, from one accent to another, as /s/ is (apico-)alveolar in Iberian Spanish, (ß)i, but, (lamino-)dental in American Spanish, (s)a: (eß'ta;ƒoß)i (es'ta;ƒos)a /es'taòos/ πtados˚ ('ßøl)i ('s-)a /'sol/ sol˚ ('pi;ßo)i (-so)a /'piso/ p¤o˘ (After a stressed V˚ as well as the normal –and more appropriate– ('é;ßé)i ('é;sé)a, one can also have ('éßßé)i ('éssé)a: ('pißßo)i ('pisso)a.) Before voiced diphonic heterosyllabic C (/b, d, g/), /s/ becomes voiced, (fi)i (z)a: (lofi'BuRr:oß)i (loz'BuRr:os)a /los'buRr:os/ los burros˚ ('d™fiƒe)i ('d™zƒe)a /'òesòe/ dπde˚ (difi'Ÿußto)i (-z'Ÿus-)a /òis'gusto/ d¤g¨to˘ In the /st, sò/ sequences, in neutral Iberian pronunciation, (ß, fi) remain, as can be seen in the given examples; only the denti-alveolar articulation (dental with a raised tip, ((s, z))) is possible, while it is necessary in the (still Iberian) pronunciation of the sequence /s†/: (es'†™;na) /es'†ena/ πcena (which in American pronunciation is (e's™;na) /e'sena/, from //es'sena//). However, before heterosyllabic non-diphonic C (/m, n, N÷ J÷ w÷ l, L/; for /s/ + /r:/, see the end of this section), the behavior pattern is di‡erent, even if complementary: in the Iberian accent voicing prevails, (fi, Ü, ß); whereas in the American accent voicelessness prevails, (s, Ω, z) (even if we transcribe only the first realization for each accent): ('mifimo)i (-s-)a /'mismo/ m¤mo˚ ('ifila)i (-s-)a /'isla/ ¤la˚ (lofi'w™;ßoß)i (-s'w™;sos, -'sw-)a /los'wesos/ los huπos˚ ('døò ',™Rr:oß)i ('døë)a /'òos 'JeRr:os/ dos hierros˘ ˛e last example shows the normal articulation of the postalveo-palatal kind, (ò)i (ë)a, before /J/, as also before /L, N/: (laò'Lu;Bjaß)i (laë',u;Bjas)a /las'Lubjas/ lø ıuviø˚ (loò'Nø;Noß)i (loë-, -os)a /los'NoNos/ los ñoños. If the voiced C that follow are tautosyllabic (¤ when they are part of the same syllable), /s/ remains voiceless, as even before V˚ /sòé/ (being initial in the phono-syllable): ('ßj™ßta)i ('sj™s-)a /'sjesta/ siπta˚ ('ßw™;lo)i ('s-)a /'swelo/ suelo˚ (&loßa'mi;Ÿoß)i (-sa'mi;Ÿos)a /losa'migos/ los amigos˚ (&mißeR'ma;noß)i (-seR'ma;nos)a /miseR'manos/

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m¤ hermanos˘ (In the Catalan pronunciation of Spanish, instead, it is voiced, as in the Catalan language: (&lofia'mi;Ÿoß, &mifieR'ma;noß).) For /sòr:/ (also /s˘r:/) the most normal articulations are (Ír:, Rr:, §r:, ¸r:, Í¸:, R¸:) (however, we only transcribe (Ír:), but /sr:/, even if its actual pronunciation with (ßi, sa) is decidedly excessive, as if spoken by a çforeignerÇ {both non-Hispanic and Hispanic}): (laÍ'r:w™;ƒaß)i (-s)a /las'r:weòas/ lø ruedø˚ (&iÍr:a'™l) /isr:a'el/ Israel˘ In the phonemic transcription, we use /s/, since, when speaking in a slow or emphatic manner, for (fii, za), the actual pronunciation can undoubtedly be voiceless even in Iberian pronunciation. 6.2.4.4. ˛e criterion adopted here, only considers two kinds of neutral pronunciation; however, while describing the pronunciations of each single nation, we will inevitably broaden our criteria so as to adequately include the characteristics of every single country (though, with all the non-neutral variants, which obviously each area presents). ˛erefore, let us mention a non-neutral variant, for (American, Canary, and Andalusian Spanish) /s˘/, ¤ a very weak laryngeal approximant ((h), voiceless; and (H), voiced before voiced phones), which is generally found together with what is traditionally (but incorrectly), defined as çaspirate(d)Ç /s/ (which, from a strictly phonetic point of view would mean (sh), as (th)…), before a pause, or a C˚ or even before a V˘ It is realized as if it were ç/h/Ç. For example: (lah'kw™htah) /las'kwestas/ lø cuπtø˚ ('d™Hƒe) /'òesòe/ dπde˚ ('ihlah, 'iH-) /'islas/ ¤lø˚ (&loha'mi;Ÿoh) /losa'migos/ los amigos (in neutral pronunciation: (laß'kw™ßtaß)i (las'kw™stas)a, ('d™fiƒe)i (-z-)a, ('ifilaß)i ('islas)a, (&loßa'mi;Ÿoß)i (-sa'mi;Ÿos)a]˘ Such pronunciation can even get to transform (h, H) into (`), çzeroÇ. 6.2.4.5. Again, referring to non-neutral pronunciation, there can also be çcoloringsÇ of (h) (voiceless), depending on the timbre of the preceding vowel. ˛is often happens, in Argentinian Spanish (where the phenomenon is normally heard; and, only in more formal conversation, can one avoid it; but, before a pause, it is considered very uneducated and, thus, more carefully avoided): ('liâta) (palatal) /'lista/ l¤ta˚ ('kw™hta) (laryngeal) /'kwesta/ cuπta˚ ('pa∆ta) (velar) /'pasta/ pøta˚ ('tø∆ta) (laryngeal rounded) /'tosta/ tosta˚ ('guWta) (velar rounded) /'gusta/ %sta÷ ('iHla, 'd™Hƒe, 'aHma, 'øHmosis, tuH'ƒj™ntes) /'isla, 'òesòe, 'asma, 'osmosis, tus'òjentes/ ¤la˚ dπde˚ øma˚ ósmos¤˚ t¨ dientπ˘ In neutral pronunciation we have: ('lißta, 'kw™ßta, 'paßta, 'tøßta, 'gußta)i (-s-)a and ('ifila, 'd™fiƒe, 'afima, 'øfimoßiß, tufi'ƒj™nteß)i ('is-)a˘ In Argentinian neutral pronunciation, however, only rarely is /s/ fully (s, z), in /s˘, sò/ contexts, but it is rather a dental grooved semi-constrictive, (∂, d): ('d™dƒe, lo∂'p™Rr:o∂) /'òesòe, los'peRr:os/ dπde˚ los perros. (˛e two neutral pronunciations treated here, have (fi, ß)i (z, s)a. A less neutral but controlled Argentinian pronunciation has (≈) for (∂, d) – Ô û 1.9-18.) Another, even more marked characteristic, which is typical, above all, of parts of Andalusia and America (in particular, in the Caribbean and southern areas), /sÊ/ fuse together into (=): (miz'ƒ™;ƒos÷ miH'ƒ™;ƒoh÷ mi+'ƒ™;ƒoh÷ mi'Ï™-÷ mi'†™-÷ -o∆) /mis'òeòos/ m¤ dedos˚ (&tRez'Bailes÷ &tReH'Baileh÷ &tRe='Bai-÷ &tRe'åai-÷ &tRe'Fai-) /'tRes 'bai-

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les/ trπ bailπ˚ (laz'Bø;tas÷ laH'Bø;tah÷ la´'Bø-÷ la'åø-÷ la'Fø-÷ -a∆) /las'botas/ lø botø˚ (loz'Ÿa;,os÷ loH'Ÿa;,oh÷ lo≠'Ÿa-÷ lo'xa-÷ lo'∆a-÷ -o∆) /los'gaJos/ los gaıos˚ (tuz'Ÿa;tos÷ tuH'Ÿa;toh÷ tu±'Ÿa-÷ tu'xa-÷ tu'∆a-÷ -o∆) /tus'gatos/ t¨ gatos ((=) and derivatives have an intermediate type of phonation between (h) and (H)). Neutral pronunciation is: (mifi'ƒ™;ƒoß, &tRefi'Baileß, lafi'Bø;taß, lofi'Ÿa;,oß, tufi'Ÿa;toß)i (-z-, -s)a˘ Otherwise, before son(or)ants (/m, n÷ l÷ r:/), /s/ can change into (Ò0, =0): ('mizmo, 'miΩ-, 'mis-÷ 'miH-, 'mi+-÷ 'mi≈-, 'mi)-) /'mismo/ m¤mo˚ ('azno, 'aΩ-, 'as-÷ 'aH-, 'a´-÷ 'an-÷ 'a£-) /'asno/ øno˚ ('izla÷ 'iΩ-, 'is-÷ 'iH-÷ 'i+-÷ 'iú-÷ 'ia-) /'isla/ ¤la˚ (&iÍr:a'™l, &i-5) /isr:a'el/ Israel˘ Neutral pronunciation: ('mifimo, 'afino, 'ifila)i (-s-)a (&iÍr:a'™l)˘ 6.2.4.6. ˛e voiced palatal semi-constrictive, (,) /J/ (already introduced in § 6.2.4.1; Ô 6.2.4.3, as well), occurs between vowels, in words or sentences (¤ in contexts which are di‡erent from the çstrongÇ ones in § 6.2.3, but, as said there, it is also possible in those contexts): ('ba;,a) /'baJa/ vaya˚ ('ø;,e) /'oJe/ oye˘ For /J/, there is a pronunciation which could come under the neutral one (from a familiar to an energetic kind), which is very common in both accents: (‚). Articulatorily it corresponds to (C) /c/, which comes to form a diphonic pair, thus rendering the consonant system more natural and coherent. Although it is still not completely neutral, it can be used in a kind of çinternationalÇ accent, simpler and more functional (even with (s, ,) /s, J/ for /†, L/; therefore indicated by the diaphonemes /s, J/, Ô § 6.0); this pronunciation is justified and supported by the actual use of many Iberian (including Madrilenian) and American speakers: ('ba;‚a, 'ø;‚e). According to the criteria adopted in this chapter, the transformation of /J/ to (ë, ò) is doubtlessly regional (and typical, for example, of Argentinian pronunciation, whose neutral local pronunciation has, however, (ò) for /J, L/). Again, in American and Andalusian pronunciations, above all, /J/ can often be realized as an approximant, (j), but such pronunciation barely comes under neutral (however small the di‡erence may be, since (,) is only a semi-constrictive); a systematic use of (j) is regional or foreign. 6.2.4.7. For /x/ too, the place of articulation changes from one accent to another (even within the neutral accent), as /x/ is, respectively, uvular, (X)i, and velar, (x)a: (Xa'møn)i (xa-)a /xa'mon/ jamón˚ (Xe'miR)i (xe-)a /xe'miR/ gemir˚ ('di;Xe)i (-xe)a /'òixe/ dije÷ when word-final it is weaker, as it becomes an approximant of the same place of articulation, or even laryngeal: ('bø˜, -h)i ('bø∆, -h)a /'box/ boj÷ it is currently lost in: (r:e'lø[˜], -ø[h])i (r:e'lø[∆], -ø[h])a /r:e'lox/ reloj˘ In the two accents, there can be some variants for /x/, which are included in neutral pronunciation: respectively, a more vigorous articulation ((º)i, voiceless uvular constrictive trill), or less vigorous, ((∆)a, voiceless velar approximant), which we refer to here only. On the other hand, its transformation into (h) (laryngeal), which is very common in America and Andalusia, cannot be considered neutral, according to the criteria adopted here.

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Approximants 6.2.5.1. ˛e Spanish approximants are /j, w/: ('†j™;lo)i ('sj™-)a /'†jelo/ cielo˚ ('w™;Bo) /'webo/ huevo˚ (&awe'kaR) /awe'kaR/ ahuecar÷ devoiced realizations after voiceless C are dialectal (or foreign): ('tj™;ne÷ ≠'tª-) /'tjene/ tiene˚ ('kwa;tRo÷ ≠'k‹-) /'kwatRo/ cuatro˘ Generally, /j/ only occurs after a tautosyllabic C˚ as in the previous examples, and in ('r:j™;Ÿo) /'r:jego/ riego. Instead, at the beginning of a syllable, we have /J/ exclusively (§ 6.2.4.6, 6.2.4.1, 6.2.3), except in certain areas of America, such as Argentina, where it is found for hiV-: ('›™;lo, ',-)i ('›-, ',-÷ 'j-)a /'Jelo/ hielo˚ ('›™RBa, ',-)i ('›-, ',-÷ 'j-)a /'JeRba/ hierba˚ against ('›™RBa, ',-)i ('›-, ',-)a /'JeRba/ yerba (independently of the –non-neutral– reduction of /J/ to (j), in certain areas). For /é[ò]bwé, é[ò]gwé/, in familiar pronunciation, there can be a simplification, through a velarized bilabial approximant, (ñ), for the first case; or a constrictive, ()) (or (Ÿ), Ô § 9.14 of NPT/HPh), or a semi-constrictive, (m), up to the approximant (w) (both velar rounded): (a'Bw™;lo, a'm™-, a'ñ™-, a'w™-) /a'bwelo/ abuelo˚ (la'Bw™lta, la'm™-, la'ñ™-, la'w™-) /la'bwelta/ la vuelta˚ ('a;Ÿwa, 'a;)a, 'a;ma, 'a;wa) /'agwa/ a%a˚ (la&Ÿwape'tø;na, la&)a-, la&ma-, la&wa-) /lagwape'tona/ la %apetona˘ Instead, for /òw, éw/, in familiar pronunciation, a more vigorous realization is more frequent (compared to the phonemic transcription): (')™;Bo, 'm™-, 'ñ™-) /'webo/, (&a)e'kaR, &ame-, &añe-) /awe'kaR/. Even in the /nòw/ combination (Ô § 6.2.1.1), we can have this more vigorous articulation: (u«'w™;Bo, u«')™-, u«'m™-, u«'ñ™-) /un'webo/ un huevo˘ In all these cases, we can hear even syntagmatically divided realizations, (Ÿw, Bw) (and even, (˙gw, mbw), for the last case), however it is doubtlessly better to avoid them. 6.2.5.2. As well as (j, w) and (B, ƒ) (/j, w/, /b, ò/), there are three more approximant (taxo)phones, which, in –normal, not at all slovenly– spontaneous conversation, are the realization of /e, o, a/, in the sequences /0eé, 0oé, 0aé/; therefore we have, (semi-palatal) /e/ (ã), (semi-velar rounded) /o/ (j) and (semi-prevelar) /a/ (F): ('pãøR) /pe'oR/ peor˚ ('tãa;tRo) /te'atRo/ teatro˚ ('pj™;ta) /po'eta/ poeta˚ (&kjaŸu'laR) /koagu'laR/ coa%lar˚ (u'nFø;Xa)i (-xa)a /una'oxa/ una hoja˚ ('lFø;tRa pa'Ra;ƒa) /la'otRa pa'Raòa/ la otra parada˘ In slower, or more solemn speech, we doubtlessly have (pe'øR, te'a;tRo, po'™;ta, &koaŸu'laR, &una'ø;Xa, la'ø;tRa pa'Ra;ƒa)i (-xa)a, as the phonemic transcription indicates. Furthermore, there are pronunciations which are currently considered to be uneducated: ('pjøR, 'tja;tRo, 'pw™;ta, &kwaŸu'laR); there is a di‡erence, and it is more than enough to distinguish the three di‡erent realizations, even if the di‡erence between (ã, j) and (j, w) might seem negligible (not only for foreigners, but also for natives who write articles and books, limiting themselves to only two extreme possibilities, also because of the lack of adequate symbols).

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Trills 6.2.6.1. Spanish has an alveolar trill /r:/ (r:), with three rapid tappings of the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge (so, (r;) would be enough, but experience prefers (r:)), and a tap /R/ (R), with a single rapid alveolar contact: ('r:a;Ro) /'r:aRo/ raro˘ In interphonemic transcriptions (concerning several languages), it is important to mark the chron(em)e, because otherwise its nature could be hidden, and Spanish /r:/ might seem to be a simple trill (with two tappings, as Italian /r/ in stressed syllables: ('ra:Ro)it /'raro/ raro]˘ ˛e two Spanish types ((R, r:)) join together too, giving, for examples: ('tj™Rr:a) /'tjeRr:a/ tierra (Ô Italian ('tEr:Ra) /'tErra/ terra]˚ (laR'r:a;ƒjo) /laR'r:aòjo/ la radio (Ô Italian (la'ra:djo)it /la'radjo/ la radio]˘ Furthermore, in Spanish, the two types are distinctive, between V (even if with length di‡erences, for vowels too): ('ka;Ro) /'kaRo/ caro˚ ('kaRr:o) /'kaRr:o/ carro÷ ('p™;Ro) /'peRo/ pero˚ ('p™Rr:o) /'peRr:o/ perro÷ (&en†e'RaR)i (-s-)a /en†e'RaR/ encerar˚ (&en†eR'r:aR)i (-s-)a /en†eR'r:aR/ encerrar˘ In our phone(ma)tic analysis, (Rr:) /Rr:/ are heterosyllabic sequences, constituted by (syllable-final) (R˘) /R˘/ or (word-final) (Rò) /Rò/ + (r:) /r:/, with one + three (or four, to give more emphasis) tappings. ˛ey are not simple segments such as ç/R, r/Ç (or çr˚ rÇ in the Hispanic tradition). 6.2.6.2. We now (systematically) examine the distribution of the two types. Apart from intervocalic context (just seen), with (Rr:) /Rr:/, where the use is phonemic, we also find (r:) after a pause or after heterosyllabic C (/n, l, s/): (r:a'tøn) /r:a'ton/ ratón˚ ('ønr:a) /'onr:a/ honra˚ (un'r:a;mo) /un'r:amo/ un ramo˚ (al&r:eƒe'ƒøR) /alr:eòe'òoR/ alrededor˚ (el'r:™i) /el'r:ei/ el rey˚ (&iÍr:ae'li;ta) /isr:ae'lita/ ¤raelita˚ (miÍ'r:ø;paß)i (-s)a /mis'r:opas/ m¤ ropø˘ In the other contexts, (R) is normal, even before a pause, where the vibrations of the vocal folds stop at the same time as the tip of the tongue is removed from the alveolar ridge (therefore the following are not at all acceptable (-RÈ, -R…, -RO)): ('mi;Ra) /'miRa/ mira˚ ('miRlo) /'miRlo/ mirlo˚ ('øRƒen) /'oRòen/ orden˚ ('tR™n) /'tRen/ tren˚ (a'BRiR) /a'bRiR/ abrir˚ (&ofRe'†™R)i (-s™R)a /ofRe'†eR/ ofrecer˚ (peR'ƒ™R) /peR'òeR/ perder˚ (&poRfa'BøR) /poRfa'boR/ por favor˚ ('iR po'Ra;Ÿwa) /'iR po'Ragwa/ ir por a%a˘ In familiar pronunciation, (R) /R/ can be weakened in all cases, substituting it with (¸): ('mi;¸a, 'mi¸lo, 'ø¸ƒen, 't¸™n, a'B¸i§, &of¸e'†™§)i (-s™§)a, (pe¸'ƒ™§, &po§fa'Bø§, 'i§ po'¸a;Ÿwa). On the contrary, in a more energetic or emphatic pronunciation, /R˘, Rò/ can be strengthened into (r): ('mirlo, 'ørƒen, a'BRir, &ofRe'†™r)i (-s™r)a, (per'ƒ™r, &porfa'Bør, 'ir po'Ra;Ÿwa). However, neither of these two phones are indispensable for çgenuineÇ pronunciation. Laterals 6.2.7. ˛ere are two lateral phonemes in neutral Iberian Spanish, (l, L)i /l, L/; whilst in neutral American Spanish, the second merges with /J/ – (l, ,)a /l, L/; moreover, /l/ has taxophones which are appropriately used, (¬, L) (it is not necessary to

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mark explicitly ((l)), as long as the articulation is dental): ('la;ƒo) /'laòo/ lado˚ (ka'løR) /ka'loR/ calor˚ (kol'ŸaR) /kol'gaR/ colgar˚ ('alto) {((-lto))} /'alto/ alto˚ (el'†i;ne)i {((el'†-))} (el'si;ne)a {((el's-))} /el'†ine/ el cine˚ (ko¬'Cøn) ((-L'C-)) /kol'con/ col>ón˚ (eL'Nø;No) /el'NoNo/ el ñoño˚ (eL'›u˙ke, eL'J-) /el'Junke/ el yunke˚ ('kla;ße)i (-se)a /'klase/ cløe˚ ('dø;Ble) /'òoble/ doble˚ (e'la;Ÿwa) /e'lagwa/ el a%a˚ (La'maR)i (,a-)a /La'maR/ ıamar˚ ('ba;Le)i (-,e)a /'baLe/ vaıe˚ (&koNLe'Bando)i (-N›-, NJ-)a /konLe'bando/ conıevando˘ Phonetically, before palatals, even the American accent has (L), although it does not have the phoneme /L/. In the same context, /J/ is articulated as a real constrictive, (J), or as a stopstrictive, (›). Before a pause, even for /l/ (as for /n, R/ and for /ò/), the vibrations of the vocal folds stop at the same time as the tip of the tongue is removed from the alveolar ridge (therefore, the following are not at all acceptable (-lÈ, -l…, -lO)): ('ßøl)i ('s-)a /'sol/ sol˚ (lau'R™l) /lau'Rel/ laurel˘ Structures 6.3. We treat the characteristics of the combination of words in connected speech, and then, above all, sentence-stress (as Spanish writing is quite explicit about word-stress, though not exactly without doubts and uncertainties, including possible oscillations). Taxophonics 6.3.1.1. ©th regard to consonant assimilations, they have been dealt with in the sections of the respective parts. ˛e combination of vowels within words, and between words in sentences, will be dealt with above all here. Within a word, two same vowels tend to be reduced to only one, except in formal, slow or controlled speech: (&alBa'a;ka, al'Ba;ka) /alba'aka/ albahaca˚ (a†a'aR, -'†aR)i (-s-)a /a†a'aR/ azahar˚ (&akRee'ƒø;Reß, &akRe'-) /akRee'òoRes/ acreedorπ˚ (bee'm™n†ja, be'-)i (-sja)a /bee'men†ja/ vehemencia˚ (nii'lißta, ni'-) /nii'lista/ nihil¤ta˚ (&alko'øl, al'køl) /alko'ol/ alcohol˚ (&koope'RaR, ko&o-, &kope-) /koope'RaR/ cooperar˚ (&†oolo'Xia, &†olo-)i (&so-, -'xia)a /†oolo'xia/ zoologìa˘ However, certain words, that otherwise would not be easily recognized, are not reduced:(kRe'™n†ja)i (-sja)a /kRe'en†ja/ creencia˚ (mo'ø;ßo)i (-so)a /mo'oso/ mohoso˚ (lo'øR) /lo'oR/ loor÷ other words can be reduced except in an intoneme: (le'™R, 'l™R) /le'eR/ leer˚ ('l™e, 'l™) /'lee/ lee˚ (kRe'™, 'kR™) /kRe'e/ creé˚ (paße'™;moß, pa'ßã™;-, pa'ß™;-) /pase'emos/ pøeemos˘ ©th di‡erent V˚ we have: (ko&aŸu'la;ƒo, &kja-) /koagu'laòo/ coa%lado˚ (aR'X™nteo, -tão)i (-x-)a /aR'xenteo/ argénteo˚ (leo'paRƒo, lão-) /leo'paRòo/ leopardo˘ 6.3.1.2. On the contrary, in formal, slow or controlled speech, (j, ã÷ w, j) can change into the vocoids (i, e÷ u, o): ('bja;Xe÷ bi'a-)i (-xe)a /'bjaxe/ viaje˚ ('ßwa;Be÷ ßu'a-)i ('swa-)a /'swabe/ suave˚ ('bju;ƒa÷ bi'u-) /'bjuòa/ viuda˚ ('r:wi;ƒo÷ r:u'i-) /'r:wiòo/

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ruido÷ (al'dãa;no÷ &alde'a-) /alde'ano/ aldeano˚ (lãal'ta‡÷ leal-) /leal'taò/ lealtad˚ ('li;nãa÷ -nea) /'linea/ lìnea˚ ('tja;La÷ to'a-)i (-,a)a /to'aLa/ toaıa˚ (&kjaŸu'laR÷ ko&a-÷ &koa-) /koagu'laR/ coa%lar˚ ('r:ãal÷ r:e'al) /r:e'al/ real˘ It must be remembered that there is a di‡erence between normal pronunciation (not slow): ('tãa;tRo, &empão'RaR, 'pj™;ta, &kjaŸu'laR) {/te'atRo, empeo'RaR, po'eta, koagu'laR/ teatro˚ empeorar˚ poeta˚ coa%lar] and çuneducatedÇ pronunciation: ('tja;tRo, &empjo'RaR, 'pw™;ta, &kwaŸu'laR), in addition to slow pronunciation: (te'a;tRo, &empeo'RaR, po'™;ta, &koaŸu'laR, ko&a-). Except in particular cases, for rhythmic reasons (as will soon be seen), the pronunciation with çunauthorizedÇ diphthongs is decidedly uneducated (although it is very widespread, especially in Latin America): (pa'iß, ≠'paiß)i (-s)a /pa'is/ paìs˚ (ma'i†, ≠'mai†)i (-s)a /ma'i†/ maìz˚ (ba'ul, ≠'baul) /ba'ul/ baùl˘ ˛e transformation from /ae, ao/ to /ai, au/ is equally uneducated: ('kaen÷ ≠'kain) /'kaen/ caen˚ (tRae'Ran÷ ≠tRai-) /tRae'Ran/ traerán˚ (bil'Bao÷ ≠-au÷ ≠-aU) /bil'bao/ Bilbao˚ (&baka'lao÷ ≠-au÷ ≠-aU) /baka'lao/ bacalao÷ in cases such as (&e[◊]ßtRa&oRƒi'na;Rjo, e[◊]ß&tRaoR-)i (-s-)a /e[k]stRaoRòi'naRjo/ extraordinario˚ we also have the possibility of: (&e[◊]ßtRFoR-, e[◊]ß&tRFoR-)i (-s-)a. 6.3.1.3. It is not easy to assess the vocalic (/i, u/) or consonantal value (/j, w/) of i˚ u in CiV˚ CuV sequences; /i, u/ are definitely more probable near a stress and at the end of a word: (r:eß'fRio)i (-s-)a /r:es'fRio/ rπfrìo˚ (&r:eßfRi'aR)i (-s-)a /r:esfRi'aR/ rπfriar˚ but: (&eMfRja'm™nto) /enfRja'mento/ enfriamento (and also: (r:eß'fRja;ƒo)i (-s-)a /r:es'fRjaòo/ rπfriado]˚ (flu◊'tuo) /fluk'tuo/ fluctùo˚ (&flu◊tu'aR) /fluktu'aR/ fluctuar (and also: (&flu◊tu'ø;ßo)i (-so)a /fluktu'oso/ fluctuoso as well as suntuoso˚ virtuoso˚ which have only (-'twø;ßo)i (-so)a /-'twoso/) but: (&flu◊twa'†jøn)i (-'sj-)a /fluktwa'†jon/ fluctuación˘ ˛e infinitives with /i, u/ (which are prevalently short, and their derivatives, even when there is no longer the simple, original form) are: (re-, mal-)criar˚ fiar˚ rπfriar˚ enfriar˚ liar˚ (ex-)piar˚ (π-, ¤-)triar˚ %iar˚ (dπ)viar˚ enviar˚ reenviar÷ puar˚ ruar˚ fluctuar÷ concluir˚ excluir˚ incluir˚ ocluir˚ recluir˚ (a-, in-, re-)fluir˚ diluir˚ (re)huir˚ (π)muir˚ (re)construir˚ instruir˚ πtatuir˚ (re)constituir˚ dπtituir˚ instituir˚ rπtituir˚ s¨tituir˚ intuir˘ For ui˚ the pronunciation with /'wi/ is frequent, as well. Other cases of /i, u/ appear for short or compound forms: (&aBi'øn) /abi'on/ avión˚ (bi'™;njo) /bi'enjo/ bienio˚ (biu'ni;Boko) /biu'niboko/ biunìvoco˚ (tRi'™;njo) /tRi'enjo/ trienio˚ (tRi'a˙gulo) /tRi'angulo/ trián%lo˚ (&dje†i'ø;Co, &dj™-)i (-si-)a /òje†i'oco/ diecio>o˚ (&beinti'ø;Co, &b™i-) /beinti'oco/ veintio>o˚ (gi'øn) /gi'on/ %ión˚ (i'a;to) /i'ato/ hiato˚ (pRi'øR) /pRi'oR/ prior˚ (kRi'an†a)i (-sa)a /kRi'an†a/ crianza˚ (fi'an†a)i (-sa)a /fi'an†a/ fianza˚ (fi'a;ƒo) /fi'aòo/ fiado˚ (fi'ambRe) /fi'ambRe/ fiambre˚ (pi'a;no) /pi'ano/ piano˚ but: (&tRja˙gu'laR) /tRjangu'laR/ trian%lar˚ (kRja'tu;Ra) /kRja'tuRa/ criatura˚ (fja'ƒøR) /fja'òoR/ fiador˚ (koM'fjan†a)i (-sa)a /kon'fjan†a/ confianza˚ (fjam'bR™;Ra) /fjam'bReRa/ fiambrera˚ (pja'nißta)i (-sta)a /pja'nista/ pian¤ta˘ Let us note, logically: ('Cja;paß)i (-s)a /'cjapas/ ≥iapø (with no dropping of /j/ after /c/). We also have: (u'i;ƒa) /u'iòa/ huida (as huir]˚ (di'uRno, 'dju-) /òi'uRno, 'òju-/ diurno (but: (dju'tuRno) /òju'tuRno/ diuturno]˚ (Xu'i;†jo, 'Xwi-)i (xu'i;sjo, 'xwi-)a /xu'i†jo, 'xwi-/ juicio (but: (Xwi'†jø;ßo, 'Xw™†)i (xwi'sjø;so, 'xw™s)a /xwi'†joso, 'xwe†/ juicioso˚ juez]˚ (tRi'uMfo) /tRi'unfo/ triunfo˚ (tRiuM'fal, tRju-) /tRiun'fal, tRju-/ triunfal˘ For

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muy˚ we normally have ('mwi) /'mwi/, but also ('mui) /'mui/ is frequent (even if it is often considered as dialectal). Preferably, words like the following have /'wi/, but pronunciation with /u'i/ is common, too: circuito˚ fortuito˚ gratuito˚ suizo˚ cøu¤ta˚ ruido˚ ruin˚ ruina˚ arruino˘ However, in fast speech, forms with /u'é, i'é/ easily become /'wé, 'jé/: (&deßtRu'iR, deß'tRwiR)i (-s-)a /òestRu'iR/ dπtruir˚ (&ko«ßtRu'i;ƒo, ko«ß'tRwi;ƒo)i (-s-)a /konstRu'iòo/ construido˚ (fi'a;moß, 'fja;moß)i (-s)a /fi'amos/ fiamos˚ (&a◊tu'aR, a◊'twaR) /agtu'aR/ actuar˚ (&kaRi'a~Co, ka'Rja~Co) /kaRi'anco/ carian>o˚ (&beinti'u;no, bein'tju;no) /beinti'uno/ veintiuno˘ 6.3.1.4. Between words˚ clusters of V are more varied and more numerous, but the criteria are the same. ©th identical V˚ reduction is greatly favored: (laaR'r:™;Ÿlo, lFaR-, laR-) /laaR'r:eglo/ la arreglo˚ (lee[◊]ß'pli;ko, lãeß-, leß-)i (-s-)a /lee[k]s'pliko/ le explico˚ (&loolBi'ƒ™, &ljo-, &lo-) /loolbi'òe/ lo olvidé˚ ('a˙gulo oñ'tußo) /'angulo ob'tuso/ án%lo obtö˚ (&impla'ka;Ble e˙'kø;no, &impla'ka; Ble˙-) /impla'kable en'kono/ implacable encono÷ (la'pR™;ßa 'a;†e u'na~CoR r:e'manßo, la'pR™; 'ßa;†e)i (-sa, -se, -so)a /la'pResa 'a†e u'nancoR r:e'manso/ la prπa hace un an>o remanso˚ (e'laiRe 'entRa ßil'Bando, e'lai 'Ren-)i (sil-)a /e'laiRe 'entRa sil'bando/ el aire entra silbando˚ (&mafi'B™˙2 'kwa;tRo 'ø;Xoß2 ke'ƒøß, &kwa'tRø;-)i (&maz-, -xos, -øs)a /mas'ben 'kwatRo 'oxos ke'òos/ más ven cuatro ojos ¢e dos˘ If the V are di‡erent, we have: (loaR'r:™;Ÿlo, ljaR-) /loaR'r:eglo/ lo arreglo˚ (la&oñßeR'B™, &lFo-)i (-s-)a /laobseR'be/ la observé˚ (loe[◊]ß'pli;ko, ljeß-)i (-s-)a /loe[k]s'pliko/ lo explico˚ (lae[◊]ß'pli;ko, lFeß-)i (-s-)a /lae[k]s'pliko/ la explico˚ (loim'pli;ko, ljim-) /loim'pliko/ lo implico˚ (laim'pli;ko, lFim-) /laim'pliko/ la implico˚ ('tø;ƒo a'k™;Lo, 'tø; ƒja-)i (-,o)a /'toòo a'keLo/ todo a¢eıo˚ ('tRißte o'ka;ßo, 'tRiß tão-)i (-is-, -so)a /'tRiste o'kaso/ tr¤te ocøo˚ (&entReilu'ßjø;neß, &entRi-)i (-sjø;nes)a /entReilu'sjones/ entre ilïonπ˚ ('pu;ƒo außen'taRße, 'pu; ƒjau-)i (-sen'taRse)a /'puòo ausen'taRse/ pudo aëntarse˚ ('™;Roe iNmoR'tal, '™;Rje, iº-, i∫-, '™; Rjãi-) /'eRoe inmoR'tal/ héroe inmortal˚ (pa'la;†jo au'Ÿußto, pa'la; †jjau-)i (-sjo, -sto)a /pa'la†jo au'gusto/ palacio au%sto÷ (ße'Ÿun ße&ano'ta;ƒo, ßãano-)i (s-, s-)a /se'gun seano'taòo/ segùn se ha notado˚ (de'ambofi 'mø;ƒoß, 'dãam-)i (-s)a /òe'ambos 'moòos/ de ambos modos˘ Obviously, the function of the vocalic elements that come into contact also count. In fast speech, a grammeme-final V seems rather redundant; thus, it can be dropped, even where its morphological function may seem important (however, there are all the other elements which compensate adequately). ˛us, one could quite easily achieve even çzeroÇ, even with di‡erent V\ (la&aBRi'R™, &lFa-, &laB-) /laabRi'Re/ la abriré˚ (lo'ø;ƒjo, 'ljø;-, 'lø;-) /lo'oòjo/ lo odio˚ (mi'i;Xo, 'mãi;-, 'mi;-)i (-xo)a /mi'ixo/ mi hijo˚ (laeß'pø;ßa, lFeß-, leß-)i (-s'pø;sa)a /laes'posa/ la πposa˚ (la'ø;Ra, 'lFø;-, 'lø;-) /la'oRa/ la hora˚ (lai'Xi;ta, lFi-, li-)i (-x-)a /lai'xita/ la hijita˚ (lo'u;niko, 'lju;-, 'lu;-) /lo'uniko/ lo ùnico˚ (lou'nj™;Ron, lju-, lu-) /lou'njeRon/ lo unieron˚ (me'i;Ba, 'mãi;-, 'mi;-) /me'iba/ me iba˚ (me&ima'Xi;no, &mei-, &mãi-, &mi-)i (-x-)a /meima'xino/ me imagino˘ 6.3.1.5. Even clusters of various V are frequent in these examples (taken from Navarro Tomás, but retranscribed and completed): (&eßka'l™;Ra aR'r:i;Ba, -'l™; RaR'r:i-)i

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(&eska-)a /eska'leRa aR'r:iba/ πcalera arriba˚ (a'ma;ƒa eß'pø;ßa, a'ma; ƒFeß-, ƒeß-)i (-s-)a /a'maòa es'posa/ amada πposa˚ (o'f™Rta i,'Xußta, o'f™R tFi,-, -ti,-)i (-˙'x-)a /o'feRta in'xusta/ oferta inj¨ta˚ (pa'la;BRa o'ßa;ƒa, pa'la; BRFo-, BRo-)i (-s-)a /pa'labRa o'saòa/ palabra osada˚ ('ka;ßa u'milde, 'ka; ßFu-, ßu-)i (-s-)a /'kasa u'milde/ cøa humilde˚ ('kj™;Re a'BlaR, 'kj™; Rãa-, -Ra-) /'kjeRe a'blaR/ ¢iere hablar˚ ('pw™;ƒe eßkRi'BiR, 'pw™; ƒãeß-, ƒeß-)i (-s-)a /'pweòe eskRi'biR/ puede πcribir˘ Also: ('nømbRe i'lußtRe, 'nøm bRãi-, bRi-) /'nombRe i'lustRe/ nombre il¨tre˚ ('tj™;ne oR'Ÿu;Lo, 'tj™; não-, no-)i (-,o)a /'tjene or'guLo/ tiene or%ıo˚ ('X™nte u'milde, 'X™n tãu-÷ tu-)i ('x-)a /'xente u'milde/ gente humilde˚ ('ka;ßi apa'Ÿa;ƒo, 'ka; ßja-)i (-si, sj-)a /'kasi apa'gaòo/ cøi apagado˚ (mi&eßpe'Ran†a, &mieß-, &mjeß-)i (-es-, -sa)a /miespe'Ran†a/ mi πperanza˚ ('ka;ßi impo'ßi;Ble, 'ka; ßim-)i (-si, si-)a /'kasi impo'sible/ cøi imposible˚ (mio&BliŸa'†jøn, mjo-)i (-'sj-)a /miobliga'†jon/ mi obligación˚ (&niuna'B™†, ni&u-, &nju-)i (-™s)a /niuna'be†/ ni una vez˘ And also: ('gRi;to a'Ÿu;ƒo, 'gRi; tja-) /'gRito a'guòo/ grito a%do˚ ('pø;ko eß'fw™R†o, 'pø; kjeß-÷ keß-)i (es-, -so)a /'poko es'fweR†o/ poco πfuerzo˚ ('n™;ŸRo iM'fj™Rno, 'n™; ŸRjiM-, ŸRiM-) /'negRo in'fjeRno/ negro infierno˚ ('kwaRto oß'ku;Ro, 'kwaR tjoß-, toß-)i (-s-)a /'kwarto os'kuRo/ cuarto oscuro˚ (e˙'ga;No u'ma;no, e˙'ga; Nju-, Nu-) /en'gaNo u'mano/ engaño humano˚ (&ßuamiß'ta‡, &ßwa-)i (&s-, &s-)a /suamis'taò/ su am¤tad˚ ('impetu &eßpan'tø;ßo, -&tu eß-, -pe &tweß-)i (-es-, -so)a /'impetu espan'toso/ ìmpetu πpantoso˚ ('tRi;Bu i˙'gRa;ta, 'tRi; Bwi˙-) /'tRibu in'gRata/ tribu ingrata˚ (&poRßuo'nøR, -ßwo-)i (-s-)a /poRsuo'noR/ por su honor˚ (eß'pi;Ritu u'ma;no, -Ri tu-)i (-s-)a /es'piRitu u'mano/ πpìritu humano˚ ('L™;Ÿa aaƒo'RaR, 'L™;Ÿa aƒo-, 'L™; Ÿaƒo-)i (',™-)a /'Lega aaòo'RaR/ ıega a adorar˚ ('i;Ba aen†en'd™R, 'i;Ba en-)i (-s-)a /'iba aen†en'deR/ iba a encender˘ Further examples still: (be˙'gan†a ai'Ra;ƒa, -an †Fai-, -an †ai-)i (-sa, s-)a /ben'gan†a ai'Raòa/ venganza airada˚ (eß'ta;Ba ao'Ÿa;ƒa, -eß'ta; BFao-, Bao-)i (es-)a /es'taba ao'gaòa/ πtaba ahogada˚ (r:o'ßa;ƒa au'Rø;Ra, r:o'ßa; ƒFau-, ƒau-)i (-s-)a /r:o'saòa au'RoRa/ rosada aurora˚ ('kulta eu'Rø;pa, 'kul tFeu-, teu-) /'kulta eu'Ropa/ culta Europa˚ (a'pR™nde aa'BlaR, a'pR™n dãaa-, dãa-) /a'pRende aa'blaR/ aprende a hablar˚ ('auRea eß'pa;ƒa, 'auRãa, &au RãFeß'pa;ƒa)i (-s-)a /'auRea es'paòa/ áurea πpada˚ ('mw™Rte ai'Ra;ƒa, 'mw™R tãai-, tai-) /'mweRte ai'Raòa/ muerte airada˚ (pRe'ßu;me aon'daR, pRe'ßu; mãaon-)i (-s-)a /pRe'sume aon'daR/ prπume ahondar˚ ('fR™nte au'Ÿußta, 'fR™n tãau-, tau-)i (-s-)a /'fRente au'gusta/ frente au%sta˚ (biR'Xi;neo e˙'kanto, -nãjo, -não)i (-x-)a /biR'xineo en'kanto/ virgìneo encanto˘ 6.3.1.6. Examples of vowel clusters in sentences continue: (no'ti;†ja a'l™;ŸRe, no'ti; †ja'l™-)i (-s-)a /no'ti†ja a'legRe/ noticia alegre˚ ('r:™Xja eß'tiRpe, 'r:™; XjFeß-, Xjeß-)i (-x-, -s-)a /'r:exja es'tiRpe/ regia πtirpe˚ ('glø;Rja iNmoR'tal, iº-, i∫-, 'glø; RFi-) /'gloRja inmoR'tal/ gloria inmortal˚ (eß'tan†ja o'kulta, eß'tan †jFo-, †jo-)i (es-, -sja)a /es'tan†ja o'kulta/ πtancia oculta˚ (Xuß'ti;†ja u'ma;na, Xuß'ti; †jFu-, †ju-)i (xus'ti;s-)a /xus'ti†ja u'mana/ j¨ticia humana˚ ('na;ƒje a'ku;ƒe, 'na; ƒja-) /'naòje a'kuòe/ nadie acude˚ ('X™;njo aß'tu;to, 'X™; njjaß-)i ('x™-, -s-)a /'xenjo as'tuto/ genio øtuto˚ (ßi'l™n†jo elo'kw™nte, ßi'l™n †jje-)i (si-, -sjo)a /si'len†jo elo'kwente/ silencio elocuente˚ ('ø;†jo i'nu;til, 'ø; †jji-)i (-sjo)a /'o†jo i'nutil/ ocio inùtil˘ Also: ('n™;†jo oR'Ÿu;Lo, 'n™; †jjoR-, '†joR-)i (-sj-, -,o)a /'ne†jo oR'guLo/ necio or%ıo˚ ('ßi;tjo um'bRø;ßo, 'ßi; tjjum'-)i ('si-, -so)a /'sitjo um'bRoso/ sitio umbroso˚ ('bw™lBo aa-

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'taRlo, -Bo a't-, 'bw™l Bja't) /'bwelbo aa'taRlo/ vuelvo a atarlo˚ ('b™˙go aempe'†aR, 'b™˙ gjaem-, gjFem-, gjem-)i (-saR)a /'bengo aempe'†aR/ vengo a empezar˚ ('kw™Rpo ai'Rø;ßo, 'kw™R pjFi-, pjai-) /'kweRpo ai'Roso/ cuerpo airoso˚ (diß'pw™ßto ao&Beƒe'†™R, diß'pw™ß tjFo-, tjao-)i (-s'pw™s-, -s™R)a /òis'pwesto aobeòe'†eR/ d¤puπto a obedecer˚ ('faußto auß'pi;†jo, 'fauß tjFuß-, tjauß-)i (-st-, -s'pi;sjo)a /'fausto aus'pi†jo/ fa¨to a¨picio˘ And also: (an'ti;Ÿwa alti'B™†, an'ti; Ÿwal-)i (-™s)a /an'tigwa alti'be†/ anti%a altivez˚ ('l™˙gwa e[◊]ß'tRa;Na, 'l™˙ gwFe-)i (-s-)a /'lengwa e[k]s'tRaNa/ len%a extraña˚ (eß'ta;twa iN'mø;Bil, iº-, i∫-, eß'ta; 'twFi-)i (es-)a /es'tatwa in'mobil/ πtatua inmóvil˚ ('a;Ÿwa olo'Rø;ßa, 'a; ŸwFo-) /'agwa olo'Rosa/ a%a olorosa˚ ('fa;twa u&mani'ƒa‡, 'fa; twFu-) /'fatwa umani'òaò/ fatua humanidad˚ ('mu;two a'møR, 'mu; twja-) /'mutwo a'moR/ mutuo amor˚ ('aRƒwo em'p™;No, 'aR ƒwjem-) /'aRdwo em'peNo/ arduo empeño˚ (peR'p™;two im'p™;Rjo, peR'p™; twjim-) /peR'petwo im'peRjo/ perpetuo imperio˚ (kon'ti;nwo e'lø;Xjo, kon'ti; nwje-)i (-xjo)a /kon'tinwo e'loxjo/ continuo elogio˘ Lastly: ('fa;two oR'Ÿu;Lo, 'fa; twjoR-, twoR-)i (-,o)a /'fatwo oR'guLo/ fatuo or%ıo˚ ('mønßtRwo u'ma;no, 'mønß tRwju-, tRwu-)i (-s-)a /'monstRwo u'mano/ monstruo humano˚ ('r:™;Xja au&toRi'ƒa‡, 'r:™; XjFu-, Xjau-)i (-x-)a /'r:exja autoRi'òaò/ regia autoridad˚ (koR'r:jø aeßpe'RaRlo, Feß-, eß-)i (-s-)a /koR'r:jo aespe'RaRlo/ corrió a πperarlo˚ (pa'la;†jo au'Ÿußto, pa'la; †jjau-, †jjFu-)i (-sjo, -us-)a /pa'la†jo au'gusto/ palacio au%sto˚ (i'ni;kwo au'Ÿu;Rjo, i'ni; kwjau-, kwjFu-) /i'nikwo au'guRjo/ inicuo au%rio˚ (em'bi;ƒjo aeu'ß™;Bjo, em'bi; ƒjjaeu-, ƒjaeu-, ƒjFeu-, ƒjjeu-)i (-s-)a /em'biòjo aeu'sebjo/ envidio a Eëbio˘ 6.3.1.7. ˛e conjunctions y˚ o (and their variants e˚ u], between V in di‡erent words (even if with /wé/), are normally realized as (j, w) /j, w/ (but also with (ã, j)): ('ka;ßa 'jw™Rta, 'ãw™-)i (-sa)a /'kasa 'jwerta/ cøa y huerta˚ ('a;Ÿwa 'jaiRe, 'ãa-) /'agwa 'jaiRe/ a%a y aire˚ (ßa˙'gRj™nta 'ja~Ca, 'ãa-) /san'gRjenta 'janca/ sangrienta y an>a˚ (a'pa;Ÿa jen'†j™nde, ãe-)i (-sj-)a /a'paga jen'†jende/ apaga y enciende˚ ('ka;Le jeß'ku;Ce, ãe-)i (-,e jes-, ãe-)a /'kaLe jes'kuce/ caıe y πcu>e˚ (ßo'BRi;na 'ji;Xa, 'ãi-)i (so-, -xa)a /so'bRina 'jixa/ sobrina e hija˚ (r:i'k™;†a jin'dußtRja, ãin-)i (-sa, -st-)a /r:i'ke†a jin'dustRja/ ri¢eza e ind¨tria˚ ('™ßta wa'k™;La, ja-)i ('™s-, -,a)a /'esta wa'keLa/ πta o a¢eıa˚ ('bla˙ka wa'†ul, ja-)i (-sul)a /'blanka oa'†ul/ blanca o azul˚ ('ßj™;te 'wø;Co, 'jø-)i ('sj-)a /'sjete u'oco/ siete u o>o˚ ('u ;no 'wø;tRo, 'jø-) /'uno u'otRo/ uno u otro˘ ˛e real language (¤ the spoken language) shows how grammar futilely complicates things, given that the normal pronunciation of the four written forms [y˚ e÷ o˚ u] is the same (for e there is (ã), too). Naturally, schools have then reinforced the çneedÇ for distinction, imposing it on pronunciation too; thus slowing down emission, or paying attention (to spelling), or for the sake of clarity, /i, e÷ o, u/ can come up again. 6.3.1.8. Usually (except in slow speech), a final C˚ followed by an initial V˚ in words without breaks, resyllabifies: (e'lø;Ro) /e'loRo/ el oro˚ (u'nømbRe) /u'nombRe/ un hombre˚ ('muCo ßo'nø;Reß)i (so-, -es)a /'muco so'noRes/ mu>os honorπ˚ ('lu †ama'Ri;La)i (sa-, -,a)a /'lu †ama'RiLa/ luz amariıa˘ Hence, there is no di‡erence between: helado and el hado (e'la;ƒo) /e'laòo/, elegi-

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do and el ejido (&ele'Xi;ƒo)i (-x-)a /ele'xiòo/, hele>o and el he>o (e'l™;Co) /e'leco/, heleno and el heno (e'l™;no) /e'leno/, la sabπ and lø avπ (la'ßa;Beß)i (la'sa;Bes)a /la'sabes/, ena%ø and en a%ø (e'na;Ÿwaß)i (-s)a /e'nagwas/, enojo and en ojo (e'nø;Xo)i (-xo)a /e'noxo/˘ In emphatic or vigorous pronunciation, or in singing, after stressed V˚ the continuous non-diphonic C (voiced: /m, n, N÷ l, L/, and voiceless: /f, †, s, x/ – but not /R, Rr:/, for which length is essential), instead of the normal structure, with ('é;0é), often have ('é00é): ('u ;mo, "ummo) /'umo/ humo˚ ('a;na, "anna) /'ana/ Ana˚ ('ba;le, "balle) /'bale/ vale˚ ('X™;fe, "X™ffe)i (x™-)a /'xefe/ jefe˚ ('di;†e, "di††e)i (-se, -sse)a /'òi†e/ dice˚ ('ka;ßa, "kaßßa)i (-sa, -ssa)a /'kasa/ cøa˚ ('i;Xo, "iXXo)i (-xo, -xxo)a /'ixo/ hijo˘ 6.3.1.9. Phonetically, two same C are realized as a contained gemination, /00/ (00): (i&nnume'Ra;Ble) /innume'Rable/ innumerable˚ (&ßinne&†eßi'ƒa‡)i (&sinne&se-)a /sinne†esi'òaò/ sin necπidad˚ ('øBBjo) /'obbjo/ obvio˚ (&ßuBBen'†jøn)i (&su-, -'sj-)a /subben'†jon/ subvención˚ (e'ƒaƒ ƒi'Cø;ßa)i (-sa)a /e'òaò òi'cosa/ edad di>osa˚ (&XuBen'tuƒ ƒo'Ra;ƒa)i (xu-)a /xuben'tuò òo'Raòa/ juventud dorada˚ (koR'†™l li'X™;Ro)i (-'s™l li'x™-)a /koR'†el li'xeRo/ corcel ligero˚ (el'lø;Bo) /el'lobo/ el lobo˚ ('lu† †eni'tal)i (-s s-)a /'lu† †eni'tal/ luz cenital˚ ('dj™† †i'ŸaRr:oß)i (-s s-, -os)a /'òje† †i'gaRr:os/ diez cigarros˚ (&loß ße'Nø;Reß)i (-s s-, -es)a /losse'NoRes/ los señorπ˚ ('døß ßo'BRi;noß)i (-s s-, -os)a /'òos so'bRinos/ dos sobrinos˘ ˛e di‡erence between (0) and (00) is more than enough (and what is necessary) to distinguish cases such as: (&uno'Bi;Lo)i (-,o)a /uno'biLo/ un oviıo and (&unno'Bi;Lo)i (-,o)a /unno'biLo/ un noviıo˚ (ßo'nømbReß)i (s-, -s)a /so'nombRes/ son hombrπ and (ßon'nømbReß)i (s-, -s)a /son'nombRes/ son nombrπ˚ (a&k™'lø;Ro) /a'ke 'loRo/ a¢el oro and (a&k™l'lø;Ro) /a'kel 'loRo/ a¢el loro˚ ('ma 'ßø;BRan)i ('s-)a /'ma 'sobRan/ más obran and ('maß 'ßø;BRan)i (-s 's-)a /'mas 'sobRan/ más sobran˘ ˛e prefix /sub/ sub-˚ before /r:/, is obviously heterosyllabic: (&ßuB-r:a',aR) /subr:a'JaR/ subrayar÷ the same occurs, with other C˚ when the a‚x is clearly perceived: (&ßuB-limi'nal)i (&s-)a /sub-limi'nal/ subliminal˘ For -dl-˚ the syllabification is /ò-l/: (mi'Raƒ-lo) /mi'Raòlo/ miradlo÷ for -tl-˚ ç/t-l/iÇ (¤ /ò-l/i) and /-tl/a prevail: ('a‡laß)i ('a;tlas)a /'aòlas, 'atlas/ atlø˚ (a‡'l™;ta)i (a'tl™;ta)a /aò'leta, a'tle-/ atleta˘ 6.3.1.10. As has already been mentioned, spontaneous and normal pronunciation –for heterosyllabic (voiced or voiceless) stops– has non-stopped realizations: voiced before voiced C˚ and half-voiced before voiceless ones: ('añto) /'abto, -pt-/ apto˚ (do◊'tøR) /òog'toR, -k't-/ doctor˚ (&oñte'n™R) /obte'neR/ obtener˚ (&a‡ki'RiR) /aòki'RiR/ ad¢irir˚ (&aBƒi'kaR) /abòi'kaR/ abdicar˚ (&aƒBeR'tiR) /aòbeR'tiR/ advertir˚ (&ekliñ'ßaR)i (-s-)a /eklib'saR, -p's-/ eclipsar˚ (&kon†eñ'†jøn)i (-señ'sjøn)a /kon†eb'†jon, -p'†-/ concepción˚ (&ßuB-,u'ŸaR)i (s-)a /subJu'gaR/ subyugar˚ (&aƒ-,a'†™nte)i (-s-)a /aòJa'†ente/ adyacente˚ (a◊'†jøn)i (-s-)a /ag'†jon, ak-/ acción˚ (e◊'ßa;men)i (-s-)a /eg'samen, ek-/ examen˚ (aB&neŸa'†jøn)i (-sjøn)a /abnega'†jon/ abnegación˚ (aƒ'møßfeRa)i (-s-)a /aò'mosfeRa, at'm-/ atmósfera˚ (&aƒmi'Ra;Ble) /aòmi'Rable/ admirable˚ ('t™Ÿnika, -«n-) /'tegnika, -kn-/ técnica˚ ('diŸno, -«no) /'òigno/ digno˚ (&ßuBma'Ri;no) /subma'Rino/ submarino÷ (fully voiced or, respectively, voiceless) stop realizations are typical of

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emphasis — attention (to spelling). Lastly, we see some cases of complex consonant clusters: (oñß'ta;kulo)i (-s-)a /obs'takulo/ obstáculo˚ (a‡ß'kRi;to)i (-s-)a /aòs'kRito/ adscrito˚ (ko«ß'tante)i (-s-)a /kons'tante/ constante˘ Stress 6.3.2.1. Spanish spelling is quite satisfactory regarding the indication of word stress; however, some doubts remain concerning clusters of graphic VV˚ above all with i˚ u÷ furthermore, there are possible oscillations, and di‡erences with respect to Portuguese or Italian. ˛e position of stress is distinctive (and we can also find threefold phonemic contrasts, the first of which are nouns, indicated graphically too), as in: ('a;nimo) /'animo/ ánimo˚ (a'ni;mo) /a'nimo/ animo and (&ani'mø) /ani'mo/ animó; (kon'ti;nwo) /kon'tinwo/ continuo˚ (&konti'nuo) /konti'nuo/ continùo and (&konti'nwø) /konti'nwo/ continuó; ('li;mite) /'limite/ lìmite˚ (li'mi;te) /li'mite/ limite˚ (&limi't™) /limi'te/ limité÷ (de'pø;ßito)i (-s-)a /òe'posito/ depósito˚ (&depo'ßi;to)i (-s-)a /òepo'sito/ deposito˚ (de&poßi'tø)i (-s-)a /òeposi'to/ depositó˘ For stress oscillations, some examples follow: acné˚ acne÷ aeróstato˚ aerostato÷ ambrosìa˚ ambrosia÷ atmósfera˚ atmosfera÷ a¨triaco˚ a¨trìaco÷ bala¨tre˚ balaùstre÷ cartomancia˚ cartomancìa (but only farmacia]÷ cìclope˚ ciclope÷ conclave˚ cónclave÷ dinamo˚ dìnamo÷ elixir˚ elìxir÷ etìope˚ etiope (but only miope]÷ gladìolo˚ gladiolo÷ ìbero˚ ibero÷ m¤il˚ mìsil÷ olimpiada˚ olimpìada÷ orgìa˚ orgia÷ ósmos¤˚ osmos¤÷ pelìcano˚ pelicano÷ pensil˚ pénsil÷ pentagrama˚ pentágrama÷ perìodo˚ periodo÷ policromo˚ polìcromo÷ polìgloto˚ poligloto÷ radar˚ rádar÷ reptil˚ réptil÷ reuma˚ reùma÷ termostato˚ termóstato÷ utopìa˚ utopia÷ varicπ˚ váricπ˘ 6.3.2.2. Lexical compounds and adverbs ending in -mente˚ keep quite a strong stress even on the first element (according to the scale: ('), (“), (&)): (“køRta'Bølßaß)i (-sas)a /'koRta'bolsas/ cortabolsø (Ô (&koRta'ƒø;Ra) /koRta'òoRa/ cortadora), (“i˙ka'pj™) /'inka'pje/ hincapié˚ (“entRe'ƒøß)i (-s)a /'entRe'òos/ entredós (Ô (&entRe'ƒøfi mu'Ca;Coß)i (-os)a /entRe'òos mu'cacos/ entre dos mu>a>os), (r:e&al'm™nte) /r:e'al'mente/ realmente˚ (&beRƒa“ƒ™Ra'm™nte) /beRòa'òeRa'mente/ verdaderamente˚ (“fa†il'm™nte)i (-s-)a /'fa†il'mente/ fácilmente˘ Also: (“tøƒa'Bia) /'toòa'bia/ todavìa˚ (a&ßi'mifimo)i (a&si'mis-)a /a'si'mismo/ øim¤mo (as can be seen in the last example, if a first /'/ is immediately followed by another /'/, it becomes (&); on the other hand, however, if the form were with only one /'/, ç/asi'mismo/Ç, we should have ç(&aßi'mifimo)i (&asi'mis-)aÇ). To begin to acknowledge the di‡erent stress patterns, compared –for instance– to Italian, we give some useful examples: (final stressed) acentùo˚ amplìo˚ varìo˚ (stressed on the last but one syllable) abdico˚ altero˚ animo˚ celebro˚ certifico˚ computo˚ convoco˚ denomino˚ deposito˚ d¤puto˚ edifico˚ indico˚ integro˚ interrogo˚ limito˚ medito˚ modifico˚ modulo˚ penetro˚ significo /signi'fiko/, termino˚ venero˚ violo /'bjolo/, v¤ito /bi'sito/, limpio /'limpjo/. Furthermore: (a'n™;mja) /a'nemja/ anemia˚ (bi'Ÿa;mja) /bi'gamja/ bigamia˚ (&kaRam'bø;la) /kaRam'bola/ carambola˚ (diß'pu;ta)i

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(-s-)a /òis'puta/ d¤puta˚ (e'l™;na) /e'lena/ Elena˚ (en&†iklo'p™;ƒja)i (-&si-)a /en†iklo'peòja/ enciclopedia˚ (faR'ma;†ja)i (-s-)a /faR'ma†ja/ farmacia˚ ('mjø;pe) /'mjope/ miope˚ (pa'Rø;ƒja) /pa'Roòja/ parodia˚ (te'Ra;pja) /te'Rapja/ terapia÷ obviously, forms such as (a'p™ndi†e)i (-se)a /a'pendi†e/ apéndice are less risky, at least when reading. Let us also note: (r:a'†øn)i (-s-)a /r:a'†on/ razón˚ (r:a'†ø;neß)i (-'sø;nes)a /r:a'†ones/ razonπ˚ ('biRXen)i (-x-)a /'biRxen/ virgen˚ ('biRXeneß)i (-xenes)a /'biRxenes/ vìrgenπ˚ and lastly: (ka'Ra◊teR) /ka'RagteR, -kt-/ carácter˚ (&kaRa◊'t™;Reß)i (-s)a /kaRag'teRes, -k't-/ caracterπ˚ ('r:™;Ximen)i (-x-)a /'r:eximen/ régimen˚ (r:e'Xi;meneß)i (-x-, -s)a /r:e'ximenes/ regìmenπ˘ 6.3.2.3. Even in Spanish, in connected speech, there are normally words which are destressed; the articles are among these: (e'lømbRe) /e'lombRe/ el hombre˚ (&elal'kalde) /elal'kalde/ el alcalde˚ (la'ka;ßa)i (-sa)a /la'kasa/ la cøa˚ (laß'Ci;kaß)i (-s'Ci;kas)a /las'cikas/ lø >icø˚ (&una'mi;Ÿo) /una'migo/ un amigo˚ (&unaß'tR™inta peR'ßø;naß)i (&unas-, -'sø;nas)a /unas'tReinta peR'sonas/ unø treinta personø˘ We then have forms (plurisyllabic too), such as salvo˚ excepto˚ mediante˚ durante÷ and phrases such as rπpecto a˚ junto a˚ encima de˚ delante de\ (a'ma;laŸa) /a'malaga/ a Málaga˚ (ko'n™;La)i (-,a)a /ko'neLa/ con eıa˚ (&empa'Riß)i (-s)a /empa'Ris/ en Parìs˚ (&ßinßom'bR™;Ro)i (&sinsom-)a /sinsom'bReRo/ sin sombrero˚ (&ante'tø;ƒo) /ante'toòo/ ante todo˚ (&baXolo'ßaRBoleß)i (-xolo's-, -es)a /baxolo'saRboles/ bajo los árbolπ˚ (&kontRa&mißa'mi;Ÿoß)i (-sa'mi;Ÿos)a /kontRamisa'migos/ contra m¤ amigos˚ (&defiƒe'øi)i (-z-)a /òesòe'oi/ dπde hoy˚ (&entRelo'ßø;Xoß)i (-'sø;xos)a /entRelo'soxos/ entre los ojos˘ Furthermore: (&aßta'ki, -Fa-, -aa-)i (&as-)a /astaa'ki/ høta a¢ì˚ (&a†jael'pw™Rto, -†jFel-)i (-sj-)a /a†jael'pweRto/ hacia el puerto˚ (&paRa&nweßtRofi'w™ßpeƒeß)i (-stRos'w™speƒes)a /paRanwestRos'wespeòes/ para nuπtros huéspedπ˚ (&ßoBRel'ßø;BRe)i (&soBRel's-)a /sobReel'sobRe/ sobre el sobre˚ (e◊&†eñto'ƒøß)i (-&señto'ƒøs)a /eg†ebto'òos, ek†epto-/ excepto dos˚ (&Xuntoala'pw™Rta, -tja-)i (&xu-)a /xuntoala'pweRta/ junto a la puerta˘ Also: (en&†ima&ƒela'ka;ßa)i (-si-, -sa)a /en†imaòela'kasa/ encima de la cøa˚ (de&lanteƒe'mi) /òelanteòe'mi/ delante de mì˘ Even in more or less long series: (&paRa&entReno'ßø;tRoß, pa&RFen-)i (-'sø;tRos)a /paRaentReno'sotRos/ para entre nosotros˚ (&poRen&†imaƒe'tø;ƒo)i (-'si-)a /poRen†imaòe'toòo/ por encima de todo˚ (&poRƒe&lante&ƒelXaR'ƒin)i (-x-)a /poRòelanteòelxaR'òin/ por delante del jardìn˚ (&defiƒepo&RentRelo'ßaRBoleß)i (&dez-, -'saRBoles)a /òesòepoRentRelo'saRboles/ dπde por entre los árbolπ˘ Generally, conjunctions too are destressed (even in phrases, such as en cuanto (¢e)˚ puπto ¢e˚ supuπto ¢e), except with ora˚ ya˚ bien (disjunctive), øì (consecutive), no obstante˚ con todo˚ fuera de (adversative), en efecto˚ por tanto˚ por consi%iente˚ øì ¢e (consecutive), apenø˚ aùn no˚ no bien˚ ya ¢e˚ luego ¢e˚ dπpués ¢e˚ en tanto ¢e (temporal), a no ser ¢e˚ dado ¢e˚ con tal ¢e (conditional), por más ¢e˚ a pπar de ¢e˚ mal ¢e˚ ya ¢e (concessive), (&pweßtoke&noloßa'Bia)i (-sto-, -sa-)a /pwestokenolosa'bia/ puπto ¢e no lo sabìa˘ At the beginning of elliptic questions y is stressed: (¿'i tuçpa;ƒRe21)i (-'pa;-)a /¿'i tu'paòRe?/ ¿Y tu padre? 6.3.2.4. It will not be superfluous to observe that there is a di‡erence, in stress too, between: (e&koße'Ca;ƒo)i (-s-)a /ekose'caòo/ he cose>ado and ('™;ko ßo'nø;Ro) /'e-

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ko so'noRo/ eco sonoro˚ (&aLe'Ÿa;ƒo)i (&a,-)a /aLe'gaòo/ ha ıegado and ('a;No 'ma;lo) /'aNo 'malo/ año malo˚ (&eßto'ma;ƒo)i (&es-)a /esto'maòo/ π tomado and ('™ßto 'pi;ƒo)i ('™s-)a /'esto 'piòo/ πto pido˚ (ßo&naƒmi'Ra;ƒoß)i (s-, -s)a /sonaòmi'Raòos/ son admirados and ('ßø naRmo'njø;ßo)i ('s-, -so)a /'so naRmo'njoso/ son armonioso˘ Object pronouns are destressed, la˚ le˚ lo˚ lø˚ lπ˚ los˚ me˚ nos˚ os˚ se˚ te\ (me'pa;Ro ami'RaR, me'pa; Rja-) /me'paRo ami'RaR/ me paro a mirar˚ (ofi'Bi;mofi Be'niR)i (oz'Bi;moz)a /os'bimos be'niR/ os vimos venir˚ (ße&leßpeR'ƒjø)i (se&les-)a /selespeR'òjo/ se lπ perdió÷ instead, subject pronouns and indirect pronouns are stressed:('›ø 'ß™)i ('s™)a /'Jo 'se/ yo sé˚ ('tu 'pw™;ƒeß)i (-s)a /'tu 'pweòes/ tù puedπ˚ ('™l 'di;†e)i (-se)a /'el 'di†e/ él dice˚ (poR'mi) /poR'mi/ por mì˚ (&paRa'ti) /paRa'ti/ para ti˘ Possessive adjectives are destressed: (&mißeR'ma;noß)i (-se-, -os)a /miseR'manos/ m¤ hermanos˚ (tu'ßø;Xoß)i (-'sø;xos)a /tu'soxos/ t¨ ojos˚ (ßu'ma;ƒRe)i (s-)a /su'maòRe/ su madre˚ (&nweßtRo'tj™mpo)i (-s-)a /nwestRo'tjempo/ nuπtro tiempo˘ Generally demonstrative adjectives, are destressed (but, from a pragmatic point of view, they can be considered potentially stressable): (&eßte'li;BRo, “™ß-)i (-s-)a /este'libRo/ πte libro˚ (&eße'p™Rr:o, “™-) /ese'peRr:o/ πe perro˚ (a&keLamu'X™R, a“k™-)i (-,amu'x-)a /akeLamu'xeR/ a¢eıa mujer˘ 6.3.2.5. Relative pronouns [¢e˚ ¢ien{π}˚ cual{π}˚ cuyo{s}] are destressed (contrary to interrogative and exclamatory ones): (e'lømbRe ke'Bi;moß)i (-s)a /e'lombRe ke'bimos/ el hombre ¢e vimos˚ (e˙&ku,o'ka;ßo)i (-so)a /enkuJo'kaso/ en cuyo cøo÷ cual˚ cualπ (with the article) and tal˚ talπ are stressed: ('t™˙go uneR'ma;no2 el'kwaL 'L™;Ÿa 'øi2 ke)i (-L ',-)a /'tengo u'neRmano, el'kwal 'Lega 'oi/ tengo un hermano, el cual ıega hoy, ¢e…˚ (le'ƒi;Xo 'tal 'kø;ßa)i (-xo, -sa)a /le'òixo 'tal 'kosa/ le dijo tal cosa˘ Relative adverbs [como˚ cuando˚ cuanto˚ donde] are also destressed, contrary to interrogative and exclamatory ones: (&kwandoe'laiRe ße'kalma, -dje-) /kwandoe'laiRe se'kalma/ cuando el aire se calma˚ (la'pla;†a &ƒondeß&tatu'ka;ßa)i (-sa, -s&t-, -sa)a /la'pla†a òondeestatu'kasa/ la plaza donde πtá tu cøa˘ ‹ereas the indefinites [algo˚ algùn˚ al%no˚ al%ien˚ nadie˚ ningùn˚ nin%no˚ otro] are stressed, cada generally is not: (&kaƒa'ƒia) /kaòa'òia/ cada dìa˘ Even tan is not stressed, contrary to tanto˚ tanta˘ ‹en used as conjunctions, the following adverbs are destressed: luego˚ mientrø˚ aùn (which becomes /'aun/), más˚ menos˚ cøi÷ the adverb medio is too (contrary to its corresponding adjective). 6.3.2.6. ˛e forms of çtratamientoÇ, don˚ doña˚ fray˚ sor˚ san˚ santo˚ santa˚ are always destressed before a name: (do˙'kaRloß)i (-s)a /òon'kaRlos/ don Carlos˚ (&doNaƒo'lø;Reß)i (-s)a /òoNaòo'loRes/ doña Dolorπ˚ (&ßantoƒo'mi˙go)i (&s-)a /santoòo'mingo/ santo Domingo÷ vocative forms are destressed too, señor˚ señora˚ señorita˚ padre˚ madre˚ hermano˚ hermana˚ tìo˚ tìa\ (ße&NoRmaR'ti;ne†)i (s-, -s)a /seNoRmaR'tine†/ señor Martìnez˚ (ße&NoRama'Ria)i (s-)a /seNoRama'Ria/ señora Marìa˚ (&paƒRean'dR™ß, -ƒRãan-)i (-s)a /paòRean'dRes/ padre Andrés˚ (tio'Xwan)i (-x-)a /tio'xwan/ tìo Juan÷ however, when not used in forms of çtratamientoÇ, we have the regular: (&una'ßanta mu'X™R)i (-s-, -x-)a /una'santa mu'xeR/ una santa mujer˚ ('bi;no elße'NøR maR'ti;ne†)i (-s-, -s)a /'bino else'NoR maR'tine†/ vino el señor Martìnez˚ (aeß'kRi;to el'tio 'Xwan)i (aes-, 'x-)a /aes-

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'kRito el'tio 'xwan/ ha πcrito el tìo Juan˘ Even in vocative phrases, there is destressing: (bwe'nømbRe) /bwe'nombRe/ ¡buen hombre!˚ (&mala'l™˙gwa) /mala'lengwa/ ¡mala len%a!˚ (gRam'pi;kaRo) /gRam'pikaRo/ ¡gran pìcaro!˚ (djofi'mio)i (-s-)a /djos'mio/ ¡Dios mìo! Even in compound names (of people or places), there is attenuation of the first element: (Xwa˙'kaRloß)i (x-, -s)a /xwan'kaRlos/ Juan Carlos˚ (ma&RiaXo'ß™;fa)i (-xo's-)a /ma&Riaxo'sefa/ Marìa Josefa˚ (&ßantoƒo'mi˙go)i (&s-)a /santoòo'mingo/ Santo Domingo˚ (&toRr:eƒel'kønde) /toRr:eòel'konde/ Torre del Conde˘ 6.3.2.7. Certain common phrases are also destressed: (&boka'BaXo)i (-xo)a /boka'baxo/ boca abajo˚ (&pataßaR'r:i;Ba) /patasaR'r:iba/ patø arriba˘ In numbers formed with y˚ the first element is destressed: (&tReintai'†i˙ko)i (-'s-)a /tReintai'†inko/ treinta y cinco˚ (kwa&Rentai'ßj™;te)i (-'s-)a /kwaRentai'sjete/ cuarenta y siete÷ also cien(to) before mil is destressed: (†jeN'mil, -M'm-, -º'm-, -M'm-, -∫'m-)i ('s-)a /†jen'mil/ cien mil˚ (&oCo&†jentafi'mil pe'ß™;taß)i (-&sj-, -as-, -'s™;tas)a /oco†jentas'mil pe'setas/ o>ocientø mil pπetø˘ Simple numbers are stressed, even if monosyllabic and near a stress: ('døfi 'Ÿa;toß)i (-z 'Ÿa;tos)a /'òos 'gatos/ dos gatos˚ ('tR™ß ka'Ba;Loß)i (-s ka'Ba;,os)a /'tRes ka'baLos/ trπ cabaıos˚ ('un 'li;BRo) /'un 'libRo/ un libro (compared to the article: (un'li;BRo) /un'libRo/ un libro). 6.3.2.8. Obviously in long words, as in sentences, some secondary stresses are introduced, for rhythmic reasons: ('kømpRame&lo) /'kompRamelo/ cómpramelo˚ (a'Na;ƒaße&le)i (-s-)a /a'Naòasele/ añádøele˚ (&entRe'Ÿandoße&lo)i (-s-)a /entRe'gandoselo/ entregándoselo˘ Words such as aun¢e˚ con¢e˚ por¢e˚ sino˚ are normally /'aunke, a'unke÷ 'konke÷ 'poRke÷ 'sino/, however, in sentences, their composition can also bring to stress patterns such as: (&au˙ke, a&u˙ke, au˙&ke, au˙'k™÷ &ko˙ke, ko˙&ke, ko˙'k™÷ &poRke, poR&ke, poR'k™÷ &ßino, ßi&no, ßi'nø)i (s-)a, although, they are often considered incorrect, for spelling reasons. Emphasis, particularly in imperatives with enclitic pronouns, can modify the structure considerably (above all, for stresses), as in: ('da;melo, "da:melo, "da;me&lo, "da;me'lø, 'da;me'lø, &dame'lø) /'òamelo/ ¡dámelo! 6.3.2.9. ˛e words (a'ø;Ra) /a'oRa/ ahora˚ (a'i) /a'i/ ahì˚ (a'un) /a'un/ aùn/aun˚ when they are not in an intoneme and are linked to what follows, have the frequent variants ('aoRa, 'ai, 'aun): (a'ø;Ra 'Bj™;ne, 'aoRa) /a'oRa 'bjene/ ahora viene˚ (a'i eß'ta, 'ai)i (-s-)a /a'i es'ta/ ahì πtá˚ (a'um mi 'pa;ƒRe, 'aum) /a'un mi'paòRe/ aun mi padre˚ (a'un no'ßale, 'au)i (-s-)a /a'un no'sale/ aùn no sale˘ In the case of /'jé[s]ò/, in an intoneme (more often when followed by a pause), it is quite frequent to find, even in the neutral accent, a pronunciation which, often, seems as if it were ç/'ié[s]ò/Ç, while, it is generally only /i'é[s]ò/: (paR'tjø, &paRti'ø) /par'tjo/ partió˚ (a'ƒjøß, &aƒi'øß)i (-s)a /a'òjos/ adiós˚ (lim'pj™, &limpi'™) /lim'pje/ limpié˚ (em'pj™, &empi'™) /em'pje/ en pie÷ however, occasionally, we can doubtlessly have the structure ('i&é), even in neutral pronunciation: (paR'ti&ø, a'ƒi&øß, lim'pi&™, em'pi&™)i (-s)a.

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6.3.2.10. In fast and familiar speech, common words and proper names in a preintoneme with ('ia) /'ia/ ìa frequently become ('ja) /'ja/: (al'dia ßi'Ÿj™nte, al'dja, al&djaßi'-) /al'dia si'gjente/ al dìa si%iente˚ ('pø;kofi 'ƒiafi ƒeß'pw™ß, 'ƒjafi, 'pø;kofi&ƒjafi)i (-z, -z, -s-, -s)a /'pokos 'òias òes'pwes/ pocos dìø dπpués˚ (ßu'tia ƒo'lø;Reß, ßu'tja, ßu&tjaƒo'-)i (s-, -s)a /su'tia òo'loRes/ su tìa Dolorπ˚ (&doNama'Ria maR'ti;ne†, &doNama'Rja, &doNama&RjamaR'-)i (-s)a /doNama'Ria maR'tine†/ doña Marìa Martìnez˚ (gaR'†ia Ÿu'tj™Rr:e†, gaR'†ja, gaR&†jaŸu'-)i (-s-, -s)a /gaR'†ia gu'tjeRr:e†/ Garcìa Gutiérrez˚ (&noßeR'Bia paRa'na;ƒa, -'Bja, -&BjapaRa'-)i (-s-)a /noseR'bia paRa'naòa/ no servìa para nada˘ Other examples: (ßea&Bia'pw™ßto ƒe'pj™, ßea&Bja'-, ßãa-)i (s-)a /seabia'pwesto òe'pje/ se habìa puπto de pie˚ (&eßta'Ria˙ kan'ßaƒoß, -'Rja˙, -&Rja˙kan'-)i (&es-, 'sa;ƒos)a /esta'Rian kan'saòos/ πtarìan cansados˚ (&nopo'ƒRiaN Le'Ÿa; Ra'tj™mpo, -'ƒRjaN, -&ƒRjaNLe'-)i (,-)a /nopo'òRian Le'gaR a'tjempo/ no podrìan ıegar a tiempo˘ Intonation 6.3.3. û 6.3 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of the neutral Iberian and American Spanish language. ˛erefore, let us simply look at the fundamental examples. It is important to make comparisons both between them and with those of other languages: /./: (me'Bøi ma'Na;na poR&lama'Na;na3 3)i (me'Bøi ma'Na;na poR&lamaÇNa;na3 3)a /me'boi ma'Nana poRlama'Nana./ Me voy mañana por la mañana. û 6.3. Iberian-Spanish preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ç 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 1 1)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

û 6.4. American-Spanish preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 Ç 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

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/?/: (¿eß'ta nuß't™;ƒeß konçt™ntoß21)i (¿es'ta nus't™;ƒes kon't™ntos21)a /¿es'ta nus'teòes kon'tentos?/ ¿Están ¨tedπ contentos? /÷/: (&ßima'Na;na &noRr:e'†i;Bo no'ti;†ja1 1| leß&kRiBi'R™ ƒe'nw™;Bo3 3)i (&sima'Na;na &noRr:e'si;Bo noÌti;sja2 2| les&kRiBi'R™ ƒeÇnw™;Bo3 3)a /sima'Nana noRre'†ibo no'ti†ja÷| leeskRibi'Re òe'nwebo./ Si mañana no recibo noticia, le πcribiré de nuevo. Text 6.4.0. ˛e transcribed passage, †e North Wind and the Sun˚ is given in four çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (neutral) Iberian pronunciation of (neutral British) English – this is the first step of the phonetic method (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Spanish translation follows, in its neutral version. At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronunciation of Spanish, by neutral British speakers, fluent in Spanish (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and intonation elements which are typical of neutral British English (for reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciation of English, given first. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Spanish pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Spanish, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12). Iberian Spanish pronunciation (of English) 6.4.1. (de'nøR† 'wind2 ande'ßan2 w™Rdi'ßpju;tin˙ 'gwiC wøfiƒeß'tRø˙geR3 3| 'w™n a'tRa;BeleR2 'k™im a'lø˙g2 ì'r:añ tina'wøRm 'kløuk3 3œ| d™ia'ŸRi{ƒ}2\ ƒaƒi'wa˙ xu'f™R ßa◊'ßi;ƒeƒ2 iN'm™ikin de'tRa;BeleR2 't™i kiß'køu 'køf1 1| &ßjuBikan'ßi;ƒeR ƒeß"tRø˙geR &ƒandi'aƒeR3 3|| 'd™n2 de'nøR† 'win2 'blu2 aß'xaR2 ƒaßi'ku‡3 3| &ba{‡}ƒe'møR xi'Blu1 1| de'møR 'kløufili2 &ƒiƒe'tRa;BeleR2\ 'føul diß'kløuk a'Rau˙xin3 3| ì&an[d]a‡'laß{t}2œ\ de'nøR† 'win˙2 'g™i 'Bañ ƒja't™mt3 3|| ì'd™n2œ de'ßan 'ßjø 'naut3 3 ì'wøRmli3 3œ| &andi'mi;ƒja‡li2\ ˚de'tRa;BeleR 'tu 'køf3 3 ˚xiß'køuk3 3|| ìan'ßøu2œ ƒe'nøR† 'win{d}2 &wøßo'Blaiß tukoM'f™ß2| &daƒe'ßan3 3 wøfiƒeß'tRø˙geR3 3 ì&øBƒe'tu3 3œ|| ¿&diƒjuçlaik21 ¿deß'tø;Ri2| ¿dju'wøn tu'xi;Ri taçŸ™n21|||)

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Spanish Text 6.4.2. El viento norte y el sol porfiaban sobre cuál de eıos era el más fuerte, cuando acertó a pøar un viajero envuelto en an>a capa. Convinieron en ¢e ¢ien antπ lograra obligar al viajero a ¢itarse la capa serìa considerado más poderoso. El viento norte sopló con gran furia, pero cuanto más soplaba, más se arrebujaba en su capa el viajero; por fin el viento norte abandonó la emprπa. Entoncπ briıó el sol con ardor, e inmediatamente se dπpojó de su capa el viajero; por lo ¢e el viento norte hubo de reconocer la superioridad del sol. ¿Te ha %stado el cuento? ¿Vamos a repetirlo? Neutral Iberian pronunciation 6.4.3. (el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2 jel'ßøl2\ poR'fja;Ban2 &ßoBRe'kwal 'd™;Loß2\ &eRael'maß 'fw™Rte3 3| &kwandoa†eR'tø apa'ßa; Rumbja'X™;Ro2 em'bw™lto e'na~Ca 'ka;pa3 3| &kombi'nj™;Ron2 e˙&kekje'nantefi lo'ŸRa;Ra2 oBli'Ÿa; RalBja'X™;Ro2 aki'taRße la'ka;pa1 1| ße'Ria kon&ßiƒe'Ra;ƒo2 'maß poƒe'Rø;ßo3 3|| el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2\ ßo'plø ko˙'gRaM2 'fu;Rja3 3| &peRo'kwanto 'maß ßo'pla;Ba1 1| 'maß ßãaR&r:eBu'Xa;Ba2 enßu'ka;pa3 3 ì[e]lBja'X™;Ro3 3œ|| poR'fin2\ el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2 a&Bando'nø lFem'pR™;ßa3 3|| en'tøn†efi1 1\ BRi'Lø el'ßøl3 3 ìkonaR'ƒøR3 3œ| eiNme“ƒjata'm™nte2 ˚ße&ƒeßpo'Xø3 3 ˚ƒeßu'ka;pa3 3 ì[e]lBja'X™;Ro3 3œ|| &poRlo&kel'Bj™nto 'nøRte1 1\ 'u;Bo ƒeR&r:ekono'†™R3 3 la&ßupe&RjoRi'ƒaƒ ƒel'ßøl3 3|| ¿&tãaŸußçta;ƒo21 ¿el'kw™nto2| ¿'ba;mo ßaR&r:epeçtiRlo21|||) Neutral (central-south-) American pronunciation 6.4.4. (el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2 jel'søl2\ poR'fja;Ban2 &soBRe'kwal 'd™;,os2\ &eRael'mas Çfw™Rte3 3| &kwandoaseR'tø apa'sa; Rumbja'x™;Ro2 em'bw™lto e'na~Ca Çka;pa3 3| &kombi'nj™;Ron2 e˙&kekje'nantes lo'ŸRa;Ra2 oBli'Ÿa; RalBja'x™;Ro2 aki'taRse laÌka;pa2 2| se'Ria kon&siƒe'Ra;ƒo2 'mas poƒeÇRø;so3 3|| el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2\ so'plø ko˙'gRaM2 Çfu;Rja3 3| &peRo'kwanto 'mas soÌpla;Ba2 2| 'mas sãaR&r:eBu'xa;Ba2 ensuÇka;pa3 3 ì[e]lBjaÇx™;Ro3 3œ|| poR'fin2\ el'Bj™nto 'nøRte2 a&Bando'nø lFemÇpR™;sa3 3|| enÌtønses2 2\ BRi',ø elÇsøl3 3 ìkonaRÇƒøR3 3œ| eiNme“ƒjata'm™nte2 ˚se&ƒespoÇxø3 3 ˚ƒesuÇka;pa3 3 ì[e]lBjaÇx™;Ro3 3œ|| &poRlo&kel'Bj™nto ÌnøRte2 2\ 'u;Bo ƒeR&r:ekonoÇs™R3 3 la&supe&RjoRi'ƒaƒ ƒelÇsøl3 3|| ¿&tãaŸus'ta;ƒo21 ¿el'kw™nto2| ¿'ba;mo saR&r:epe'tiRlo21|||)

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English pronunciation of Spanish 6.4.5. (&™ıvi5™nT‘¨ 'nø;T™I2 i™ı'sø:ı2\ &phø;fi'A;vån2 5sø;b>™I 'khwA:ı 'D™¬jØs2\ &™>Èı5mås f¯'™‘T™I3 3| 5khwA;nD‘¨ ås™‘'Th‘;¨ A;pÈ'sA: ¯uMviÈ'h™‘>‘¨2 &™Mv¯5™ıT‘¨ ™n'A;~cû 'khA;på3 3| &khØMv¤ni'™‘>Øn2 ™˙5kh™;I ki'™n 'A;nT™s lû'g>A;>È2 &Øbl¤5gA:> åıviÈ'h™‘>‘¨2 ûk¤5ThA;s™I lû'khA;på2| sÈ5>Iiû kûn&s¤DÈ'>A;D‘¨2 5mås pØDÈ'>‘¨s‘¨3 3|| &™ıvi5™nT‘¨ 'nø;T™I2\ sÈ5phl‘;¨ kû˙'g>A;M2 'f¨È>iå3 3| 5ph™‘>‘¨ 'khwA;T‘¨ 'mås sÈ'phlA;vå32| 5mås siÈ>¤b¨'hA;vå2 ™ns¯u'khA;på3 3 ì&™ıviÈ'h™‘>‘¨3 3œ|| phø;'fI;in2\ &™ıvi5™nT‘¨ 'nø;T™I2 È&bånDÈ5n‘;¨ lA;¤m'ph>™så3 3|| ™n'Thø;ns¤s32\ b>¤5j‘;¨ ™ı'sø:ı3 3 ìkhØnA;'Dø:3 3œ| &™Inm¤Di&A;TÈ'm™nT™I2 ˚s™I&D™spÈ'h‘;¨3 3 ˚D¤s¯u'khA;på3 3 ì&™ıviÈ'h™‘>‘¨3 3œ|| &phø;lû5kh™;I ™ıvi'™nT‘¨ 'nø;T™I32\ 5¯uv‘¨ D¤&>™kûnÈ's™;‘3 3 lÈ&s¯upÈ>iÈ>¤5DA;D D™ı'sø:ı3 3|| ¿&Th™Iûg¨'sTA;D‘¨21 &™ı'khw™nT‘¨2 ¿5vA;mØs È&>™pÈ'Th¤Èl‘¨21|||)

7. Portuguese 7.0.1. We present both Brazilian and Lusitanian neutral Portuguese, in this order, although not separated, for various good reasons. ˛e most suitable interphonemic transcription (and useful for both accents), as far as V are concerned, has to use seven phonemes and four (or five) diaphonemes. ˛erefore, the seven Brazilian phonemes, /i, e, E, a, O, o, u/, plus /e, È, A, ì, ™/. ©th this transcription, if we ignore or delete the dots under the diaphonemes (even for given C]˚ we also obtain the transcription for an çinternationalÇ pronunciation, which is closer to the spelling and without the specific Brazilian or Lusitanian peculiarities, as we will see. †e examples show pronunciation, not usage. It seems correct to prefer neutral Brazilian Portuguese (which has its regional variants, as Lusitanian Portuguese also has, but they will not be treated here), since it is simpler, ¤ with fewer phonemes and fewer çsurprisesÇ, closer to spelling and, therefore, more easily çunderstandableÇ, as well as decidedly more widespread, in a ratio of 18 to 1! On the other hand, the Brazilians themselves may find it di‚cult to understand the Lusitanian pronunciation. 7.0.2. Should we –instead– proceed inversely, preferring Lusitanian pronunciation, again for the V˚ we would need nine phonemes: ç/i, e, E, a, O, o, u, …, å/Ç, including ç/E, a, O/Ç, even in unstressed syllables, and with a massive occurrence of ç/…, å/Ç, almost exclusively –above all ç/…/Ç– in unstressed syllables. ‹at is traditionally merged into ç/å/Ç, for e (¤ /e˘/ + /N, L, S, Z, j/, and for ei /ei/ as well) albeit very similar (particularly for some people), actually has a çtinyÇ di‡erence. ˛is can clearly be seen in our vocogram, where –on the contrary– it does not appear to be so tiny (contrary to traditional practice with a rougher quadrilateral: /e/ –in these contexts– ('É, ’Ù) and /å/ ('å, ’‘)). ˛erefore, central Lusitanian –by now neutral– has /e/ ('3Iö, ’’Iö, 'ÉI, ’ÙI÷ 'Éã, 'ÉN, 'ÉL, 'ÉS, 'ÉZ) (compared to /e/ ('™Iö, ’eIö÷ 'eI÷ 'eJ), in the rest of Portugal and in Brazil), that foreigners too often render as /E/, losing a functional opposition, which is not negligible for native speakers of both accents. Let us conclude these preliminary remarks (necessary to define the problem well), underlining the absurd and pointlessly complicated steps made trying to explain pronunciation, above all Lusitanian pronunciation (we restrict ourselves to this language {obviously avoiding talking about English, or Danish, or even French}), making use of graphemes instead of transcriptions, as is still done. On the other hand, it must be said that no real pronouncing dictionary for Portuguese has been written; therefore, one must… make the best of it. 7.0.3. As can be seen from phonemic transcriptions, our analysis does not consider V nasalization distinctive, although it must be marked since it is clearly perceptible (above all in Brazilian pronunciation) and typical of Portuguese (but, in

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Lusitanian pronunciation, only in checked syllables in N]˘ However, if nasalization is lacking –as is often the case in foreigners' pronunciation– comprehension is not compromised; all the more so because, not rarely, in Portugal vowel nasalization may be hardly perceptible, while the nasal contoid is surely there. As a matter of fact, we always have sequences of a (nasalized) V plus N÷ the latter may be missing (phonetically, but not phonemically) only when a word-final (–) is followed by a word-initial (é) or (–), instead of being dropped, since the word ends in C\ /ö/. ˛e nasal contoid is homorganic in the case of stops ((m, n, ˙), and of stop-strictives; in Brazilian pronunciation we also find (~)+(C, ‚), which are taxophones of /t, d/), while it is semi-provelar ((«)) before other contoids or before a pause (as will be seen systematically in the sections on N˚ § 7.2.1). Vowels 7.1.1.1. û 7.1 shows the vocalic realizations of neutral Brazilian Portuguese. ˛is language also has several diphthongs, but, since their starting and finishing points correspond to some vocoids already present, it may be su‚cient to list them and give some suitable examples. However, /ei, o™/ have been put in the vocogram, with their stressed and unstressed variants, not because they are considered monophonemic, but owing to their movements which are a little particular. ˛erefore, there are seven phonemes, /i, e, E, a, O, o, u/ (i, e, E, a, O, o, u), with some taxophones, such as (Au, A∞˘, ’å[s]ò) for /'au, 'aı˘, ’Au, ’Aı˘, ’a[s]ò/ and (iö÷ ’eö, '™ö÷ Aö÷ '9ö, ’Úö÷ uö) for /iö, eö, aö, oö, uö/ – ¤ for VN sequences, both in checked syllables (/éö˘0é/) and in unchecked ones (/é˘öé/). As to /’a[s]ò/, it is to be noted that (’å[s]ò) holds for -a(s) in final rhythm groups, due to a sort of attenuation, with or without a following pause. On the other hand, however, the variant (a°) is even possible, although it is more typical of traditional pronunciation (which is possible as well, provided it is not realized too low). Anyway, (å) is more recommendable, and this is what we use in this chapter. ˛ere are three broken-line white markers as well, to show possible –but not necessary– articulations, also belonging to the neutral accent, for /i, a, u/ (I, x, U), occurring in rhythm-group final unstressed syllables (with or without -s). Besides, in the same position of (x), there may additionally be (≈ö), as a possible variant of (stressed or unstressed) (Aö) /aö/. 7.1.1.2. Here are some first examples (for the time being, let us ignore the diaphonemic undersigned dots): (‚i'fi;si∞)b /òe'fisiı/ di˙cil˚ ('e;]i)b /'eıe/ ele˚ ('E;]å)b /'Eıa/ ela˚ (ba'ta;tå)b /ba'tata/ batata˚ ('nO;vå)b /'nOva/ nova˚ ('no;vu)b /'novu/ novo˚ ('ëu;vå)b /'Suva/ >uva˘ However, it is worthwhile reflecting upon (A): ('pAu) /'pau/ pau˚ (Au'das)b {(Au'ƒaS)l] /Au'òas/ audaz˚ ('mA∞)b {('mAı)l] /'maı/ mal˚ (A∞'tu;Rå)b {(AÓ'tu;R‘)l] /Aı'tuRa/ altura˘ It is important to distinguish: seca ('se;kå)b /'seka/» çdry (f.)Ç and ('sE;kå)b /'sEka/” çdries, drought, nuisanceÇ, cerco ('se˜ku)b /'seKku/» çsiegeÇ and ('sE˜ku)b /'sEKku/” çI encloseÇ, lobo (']o;bu)b /'ıobu/» çwolfÇ and (']O;bu)b /'ıObu/” çlobeÇ, fosso ('fo;su)b

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/'fosu/» çtrenchÇ and ('fO;su)b /'fOsu/” çI digÇ. ©th nasalization, we have: ('si«)b /'sin/ sim˚ (&]e˙ga']™˙gå)b /ıenga'ıenga/ lengalenga˚ ('b™I«)b /'bein/ bem˚ ('9;meI«)b /'ìmein/ homem˚ (&AmA'NA«)b /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã˚ (bÚm'b9U«)b /bom'boun/ bombom˚ ('9«˜å)b /'onKa/ honra˚ (A∞'gu«s)b /Aı'guns/ al%ns÷ (kA'mi;Nu)b /ka'miNu/ camiô˚ (fe'n9;menu)b /fe'nìmenu/ fenômeno˚ (&te]efÚ'n™;må)b /te]efo'nema/ telefonema˚ ('u;niku)b /'uniku/ ùnico˘

û 7.1. Brazilian vowel elements. /i/ ({'}i) {(’I)}, /i{˘}ö/ (iö) /e/ (e), /e{˘}ö/ (™ö, ’eö) /ei/ (eI), /eiö˘/ (™Iö, ’eIö) /E/ (E, »™) /a/ (a, Au, Aı, ’å[s]ò) {/’a/ (å)}

/u/ ({'}u) {(’U)}, /u{˘}ö/ (uö) /o/ (o), /o{˘}ö/ (9ö, ’Úö) /o™/ (oU, o), /oö˘/ (9Uö, ’ÚUö) /O/ (O, »ø) /a[i/u]{˘}ö/ (A[i/u]{˘}ö) {(≈[i/u]{˘}ö)}

7.1.1.3. Notice that nasalization slightly changes some timbres according to the diaphonemic symbols used: in particular /aö/ (Aö) (for which, as already seen, (≈ö) is possible as well), and /'eö, 'Èö, 'oö, 'ìö/ (™ö, 9ö) (when stressed, sometimes, (eö, Úö) may be heard too). Besides, in word-final position, we have real diphthongs for what –too often and too hurriedly– is transcribed simply as ç/e, Ú/Ç, ¤ /ein, oun/ ('™I«, ’eI«÷ '9U«, ’ÚU«). Instead, in the same position, /anò/ opposes the diphthong /aunò/: ('O˜fA«) /'OKfan/ órfã˚ ('O˜fAu«) /'OKfaun/ órfão˘ Later on, we will see other diphthongs, too, both oral and (phonetically) nasalized. It has to be noted that in modern neutral Brazilian pronunciation, the nasalization of vocoids is more and more evident (even in diphthongs). As already said, nasalization occurs when a V is followed by a nasal consonant [N), in the same syllable or not, ¤ both in checked and unchecked syllables; and, above all, both in stressed and unstressed syllables: (&AmA'NA«)b /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã˚ ('bA;Nu)b /'baNu/ baô˚ ('fi;nu)b /'finu/ fino˘ ‹ereas, in traditional neutral Brazilian pronunciation, nasalization occurs only in checked syllables (in N]˚ either stressed or not; but a çtroublesomeÇ occurrence of nasalization is possible (or not), in unchecked stressed syllables followed by /N/ (and with /'aöé/ ('åöé) as well): (&ama'NA«)b;t /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã˚ ('bA;Nu, 'bå;Nu)b;t /'baNu/ baô˚ ('fi;nu)b;t /'finu/ fino˘ Lastly, in mediatic pronunciation, nasalization occurs, in addition to (stressed or unstressed) checked syllables (in N), even in unchecked stressed syllables followed by N÷ but, again, a çtroublesomeÇ occurrence of nasalization is possible even in /’éNé/ (¤ an unchecked, unstressed syllable, followed by /N/): (&amA'NA«, &ama-)b;m /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã˚ ('bA;Nu)b;m /'baNu/ baô˚ ('fi;nu)b;m /'finu/ fino˘

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Lusitanian peculiarities 7.1.2.1. Let us now consider û 7.2 to see the vocalic realizations of neutral Lusitanian Portuguese. It is a good idea to make a close comparison of the two figures; as a matter of fact (neglecting the broken-line white markers, of the unnecessary Brazilian variants, (I, U, x÷ ≈): ('e;]i, -I÷ 'E;]å, -x÷ 'no;vu, -U÷ &AmA'NA, &≈m≈'N≈)b]˚ it is clear that Lusitanian Portuguese has a higher number of both taxophones and phonemes: at least two more (which, in an exclusively Lusitanian phonemic transcription, would be ç/…, å/Ç –or, deviating from o‚cial symbols, they should rather be ç/¢, å/Ç; but, more traditionally rendered as ç/È, å/Ç)– for (’¢, ’Û÷ '¢ò), ('å, ’‘)÷ in addition to (Åö) /—Aö/ and (Aö˘) /'aö˘/, with occasional oppositions between them (that, in a Lusitanian way, we ought to mark as ç/aö, åö/Ç). Besides, (’™, ’a, ’ø) /È, A, ì/ are needed, above all, but not only, in some pre-stress syllables (by diachronic fusion, which is no longer visible in present-day spelling: /éé/ = /é/, deriving from a prior /é0é/ structure, with C dropping), in addition to /’Èı˘, ’ìı˘, ’Aı˘; ’ÈKò, ’ìKò, ’AKò/, as we will see (and /’Au/, and /’Ai/ as well). Furthermore, /’-Èe2÷ ’-ì™2÷ ’-e, ’-È/ are special cases, as in: (ab'd9;meI«)b (‘B'ƒO;m’I«, ±-™n)l /ab'òìmÈe2/ abdômenb˚ -ómenl˚ ('ipsi]ÚU«)b (-î]ÚU«, ±-øn)l /'ipsiıì™2/ ìpsilon˚ (&i˙k]u'zi;vi)b (&i~k9u-, -v[¢], ±-v™)l /inkıu'zive, -È/ inclïve˘ û 7.2. Lusitanian vowel elements. /e, ’e/ (¢), (Û) in contact with (N, L, S, Z, ã) “ (ãÛò, ã¢ò), but /e/ (¢) between (], º) “ (S, Z) /i/ (i), /iö˘/ (iö)

/u, ’o/ (u), /uö˘/ (uö)

/'e/ (e), /È/ (’™), /eö˘/ (™ö, ’eö) /o/ (o), /ì/ (’ø), /oö˘/ (9ö, ’Úö) /ei/ (ÉI, ’ÙI), /eiö˘/ (3Iö˘, ’’Iö) /o™/ (o, oU), /ouöò/ (9Uö, ’ÚUö) /'e˘/+/N, L, S, Z, j/ (É) /O/ (O, »ø) /E/ (E, »™) /’a, a'é, a%é/ (‘÷), /’aò/ (‘, å|), /'a˘ö/ (åö) /a[i/u]ö˘/ (A[i/u]ö, ’4[i/u]ö) /A˘ö/ ('a˘ö), /Aö/ ({'}Åö), /A/ (’a, {'}ai, {'}Au, {'}Aı)

7.1.2.2. ˛e conspicuous Lusitanian reduction of timbres is striking in unstressed syllables, where we have (¢, Û) /e, e/ (or, in the exclusively Lusitanian phonemic transcription, ç/…/Ç)÷ (u) /u/÷ (‘, å|) /a/ (Ô § 7.4.0); and, more rarely, (i) /i/ (which, however, has the complication of oscillating with (’¢, ’Û), as we will see). If we thoroughly analyze the phonemic transcription, it becomes clear that the contradiction between the diaphonemes with underwritten dots and actual phonemes is only outward; as a matter of fact, in Lusitanian pronunciation, for /a/ we find (‘), in unstressed syllables, but (å), in stressed syllables, when it is followed by N˚ in checked syllables (with nasalization (Aö˘)) or unchecked (without nasalization (å˘ö)). Every exception is marked with /A/ (besides its other –not fundamental, though deducible– use, in contact with /u, ı/, seen above): ('E;]‘)l /'Eıa/ ela˚ (b‘'ta;t‘)l /ba'tata/ batata˚ ('nO;v‘)l /'nOva/ nova÷ (‘'su;kaR, -‘R)l /a'sukAK/ {(a'su;ka˜)b} açùcar˚ (&am‘-

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'NA«)l /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã˚ ('sAmb‘) /'samba/ samba˚ ('kå;m‘) /'kama/ cama˘ However, there is one exceptional case where ('a;öé) /'Aöé/ opposes normal /'aöé/ ('å;öé), as in: (f‘']å;m¨S) /fa'ıamus/ falamos çwe speakÇ (f‘']a;m¨S) /fa'ıAmus/ falámos çwe spokeÇ; of course, in Brazilian pronunciation, they are both (fa']A;mus). 7.1.2.3. Here are some other remarkable cases of /A/, in Lusitanian pronunciation, by contraction: (a) /A/ à [èa a¶]˚ (a'ke;]¢) /A'keıe/ à¢ele˚ (ka'vÉIR‘) /kA'veiRa/ caveira ((a, a'ke;]i, ka'veIRå)b]÷ after CC (simplified or not in their pronunciation – and in spelling): (a'sAu«)l /A'saun/ a(c)ção˚ (fa'tu;R‘)l /fA'tuRa/ fa(c)tura ((a'sAu«, fa'tu;Rå)b]˘ Also (ka'm9i”S)l /kA'moins/ Camões. Before looking at the two çfurtherÇ phonemes, let us consider the Lusitanian pronunciation of the examples already given in Brazilian pronunciation: (d¢'fi;siı)l /òi'fisiı/, ('e;]¢)l /'eıe/, ('E;]‘)l /'Eıa/, (b‘'ta;t‘)l /ba'tata/, ('nO;v‘)l /'nOva/, ('no;vu)l /'novu/, ('Su;v‘)l /'Suva/÷ ('pAu)l /'pau/, (Au'ƒaS)l /Au'òas/, ('mAı)l /'maı/, (AÓ'tu;R‘)l /Aı'tuRa/÷ ('se;k‘)l /'seka/», ('sE;k‘)l /'sEka/”, ('seÍku)l /'seKku/», ('sEÍku)l /'sEKku/”, (']o;Bu)l /'ıobu/», (']O;Bu)l /'ıObu/”, ('fo;su)l /'fosu/», ('fO;su)l /'fOsu/”. Furthermore (for both accents): (ka'da;ve˜)b (k‘'ƒa;v™R)l /ka'davÈK/ cadáver˚ ('sO;Ro˜)b (-øR)l /'sORìK/ sóror˚ (a'ma;ve∞)b (‘'ma;v™ı)l /a'mavÈı/ amável˚ ('A∞kjo∞)b ('AÓkˆøı)l /'aıkwìı/ álcool˚ (vo∞'ta˜)b (vøÓ'taR)l /vìı'taK/ voltar˘ Of course, if only Brazilian pronunciation were taken into account, even in these cases, no diaphoneme with underwritten dots would be necessary, since there is no di‡erence in the realization of /e, È÷ o, ì/ (e) and (o). 7.1.2.4. Bearing in mind that nasalization, in Lusitanian pronunciation, is found only in checked syllables (but, sometimes, it is so slight and hardly perceptible that it could be marked as (◊ö), instead of (–ö)), we have: ('si«)l /'sin/ sim, (&]e˙g‘']™˙g‘)l /ıenga'ıenga/ lengalenga, ('b3I«)l /'bein/ bem, ('O;m’I«)l /'ìmein/ homem, (&am‘'NA«)l /Ama'Nan/ amaˆã, (bÚm'b9U«, -ÚU«)l /bom'boun/ bombom, ('9«º‘)l /'onKa/ honra, (Aı'Ÿu”S)l /Aı'guns/ al%ns÷ (k‘'mi;Nu)l /ka'miNu/ camiô, (f¢'nO;m¢nu)l /fe'nìmenu/ fenómenol˚ (&t¢]¢f¨'ne;m‘)l /teıefo'nema/ telefonema, ('u;niku)l /'uniku/ ùnico˘ One further Lusitanian çtroubleÇ, by diachronic assimilation of two V˚ adds ç/Å/Ç (besides ç/A/Ç), in stressed or unstressed syllables: ('A;”f¨R‘)l (a'A«foRå)b /a'anfoRa/ a ânfora˚ (Å;n'ti;Ÿ‘)l (aA~'Ci;gå)b /aan'tiga/ à antiga˘ 7.1.2.5. Here are some specific examples to show the di‡erences between the two accents more clearly. In order to account for the pronunciation of central Portugal, with Lisbon as its focal point, therefore as a model of neutral Lusitanian pronunciation, it is important to know that /e/, in stressed syllables followed by /N, S, Z, L, j, i/, takes on the pronunciation (É), which is close to the realization of the Lusitanian phoneme ç/å/Ç (but we must lay great stress on the fact that they are not alike {even if, occasionally, for some words or specific speakers, the di‡erence is only very slight}). However, we must point out that even the –more regular and etymological– pronunciation corresponding to the Brazilian one, is neutral (¤ acceptable neutral]˚ with /e, ei/ (e, eI), which is kept quite well outside the areas in-

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fluenced by Lisbon, with Coimbra leading the way. Some examples: ('vÉ;Nu)l ('v™;Nu)b /'veNu/ veô˚ ('fÉ;Su)l ('fe;ëu)b /'feSu/ fe>o˚ ('vÉ;Zu)l ('ve;òu)b /'veZu/ vejo˚ ('tÉ;Zu)l ('te;òu)b /'teZu/ Tejo˚ (?S'pÉ;Lu)l (is'pe;Lu)b /es'peLu/ πpeºo˚ ('sÉ;ãu)l ('se;ãu)b /'seju/ seio˚ ('sÉIS)l ('seIs)b /'seis/ se¤÷ besides ('s3I«)l ('seI«)b /'sein/ sem÷ ('kÉ;Zu kÚU']ÉIt¢ ƒø'vÉ;L‘)l ('ke;òu kÚU']eICi ‚ão've;Lå)b /'keZu koun'leite òeo'veLa/ ¢eijo com leite de oveºa˘ In unstressed syllables /ei/ (ÙI)l (eI)b remains: (']ÉItu)l (']eItu)b /'ıeitu/ leito˚ (]ÙI'toR)l (]eI'to˜)b /ıei'toK/ leitor˘ 7.1.2.6. ˛e other pre-eminently Lusitanian characteristic, in purely Lusitanian transcription, would resort to the phoneme ç/…/Ç for (¢), with the taxophone (Û) in contact with /N, L, S, Z, j/ or followed by /s, a/. However, in our diaphonemic interpretation, we have word-internal /’e/ corresponding to Brazilian /’e/ and to written -e- (but neither for initial e- {= /i/}, in both accents, nor for final -e {= /e/ (¢)l (i)b}): (nÛ'Nu«)l (ne-)b /ne'Nun/ neûm˚ (mÛ'LOR)l (me'LO˜)b /me'LOK/ meºor˚ (f?'SaR)l (fe'ëa˜)b /fe'SaK/ fe>ar˚ (SZ'ŸaR)l (ëe'ga˜)b /Se'gaK/ >egar˚ (&tZZ‘'ƒi;Lu)l (&teòa'‚-)b /teZa'òiLu/ tejadiºo˚ ('o;ZÛ)l ('o;òi)b /'oZe/ hoje˚ (]Û'ãå;m¨S)l (]e'ãA;mus)b /ıe'jamus/ leiamos˚ (&i]¢'ŸAnt˙)l (&i]e'gA~Ci)b /iıe'gante/ elegante˚ (dÛZ&v¢Ít¢'BRaR)l (dez&ve˜te'bRa˜)b /òeaveKte'bRaK/ dπvertebrar˚ ('pi;RZS)l ('pi;Ris)b /'piRes/ pirπ˚ (i'E;]‘, 'ãE;]‘)l (i'E;]å, 'ãE;]å)b /i'Eıa/ e ela˘ However, if the sequences /’e/ (Û) + /N, L, S, Z÷ s, a/ are preceded by /ı, K/ (]÷ º, ˜) (given their dorsal component), the taxophone that should be used is (¢): (&i]¢'ZeR)l (&i]e'òe˜)b /iıe'ZeK/ eleger˚ ('to;º¢S)l ('to;˜is)b /'toKes/ torrπ˘ In these contexts, /’i/ -i- generally remains the same (/i/, but it currently becomes /e/): (]iZ'Bo‘, ]Û-)l (]iz'boå)b /ıia'boa/ L¤boa˚ ('fE;]îS, -]ZS, -]îks)l ('fE;]is, -ks)b /'fEıis/ Félix˚ (mi'LAu«, mÛ-)l (mi'LAu«)b /mi'Laun/ miºão˚ (di'NÉIRu, dÛ-)l (‚i'NeIRu)b /di'NeiRu/ diêiro˘ We have /’e˘ö/ for (¢˘ö) as well, while /’eö˘/ is (eö˘): (&t¢n¢'BRo;zu)l (&tene'bRo;zu)b /tene'bRozu/ tenebroso˚ (&te≈p¢'Ra;ƒu)l (&tempe'Ra;du)b /tempe'Raòu/ temperado˘ 7.1.2.7. Another Lusitanian çoddityÇ consists of the change of /’i/ (i) -i- sequences (not /iö˘/ (iö)) into ç/…/Ç, ¤ /e/, in adjacent syllables (except for the last one, whether stressed or not, and the first one, if absolute initial, with no C-]\ (&d¢v¢'ƒiR, d¢v'-)l (&‚ivi'‚i˜)b /òeve'òiK/ dividir˚ (m[¢]'niStÍu)l (mi'nistRu)b /me'nistRu/ min¤tro˚ (&in[¢]'mi;Ÿu)l (&ini'mi;gu)b /ine'migu/ inimigo˚ (pÍ¢&vi][Û]'Zãa;ƒu)l (pRi&vi]e'òãa;du)b /pReviıÈ'Zjaòu/ privilegiado (in the very last example, the sequence (-]Û'Z-) /-ıÈ'Z-/ results from what has just been said previously). However, we find the following exceptions, where i /’i/, corresponding to an original /'i/, remains /’i/ in derivatives, as in the conditional mood of verbs in -ir: (d[¢]&v¢ƒi'Ri‘m¨S)l (‚i&vi‚i'RiAmus)b /òeveòi'Riamus/ dividirìamos÷ and in superlatives: (&d¢fî'si;]imu)l (&‚ifi'si;]imu)b /òefi'siıimu/ dificìlimo˘ For rare /u/ sequences, the same is true, so we have to resort to the diaphoneme /™/ to be able to account for this –possible– Lusitanian phenomenon: (f˙'tu;Ru, f¢-, f¢-, fu-, f¨-, fu-)l (fu'tu;Ru)b /f™'tuRu/ futuro˘ 7.1.2.8. In Lusitanian pronunciation, /’o/ (not /’oö˘/ (Úö˘)) corresponds to /’u/: (&upÍu'BRão;zu, &ø-)l –actually, [h]o[CV]- can be either (u)l or (ø)l– (&opRo'bRão;zu)b /opRo'bRjozu/ oprobrioso˚ (&munut¨'ni‘)l (&mÚnotÚ'niå)b /monoto'nia/ monotonia˚

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(mÚ”'sAu«)l (mÚ«'sAu«)b /mon'saun/ monção÷ however, in bureaucratic lexical compounding, for -o-˚ we find /’ì/: (&mønøsî']a;Bîku)l (&mÚnosi']a;biku)b /mìnìsi'ıabiku/ monossilábico˚ (']uzø fÍ4”'seS)l (']uzo fRA«'ses)b /'ıuzìfRan'ses/ lö-francês˘ 7.1.2.9. A diaphonemic use of /È, ì/ regards the Lusitanian possibility to have distinct timbres, (™, ø), before the stressed syllable; as already seen for a˚ this mainly occurs for diachronic contraction or after CC (simplified or not {in pronunciation or writing}): (vø'se)l (vo'se)b /vì'se/ você (from vossemecê˚ vossa mercê {as in some southern Italian dialects vossìa˚ from vos(tra) signorìa çyour LordshipÇ}), (kÍ™'ƒoR)l (kRe'do˜)b /kRÈ'òoK/ credor˚ (&‘k™'seR)l (&ake'se˜)b /akÈ'seR/ a¢ecer˚ (&‘f™'ti;vu)l (&afe'Ci;vu)b /afÈ'tivu/ afe(c)tivo˚ (f9™k'sAu«)l (f]ek'sAu«)b /fıÈk'saun/ flexão˚ (kø'Ra;ƒu)l (ko'Ra;du)b /kì'Raòu/ corado˚ (møR'ƒo;mu)l (mo˜'d9;mu)b /mìK'òomu/ mordomo˚ (&‘ƒø'ti;vu)l (&ado'Ci;vu)b /aòì'tivu/ ado(p)tivo˚ (øp'sAu«)l (op'sAu«)b /ìp'saun/ opção÷ also: (bo'ãaR)l (bo'ãa˜)b /bì'jaK/ boiar (from /oi/). Besides, this phenomenon arises in compounds and some derivatives, with semantically more distinct elements (as seen above for o as well): (pÍ™'tO;nîku)l (pRe't9;niku)b /pRÈ'tìniku/ pretónicol˚ pretô-b, but also in (more) scholarly words: (º™'tO;Rîk‘)l (˜e'tO;Rikå)b /KÈ'tORika/ retórica˘ ≈nally, note the following Lusitanian minimal pairs: (pÍ¢'ŸaR)l /pRe'gaK/ çto nailÇ˚ (pÍ™'ŸaR)l /pRÈ'gaK/ çto preachÇ both pregar ((pRe'ga˜)b) and (&k¨R‘'sAu«)l /koRa'saun/ çheartÇ, (&køR‘'sAu«)l /kìRa'saun/ çcoloringÇ coração ((&koRa'sAu«)b]˘ Diphthongs 7.1.3.1. As far as grammatical or traditional çdiphthongsÇ are concerned, let us clarify that we consider them biphonemic, and not as unitary phonological entities, since their extreme points generally coincide with the usual Portuguese vocalic elements. Furthermore, we want to specify, right from the start, that true diphthongs are only those formed by two vocoids, /éé/, as /ai/, in ('pai) /'pai/ pai – certainly not sequences of contoid plus vocoid, /0é/, as /ja/, in ('pãa˜)b ('pªaR)l /'pjaK/ piar˘ On the other hand, sequences like /é'é/ are not diphthongs either: (pa'is)b (p‘'iS)l /pa'is/ paìs˚ against ('pais)b ('paiS)l /'pais/ pa¤˘ After confirming this, let us also stress the fact that it is not good to transcribe çtrueÇ diphthongs as if they were sequences of a vowel and a consonant, /é0/, as ç/aj/Ç, since they are not at all comparable with sequences like /as, aı, aK, an/, which are structurally very di‡erent. Least of all, are we allowed to consider sequences of vowel and consonant plus vowel, /é0é/, as çdiphthong + vowelÇ, or çvowel + diphthongÇ, like /aja/, in (ka'ãa˜)b (k‘'ãaR)l /ka'jaK/ caiar˚ ('sa;ãå)b (-‘)l /'saja/ saia˘ 7.1.3.2. ˛erefore, with constant reference to û 7.1-2 (for both accents ¤ Brazilian and Lusitanian), we now show the Portuguese diphthongs, even if in the vocograms only /ei, o™/ appear as (eI, eI, ™I, oU, ÚU, 9U)b (ÉI, ÙI, 3I, ’I÷ oU, 9U, ÚU÷ 4i,

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4u)l. As a matter of fact, their second elements are (I, U), which are not the exact realization of the phonemes /i, u/; for the Lusitanian accent, even (4i, 4u) are placed in the vocogram, because their first element is closer, as occurs however for /’aö/ (4ö) as well). ≈rst of all, we list them phonetically and diaphonemically: (eI)b (ÉI, ’ÙI)l /ei/, (Ei, ’™i) /Ei/, (ai) /ai/÷ (ui) /ui/, (oi) /oi/, (Oi, ’øi) /Oi/÷ (iu) /iu/, (eu) /eu/, (Eu, ’™u) /Eu/, (Au) /au/, (oU, o)b (o, oU)l /o™/ ((o) unstressed /ì™/). Here are some actual examples: ('˜eIs)b ('ºÉIS)l /'Keis/ re¤˚ (]eI'ë9i«s)b (]ÙI'S9i”S)l /ıei'Soins/ Leixõπ˚ ('˜Eis)b ('ºEiS)l /'KEis/ ré¤˚ (&˜™i'zi;tus)b (&º™i'zi;tuS)l /'KEi'zitus/ reizitos˚ ('vai) /'vai/ vai÷ ('fui) /'fui/ fui˚ ('sois)b ('soiS)l /'sois/ so¤˚ ('sOis)b ('sOiS)l /'sOis/ só¤˚ (i“RøikA'm™~Ci)b (i“Røik‘'m™nt˙)l /i'ROika'mente/ heroicamente÷ ('viu) /'viu/ viu (and vi-o as well, since the supposed di‡erence between the two is not at all phonic –in neutral pronunciation– but derives exclusively from a wish to keep di‡erent morphological forms separate), ('seu) /'seu/ seu˚ (&ëap™u'zi;Nu)b (&S‘p™u'zi;Nu)l /SapEu'ziNu/ >apeuziô÷ (ëa'pEu)b (S‘-)l /Sa'pEu/ >apéu˚ ('mAu) /'mau/ mau˚ ('voU, —vo) /'vo™/ vou÷ Lusitanian pronunciation prefers the reverse order, ('vo, 'voU), for the last one. Instead, the simplification of ('eI)b ('ÉI, ’ÙI)l /ei/ changing into ('e) does not belong to neutral pronunciation, although it is quite widespread, mainly in Brazilian (and southern Lusitanian) pronunciation. Of course, there are other actual diphthongs, as the following: (i«'f]uu)b (i”'f9-)l /in'fıuu/ influo˚ ('mou) /'mou/ moo˚ (']uå)b (-‘)l /'ıua/ lua˚ ('˜iå)b ('ºi‘)l /'Kia/ ria˚ ('boå)b (-‘)l /'boa/ boa÷ including combinations as in the true triphthongs resulting from /i+ei, i+au/: ('vieIs)b ('viÙIS)l /'vieis/ vìeis, ('˜ieIs)b ('ºiÙIS)l /'Kieis/ rìeis, ('˜ieI«)b ('ºi’I«)l /'Kiein/ riem, and ('˜iAu«)b ('ºi4u«)l /'Kiaun/ riam. 7.1.3.3. ˛e diaphonemic transcription has to adequately show the characteristics in unstressed syllables as well, seen that, in Lusitanian pronunciation, the diphthong elements do not undergo reduction. Note (besides reizitos˚ heroicamente˚ >apeuziô]\ ('faseIs)b (-ÙIS)l /'faseis/ fáce¤˚ (pai'zi;Nu)b (pai'zi;Nu)l /pAi'ziNu/ paiziô˚ (f]ui'des)b (f9ui'ƒeS)l /fıui'òes/ fluidez˚ (oi'ta;vu) /ìi'tavu/ oitavo˚ (miu'di;Nu)b (miu'ƒi;-)l /miu'òiNu/ miudiô˚ (&adeu'zi;Nu)b (&‘ƒeu'zi;-)l /aòeu'ziNu/ adeuziô˚ (kAu'tE;]å)b (-]‘)l /kAu'tEıa/ cautela÷ in Lusitanian pronunciation, for /ì™/ the monophthong (o) is preferred, without reduction to (u): (õ'ba˜)b (ºo'BaR)l /Kì™'baK/ roubar˘ ˛e only seeming exception is proclitic ao(s)˚ which is not ç/Au[s]/Ç, but simply /a u[s]/÷ its actual nature is a little hidden by the spelling that unifies the two grammemes, which could even be ça o(s)Ç; on the other hand, it is not *au(s)! ˛is goes for both Lusitanian and Brazilian Portuguese; as a matter of fact, pronunciations like (Au) are excessive and pedantic, against the normal realization (au)b (åu)l. Even in its Lusitanian nasalized form we have (Auö, ’4uö), by coarticulation; or rather, in current Luso-Brazilian pronunciation, we generally find (ø) /O/: (au']a;du, ao-, ø-)b (åu']a;ƒu, åo-, ø-)l /au'ıaòu/ ao lado˚ (&auzA'mi;gus, &ao-, &ø-)b (&åuz‘'mi;Ÿ¨S, &åo-, &ø-)l /auza'migus/ aos amigos˘ ˛erefore, it is important to mark /'au, ’Au÷ 'ai, ’Ai/, so as to be mistaken no lon-

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ger and avoid people believing that, in unstressed syllables, in Lusitanian pronunciation they can be reduced to ç/åu, åi/Ç (as some texts say). Let us briefly observe (and without showing it in vocograms {although, of course, this is unavoidable in a book entirely dedicated to the pronunciation of Portuguese}), that when /E, O/ are half-lengthened in unchecked syllables (or, for emphasis, even in checked syllables), besides as being realized as normal monophthongs, (E;, O;), they can also be realized as doubling, or as very narrow diphthongs – more frequently so in Brazilian pronunciation. In comparison with the articulations shown in û 7.1-2, these may start from slightly raised points and reach the indicated ones, (EE§, OO§), or else they may start from those and lower themselves a little, crossing the border of the phone below (in the vocogram), ((Eπ°, OØ°)) – including intermediate shifts (however, again of the opening type, although limited), that is ((Ep, OQ)). 7.1.3.4. Moving on to the nasalized versions, instead, we find (Aiö)b ('Aiö, ’4iö)l /aiö/, (Auö)b ('Auö, ’4uö)l /auö/: ('mAi«)b ('mAi«)l /'main/ mãe˚ (&mAi«'zi;Nå)b (&mAi«'zi;N‘)l /'main'ziNa/ mãeziâ˚ (&fa]a'RAu«)b (&f‘]‘'RAu«)l /faıa'Raun/ falarão˚ (fa']a;RAu«)b (f‘']a;R4u«)l /fa'ıaRaun/ falaram˘ (©th regard to the vocalic timbres in nasalized diphthongs, note that –in compounds– (&) as a realization of /'/, followed by another stress, corresponds to /'/, while a rhythmic (&) / / corresponds to /’/.) As already seen (§ 7.1.1.3), the diphthong /aunò/ opposes /anò/: ('O˜fAu«)b ('OÍf4u«)l /'OKfaun/ órfão˚ ('O˜fA«)b ('OÍf4«)l /'OKfan/ órfã˘ It is to be noted that, in Lusitanian pronunciation as well, there is a (not slight) di‡erence between /aiö/ and /eiö/; and it is more remarkable in unstressed syllables (even if /aiö/ is never completely unstressed, since it has a low occurrence in the Portuguese vocabulary, and always in lexemes, not in grammemes): ('kAi«s)b ('kAi”S)l /'kains/ cãπ˚ (&mAi«'zi;Nå)b (&mAi«'zi;N‘)l /'main'ziNa/ mãeziâ˚ ('s™I«)b ('s3I«)l /'sein/ sem˚ (seI«'vi˜)b (s’I«'viR)l /sein'viK/ sem vir˘ In its stressed Lusitanian form, the di‡erence between /aiö/ and /eiö/ is not only in the first elements, ¤ (A) (higher-low central) and (3) (lower-mid front-central) respectively, but also in the second (front) ones: (i) (high) and (I) (lower-high). Instead, for /’eiö/ and /'eiö/, only the first (front-central) elements are di‡erent, ¤ (’’) (higher-mid) and ('3) (lower-mid); in Brazilian pronunciation, the latter is (’e) or ('™), which have the same height, but are front, instead of front-central, while for the first element of Brazilian /aiö/ we find (A) (higher-low, with the possible variant (≈)), against Lusitanian (A, ’4) (lower-mid when unstressed), which are both central (but (≈) is back-central). 7.1.3.5. ˛e other nasalizable diphthongs (besides ('Aiö) /aiö/, ('™Iö, ’eIö)b ('3Iö, ’’Iö)l /—eiö/) are\ ('uiö) /'uiö/, ('9iö) /'oiö/, ('9Uö, ’ÚUö) /—ouö/: ('v™I«s)b ('v3I”S)l /'veins/ vens˚ ('vãa;òeI«s)b ('vãa;Z’I”S)l /'vjaZeins/ viagens˚ ('muintu)b ('muintu)l /'muintu/ muito (just one example, varying with ('mäi-)), (]i's9i«s)b (-”S)l /ıi'soins/ liçõπ˚ ('s9U«) /'soun/ som˚ (&kÚU˙ka']o˜)b (-~k‘']oR)l /kounka'ıoK/ com calor˘ We have already seen marginal cases as: (ab'd9;meI«)b (‘B'ƒO;m’I«, ±-™n)l /ab'òìmÈe2/ abdômenb˚ -ómenl˚ ('ipsi]ÚU«)b (-î]ÚU«, ±-øn)l /'ipsiıì™2/ ìpsilon˘

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˛e following forms, with true triphthongs and quadriphthongs, are a bit çoddÇ: ('p9ieI«, 'p9i«)b ('p9i’I«, 'p9i«)l /'poi[ei]n/ põem˚ ('v™IeI«, 'v™eI«, 'v™I«)b ('v3I’I«, 'v3’I«, 'v3I«)l /'vei[ei]n/ vêm˚ ('veIeI«, 'veeI«, 'v™I«)b ('veI’I«, 've’I«÷ 'v3I«)l /'v[ei]ein/ vêem˘ Of course, the other çtriphthongsÇ of grammars and teaching tradition are simply sequences of the two types /0éé, é0é/ (even + /ö/), as for instance: ('fãeIs)b ('fªÉIS)l /'fjeis/ fie¤˚ (']ãais)b (']ãaiS)l /'ıjais/ lea¤˚ ('pjeIRå)b ('pˆÉIR‘)l /'pweiRa/ poeira˚ ('sa;ãu) /'saju/ saio˚ ('me;ãå)b ('mÉ;ã‘)l /'meja/ meia÷ (']qAu«)b (']qAu«)l /'ıjaun/ leão˚ ('pq9i«s)b ('p'9i”S)l /'pjoins/ peõπ˘ Consonants 7.2.0. û 7.3 is the table of the Luso-Brazilian consonants, which we will examine systematically, according to manners of articulation. Instead, û 1.9-15 give the orograms, equally grouped by manners, of all the contoids given in this book, even as secondary, occasional, or regional variants, for the 12 languages dealt with.

uvular

velar rounded

velar

provelar

palatal


postalveo-palatal

velarized alveolar velarized alveolar rounded

alveolar

dental

labiodental

bilabial

û 7.3. Table of Portuguese consonants.

(~) N («) (˙) (n) n ö m F pb (© á)b t d kg (C ‚)b Ô ƒ f v (Ÿ)l (º)l _ s z (ë ò)b Sl Zl /w/(j) (˜)b ß (B)l (ƒ)l /j/(ã) R /K/ ó ‹ (])|ı (∞)b L /b/ (b, Bl), /t, d/ (t, Cb÷ d, ‚b, ƒl), /k, g/ (k, ©b÷ g, áb, Ÿl), /K/ (˜b, ºl)

Nasals 7.2.1.1. Portuguese has three nasal phonemes: (m, n, N) /m, n, N/: ('kA;mås)b ('kå;m‘S)l /'kamas/ camø˚ ('kA;nås)b ('kå;n‘S)l /'kanas/ canø˚ ('kA;Nås)b ('kå;N‘S)l /'kaNas/ caˆø˘ In addition, there are some taxophones for /ö0, ö˘, öò/, and it is useful to linger over them, since too many descriptions keep on ignoring them completely or in part. As a matter of fact, the only result of transcriptions like ç('Ki, 'ıesu, 'ıA, 'bRAku, 'sÚ, 'us/'uS)Ç is to make people think that Portuguese sounds almost like French –which is decidedly misleading– since they persist in groundless phonological characteristics.

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As we have already said, Portuguese vowel nasalization is an important phonetic aspect; it is stronger in the Brazilian accent (so much so that it even occurs in unchecked syllables followed by NV] than in the Lusitanian accent, which presents nasalization only in checked syllables in N˚ where it is very slight and sometimes very hard to perceive (although instruments may nevertheless indicate it, as happens in languages for which nobody would ever imagine to mark it, being automatic). 7.2.1.2. ˛erefore, transcriptions like those just mentioned are not trustworthy, unless they presume that foreigners will inevitably add a nasal consonant (although it is hard to believe), producing something similar to what is expected (excluding northern French people, who would then have other problems indeed). On the other hand, this would be a very shoddy way of teaching phonetics. ˛erefore, taxophones are absolutely necessary for exact transcriptions of Portuguese (and for satisfying phonic reproductions), including devoiced variants especially for the Lusitanian accent (in front of voiceless C]\ (m) + /p, b/: ('t™mpu)b ('t™≈pu)l /'tempu/ tempo˚ ('s9mbRå)b ('s9mbR‘)l /'sombRa/ sombra÷ (n) + /t, d/ (dental, which could be transcribed with ((˙)), but the normal symbol is quite su‚cient) and (~) (for Brazilian Portuguese, before (C, ‚) + (i, ã), /t, d/ + /i, e, j/): ('A~Cis)b ('Ant?S)l /'antes/ antπ˚ ('v™ndå)b ('v™nd‘)l /'venda/ venda˚ ('9~‚i)b ('9nd¢)l /'onde/ onde÷ (˙) + /k, g/: ('nu˙kå)b ('nu~k‘)l /'nunka/ nunca˚ (']i˙gjå)b (']i˙gj‘)l /'ıingwa/ lìn%a˘ 7.2.1.3. Lastly, the çsemi-provelarÇ taxophone is very important; it occurs before any other consonant (among the phonotactically permissible ones, from which /R/ is excluded). ˛ey are realized as constrictives˚ (f, v÷ s, z÷ ëb, Sl, òb, Zl÷ º): (i«'fi«÷ e«-)b (-”'f-)l /in'fin÷ en-/ enfim˚ ('d™«su)b ('d™”su)l /'densu/ denso˚ ('kAi«s)b ('kAi”S)l /'kains/ cãπ˚ ('9«˜å)b ('9«º‘)l /'onKa/ honra (possibly even before the traditional or regional –alveolar– trill realization of /K/: ('9«r[:]å)b ('9«r[:]‘)l]÷ approximants˚ (ã÷ j÷ ˜): (']A« ãA∞gu'dAu«)b (']A« ãAıŸu'ƒAu«)l /'ıan iAıgu'òaun/ lã e algodão˚ (&seI«jA'mi;gu)b (&s’I«j‘'mi;Ÿu)l /sein-ua'migu/ sem o amigo (“ Ô honra]÷ and laterals˚ (]): (u«']a;du)b (-ƒu)l /un'ıaòu/ um lado÷ it is the same before a pause as well\ ('si«) /'sin/ sim˚ ('nAu«) /'naun/ não˘ Instead, for /[é]éöò/ followed by N or V(N)˚ the actual realization is (–òö, –òé, –ò–), where («ò) is dropped, but there is no vowel elision (Ô § 7.3.2.2, Taxophonics]˘ Stops 7.2.2.1. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs, already seen in various examples, (p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g) /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/, with dental (t, d) which, in Brazilian pronunciation, becomes stop-strictives ((C, ‚), seen previously), before /i, e, j/: ('p9mbå)b (-‘)l /'pomba/ pomba˚ ('kA˙gå)b ('kA˙g‘)l /'kanga/ canga˚ ('t™ndå)b (-‘)l /'tenda/ tenda˚ ('Ci;midu)b ('ti;miƒu)l /'timiòu/ tìmido˚ (sAu'da;‚i)b (sAu'ƒa;ƒ¢)l /sAu'òaòe/ saudade˚ ('Cãa;tRu)b ('tªa;tÍu)l /'tjatRu/ teatro˘ Before front V or /j/, /k, g/ are realized as pre-

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velar, ((´, Ò÷ Úl)), by coarticulation, but it is not necessary to use these symbols, except for Brazilian pronunciation before /i, e, j/, where we find (©, á): ('©intu)b ('kintu)l /'kintu/ ¢into˚ ('tO;©i)b ('tO;k˙)l /'tOke/ to¢e˚ (iN'©ãE;tu)b (i~'kªE;tu)l /in'kjEtu/ in¢ieto˚ ('áiå)b ('gi‘)l /'gia/ %ia˘ ˛e most interesting Lusitanian peculiarity (which is more complicated for foreigners, but also for Brazilans who might try to speak like Lusitanians) is constituted by voiced stops, /b, d, g/, which are realized as actual stops, (b, d, g), only after pauses, after N (as can be seen in previous examples), and for /ıd/ (ıd), with an apical contact (since both of them are homorganic articulations), or for emphasis or precision: ('b9U«) /'boun/ bom˚ ('da) /'òa/ dá˚ ('ga;tu)l (-u)b /'gatu/ gato˚ ('kAıdu)l (-∞-)b /'kaıdu/ caldo÷ (p¢'ƒi;ƒu)l (pe'‚i;du)b /pe'òiòu/ pedido÷ with emphasis: (p¢"di:du)l… 7.2.2.2. In all other cases, continuous realizations occur, (B, ƒ, Ÿ): two approximants and a constrictive respectively. ˛e diaphonemic transcription shows /òb, òò, òg/, just to underline the di‡erence and to make their distribution adequately understood (avoiding forced inferences, which risk strengthening wrong concepts). Of course, in Lusitanian Portuguese, the (word-initial) notation /b, ò, g/ is çpotentialÇ, since it corresponds to (b, d, g) or (B, ƒ, Ÿ) according to actual contexts, not in absolute terms. In addition, we must admit that in the case of /ıb, ıg/, and of /Rb, Rò, Rg/, and of (more) scholarly consonant clusters as well, stop realizations are not rare, (ıb, ıg÷ Rb, Rd, Rg), even without emphasis or desire for precision. Some examples: ('a;B‘)l ('a;bå)b /'aba/ aba˚ (u'BRi~ku)l (u'bRi˙ku)b /u'bRinku/ o brinco˚ (]iZ'Bo‘, ]ÛZ-)l (]iz'boå)b /ıia'boa/ L¤boa˚ ('AıBu«, 'Aıb-)l ('A∞bu«)b /'aıbun/ álbum˚ (‘R'Bi;tÍªu, ‘R'b-)l (a˜'bi;tRãu)b /aK'bitRju/ arbìtrio˚ (&‘Bƒi'kaR, &‘bd-)l (&ab‚i'ka˜)b /abòi'kaK/ abdicar˚ (&um‘ƒ¢'ƒa;ƒ‘)l (&umade'da;då)b /umaòe'òaòa/ uma dedada˚ (p‘'ƒRAu«)l (pa'dRAu«)b /pa'òRaun/ padrão˚ ('aRƒju, 'aRd-)l ('a˜dju)b /'aKòwu/ árduo˚ (dÛZ'ƒ3I«)l (dez'd™I«)b /òea'òein/ dπdém˘ More: (™'Ÿa;Ÿu)l (™'ga;gu)b /E'gagu/ é gago˚ (Aı'ŸOS, Aı'g-)l (A∞'gOs)b /Aı'gOs/ algoz˚ ('veZŸu)l (-zgu)b /'veagu/ vπgo˚ (‘'ŸRa;s‘)l (a'gRa;så)b /a'gRasa/ a graça˚ (&‘RŸ‘'ma;s‘, &‘Rg-)l (&a˜gA'ma;så)b /aKga'masa/ argamøsa˘ 7.2.2.3. Besides, in Brazilian (even neutral) pronunciation, /e/ (i÷ I) is typically added in order to separate word-final stops, or stops + C (di‡erent from /R, ı/): (op'ta˜, &opi'ta˜, &opî-)b (øp'taR)l /ìp'taK/ optar˚ (&advo'ga;du, &a‚iv-)b (&‘ƒvu'Ÿa;ƒu)l /aòvo'gaòu/ advogado˚ ('˜itmu, '˜i;Cimu)b ('ºit≈u)l /'Kitmu/ ritmo˚ (p'neus, pi'-)b (p'neuS)l /p'neus/ pne¨˘ Other examples: ('kaƒmãu, -dm-)l ('kadmãu, -‚imãu)b /'kaòmju/ cádmio˚ (‘'miŸƒ‘]‘, -gd-)l (A'migda]å÷ -áid-)b /a'migòaıa/ amìgdala˚ ('diŸnu, -gnu)l ('‚ignu, -áinu)b /'òignu/ digno˚ ('dOŸm‘, -gm‘)l ('dOgmå÷ -áimå)b /'òOgma/ dogma˚ (iŸ'ze;m‘, ig-)l (ig'z™;må, &iái-)b /ig'zema/ eczema˘ In Lusitanian pronunciation, there are some similar cases: (ob'òE;tu, &obi-)b (øB'ZE;tu÷ &øBÛ'Z-)l /ob'ZEtu/ obje(c)to˚ (bi']ak, -']a;©i, -©î)b (bi']ak÷ -k˙)l /bi'ıak/ Bilac. Lastly, among complicated consonant clusters for Brazilians, we also find cases like: ('aftå, 'afitå, -fîtå)b ('aft‘)l /'afta/ afta˚ but ('k]a;Ru, ©i']-)b ('k9a;Ru)l /'kıaRu/ claro as well (due to di‡erences in the primary place of articulation).

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Constrictives 7.2.3.1. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs of constrictive phonemes, plus a couple of diaphonemes (/s, a/, which we will see presently): (f, v÷ s, z÷ ëb, Sl, òb, Zl) /f, v÷ s, z÷ S, Z/: ('fa;su)b (-su)l /'fasu/ faço˚ ('po;vu) /'povu/ povo˚ ('su∞)b (-ı)l /'suı/ sul˚ (te«'sAu«)b (-”-)l /ten'saun/ tensão˚ ('vA∞så)b (-Ós‘)l /'vaısa/ valsa˚ ('pE˜så)b ('pEÍs‘)l /'pERsa/ persa˚ (pa'se;ãu)b (p‘'sÉ;ãu)l /pa'seju/ pøseio˚ ('va;zu) /'vazu/ vøo˚ (a'za˜)b (‘'zaR)l /a'zaK/ azar˚ (u'zi~‚ãus)b (u'zindã¨S)l /u'zindjus/ os ìndios˚ (ëe'Res)b (SÛ'ReS)l /Se'Res/ xerez˚ ('ëE˜ëis)b ('SERS?S)l /'SEKSes/ Xerxπ˚ ('o;òi)b ('o;ZÛ)l /'oZe/ hoje˘ In neutral Brazilian, the diaphonemes /s, a/ behave as /s, z/, with distribution: /s|, s[ò]=, z[ò]Ê, zòé/, while, in neutral Lusitanian, they correspond to /S|, S[ò]=, Z[ò]Ê, zòé/ (as well as in the çCariocaÇ accent, of Rio de Janeiro, but of course realized as (ë|, ë[ò]=, ò[ò]Ê, zòé)): ('tRas)b ('tÍaS)l /'tRas/ trás˚ (us'pais)b (uS'paiS)l /us'pais/ os pa¤˚ (i'sE∞su)b (?S'sEÓsu)l /is'sEısu/ excelso˚ (bas'ta˜)b (b‘S'taR)l /bas'taK/ bøtar˚ (pes'ka;då)b (p?S'ka;ƒ‘)l /pes'kaòa/ pπcada˚ (az'mAi«s)b (‘Z'mAi”S)l /aa'mains/ ø mãπ˚ ('azmå)b ('aZm‘)l /'aama/ øma˚ (az']A«s)b (‘Z']A”S)l /aa'ıans/ ø lãs (further examples occur in other parts of this chapter). Approximants 7.2.4.1. ˛ere are two approximants, (ã, j) /j, w/ (semi-palatal, and semi-velar rounded), corresponding to prevocalic unstressed >i˚ e≥ and >u˚ o≥: ('mão;]u) /'mjoıu/ miolo˚ ('g]O;Rãå)b (-‘)l /'gıORja/ glória˚ ('pq9;nãå)b ('pªO;nã‘)l /'pjìnja/ peôniab˚ peó-l˚ ('pqAu«)b ('p'Au«)l /'pjaun/ peão˚ (i'dE;ãå)b /i'òEja/ idéia (i'ƒÉ;ã‘)l /i'òeja/ ideia˚ (ko'˜e;ãu)b (k¨'ºÉ;ãu)l /ko'Keju/ correio˚ (kÚm'bO;ãu) /kom'bOju/ comboio˚ (sAm'pa;ãu)b (sA≈-)l /sam'paju/ Sampaio÷ ('a;gjå)b ('a;Ÿj‘)l /'agwa/ á%a˚ ('pjE;tå)b ('pÊ;t‘)l /'pwEta/ poeta˚ ('va;kju)b (-kû)l /'vakwu/ vácuo˚ (a˜'gji˜)b (‘R'ŸjiR, ‘R'g-)l /aK'gwiK/ ar$irb˚ -%irl˚ ('käimbRå)b ('kîimbR‘)l /'kwimbRa/ Coimbra˘ If pronunciation is slowed down, either for clarity or emphasis, (ã, j) /j, w/ may change (through (j, w)) to (i, u) (and to (e, o) as well, according to spelling): ('g]O;Riå)b (-i‘)l, (pi'9;niå, pe-)b (pi'O;ni‘, pe-)l˚ (pi'Au«, pe-), (i'dE;iå)b (i'ƒÉ;i‘)l, (ko'˜e;Iu)b (k¨'ºÉ;Iu)l, (kÚm'bO;iu), (sAm'pa;iu)b (sA≈-)l÷ ('a;guå)b ('a;Ÿu‘)l, (pu'E;tå, po-)b (-‘), ('va;kuu, -ü), (&a˜gu'i˜)b (&‘RŸu'iR, -g-), (ku'im-, ko-). Several examples show that, in Lusitanian pronunciation, by assimilation, we have devoicing after voiceless C˚ and nasalization before nasalized V˚ (ª, ˆ÷ ', î÷ q, ä); in Brazilian pronunciation, we generally find only nasalization, (q, ä). Trills 7.2.5.1. Under this manner of articulation, in addition to the alveolar tap, (R) /R/, we will treat the theoretical uvular trill, /K/, and the diaphoneme /K/ as well. For the former, there is not much to say, except that it has a single alveolar contact, in fact it may even become an alveolar approximant (¸); in Luso-Brazilian pro-

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nunciation, it occurs between V (in the same word), where it distinctively opposes /K/ and after tautosyllabic C\ ('ka;Ru) /'kaRu/ caro (Ô ('ka;˜u)b (-ºu)l /'kaKu/ carro]˚ ('bRa;su)b (-su)l /'bRasu/ braço˚ ('fRiu)b ('fÍ-)l /'fRiu/ frio˘ Besides (as a realization of /K/) (R) occurs, in Brazilian pronunciation, in word-final position too, when followed by a subsequent word-initial V˚ with resyllabification and behavior as if in word-internal position (¤ /éKòé/=/é˘Ré/), while in Lusitanian pronunciation it also occurs in final position, even before a pause or a C\ (']e 'RA∞gu)b (']e 'RAıŸu, -gu)l /'ıeK 'aıgu/ ler algo˚ (']e˜ 'poUku, 'po-)b (']eÍ 'poku, 'poU-)l /'ıeK 'po™ku/ ler pouco˚ (nAu«']e˜)b (n4u«']eR)l /naun'ıeK/ não ler˘ 7.2.5.2. ˛e phoneme /K/ occurs in word-initial position, even after C or V˚ and word-internally after /é÷ n, ı, s/ (¤ heterosyllabic C]÷ in neutral Brazilian, it is realized as a voiceless uvular approximant (˜), independently from context, with the following variants, again independent from neighboring phones, shown in order of frequency: voiced uvular constrictive (º), or voiced uvular trill (K), even devoiced (ü, »). In addition, there are two further variants, which are less neutral: voiceless uvular constrictive trill (º) and, at last, voiced alveolar trill (r:), which after /é[ò]/ may become (Rr:): ([éR]r:). In Lusitanian pronunciation, this phoneme is (º), with the following variants (again in order of frequency): (˜, K, », ü, Ü) (where (˜) is the voiced counterpart of (º)), in addition to ([éR]r:), which a little more than a century ago was the only neutral pronunciation (while it is in the minority today, either provincial or rural). Some examples: ('˜uå)b ('ºu‘)l /'Kua/ rua˚ (az'˜uås)b (‘Z'ºu‘S)l /aa'Kuas/ ø ruø˚ (u«'ã;tu)b (u«'ºa;tu)l /un'Katu/ um rato˚ ('tE;˜å)b ('tE;º‘)l /'tEKa/ terra˚ ('mE∞˜u)b ('mEıºu)l /'mEıKu/ melro˚ ('t™«˜u)b ('t™«ºu)l /'tenKu/ tenro˘ Speakers who have (r[:]) /K/ may also have /sòK, aòK/ (Rr[:]), and (zz) as well: (‘R'r[:]u‘S, ‘z'zu‘S)l ø ruø; assimilation or dropping of /s, a/ is frequent with neutral /K/ too: (a[˜]'˜uås)b (‘[º]'ºu‘S)l. 7.2.5.3. ˛e diaphoneme /K/ also occurs in word-internal syllable-final position and corresponds to /K/, in Brazilian pronunciation, but to /R/, in Lusitanian pronunciation (where it can be realized as (r) before /m, n, ı/); also in the Brazilian accent /K/ can have the variant (R), which is acceptable (or even (¸), which however is not neutral): (']a˜gu÷ ']aR-)b (']aRŸu÷ -gu)l /'ıaKgu/ largo˚ ('pO˜tå÷ 'pOR-)b ('pOÍt‘)l /'pOKta/ porta˚ ('a˜må÷ 'aR-)b ('aRm‘÷ 'ar-)l /'aKma/ arma˚ ('kañi÷ 'kaR-)b ('kaRn¢÷ 'kar-)l /'kaKne/ carne˚ ('ka˜]¨s÷ -R]-)b ('kaR]uS÷ -r]-)l /'kaKıus/ Carlos˘ In current –rather uneducated– Brazilian Portuguese, /Kò/ (˜) may drop (possibly lengthening a little the preceding vocoid), above all in infinitives; instead, in Lusitanian Portuguese, /Kò/ is /R/, often devoiced, (Í, §), or followed by (¢) (more or less short — devoiced): (fa'ze˜÷ -e;÷ -e)b (f‘'zeR, -Í, -§, -R¢, -R¢)l /fa'zeK/ fazer˚ ('ma˜)b ('maR, -Í, -§, -R¢, -R¢)l /'maK/ mar˘ Several examples show that, in Lusitanian pronunciation, we have (Í) in contact with voiceless C˘

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Laterals 7.2.6.1. ˛ere are two lateral phonemes, in both accents, /ı, L/. For the former we prefer the symbol /ı/, to a more generic /l/, since even before V it is realized as a semi-velarized alveolar, (]) (or (ı) as well, ¤ completely velarized alveolar, even if it can also be (l), which used to be the traditional neutral Lusitanian pronunciation, but only optional nowadays). After V˚ before a pause or a C˚ in the Brazilian accent, velarized alveolar rounded (∞) occurs; it has a frequent vocalized variant, (u) –which, however, is hardly neutral– often mistaken for (∞). In the Lusitanian accent, we have (ı) (with the possible uvularized variant, (l)): (']eICi)b (']ÉIt˙)l /'ıeite/ leite˚ ('k]a;Ru)b ('k9a;-)l /'kıaRu/ claro˚ (a'zu ]is'ku;Ru)b (‘'zu ]ZS'ku;Ru)l /a'zuı is'kuRu/ azul πcuro˚ ('sA∞tu÷ 'sAutu)b ('sAÓtu)l /'saıtu/ salto˚ (òe'RA∞÷ -Au)b (ZÛ'RAı)l /Ze'Raı/ geral˚ ('ta;Lu) /'taLu/ taºo˘ ‹ile in Brazilian pronunciation, as already said, /ıò, ı0/ may become (u); in Lusitanian pronunciation, /ıò/ may be followed by a more or less short — devoiced (¢) in contact with voiceless C˘ Structures 7.3.0. ˛e interesting subjects, for this part, are: metaphony, words in connected speech, stress and intonation. Taxophonics 7.3.1.1. In the Portuguese vowel system, there is an important phenomenon to consider: vowel adjustment (or çmetaphonyÇ), which concerns the timbre of stressed vowels according to the vowels occurring in the endings. It is a phenomenon of diachronic origin, going back to the archaic phase of Portuguese, under the influence of Latin endings. ˛e native speakers, either Brazilian or Lusitanian, use it automatically and coherently, even if it operates in an incomplete and sectorial way, further complicated by a number of exceptions. For foreigners, it is one of the major obstacles to achieving a good Portuguese pronunciation; actually, it would be of fundamental importance to be able to rely on a pronouncing dictionary, with diaphonemic transcriptions (in order to deal with both accents simultaneously), considering metaphony as well. 7.3.1.2. Simplifying our exposition a little, we may say that metaphony operates in partially di‡erent ways with verbs and non-verbs (¤ nouns˚ adjectives and some pronouns)˘ Furthermore, a distinction is to be made between e and o˘ For non-verbs with stressed e˚ the endings -o˚ os /-u, -us/ may cause the closing of timbres: (ka'pe;]u[s])b (k‘'pe;]u, -¨S)l /ka'peıu[s]/ capelo(s)˚ but (ka'pE;]å[s])b (k‘'pE;]‘[S])l /ka'pEıa[s]/ capela(s)˘

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However, not all feminine forms have /E/; actually, very often it is not so: ('ze;bRå)b (-BR‘)l /'zebRa/ zebra˚ ('se;då)b (-ƒ‘)l /'seòa/ seda÷ on the other hand, not all masculine forms have /e/ either, so we find: ('bE;]u) /'bEıu/ belo˚ compared to ('ne;gRu)b (-Ÿ-)l /'negRu/ negro (plural and feminine as well). 7.3.1.3. For nouns with stressed o˚ only -o /-u/ (m. sg.) may cause closing: ('po˜ku)b ('poÍku)l /'poKku/ porco˚ while we have ('pO˜kus)b ('pOÍkuS)l /'pOKkus/ porcos and ('pO˜kå[s])b ('pOÍk‘[S])l /'pOKka[s]/ porca(s) as well; besides: ('no;vu) /'novu/ novo˚ but ('nO;vus)b (-¨S)l /'nOvus/ novos and ('nO;vå[s])b (-‘[S])l /'nOva[s]/ nova(s)˚ (fo˜'mo;zu)b (f¨R-)l /foK'mozu/ formoso˚ but (fo˜'mO;zus)b (f¨R-, -¨S)l /foK'mOzus/ formosos and (fo˜'mO;zå[s])b (f¨R-, -‘[S])l /foK'mOza[s]/ formosa(s)÷ however, we find: (is'po;zu[s])b (?S-, -u, -¨S)l /es'pozu[s]/ πposo(s) and (is'po;zå[s])b (?S-, -‘[S])l /es'poza[s]/ πposa(s)˚ but (is'pO;zus)b (?S-, -¨S)l /es'pOzus/ πposos for the çcoupleÇ. Nevertheless, we also find several cases with no variation, such as: (a'do;bu[s])b (‘'ƒo;Bu, -¨S)l /a'òobu[s]/ adobo(s)˚ ('go˜du[s], -å[s])b (-Rƒu[S], -‘[S])l /'goKòu[s], -a[s]/ gordo(s)˚ -a(s)˘ Of course, there are cases with /O/ as well: ('mO;du[s])b ('mO;ƒu, -¨S)l /'mOòu[s]/ modo(s)˚ ('fO;ku[s])b (-ku[S])l /'fOku[s]/ foco(s)÷ and even feminine forms with /o/: ('go;tå[s])b (-‘[S])l /'gota[s]/ gota(s)˚ ('fo˜så[s])b ('foÍs‘[S])l /'foKsa[s]/ força(s)˘ 7.3.1.4. For verbs˚ the endings which cause closing are -o˚ -a˚ -ø˚ -am /-u, -a, -as, -aun/ (for second-conjugation forms with stress on the stem): ('de;vu, 'mo;vu {-å, -ås, -Au«})b ({-‘, -‘S, -4u«})l /'òevu, 'movu {-a, -as, -aun}/ devo˚ movo… In checked syllables in N˚ the e‡ect is neutralized: ('v™ndu, 'v™~‚i)b ('v™ndu, 'v™nd¢)l /'vendo, 'vende/ vendo˚ vende÷ however, in unchecked syllables, Lusitanian pronunciation maintain the di‡erence (contrary to Brazilian pronunciation due to nasalization): ('t™;mu, 't™;mi)b ('te;mu, 'tE;m¢)l /'temu, 'tÈme/ temo˚ teme˚ ('k9;mu, 'k9;mi)b ('ko;mu, 'kO;m¢)l /'komu, 'kìme/ como˚ come˘ For the same reason, nouns behave in the same way: ('s™;não˜)b ('sE;nãøR)l /'sÈnjìK/ sênior/sénior˚ ('k9;miku)b ('kO;mîku)l /'kìmiku/ cômico/cómico (with far from unquestionable consequences on spelling, which is still overestimated). Lastly, we have the pronouns ('e;]i[s], 'E;]å[s])b (-¢, -¢S, -‘[S])l /'eıe[s], 'Eıa[s]/ ele(s) ela(s)˚ ('esCi[s], 'Estå[s])b ('eSt˙, -?S, 'ESt‘[S])l /'este[s], 'Esta[s]/ πte(s)˚ πta(s) and their derivatives. For other indications, and exceptions, good grammars answer the purpose quite exhaustively (especially if they are less recent). 7.3.1.5. In colloquial Brazilian Portuguese (in common –not lofty– words), another type of vowel adjustment is frequent; it is a synchronic phenomenon which may cause pre-stressed e˚ o to be realized as /i, u/ (i, u), often (I, U) (Ô û 7.1), when the next stressed vowel is /i, u/: (me'ni;nu, mi-, mI-)b (m¢'ni;nu)l /me'ninu/ menino˚ (&a]e'gRiå, &a]i-, &a]I-)b (&‘]¢'ŸRi‘)l /aıe'gRia/ alegria˚ (so'˜i;zu, su-, sU-)b (s¨'ºi;zu)l /su'Kizu/ sorr¤o˚ (ve']u;du, vi-, vI-)b (v¢']u;ƒu)l /ve'ıuòu/ veludo˘ However, the same vowels may be realized as (™, ø) when the stress is on opener V\ (˜e']O;òãu, ˜™-)b (º¢']O;Zãu)l /Ke'ıOZju/ relógio˚ (ko'˜E;tu, kø-)b (k¨'ºE;tu)l /ko'KEtu/ correto/correcto˘ A systematic use of /e, o/ may give the impression of meticulous attention (or,

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perhaps, formality); on the other hand, a methodical use of (i/I÷ u/U÷ ™, ø) would certainly produce something çexcessiveÇ, and strange or foreign, since lofty or rare words must remain unchanged. Furthermore, we have for instance: foºiâ /fo'LiNa/ (fu'Li;Nå)b (f¨'Li;N‘)l çcalendarÇ, but (fo'Li;Nå)b (f¨'Li;N‘)l çsmall leafÇ, which is felt as a derivative, contrary to the other. Words in connected speech 7.3.2.1. Clusters such as /éòé/ (where the first V is word-final {even in unstressed monosyllables: me˚ te˚ se˚ ºe˚ ¢e˚ e˚ de˚ o˚ do, no} + initial V] produce some simplifications within intonation groups, not only in rhythm groups. Generally, /e, i/ and /u/ are realized as /j, w/, respectively, or are dropped: (en'tRe;]is)b (en'tÍe;]¢S)l /entRe'eıes/ entre elπ˚ ('da;gjå, '‚ãa;-)b ('da;Ÿj‘)l /òe'agwa/ de á%a˚ ('ãoUtRå 'koizå, 'ão;-)b ('ão;tÍ‘ 'koiz‘, 'ãoU-)l /i'o™tRa 'koiza/ e outra co¤a˚ (si˙'k]i;nå)b (sí~'k9i;n‘)l /sein'kıina/ se inclina˘ Further examples: ('to; d[j]esCi't™mpu)b ('to; ƒ[j]eSt˙'t™≈pu)l /'toòu este'tempu/ todo πte tempo˚ (sãa'vi;Ris)b (sª‘'vi;RZS)l /sia'viRes/ se a virπ˚ (&ist[j]™u«'õUbu, -'õ;-)b (?St[ˆ]™u«'ºo;Bu, -oU-)l /estuEun'Ko™bu/ ¤to é um roubo˚ (äA'mi; gjita']ãA;nu)b (j‘'mi; Ÿjît‘']ãå;nu)l /ua'migu ita'ıjanu/ o amigo italiano˘ More: (nAum'po; '‚[ã]i˜)b (n4u≈'po; 'ƒ[ã]iR)l /naumpoòe'iK/ não pôde ir˚ (©ã™'muin t[j]a']E;gRi)b (kª™'muin t[ˆ]‘']E;ŸR¢)l /keE'muintu a'ıEgRe/ ¢e é muito alegre˚ ('‚i;si L[ã]a'e;]i)b ('di;sZ L[ã]‘'e;][¢])l /'òiseLe a'eıe/ d¤se-ºe a ele˚ ('deIë[is] 'ta˜)b ('dÉIS[?S] 'taR)l /'òeiSe is'taK/ deixe πtar˚ ('òu; R[ã]i'd9;nãu)b ('Zu; R[ã]i'ƒO;nãu)l /'ZuRi i'òìnju/ jùri idôneo/idóneo˘ Besides: ('be;b[j]u 'to;du)b ('be;B[j]¨ 'to;ƒu)l /'bebuu 'toòu/ bebo-o todo˚ ('t[j]u;zåz 'muin 't[j]i;su)b ('t[ˆ]u;z‘Z 'muin 't[ˆ]i;su)l /tu'uzas 'muintu 'isu/ tu ¨ø muito ¤so˚ ('gRA~ ‚ão'õ˜, -n do-)b ('gRAn d[ã]ø'ºoR)l /'gRande o'KoK/ grande horror˚ (äAn't9;nãu)b (j4n'tO;nãu, ä4n-)l /uan'tìnju/ o Antônio/António˘ 7.3.2.2. ‹en the V in contact are two /a/, in Lusitanian pronunciation we have /aa/ = (’a) ç/A/Ç (with greater lengthening, especially if one of them is stressed; however it is kept only for clarity): ('to;då [a]'ò™~Ci)b ('to;ƒa 'Z™nt˙)l /'toòa a'Zente/ toda a gente˚ (aA'mi;gå, A;'m-, Å;'m-)b (a'mi;Ÿ‘)l /aa'miga/ a amiga˚ (a'a;gjå)b ('a:Ÿj‘, ‘'a;-)l /a'agwa/ a á%a˚ (a[;]'a;gjå)b ('a:;Ÿj‘, a'a:-)l /A'agwa/ à á%a˚ ('vi[å] An'da˜)b ('vi Ån'daR)l /'via an'daK/ vi-a andar˚ (a'A∞må)b ('A;ım‘, ‘'Aı-)l /a'aıma/ a alma˚ (a'A∞må, a;'A∞-)b ('A:ım‘, a'A;ı-)l /A'aıma/ à alma˘ Further cases: (&™]a'E;Rå, ™']E;Rå)b (&™]‘'E;R‘, ™']E;R‘)l /Eıa'ERa/ ela era˚ (u'mO;Rå, &uma'O-)b (u'mO;R‘, &um‘'O-)l /uma'ORa/ uma hora˚ (&aoRa'sAu«, &øRa-)b (&åøR‘'sAu«, &øR‘-)l /auRa'saun/ a oração˚ ('da;vau, -vø)b ('da;våu, -vø)l /'òavau/ dava-o˚ ('p9;Nå u&seuëa'pEu, 'p9; Nø&seu-)b ('po;N‘ u&seuS‘'pEu, 'po; Nø&seu-)l /'poNa useuSa'pEu/ poâ o seu >apéu˚ ('nu˙kå o'vi fa']a˜ 'ni;su, 'nu˙ kø'vi)b ('nu~k‘ o'vi f‘']aR 'ni;su, 'nu~ kø'vi)l /'nunka ì™'vi fa'ıaK 'nisu/ nunca ouvi falar n¤so˘ As already mentioned (§ 7.2.1), /[é]éöò/ followed by /ö, éö˘, é/ are –respectively– realized as ([–]–òö, [–]–ò–, [–]–òé), where («ò) is dropped but nevertheless protects the V from elision: (']A natu'RA∞)b (']A n‘t¨'RAı)l /'ıan natu'Raı/ lã natural˚ (&kÚU-

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ni˙'g™I«)b (-3I«)l /kounnin'gein/ com nin%ém÷ (']A A~'Ci;gå, ']A;~ 'C-)b (']A 4n'ti;Ÿ‘, ']A;n 't-)l /'ıan an'tiga/ lã antiga˚ (kÚU'A«sãå)b (kÚU'A”sª‘)l /koun'ansja/ com ânsia÷ (']A a'zu∞, ']A; 'z-)b (']A ‘'zuı, ']A; 'z-)l /'ıan a'zuı/ lã azul˚ (kÚU'i;su)b (-su)l /koun'isu/ com ¤so˚ (u'9;meI 'A∞tu, 'ä9;-)b (u'O;m’I 'AÓtu, 'äO;-)l /un'ìmein 'aıtu/ um homem alto÷ (se'qE;]å)b (s’'qE;]‘)l /sein'Eıa/ sem ela˚ (nA'äE)b (n4'äE)l /naun'E/ não é˘ 7.3.2.3. ‹en the syllables in contact have identical or similar C˚ we can find some geminate, due to the dropping of the vowel element: ('fi;©[i] kÚ'mi;gu)b ('fik[˙] k¨'mi;Ÿu)l /'fike ko'migu/ fi¢e comigo (da&ke][i]']a;du)b (d‘&ke][¢]']a;ƒu)l /òa'keıe 'ıaòu/ da¢ele lado˚ ('k9;m[i] 'muintu)b ('kO;m[¢] 'muintu)l /'kìme 'muintu/ come muito˚ ('k9mpRuCi 'tu;du, -t 't-)b ('k9≈pÍut[˙] 'tu;ƒu)l /'kompRute 'tuòu/ compro-te tudo˚ ('kAmp[u] peRi'go;zu)b ('kA≈p[u] p¢Ri'Ÿo;zu, -p pÍi-)l /'kampu peRi'gozu/ campo perigoso˘ More: (us'peIëi zis&tAuna'dAndu, -eIë ëis-)b (uS'pÉISZ zZS&t4un‘'ƒAndu, -ÉIS S?S-)l /us'peiSe zistaunna'òandu/ os peixπ πtão nadando˚ ('oUv[i] 'vO;zis, 'o;-)b ('o;v[¢] 'vO;zZS, 'oU-)l /'o™ve 'vOzes/ ouve vozπ˚ ('pa;s[i] 'se;du)b ('pa;s[˙] 'se;ƒu)l /'pase 'seòu/ pøse cedo˚ ('pE;‚[i] 'tu;du, -∂ 't-)b ('pE;ƒ[¢] 'tu;ƒu, -‡ 't-)l /'pEòe 'tuòu/ pede tudo˚ ('s™~C[i] 'bu;Lå, -n∂ 'b-)b ('s™nt[˙] 'Bu;L‘, -n∂ 'b-)l /'sente 'buLa/ sente buºa˘ Chiefly when the syllables contain /t, ò/, one of them may drop completely: (&faku∞'da;[‚i] ‚i']e;tRås, -a‚ ‚i-)b (&f‘k¨ı'da;[ƒ¢] ƒ¢']e;tÍ‘S, -aƒ ƒ¢-)l /fakuı'daòe òe'ıetRas/ faculdade de Letrø˚ ('pO;[‚iz &]dez]i'ga˜, 'pOd d-)b ('pO;[ƒÛZ &]ƒÛZ]i'ŸaR, 'pOƒ ƒ-)l /'pOòea òeaıi'gaK/ podπ dπligar˚ ('kA∞[du] ‚i'kA;nå)b ('kAı[du] d¢'kå;n‘)l /'kaıdu òe'kana/ caldo de cana˘ More examples: ('ò™~[Ci] ‚i'fO;Rå)b ('Z™nt¢ ƒ¢'fO;R‘, -n d¢-)l /'Zente òe'fORa/ gente de fora˚ ('ò™~[Ci] ‚i'ReItå)b ('Z™nt¢ ƒ¢'RÉIt‘, -n d¢-)l /'Zente òe'Reita/ gente direita÷ also: ('ba;[Ci]Ci, -CCi)b ('ba;[t˙]t˙, -tt˙)l /'batete/ bate-te˚ ('vEs[Ci]Ci, -sCCi)b ('vES[t˙]t˙, -tt˙)l /'vEstete/ vπte-te˘ 7.3.2.4. Most of all, in Lusitanian pronunciation, even in connected speech, /eò/ tends to drop, after voiced C as well: (f˙']i;p[˙])l (fi']i;pi)b /fe'ıipe/ Filipe˚ (']a;v[¢])l (']a;vi)b /'ıave/ lave÷ on the other hand, /uò/ has the same tendency: ('ti;p[u])l ('Ci;pu)b /'tipu/ tipo˚ (']a;v[u])l (']a;vu)b /'ıavu/ lavo˘ However, generally a fairly perceptible di‡erence is maintained between forms like /'ıave/ and /'ıavu/, since /u/, although dropped, labializes the preceding C˚ even if it is bilabial or labiodental. In actual fact, strictly speaking, we have: (']a;ç, 'ti;()l; the same is true of all other admitted C˚ including /s, z/, which –phonetically– may then occur even before a pause (with or without lip rounding): ('sint¢z[¢])l ('sintezi)b /'sinteze/ sìntπe˚ (ºu'mA”s[˙])l (õ'mA«si)b /Ko'manse/ romance˚ (&duvi'ƒo;z[u], -z)l (&duvi'do;zu)b /òuvi'òozu/ duvidoso˚ ('pa;s[u], -s)l ('pa;su)b /'pasu/ pøso˚ compared to ('pa;s[˙])l ('pa;si)b /'pase/ pøse… Of course, we generally use a çsimplerÇ transcription, except when we want to lay special stress on the fact. ˛e sequences /0jeò, éjeò/, in the Lusitanian accent, in addition to having a pronunciation which corresponds to its spelling, preserve the –once, more systematic– possibility of blending the last two elements: ('sE;RãÛ, -Rã¢, -RÛ, -Ri)l ('sE;Rãi)b /'sERje/ série˚ ('ka;ãÛ, -ã¢, -a;Û, -a;i)l ('ka;ãi)b /'kaje/ caie (where lengthening may be the only

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di‡erence as to ('kai) /'kai/ cai]˘ In Lusitanian pronunciation, again, the rare instances of /’iò/ oscillate between /i/ (which is more modern and closer to spelling) and (the more traditional) /e/: ('taksi, -s˙)l ('taksi)b /'taksi/ táxi÷ forms like /'ZuRi/ jùri and /'ZuRe/ jure (which are alike in Brazilian pronunciation: ('òu;Ri)b], in the Lusitanian one, may either be alike: ('Zu;R¢)l, or di‡erent: ('Zu;Ri)l (-R¢)l (respectively). 7.3.2.5. ‹en, at word boundaries, /KòK, ıòı/ come together, they normally simplify: ('ma[˜] '˜ãA∞)b ('ma[R] 'ºãAı)l /'maK 'Kjaı/ mar real˚ ('ma[˜] ˜umo'Ro;zu)b ('ma[R] ºumu'Ro;zu)l /'maK Kumo'Rozu/ mar rumoroso˚ (kA'nA[∞] ']impu)b (k‘'nA[ı] ']i≈pu)l /ka'naı 'ıimpu/ canal limpo˚ (kA'nA[∞] ]imi'ta;du)b (k‘'nA[ı] ]¢mî'ta;ƒu)l /ka'naı ıemi'taòu/ canal limitado˘ ˛e same occurs to /sòs, aòz, sòS, aòZ/, when they are alike: ('dE[s] 'sE;ku]us)b ('dES 'sE;k¨]¨S)l /'òEs 'sEkuıus/ dez séculos˚ ('dEs 'ëa;]is)b ('dE[S] 'Sa;]¢S)l /'òEs 'Saıis/ dez xalπ˚ (a[z]'z9;nås)b (‘Z'zo;n‘S)l /aa'zonas/ as zonø˚ (&azòA'nE;]ås)b (&‘[Z]Z‘'nE;]‘S)l /aaZa'nEıas/ ø janelø÷ however, we find (Ss)l (s)b /ss/ in cases such as: (&?Ss¢']™nt˙)l (&ise']™~Ci)b /isse'ıente/ excelente˚ (kÍZS'seR)l (kRe'se˜)b /kRes'seK/ crπcer˘ 7.3.2.6. In the Lusitanian accent, the sequences /0ı, 0R/ are often realized as (0¢], 0¢R) (even if it is better to avoid such a pronunciation): ('f9oR÷ f¢']-÷ ≠f¢']-)l ('f]o˜)b /'fıoK/ flor˚ ('k9a;Ru÷ k¢']-÷ ≠k¢']-)l ('k]a;Ru)b /'kıaRu/ claro˚ ('g]O;Rã‘÷ g¢']-÷ ≠g¢']-)l ('g]O;Rãå)b /'gıORja/ glória÷ on the other hand, the sequences /0eı, 0eR, 0oı, 0oR/, while behaving in exactly the opposite way, produce similar results, even if –in this case– one can use that pronunciation without hesitation (provided one's speech rate is not slow). Some examples: (k¢'Ri‘÷ k'Íi‘÷ 'kÍi‘)l (ke'Riå)b /ke'Ria/ ¢eria˚ (ko'Ro‘÷ k'Ro‘÷ 'kÍo‘)l (ko'Roå)b /ko'Roa/ coroa˚ (f¢'ROS, f'ÍOS, 'fÍOS)l (fe'ROs)b /fe'ROs/ feroz˚ (&m¢R¢'seR, m¢Í'seR)l (&meRe'se˜)b /meRe'seK/ merecer÷ in current speech it is normal to reduce the prepositions combined with the definite article pelo(s)˚ pela(s) to /pıé, pé/, also in Brazilian Portuguese [èp'lo˚ po¶]\ (p]A'mAi«, &pe]A-)b (p9‘'mAi«, &p¢]‘-)l /p[e]ıa'main/ pela mãe˚ ('p]ja˜, p]u'a˜, &pe]u-)b ('p9jaR, p9u'aR, &p¢]u-)l /p[e]ıu'aK/ /p[e]ıu'aK/ pelo ar˘ Compare also: pára ('pa;Rå)b (-‘)l /'paRa/ and para (&paRa, pRaò0, paò0, paRòé, pRòé)b (&p‘R‘, pÍ‘ò0, p‘ò0, p‘Ròé, pÍòé)l /&paRa, pRaò0, paò0, paRòé, pRòé/: (&paRa'ka, pRa'ka÷ &paRa'©i, pRa'©i)b (&p‘R‘'ka, pÍ‘'ka÷ &p‘R‘'ki, pÍ‘'ki)l /para'ka, pRa'ka÷ para'ki, pRa'ki/ para cá˚ para aqui; besides, cada is generally (&kada)b (&kåƒ‘)l /&kaòa/. ˛ese are restressed forms, when they occur in isolation (as it happens in metalinguistic usage), in comparison with normal forms, which have no primary stress, but secondary or weak ones. ˛e same holds true for a(s)˚ da(s), na(s)… (a{s}, da{s}, na{s})b (‘{S}, d‘{S}, ‘{S})l /a{s}, òa{s}, na{s}/, and even for mas (mas)b (m‘S)l /mas/ (with a possible secondary stress for rhythmic reasons, (&måS)l). In Lusitanian pronunciation again, also /0es, 0es/, mainly in the ending -π˚ may be quite reduced, up to becoming intense –çsyllabicÇ– (however the dropping of the V is an uneducated feature): ('f9o;RZS, -R°÷ -ÍS)l ('f]o;Ris)b /'fıoRes/ florπ; combining what we have just seen above, in a fairly uneducated type of Lusitanian pronunciation, we may also find (f¢']o;ÍS)l), (ºu'mA”s?S, -”s°)l (˜Ú'mA«sis)b /Ko'manses/ romancπ˚ (&º¢StAu'RAnt?S, &º°t-, -nt°)l (&˜estAu'RA~Cis)b /Kestau'Rantes/ rπtaurantπ˘

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In the Lusitanian accent, the sequences /peK, pRe/ often receive an intense C and confuse with one another (as has happened to per%ntar˚ in comparison to Spanish pre%ntar]˚ therefore (p”'fÉItu)l may stand for (pe˜'feItu, pRe'feItu)b /peK'feitu, pRe'feitu/ perfeito˚ prefeito (with additional variants (p¢Í'fÉItu, pÍ¢'fÉItu)l]. 7.3.2.7. In both accents, the preposition com /koun/, followed by the articles, is reduced to /kon-/ (kÚ), and to (ku, kj, kä) as well: (kÚu'pai, käu-, kju-)b (kÚu'pai, kîu-, kû-)l /kon-u'pai/ com o pai˚ (kÚ&umAmu'LE˜, käu-)b (kÚ&um‘mu'LER, kîu-)l /kon-umamu'LEK/ com uma muºer˚ (kÚaz'mAu«s, käaz-, kjaz-)b (kÚ‘Z'mAu”S, kî‘Z-, kˆ‘Z-)l /kon-az'mauns/ com ø mãos˚ (kÚuz']o;bus, kuz-)b (-Z']o;B¨S, k¨-)l /kon-uz'ıobus/ com os lobos˘ Even em is considerably reduced, up to ç/in/Ç: (eIm&pu˜tu'ges, im-)b (’I≈&p¨Ít¨'ŸeS, i≈-)l /ÈimpuKtu'ges/ em portu%ês˚ (eI˙'ka;zå, i˙-)b (’I~'ka;z‘, i~-)l /Èin'kaza/ em casa˚ (&eqAu'si;]ãu, iAu-, q-)b (’qAu'si;]ãu, iAu-, q-)l /Èin-Au'siıju/ em auxìlio˘ ˛e dash put before a V˚ in the diaphonemic transcription, could even be dispensed with, without creating problems, since those forms are recognizable, somehow, thanks to the dot under the symbols too, /ko™n, Èin/. Otherwise, we could use /«/, as a diaphoneme (but in a systematic way, then, ¤ for all cases of /éöò/); however, this would make the transcription heavier and the phonemic analysis more complicated. In rhythm groups, sequenze /ééòé/ = (éò0é): (u&mejA'mi;gu)b (u&mej‘'mi;Ÿu)l /umeua'migu, umewa-/ o meu amigo. 7.3.2.8. In the neutral Lusitanian accent, as the various examples have shown, we systematically find (in addition to (≈, n, ~, ”, Ó, 9, Í, ª, ˆ), except in slow and very precise pronunciation) even (˙, ?÷ u), when between voiceless C, or between them and pause, and vice versa. It is quite common to hear things like: (uS&pÍ¨f˙'so;RZS &p¨Ít¨'Ÿe;zZS)l (us&pRofe'so;Ris &po˜tu'ge;zis)b /uspRofe'soRes poKtu'gezes/ os profπsorπ portu%ππ˘ In Lusitanian pronunciation, /eò, uò/ are fairly regularly devoiced, even completely, up to their dropping (after voiced C as well) which occurs, for /’e/, even within words or rhythm groups: (∂S'kuÓp, d?S'kuÓp˙)l (‚is'ku∞pi)b /òes'kuıpe/ dπculpe˚ (&t–vi'zAu«, &t¢ıv-, &t¢]¢-)l (&te]evi'zAu«)b /teıevi'zaun/ telev¤ão˚ (‘p'tE;s, &‘p˙'tE;s˙)l (&ape'tE;si)b /ape'tEse/ apetece˚ (∂°'pOÍt°, ∂?S'pOÍtuS)l (‚is'pO˜tus)b /òes'pOKtus/ dπportos˘ More: (S'pÍaR, &?Sp¢'RaR)l (&espe'Ra˜)b /ispe'RaK/ πperar˚ (St‘'tAı, &?S-)l (&ista'tA∞)b /ista'taı/ πtatal˚ (Sk‘'seR, &°k-, &?S-)l (&iska'se˜)b /iska'seK/ πcøser˚ (&'Bå;Nu, º¢)l (˜e'bA;Nu)b /Ke'baNu/ rebaô˚ (‘&supÍãuRi'ƒa[ƒ] ƒu'sOı, ‘&s¨p¢&Rãu-)l (a&supeRãoRi'da[‚i] du'sO∞, -'dad du-)b /asupeRjoRi'òaòe òu'sOı/ a superioridade do sol˚ (u'fin ∂s'≈å;n‘, ∂s¢-, d¢s¢-)l (u'fi~ ‚ise'mA;nå)b /u'fin dese'mana/ o fim-de-semana˚ (p‘'RE;s ≈um‘'Bo‘ i'ƒÉ;ã‘, p‘'RE;s ≈u-, p‘'RE;s¢ m-, p‘'RE;s¢ mãu-)l (reading: (pa'RE;semi uma'boa i'dE;ãå, -se mqu-)b} /pa'REseme uma'boa i'òEja/ parece-me uma boa ideial/idéiab˘ 7.3.2.9. We will now consider some examples of /0uò/ = (±ò) (the symbols for /0eò/ are more normal, as in ('k™nt)l ('k™~Ci)b /'kente/ ¢ente]\ ('a;tî[[°])l ('a;Cimu[s])b /'atimu[s]/ átimo(s)˚ ('p9å;“[°])l ('p]A;nu[s])b /'pıanu[s]/ plano(s)˚ ('bå;”[°])l ('bA;-

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Nu[s])b /'baNu[s]/ baô(s)˚ ('t™≈([°])l ('t™mpu[s])b /'tempu[s]/ tempo(s)˚ ('tÍi;Ì[°])l ('tRi;bu[s])b /'tRibu[s]/ tribu(s)˚ ('paÍT[°])l ('pa˜tu[s])b /'paKtu[s]/ parto(s)˚ ('sa;k[°])l ('sa;ku[s])b /'saku[s]/ saco(s)˚ (']a;)[°])l (']a;gu[s])b /'ıagu[s]/ lago(s)˘ Furthermore: ('tu;5[°])l ('tu;fu[s])b /'tufu[s]/ tufo(s)˚ ('po;ç, 'pO;ç°)l ('po;vu, 'pO;vus)b /'povu, 'pOvus/ povo(s)˚ ('po;s, 'pO;s°)l ('po;su, 'pO;sus)b /'posu, 'pOsus/ poço(s)˚ ('ka;z[°])l ('ka;zu[s])b /'kazu[s]/ cøo(s)˚ ('ºo;«[°])l ('õ;ëu[s])b /'KoSu[s]/ roxo(s)˚ ('bÉI»[°])l ('beIZu[s])b /'beiZu[s]/ beijo(s)˚ ('mÉ;’[°])l ('me;ãu[s])b /'meju[s]/ meio(s)˚ ('ka;∂[°])l ('ka;Ru[s])b /'kaRu[s]/ caro(s)˚ ('ka;R[°])l ('ka;˜u[s])b /'kaKu[s]/ carro(s)˚ ('ºo;3[°])l ('õ;]u[s])b /'Koıu[s]/ rolo(s)˚ ('fi;¯[°])l ('fi;Lu[s])b /'fiLu[s]/ fiºo(s)˘ In neutral Brazilian pronunciation, devoicing is quite rare; nevertheless, it may occur, mainly after voiceless C before a pause, in particular for /e, u/: ('k™~Ci, Cî, -Ci)b ('k™nt˙)l /'kente/ ¢ente˚ ('po;su, -s¨, -su)b (-su)l /'posu/ poço˘ 7.3.2.10. An oral V followed by a nasalized V˚ may be nasalized, especially in current pronunciation: (&åimpRe'sAu«, &Aim-)b (&‘i≈pÍ¢'sAu«, &4i≈-)l /aimpRe'saun/ a imprπsão˚ (™'impãu, ™im-)b (-≈pªu)l /E'impju/ é ìmpio˘ Stress 7.3.3.1. ˛e position of stress is fairly well indicated in spelling, once we know its rules, which are explained in all grammars. From a phonetic point of view, some secondary stresses occur. ˛ey are distributed alternatively, for rhythmic reasons, in a similar way as they occur in Spanish or Italian. Generally, monosyllabic grammemes (and the like) are unstressed (except for rhythmic secondary stresses, of course): articles [o˚ a˚ os˚ ø˚ um˚ uns]˚ personal pronouns [me˚ te˚ se˚ o˚ a˚ ºe˚ nos˚ vos˚ os˚ ø˚ ºπ˚ and combinations mo˚ ta˚ ºos {…}; eu˚ tu as well, if weak), possessive adjectives [meu˚ te¨˚ sua {…}), prepositions [a˚ com˚ de˚ em˚ por˚ sem˚ sob]˚ prepositions with articles [à˚ ao˚ da˚ do˚ na˚ no˚ num {…}, pro/prò = çpara oÇ {…}, plo/p'lo = çpeloÇ {…}), conjunctions [e˚ ou˚ mø˚ nem˚ ¢e˚ se]˚ the relative pronoun ¢e˚ auxiliaries [sou˚ és˚ é˚ so¤˚ são˚ tens˚ tem˚ têm˚ (es)tou˚ (es)tás˚ (es)tá]˚ forms of çtratamentoÇ [dom˚ frei˚ são˚ seu = çsenhorÇ), others [cem˚ grão˚ ¢ão˚ tão÷ impersonal há]˘ 7.3.3.2. ˛en there are (actual) lexical compounds, which maintain a fairly strong stress on their first element, fluctuating between a primary and a strengthened secondary one (according to the scale ('), (“), (&)); so we have a first /'/ followed by another which is realized as (“) (or (&), if adjacent to the primary stress): (“gja˜da'õUpå, -o;-)b (-Rƒ‘'ºo;p‘, -oU-)l /'gwaKòa'Ko™pa/ %arda-roupa˚ (“agja'fO˜Ci)b (“aŸj‘'fOÍt˙)l /'agwa'fOKte/ á%a-forte˚ (“A∞Ci'baiëu)b (“AÓtî'BaiSu)l /'aıti'baiSu/ altibaixo˚ (&mA∞'kRãa;du)b (&mAÓ'kÍãa;ƒu)l /'maı'kRjaòu/ malcreado˚ (“pAu~‚i']O)b (“pAund¢']O)l /'paunde'ıO/ pão-de-ló˚ (“]uzobRazi']eIRu)b (-øBR‘zi']ÉI-)l /'ıuzìbRazi'ıeiRu/ lö-brøileiro˘ ˛ere are even some particular compounds, still considered as such (rather than crystallizations), which maintain the two elements fairly independent; first of all, we find adverbs in /-'mente/ -mente: (“òustA'm™~Ci)b (“ZuSt‘'m™nt˙)l /'Zusta'mente/ j¨-

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tamente˚ (“]indA'm™~Ci)b (“]ind‘'m™nt˙)l /'ıinda'mente/ lindamente˚ (&fRiA'm™~Ci)b (&fÍi‘'m™nt˙)l /'fRia'mente/ friamente˚ (ko˜&tez'm™~Ci)b (k¨Í&teZ'm™nt˙)l /koK'tea'mente/ cortesmente˚ (“fasi∞'m™~Ci)b (“fasîı'm™nt˙)l /'fasiı'mente/ facilmente˘ 7.3.3.3. In addition, nouns with the diminutive infix /-z-/ -z- follow the same pattern: (mu&L™˜'zi;Nå)b (mu&L™R'zi;N‘)l /mu'LEK'ziNa/ muºerziâ˚ (ku&L™˜'zi;Nå)b (k¨&L™R'zi;N‘)l /ku'LEK'ziNa/ coºerziâ˚ (“ø˜fA«'zi;Nå)b (“øÍf4«'zi;N‘)l /'OKfan'ziNa/ orfãziâ˚ (“ëavena'zi;Nå)b (“Sav¢n‘'zi;N‘)l /'Savena'ziNa/ >avenaziâ˚ (a&vø'zi;Nå)b (‘&vø'zi;N‘)l /a'vO'ziNa/ avoziâ˚ (a&vo'zi;Nu)b (‘&vo'zi;Nu)l /a'vo'ziNu/ avoziô˚ (&pai'zi;Nu)b (-'zi;Nu)l /'pai'ziNu/ paiziô˚ (“9meI«'zi;Nu)b (“øm’I«'zi;Nu)l /'ìmein'ziNu/ homenziô˚ (“9meI«za'Ãu«)b (“øm’I«z‘'ºAu«)l /'ìmeinza'Kaun/ homenzarrão˚ (ã&pa'ze;Lu)b (º‘&pa'zÉ;Lu)l /Ka'pa'zeLu/ rapazeºo˚ (]e«&sø∞'zi;tu)b (]e”&søı'zi;tu)l /ıen'sOı'zitu/ lençolzito˘ (Once, a graphic grave accent was used in such compounds.) As to the (phonic) stressing of verbs, it is important to examin the following examples well; they are very significant and certainly not free from serious doubts when consideredmerely from an orthografic point of view; they are given in simple diaphonemica transcription: /li'mitu, li'mita{s}, li'mitaun/ limito, limita(s)˚ limitam; /'bailu, 'baila{s}, 'bailaun/ bailo, baila(s), bailam; /'kauzu, 'kauza{s}, 'kauzaun/ causo, causa(s), causam. Besides: /aK'kwaK/ arcuar, /aK'kuu/ arcuo, /aK'kua{s}/ arcua(s); /in'flwiK/ influir, /in'fluu/ influo, /in'flui{s}/ influi(s), /in'flwi/ influì, /in'flwiu/ influiu, /in'flwia{s}/ influìa(s); /pa'sjaK/ passear, /pa'seju/ passeio, /pa'seja{s}/ passeia(s), /pa'sejaun/ passeiam; /'KiK/ rir, /'Kiu/ rio, /'Kiu/ riu, /'Kia{s}/ ria(s), /'Kiein/ riem, /'Kiaun/ riam; /òi'zia/ dizia, /òi'Ria/ diria, /òi'Rei/ direi. Now, let us observe very carefully the following: /sa'iK/ sair, /sa'iòu/ saìdo, /sa'indu/ saindo, /'sai{s}/ sai(s), /sa'i{s}/ saì(s), /'saju/ saio, /'saja{s}/ saia(s), /sa'iu/ saiu, /sa'ia{s}/ saìa(s), /sa'iaun/ saìam, /'saein/ saem, /sa'iRaun/ saìram, /sai'Riaun/ sairiam, /sai'Raun/ sairão, /sai'Ria{s}/ sairia(s), /sai'Rei{s}/ sairei(s), /sa'iReis/ saìreis, /sai'Rieis/ sairìeis. Lastly, we find çinfixedÇ futures and conditionals (which are quite çoddÇ {for foreigners or Brazilians, too}): (&se']jÉI)l /'se'ıwei/ sê-lo-ei˚ (tÍ‘&taÍ'sªa)l /tRa'taK'sja/ tratar-se-á˚ (&diR'LjaS)l /'òiK'Lwas/ dir-ºo-ás˚ (kÚn&ta']jAu«)l /kon'ta'ıwaun/ contá-lo-ão˚ (&faR'L[ã]i‘)l /'faK'Ljia/ far-ºe-ia˚ (pu&ƒeÍ's[ª]i‘)l /po'òeK'sjia/ poder-se-ia˚ (&di']ji‘S)l /'òi'ıwias/ di-lo-iø˚ (kÚn&ta']äi4«)l /kon'ta'ıwian/ contá-lo-iam (reading: (&se']jeI, tRa&ta˜'sãa, &‚i˜'Ljas, kÚn&ta']jAu«, &fa˜'L[ã]iå, po&de˜'s[ã]iå, &‚i']jiås, kÚn&ta']äiA«)b). Intonation 7.3.3.4. û 7.4-5 show the preintonemes and intonemes of the two neutral Portuguese accents. It is important to make comparisons both between them and with those of other languages: /./: (çt™;Nu äAçmi;gu çmuintu simçpa;Ciku3 3)b ('tÉ;Nu ä‘'mi;Ÿu Çmuintu si≈Çpa;tiku3 3)l /'teNu un-a'migu 'muintu sim'patiku./ Teô um amigo muito simpático.

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/?/: (¿&useçNo; R™¶mE;‚iku12)b (¿&usZ'No; R™'mE;ƒîku21)l /¿use'NoK E'mEòiku?/ O seôr é médico? /÷/: (¿&AmAçNA ™çsa;badu2 2| ¿odÚçmi˙gu3 3)b (¿&am‘'NA ™'sa;B‘ƒu2 2| ¿oƒuÇmi˙gu3 3)l /¿Ama'Nan E'sabaòu÷ ¿o™òo'mingu./ Amaˆã é sábado, ou domingo? û 7.4. Brazilian preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/./ (2 ç 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/?/ (2 ¶ 1 2)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/÷/ (2 ç 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

û 7.5. Lusitanian preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2)

/./ (2 Ç 3 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

£International∞ accent 7.4.1. We will now provide the èinternational¶ pronunciation of Portuguese. Of course, it is based more on the Brazilian accent (rather than on the Lusitanian one, with all its phonetic idiosyncrasies), also if we consider the actual number of its native speakers. However, even in respect of the Brazilian accent, its most peculiar characteristics are to be put aside (within Brazil itself), from a more international point of view – or, rather, point of èhearing¶. ˛erefore, an International pronunciation of Portuguese does not relate to the èCarioca¶ pronunciation of Rio de Janeiro, but more generally to that of São Paulo City and other cities in the southern states of Brazil. As a matter of fact, this kind of pronunciation moves less away from spelling, which is a great advantage internationally. 7.4.2. Obviously, native speakers (Lusitanian as well) will understand it without problems. But it is not the same to foreigners faced with Lusitanian pronuncia-

7. portuguese

279 /i/ (i, iö)

/u/ (u, uö)

/e/ (e, eö)

/o/ (o, Úö)

/E/ (E, »™)

/O/ (O, »ø)

/a/ (a, Aö)

/ai, au/ (ai, au÷ Aiö, Auö)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2)

/./ (2 ç 3 3)

/?/ (2 ' 1 2)

/÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)

tion. However, in teaching and learning, it is important to have the opportunity to be able to show a kind of pronunciation which is not the mere result of approximative and partial study (subject to so many interferences from other languages, also because of very di‡erent orthographic èrules¶, as generally happens when foreigners study the Portuguese language with no adequate phonic method). On the contrary, this results from a long reflection, based on phonic naturalness, but also from true typicalness (which does not èsound foreign¶). Perhaps, this accent might add some local peculiarities from the two neutral accents (either Brazilian or Lusitanian, including some regional variants), thus making it more native-like, although many native speakers do not find the èinternational¶ one to be strange at all. To Lusitanians it might sound rather Brazilian-like, but with no typical Southern, Central, or Northern peculiarities. 7.4.3. As shown in the figure, the vowels are (i÷ e÷ 'E, »™÷ a÷ 'O, »ø÷ o÷ u) /i, e, E, a, O, o, u/ (we still use the diaphonemic transcription as in the preceding chapters): ('vi, 'e;li, &™la'dE;vi, 'ga;ta, 'pO;su, &pøsu'daR, 'o;ku, 'u;va) /'vi, 'eıe, Eıa'òEve, 'gata, 'pOsu, pOsu'òaK, 'oku, 'uva/ vi˚ ele˚ ela deve˚ gata˚ posso˚ posso dar˚ oco˚ uva; including their nasalized taxophones (i, e, A, Ú, u): ('si˙, pen'denti, 'kAntu, 'kÚnta, 'mundu) /'sin, pen'dente, 'kantu, 'konta, 'mundu/ sim˚ pendente˚ canto˚ conta˚ mundo. Of course, the phonemes /e, E÷ O, o/ must be keep distinct, although they are ètroublesome¶ for foreiners, including the other thorny vocalic problem –metaphony– otherwise, we would really have a èforeign¶ pronunciation. Written e˚ o, in unstressed syllables, always correspond to /e, o/ (even for esC-); while, only for final -e(s)˚ -o(s), we have /e, u/: ('lentis, 'mu;Rus) /'ıentes, 'muRus/ lentes˚ muros˘ 7.4.4. ˛e diphthongs are simpler, as well. In fact, they all have (i, u) as second elements: (ei, Ei, ai, Oi, oi, ui÷ iu, eu, Eu, au, ou), /ei, Ei, ai, Oi, oi, ui÷ iu, eu, Eu, au, ou, o™/: ('rei, 'vou) /'Kei, 'vo™/ rei˚ vou; with their nasalized taxophones (ei, Ai, Úi, ui÷ Au): ('bei˙, 'mAi˙, 'pÚi˙, 'muintu, 'nAu˙) /'bein, 'main, 'poin, 'muintu, 'naun/ bem˚ mãe˚ põe˚ muito˚ não. Certainly, (Å) would not be a feasible proposition for the nasalized diphthongs, or for nasalized /a/. ˛ey are too far away from native-speaker's reality (although this would certainly not prevent understanding). On the other hand, a kind of pronunciation which is still international, but a little less ègenuine¶, might easily renounce the nasalization caused by /ö/ in checked

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syllables – all the more so that, in many types of Lusitanian pronunciations, this nasalization is really very reduced, so that it corresponds to the merely phonetic one which is present in /éö/ sequences, in most languages without distinctive/phonemic nasalization. Normally, this slight degree of nasalization is not indicated. 7.4.5. Beside the èo‚cial¶ phonemic diphthongs, we find a new series of diphthongs, derived from the vocalized realizations of //él0, élò// sequences (diaphonemically indicated as /éı0, éıò/). By explicitly adding only the one which does not already coincide with the èo‚cial¶ diphthongs, we have (Ou): as in (bRa'ziu, 'feutRu, 'mEu, 'sau, 'sOu, 'soutu, 'suu) /bRa'ziı, 'feıtRu, 'mEı, 'saı, 'sOı, 'soıtu, 'suı/ Brasil˚ feltro˚ mel˚ sal˚ sol˚ solto˚ sul. Actually, these diphthongal realizations are more convenient, for their articulatory simplicity and for better understanding spoken Portuguese, because they prepare foreigners for the interpretation èdilemma¶ of /éı/ as (éu) (coinciding with many phonological /éu/ diphthongs). 7.4.6. As to consonants, as already said, our international pronunciation does not make use of particular taxophones, which are peculiar of native accents of Portuguese, but are not sustained by a su‚ciently widespread ènatural universality¶. ˛us, we regularly find the assimilation of /n0/, always with full nasal contoids (not attenuated, as neutral semi-nasals are, instead), before any consonants: ('sAmba, 'fRA~Za, 'fRAngu) /'samba, 'fRanZa, 'fRangu/ samba˚ franja˚ frango. In addition, in word-final position, (˙) is normal, even before vowels or nasals at the beginning of a following word: (nAu˙'E, 'lA˙ a'zuu, u˙'o;vu, u˙'mau) /nau˙'E, 'ıa˙ a'zuı, un'ovu, un'maı/ não é˚ lã azul˚ um ovo˚ um mal˘ Note that in this only case the neutral pronunciations, both Brazilian and Lusitanian, have (–ò). Compare also ('wo;vu, u'mau) /u'ovu, u'maı/ o ovo˚ o mal. 7.4.7. In the international pronunciation of Portuguese, we do not have either the Brazilian taxophones of /t, d÷ k, g/ + /i, j/, (C, ‚÷ ©, á): (di'kinta) /de'kinta/ de quinta; nor the continuous taxophones of /b, d, g/ (of Lusitanian, (B, ƒ, Ÿ), indicated as /b, ò, g/): (&obRi'ga;du) /obRi'gaòu/ obrigado. Even more so, /s{ò}0, z{ò}0/ e /sò/ (diaphonemically /s, a/) are exactly realized as (s, z), without changing their articulations: ('pas, 'dezdi) /'pas, 'òeaòe/ paz˚ desde (which are so remarkable in Lusitanian: ('paS, 'deZƒ¢) and in Carioca: ('paë, 'deò‚i)). ˛us, we only have (S, Z) /S, Z/ for written ch˚ x˚ j˚ g: ('Sa, 'Si;kaRa, 'Za, Ze'Rau) /'Sa, 'SikaRa, 'Za, Ze'Raı/ chá˚ xìcara˚ já˚ geral˘ 7.4.8. Also the approximants, more naturally, are such, (j, w) /j, w/ (not semi-approximants, (ã, j)): ('glO;Rja, 'li˙gwa) /'gıORja, 'ıingwa/ glória˚ lìngua˘ As to /R/, of course, we have (R) (even in word-final position before a pause or C, where in neutral Bazilian we find (˜) /K/). ‹ile, for /K/, a more ènatural¶ (r) is better (after C\ /n, l, s/, diaphonemically /n, ı, s/): ('Únra, &u˙ra'pas, 'biuru, ra'laR) /'onKa, unKa'pas, 'biıKu, Ka'ıaK/ honra˚ um rapaz˚ bilro˚ ralar, and (Rr), after V: ('kaRru, &uRra'pas) /'kaKu, uKa'pas/ carro˚ o rapaz˘ ˛en, it occurs even in word-initial position;

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while we have (˜)b, (º)l (with so many other variants, Ô § 7.2.5.2). Besides, /L/ is maintained ('vE;Lu) /'vELu/ velhu; but, more naturally, we have both (lé) and (éu) (as already seen), which diaphonemically are /ıéı/): ('ljau) /'ıjaı/ leal. Stress(es) and duration coincide with the neutral ones; while intonation is a compromise between the two neutral types. To simplify a little, the figure gives only the unmarked preintoneme and the three marked intonemes. Text 7.5.0. ˛e transcribed passage, †e North Wind and the Sun, given in six di‡erent çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (Brazilian and Lusitanian) neutral pronunciations of (neutral British) English – this is the first step of the phonetic method (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Portuguese translation follows, in its neutral Brazilian, Lusitanian, and international Portuguese versions. ˛e variants given in brackets might need slight adjustments, on which the reader is invited to reflect, according to the occurring segments. In the text, for the Lusitanian accent, we indicate (å|) /’aò/, before a pause (even though in the isolated examples given we simply put (‘ò), in order to better show the di‡erence with the Brazialian accent). At the end, as usual, the version showing the English pronunciation of Portuguese is given; it represents the habits of neutral British speakers, who are fluent in Portuguese (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and suprasegmental elements which are typical of neutral British English (although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciations of English, given first. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Portuguese pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Portuguese, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12). Brazilian pronunciation (of English) 7.5.1. (‚i5nO˜s 'ji~‚i2 ™~‚i'sA«2 j™˜‚is'pãu;Ci« 'j¤ë jøz‚isçtR9˙ge˜3 3| 'j™n A'tRE;ve]e˜2 'k™I mA']9«2 ì'˜Epi CinA'jO˜m çk]oU©i3 3œ| deãå'gRid2\ d™‚i5jAn u'fE˜ såk'si‚i2 ‚i'meI©i~ ‚i'tRE;ve]e˜2 'teI ©is'k]oU çkOf2 2| &ëUbikÚn'side˜ ‚is£tR9˙ge˜ d™~ç‚ãa;ze˜3 3|| 'd™~2 ‚i'nO˜s 'ji~‚i2 'b]u2 å'za˜‚i2 åziçku‚i3 3| &bå‚i'mO Riçb]u2 2| ‚i'mO˜ 'k]oUz]i2

282


&‚i‚i'tRE;ve]e˜2\ 'foU∞ ‚is'k]oU kåçRAun‚i«3 3| ì&™nd™t']asCi2œ\ ‚i'nO˜s 'ji~‚i2 5geI 'vap ‚iaçt™mpiCi3 3|| ì'd™~2œ ‚i'sA~ 'ë9U çAuCi3 3 ìçjO˜m]i3 3œ| &™~‚i'mi;‚ãat]i2\ ˚‚i'tRE;ve]e˜ 'tu çkOf3 3 ˚isçk]oU©i3 3|| ì™n'soU2œ ‚i'nO˜s 'ji~‚i2 &jøzob]ais tukÚM'fEs2| &d™‚içsA«3 3 jøz‚isçtR9˙geR3 3 ì&øv‚içtu3 3œ|| ¿&‚i‚ãu¶]ai©i12 ¿‚is'tO;Ri2| ¿‚ãu'j9n 'tji;Ri ta¶g™«12|||) Lusitanian pronunciation (of English) 7.5.2. (d¢'nOÍs 'jind[¢]2 ™nd¢'sA«2 j¢RƒZS'pªu;tí« ÇjiS j¢ZƒZSÇtÍ9˙g¢R3 3| 'j™n ‘'tÍE;v¢]¢Í2 'kÉI m¢']9«2 ì'ºEp tîn‘ÇjOR≈ Çk9oUk3 3œ| dÉã‘'ŸRiƒ2\ dEƒ¢'jAn ¨ÇfEÍS s˙k'si;ƒ¢2 ƒi'mÉIkín d¢'tÍE;v¢]¢Í2 'tÉI k?SÇk9oU 'kOf2 2| &S¨bîkÚ”'si;ƒ¢R ƒZS∞tÍ9˙g¢R ƒ™nÇdãa;ƒ¢R3 3|| 'd™n2 d¢'nOÍs 'jim2 'b]u2 ‘'zaR2 ƒ¢zîÇkuƒ3 3| &baƒ¢'mO Ri'B]u2 2| d¢'mOÍ 'k9øUZ]i2 &ƒiƒ¢'tÍE;v¢]¢R2\ 'føUı dZSÇk9oUk ‘ÇRAundi«3 3| ì&™nd¢'t9aSt2œ\ d¢'nOÍs 'ji˙2 'gÉI Çvap ‡i‘Çt™mpt˙3 3|| ì'd™n2œ d¢'sA” ÇS9U ÇAut3 3 ìÇjORm]i3 3œ| &™ndi'mi;ƒã‘t9i2\ ˚d¢'tÍE;v¢]¢Í Çtu ÇkOf3 3 ˚?SÇk9oUk3 3|| ì™”'soU2œ ƒ¢'nOÍs 'jind[¢]2 &jøzu'B]aiS tukÚõ'fEs2| &d™ƒ¢ÇsA«3 3 jøZƒZSÇtÍ9˙g¢R3 3 ì&øvƒ¢Çtu3 3œ|| ¿&diƒãu']aik21 ¿dZS'tO;Ri2| ¿&dãuj9n'tî;Rî t‘'Ÿ™«21|||) Portuguese text 7.5.3. O vento norte e o sol porfiavam sobre ¢al dos do¤ era o ma¤ forte, ¢ando sucedeu pøsar um viajante envolto numa capa. Ao vê-lo, põem-se de acordo em como a¢ele ¢e primeiro conse%¤se obrigar o viajante a tirar a capa seria considerado o ma¤ forte. O vento norte começou a soprar com muita fùria, mø ¢anto ma¤ soprava, ma¤ o viajante se embruºava na sua capa, até ¢e o vento norte dπ¤tiu. O sol briºou então com todo o πplendor, e imediatamente o viajante tirou a capa. E øsim o vento norte teve de recoêcer a superioridade do sol. Você gostou da h¤toriâ? Queremos repetì-la? Brazilian pronunciation 7.5.4. (uçv™ntu çnO˜Ci ãu'sO∞2 po˜çfãa;vAu« &sobRiçkjA∞ duz'dois2\ ™R9&maisçfO˜Ci3 3| çkäAndu &suseçdeu paçsa; Ru«vãa'òA~Ci2\ e«çvo∞tu &numaçka;på3 3| ø've;]u2 'p9i[’I]«si ‚ãa'ko˜du2 eI˙çk9; mjaçke;]i &©ipRiçmeIRu2 &kÚ«seçái; sãobRiçga; Ruvãa'òA~Ci2 aCiçRa; Raçka;på2 2 se&RiakÚ«&sideçRa;du2 u&maisçfO˜Ci3 3|| uçv™ntu 'nO˜Ci2 &kÚmeçsoU aso'pRa˜2 kÚçmuintå çfu;Rãå3 3| masçkäAntu çmai[s] soçpRa;vå2 2| çmai zuvãa'òA~Ci2 &sãimbRuçLa;vå &nasjaçka;på3 3| a'tE2 ©ãuçv™ntu 'nO˜Ci2 &‚izisçCiu3 3|| uçsO∞ bRiçLoU en'tAu«2 kÚnçto;du [u]sp]ençdo˜3 3| &ãime“‚ãatA'm™~Ci2 uvãaçòA~[Ci] CiçRoU3 3 açka;på3 3| ãa'si2 uçv™ntu çnO˜Ci2 2\ çte;vi &‚i˜e&kÚNe'se˜2\ a&supe&RãoRiçda;[‚i]3 3 duçsO∞3 3||) ¿vo'se gos¶toU12 ¿&daisto'Ri;Nå2 ¿keçR™;mu[s] &˜epe¶Ci;]å12|||)

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Lusitanian pronunciation 7.5.5. (u'v™nt¨ ÇnOÍt¢ ã¨'sOÓ2 p¨Í'fªa;v4u” &soBR¢ÇkÂı duZ'ƒoiS2\ ™Rø&maiSÇfOÍt˙3 3| 'kîAndu &sus¢'ƒeu p‘Çsa; Ru«vã‘'ZAnt[¢]2\ i«'voÓt¨ &num‘Çka;på3 3| ø've;]u2 'p9i[’I]”s[¢] ƒ‘'koRƒu2 ’I~'ko; mj‘Çke;][¢] &k˙pÍi'mÉIRu2 &kÚ”s[¢]'Ÿi; &sªøBRiÇŸa; Ruvã‘'ZAnt[¢]2 ‘tî'Ra; R‘'ka;p‘2 2 s¢&Ri‘kÚ”&sîƒ¢'Ra;ƒu2 u&maiSÇfOÍt[˙]3 3|| u'v™nt[¨] 'nOÍt[˙]2 &k¨m¢'so ‘su'pÍaÍ2 kÚ'muint‘ Çfu;Rãå3 3| m‘S'kîAnt¨ ÇmaiS su'pÍa;vå2 2| 'mai zuvã‘'ZAnt[˙]2 &sªimbRu'La;v‘ &n‘sˆ‘Çka;på3 3| ‘'tE2 kªu'v™nt[¨] 'nOÍt[¢]2 &ƒ¢zZSÇtiu3 3|| ¨'sOı BRiÇLo en'tAu~2 kÚn'to; ƒ[j]¨Sp9enÇdoR3 3| &ãim¢“ƒãat‘'m™nt[¢]2 uvã‘'ZAn[t˙]2 ˚tîÇRo3 3 ˚‘Çka;på3 3| ã‘'si2 u'v™nt[¨] 'nOÍt[˙]2 2\ 'te;v[¢] ƒ¢º¢&k¨NZ'seR2\ ‘&sup¢&RãoRiÇƒa;[ƒ¢]3 3 ƒ¨ÇsO;ı3 3|| ¿vo'se Ÿ¨S'to21 ¿&ƒ[‘]ZSt¨'Ri;Nå2| ¿k¢'Re;mu[Z] &º¢p˙'ti;]å21|||)

International pronunciation 7.5.6. (u'ventu 'nORti ju'sOu2 poR'fja;vAun &sobRi'kwau duz'dois2\ ™Rau&maisçfORti3 3| 'kwAndu &suse'deu pa'sa; RuMvja'ZAnti2\ eM'voutu &numaçka;pa3 3| au've;lu2 'pÚinsi dja'koRdu2 ei˙'ko; mwa'ke;li &kipRi'meiRu2 &kÚnse'gi; sjobRi'ga; Ruvja'ZAnti2 ati'Ra; RaÇka;pa2 2 se&RiakÚn&side'Ra;du2 u&maisçfORti3 3|| u'ventu 'nORti2 &kome'sou aso'pRaR2 kÚ˙'muinta çfu;Rja3 3| mas'kwAntu 'mais soÇpRa;va2 2| 'mai zuvja'ZAnti2 &sjimbRu'La;va &naswaçka;pa3 3| a'tE2 kju'ventu 'nORti2 &dizisçtiu3 3|| u'sOu bRi'Lou en'tAu˙2 kÚn'to;du usplençdoR3 3| &jime“djata'menti2 uvja'ZAnti2 ˚tiçRou3 3 ˚açka;pa3 3| ja'si˙2 u'v™ntu ÇnORti2 2\ 'te;vi &diRre&koNe'seR2\ a&supe&RjoRiçda;di3 3 duçsOu3 3|| ¿vo'se gos'tou12 ¿&daisto'Ri;Na2| ¿ke'Re;muz &repe'ti;la12|||) English pronunciation of Portuguese 7.5.7. (¯u5v™nT¯ 'nø;Ti j¯u'sØ;ı2 phø;fi'A;vån &s‘¨b>i'khwA:ı DÈz'DøÙs2\ &™>¯u&maÙs'fø;Ti3 3| 5khwånD¯u &s¯usÈ'D™I¯ pÈ'sA:> ¯uMv¤È'ZånTi2\ ¤M5vØıT¯u &n¯umû'khA;på3 3| aÖ5v™Il¯u2 'phøÙnsi Diû'khø;D¯u2 ™I˙5kh‘¨m¯ û'kh™Ili &khIip>¤'m™‘>¯u2 &k‘¨nsû5gIisi Èb>¤'gA:> ¯uv¤È'ZånTi2 ÈT¤5>A:> û'khA;pÈ32 sÈ&>¤ûkûn&s¤DÈ'>A;D¯u2 ¯u&maÙs'fø;Ti3 3|| ¯u5v™nT¯ 'nø;Ti &k‘¨m¤5s‘;¨ ÈsÈ'ph>A:2 kû5m¯u¤nTÈ 'f¯uÈ>iå3 3| mÈs5khwånT¯ 'maÙs sÈ'ph>A;vå32| 5ma;Ùz ¯uv¤È'ZånTi2 &s¤mb>¯u5ljA;vÈ &nås¨û'khA;på3 3| È'Th™;I2 k¤¯u5v™nT¯ 'nø;Ti2 &D¤s¤'sTIi¯u3 3|| ¯u5sØı b>¤¬'j‘;¨ ™In'ThaÖn2 kûn5Th‘¨D¯ spl™n'Dø:3 3| Ii&m™D¤ÈTÈ'm™nTi2 ¯uv¤È'ZånTi2 ˚T¤'>‘;¨3 3 ˚û'khA;på3 3| IiÈ'sI;in2 ¯u5v™nT¯ 'nø;Ti32\ 5Th™Ivi DÈ&>¤kû~jÈ's™‘2\ È&s¯upÈ>i&ø;>¤'DA;Di3 3 D¯'sØ;ı3 3|| ¿vÈ5s™;I gû'sT‘;¨21 ¿&DaÙsTÈ'>Iinjå2| ¿khû5>™ImÈs &>™pÈ'ThIilå21|||)

8. Russian 8.0.1. ˛e Russian pronunciation given in this chapter is the modern neutral one, which is decidedly more relevant and less far from spelling (which we certainly cannot define as çfriendlyÇ, in particular for traditional pronunciation, which had an even greater number of inconsistencies). In any case, we will show the di‡erences between modern and traditional pronunciation as well (§ 8.3.2). ˛e latter mostly coincides with the çold Moscow pronunciationÇ. We will also give other more recent variants, which may be found, in a more or less (un)systematic way, even among people believed to be çneutralÇ speakers, who can oscillate among modern, traditional, and çalternativeÇ variants. However, modern neutral pronunciation is clearly definable and recognizable, and appreciable indeed, although frequently mixed with the other two types. Furthermore, our own phonemic interpretation di‡ers from Russian-inspired ones, because it looks more to concrete things than to (more) abstract ones, which are further away from the true linguistic intuition of native speakers, unless they are çdeviatedÇ by archaic Soviet preconceived patterns, to the point of accepting inappropriate solutions without questioning. ‹at is more, this analysis of ours is closer to the o‚cial writing, with obvious advantages which compensate for many other discordances between orthography and pronunciation. Obviously, some other authors have preferred this kind of analysis, as Trofimov “ Jones (1923), which we had not yet çdiscoveredÇ at the time of our early interpretation, presented for the first time in 1975. We maintain it here, with some refinements (even phonetic ones, with respect to previous choices which turned out to coincide with those of Trofimov “ Jones – with six vowel phonemes, although they treated even coronal –palatalized– consonants in a phoneme-like way). Unfortunately and strangely, the structuring in Jones “ Ward (1969) is of a çfanta-SovietÇ type (given the direct involvement of Ward with the Soviet/Russian world and an unexplainable –to us– rethink on the part of Jones, who died two years before the publication of the book, about the adequacy of the 1923 analysis). Nevertheless, all in all, Jones “ Ward's book remains the best –extensive– treatise on the subject; it is decidedly better than the very heavy and (almost) unchanging Soviet and Russian productions. Most examples we provide are taken from the various texts given in the bibliography, by retranscribing them (or transcribing them entirely, when they were only graphemic or partial). We always do this both phonetically and phonemically, according to our principles and methods. Let us focus attention on another notational di‡erence, as well: between our transcriptions (which are phonetically and phonemically canIPA) and the oƒIPA (which is o‚cial after the 1993/96 reform): ('Áe8) /'djenj/ {/'dJenJ/oƒ} denì˚ (='ÁeÀ)

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/z'djesj/ {/'zJdJesJ/oƒ} ‘decì˚ (='Á™;ıx⁄) /z'djelatj/ {/'zJdJElÈtJ/oƒ} cdelatì˚ (&⁄i¬i'vi;Ái~i[ã]I) /tili'vidiniji/ {/tJIlJI'vJidJInJIjI/oƒ} teleb$den$e˚ (x&jiÀ⁄Ist'v™;÷ -iÀ⁄'v™;) /ajistist'vje/ {/ajIsJtJI'sJtJvJE/oƒ;t, ¤ o‚cial and traditional) o ectectbe˘ It seems quite obvious to us that an excess of (J) is certainly harmful to readability too. 8.0.2. At the beginning, we think it useful to show the Cyrillic alphabet, both roman and italic. ˛e latter especially, since the shape of some letters can be misleading at first, by comparison with the Roman (or Latin) ones typical of certain kinds of transliteration, which are given in brackets. It is not recommendable to use the ambiguous ch for /x/, since kh is decidedly more appropriate, while keeping ch for /c/ (in case the most satisfying choice of using £ /c/ and x /x/ is not made). For Cyrillic writing, it is important to pay particular attention to the roman >b, e, n, p, c, y, x≥, and the italic >e, $, π, p, c, t, y, x≥. a, a [a] ('Fa;) /'a/ ∫, ∫ [b] ('bF™;) /'be/ b, b [v] ('vF™;) /'ve/ g, g [g] ('gF™;) /'ge/ d, d [d] ('dF™;) /'de/ e, e [e˚ je˚ ye] ('j™;) /'je/ e/É, e/É [ë˚ jo˚ yo] ('jø;) /'jo/ µ, µ [`˚ zh] ('qF™;) /'qe/ ‘, ‘ [z] ('zF™;) /'ze/ $, $ [i] ('i;) /'i/ =, = [j˚ ¤] (&ik'RFatkx[ã]I) /“ik'ratkaji/ $ kpatkoe k, k [k] ('kFa;) /'ka/ l, l [l] ('F™1, -Ó) /'el/ m, m [m] ('F™≈) /'em/ n, n [n] ('F™n) /'en/ o, o [o] ('jø;) /'o/ π, π [p] ('pF™;) /'pe/ p, p [r] ('F™Í) /'er/

c, c [s] ('F™s) /'es/ t, t [t] ('tF™;) /'te/ y, y [u] ('ju;) /'u/ f, f [f ] ('F™f) /'ef/ x, x [x˚ 9˚ h˚ >! {® u}) ('∆Fa;) /'xa/ z, z [c˚ _] ('qF™;)/'qe/ u, u [£˚ >] ('Cã™;) /'ce/ w, w [∞˚ ´] ('SFa;) /'Sa/ ∑, ∑ [3˚ (˚ ´>] (ë'ëãa;) /S'Sa/ œ, œ [≤] (t'vøRd¢iz&nak,' j™Í) /t'vjord…iznak, 'jer/ tbepdv= ‘nak v, v [y˚ y] ('F…;, jI'RF…;) /…, ji'r…/ ì, ì ['] ('mÅâ©iiz&nak, 'ma©©ii-, 'jeÌ) /'mjaxkiiznak, 'mjakkii-, 'jerj/ mrgk$= ‘nak -k$=≥, traditionally pronounced as ç/k…i/Ç, disappears. ˛erefore, by definitively reversing the çprob-

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lemÇ, everything becomes simple. As a matter of fact, Russian-speaking people say (©i) and (k…) (in stressed syllables ('©i;), ('kF…;)), since phonemically they are /ki, k…/ not ç/©i, ki/Ç; and the same is true of (’bI, 'bi;÷ ’b¢, 'bF…;) /bi÷ b…/ (not ç/bi÷ bi/Ç), Â. In addition, for /Jò, J0/, the very spelling indicates /0j/ through >Cì≥, except in cases where the pronunciation changed centuries ago (whereas the orthography has remained unchanged, still keeping sequences such as wì˚ µì). Furthermore, there are (more or less incomplete) assimilations for /00j/, which become (0J), or (JJ), depending on the type of pronunciation – (more) modern or (more) traditional, as we will soon see (§ 8.3.2.0-11). 8.1.2. In stressed syllables, the six vowel phonemes are realized as the black markers shown in û 8.1. Obviously, those with a white center also correspond to certain unstressed contexts that we will see later on: (t'çi;) /t'ri/ tp$, ('F™;Rx) /'era/ <pa, ('kFak) /'kak/ kak, ('tjøt) /'tot/ tot, ('jum) /'um/ ym, ('bF…t) /'b…t/ ∫vt; besides, we also have: ('qF™∆) /'qex/ zex, ('SFak) /'Sak/ wag, ('qjuk) /'quk/ µyk˘ As some examples have already shown, there are some interesting di‡erences in our phonetic transcriptions in comparison with phonemic ones, apart from symbol variations such as (™) /e/, (ø) /o/. ‹ile (i, I) /i/ remain unchanged (except in the sequences (ãi, ãI) /’ji/, which represent >$≥ after V˚ and >e≥ in unstressed syllables), the most important element is instead the prevelar semi-approximant (F), occurring before stressed /e, a, …/, and the velar rounded semi-approximant (j), before stressed /o, u/ (all of them preceded or not by a di‡erent C from /j, c, SS, ZZ/). ˛erefore, the V which are di‡erent from /i/ are realized as sequences of (F) + (™, a, …), or (j) + (ø, u); in particular this happens in stressed syllables, even in compounds and in sentences where distinct timbres occur; that is with /’e, ’o/ too. Obviously, (F, j) are less çevidentÇ than fully prevelar, or velar rounded, approximants, (j, w); (w) occurs in English ('w¤T, 'khw¤T, 'wø:{=≥ for diphthongs çconsecratedÇ by grammar. However, mainly in loanwords, others occur, as >ay≥: ('fFaust) /'faust/ Fayct˘ In unstressed syllables, we have (again with (éi)): ('ju;¬ii) /'uljii/ yle=, (Cii'kjøås©ii) /cii'kofskii/ Ua=kobck$=, (tåi'gFa;) /tai'ga/ ta=ga, ('Á™;ıxi⁄I) /'djelaiti/ dela=te, (ui'dju;) /ui'du/ y=dy, (Á¯i'mjøåkx) /djui'mofka/ dù=mobka, ('b™;ı¢i) /'bjel…i/ ∫elv=˘ Instead, purely graphemic çdiphthongsÇ like >$$˚ $r˚ e$˚ ee˚ ae˚ ar˚ aù˚ oe˚ ve≥ do not correspond at all to phono-diphthongs, except when the semi-approximant (which is shown in round brackets, (é[ã]é)) falls completely. In this case, however, if the last vocalic element is /i/, the phone (I) is maintained (instead of having (i), as in phonemic diphthongs, unless it is followed –in sentences– by (J) or /i/): (vI'tFa;¬i[ã]I, v¢-) /vi'taliji, v…-/ b *tal$$, (vRåÀ'Ài[;ã]I) /vras'siji/ b Pocc$$, ('¬i;¬i[ã]x) /'lilija/ l$l$r, (mu'=e[;ã]I) /mu'zjeji/ my‘e$/-ee (Ô (mu'=ei) /mu'zjei/ my‘e=], (å'Àe~~i[ã]I) /a'sjenniji/ ocennee, (6'ma[;ã]I) /v'maji/ b mae, (&~IRu'SF…;mxãx) /niru'S…maja/ nepyw$mar, (z'nFa;ãu) /z'naju/ ‘naù, ('njø;vx[ã]I) /'novaji/ noboe˚ ('juqn¢[ã]I) /'juqn…ji/ ùµnve˘ ˛e following examples are bisyllabic: (på'juk) /pa'uk/ πayk, (må'ãi;) /ma'ji/ mo$, (på'F™t) /pa'et/ πor≥ in unstressed syllables (and for >Ça≥ too), it is important to explain that neutral pronunciation has only /i/, whereas a transversal use of (‘, È) (or even (x, å) /’a/) is very widespread, although decidedly non-neutral. ˛is occurs both in traditional and alternative pronunciation (and indeed even for speakers who are neutral, one way or another!). ˛is can occur both within lexemes, and in inflected forms with >r+C≥ consonantal endings (influenced by the forms ending in -r, with /’ja/, (Jx, ãx)). ˛us we have: (pIt'njø;, ≠p‘t-, ≠påt-) /pit'no/ πrtno, (jI'zF…k, ≠j‘-, ≠jx-) /ji'z…k/ r‘vk, (&jIz¢'©i;, ≠&j‘-, ≠&jx-) /jiz…'ki/ r‘vk$, (&pxg¬i'Á™Ó, ≠-¬È-, ≠-¬å-) /pagli'djel/ πoglrdel, ('nFa;CIt, ≠-C‘t, ≠-Cxt) /'nacit/ nauat, (å'bF…;Cii, ≠-C‘i, ≠-Cxi) /a'b…cii/ o∫vua=, ('kjøRmIt, ≠-m‘t, ≠-mxt) /'kormit/ kopmrt, ('Áe;⁄I≈, ≠-⁄‘≈, ≠-⁄x≈) /'djetim/ detrm, ('zFa;~IÓ, ≠-‘Ó, ≠-xÓ) /'zanil/ ‘anrl, (&bIspi'⁄i 'pÅ⁄, ≠&bÙspå'⁄i 'pÄ⁄, ≠-pÈ'⁄i) /bispi'ti 'pjatj/ ∫e‘ πrt$ πrtì. (Please note the variants of -$k, as well: (s'pju+~Ik, ≠-~‘k, ≠-~xk) /s'putnik/ cπytn$k.) çNormalÇ traditional pronunciation, for (pretonic) >e', r', Ça'≥ (¤ occurring in syllables immediately before the stressed or tonic one in a intoneme) has ç/’e/Ç (É', Ù'+J), which correspond to modern pronunciation /’i/ (I, iJ): (&bIspÙ'⁄i 'pÄ⁄)t, as also happens in: (bi'çø;zx)m (bÙ-)t /bi'rjoza/ ∫epe‘a. In vowel sequences which contain /’a/, we generally find an extension of the use of (å): (&vååb-Rå'qFa⁄) /vaabra'qatj/ boo∫paµatì, (nåu'gFat) /nau'gat/ naygad, (&påådnå'mju;) /paadna'mu/ πo odnomy, (&nååstRå'vFa∆) /naastra'vax/ na octpobax, (u&ådnå'vjø;) /uadna'vo/ y odnogo, (såu'Cãas[t]vxvxÓ) /sau'cas[t]vaval/ coyuactbobal, (sååt'v™s[t]vxvx⁄) /saat'vjes[t]vavatj/ cootbetctbobatì. Consonants 8.2. ˛e phonemic structuring we prefer for Russian only has twenty-two consonant phonemes (including /ZZ/), which combine with the six vowels, as we have already seen in the previous sections. Here we will systematically consider Russian C's according to their manners of articulation. Let us observe that no voiced diphonic C occurs before a pause or a voiceless C: ('bjøp) /'bop/ ∫o∫, ('mjøsk) /'mosk/ mo‘g, (t'Rjup©I) /t'rupki/ tpy∫k$, (åså'dju;) /fsa'du/ b cady. In addition, no voiceless C occurs before a diphonic voiced C (/v/ is a bit particular, Ô § 8.3.1.7): (z'bF…⁄) /z'b…tj/ c∫vtì, (zgå'RF…;) /zga'r…/ c gopv. ≈nally, in general, son(or)ants are partially devoiced before either voiceless C or pauses; usually, between a voiceless C and a pause, they become voiceless, unless they become intense, in which case they are voiced or half-voiced (according

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laryngeal

velar rounded

velar

prevelar

palatal

prepalatal

postalveo-palatal

velarized alveolar

alveolar

dental

palatalized labiodental

labiodental

labio-palatal

bilabial

û 8.2. Table of Russian consonants.

velariz. postalveo-pal. protruded (non-pr.*)

to their phonic context): ('qF…Í) /'q…r/ µ$p, (Í'tFa;) /r'ta/ pta, ('kFaÍtx) /'karta/ kapta, ('bjøbÍ, -;b“) /'bobr/ ∫o∫p, (_'~™p5, -;p”) /d'njepr/ Dneπp. ˛e table in û 8.2 shows the consonantal articulations of Russian, which are necessary for an appropriate pronunciation of this language. Instead, û 1.9-15 show the orograms of all the contoids treated in the chapters of this book, by grouping them according to manners of articulation, including secondary, occasional, or regional variants, for the 12 languages dealt with. ˛is way of displaying them makes the necessary comparisons between di‡erent languages more straightforward.

m (m) (M) (“) (n) n (~) (2)* (~) (N) (˙) ö F p b (p b) t d (+ _) (© á) k g Ô q (Q) C (‚) (⁄ Á) ƒ (å 6) f v (f v) _ s z ë {ò} S q (À =) (,|J) (y) ß (â) j|(ã) (F) (∆) (j) {H} R (ç) ó ‹ ı (¬) (L) /c÷ S, Z÷ x÷ r÷ l/ (C÷ ë, ò÷ ∆÷ R÷ ı)÷ /m, n÷ r÷ l/+(), £÷ 5÷ ñ, Ñ) + ((º, ª, ¸, √, n))

Nasals 8.2.1. Russian has only two nasal phonemes, /m, n/, with various taxophones, especially for the latter. ˛us: /m/ (m, m, M, “) and /n/ (m, m, M, “, n, ~, 2, N, ˙) (more specific symbols like ((˙, n, ˝)) are not necessary, but –as we will shortly see– (º, ¸, n÷ ª, √) can be used, for a less-assimilated kind of coarticulation, which maintains their front lingual contact –alveolar/prepalatal– while adding a secondary articulation with no contact: bilabial, labiodental, velar). For /m/: ('mFa;mx) /'mama/ mama, ('ıFa≈px) /'lampa/ lamπa, ('njøR≈) /'norm/ nopm, ('çit), 'çi;tM) /'ritm/ p$tm, ('çiå), 'çi;åM) /'rifm/ p$fm, (m'njøi) /m'noi/ mno=, (≈'∆Fa;) /m'xa/ mxa, (mg'ıFa;) /mg'la/ mgla, ('mik) /'mik/ m$g, ('mÅ⁄) /'mjatj/ mrtì, ('Àe)) /'sjemj/ cemì, (Im'biÌ) /im'birj/ $m∫$pì, (åM'vjøn) /am'von/ ambon, ('FaõfxRx) /'amfara/ amfopa. /m/ can occur befor heterorganic C: (m'gıFa;) /m'gla/ mgla, (m'njøi) /m'noi/ mno=, (≈'∆Fa;) /m'xa/ mxa; however, for /mj/, and /m/ + /i/, we regularly have (m): ('miÍ) /'mir/ m$p, ('Àe)) /'sjemj/ cemì. For /n/: (&jømbi'çøt, &jøª-) /ombi'rjot, on-/ on ∫epet˚ (kåM'vFa;, -¸'v-) /kan'va/ kanba, (åõ'fFas, å∞-) /an'fas/ anfac, ('njøs) /'nos/ noc, (n'RFaf) /n'raf/ npab, (kå'mFa~ÁI) /ka'mandi/ komande, ('~i⁄) /'nitj/ n$tì, ('kjø8) /'konj/ konì˚ (bi~'=in)

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/bin'zin/ ∫en‘$n, (&bxRå'bFa8ëIk) /bara'banSik/ ∫apa∫an∑$k, (©I2'qFaÓ) /kin'qal/ k$nµal, ('RFaNS¢\) /'ranjS…/ panìwe, ('tjø˚©ii, -8©-÷ -~k¢i, -∫k¢i) /'tonkii/ tonk$=, ('bFa~k, -∫k) /'bank/ ∫ank˘ ˛us, /n0, nò0/ regularly assimilate. Also /nj/ becomes (~), but then it keeps its phonetic autonomy (even as a phonemic sequence, with a distinctive value), without neutralizations before other C. It must be said, though, as we have already seen from some examples, that –especially because of spelling influence (and mainly in less colloquial and more traditional pronunciation)– a complex coarticulated way of pronouncing is widespread, with partial assimilation: (ºb, ¸v, 8©, ∫k) Â, which would try to maintain ç(nb, nv, n©, nk)Ç Â. In these cases, people oscillate considerably; but, on the other hand, should it be important to emphasize a kind of pronunciation with heterorganic ((n0)), the orthography would use >nœ≥, at least within words; but it does not do so… Stops 8.2.2. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs which do not oppose before a pause or a voiceless C: /p, b÷ t, d÷ k, g/ (p, p, b, b÷ t, ⁄, +, d, Á, _÷ k, ©, g, á). ˛e actual articulation of çpalatalizedÇ /t, d/ is prepalatal which are stopstrictives, but stops before homorganic (or similar) C. Sometimes, we find (+) before pauses as well): ('pjøt) /'pot/ πot, ('ıjøp) /'lop/ lo∫, ('peC) /'pjec/ πeuì, ('tjøp) /'topj/ toπì, ('gjø;ıup) /'golupj/ goly∫ì, ('bF…t) /'b…t/ ∫vt, (å'bF™;tx≈) /a'betam/ o∫ e˚ r≥ becomes /i/: (jI'mju;, I-) /ji'mu/ emy, (jI'qF…;, I-) /ji'qi/ eµ$, (jIv'¬aqqx, Iv'¬aqqx, Iv'¬aq[q]) /jiv'ljaqqa/ rblrtìcr, (&~i[ã]iÀ'⁄™stvInnx, ~ii'⁄™svInx÷ -'⁄eÀ⁄v-) /nijis'tjestvinna/ neectectbenno. In general, /ijé/ = ç/ié/Ç (Ô § 8.2.5.1): (vi'⁄i;ãx, -'⁄i;x, -'⁄ix) /vi'tija/ b$t$r, ('FaRmiãx, -mix, -mIx) /'armija/ apm$r, (&pçiã¯'⁄iqqx, &pçi¯-) /priju'tiqqa/ πp$ùt$tìcr, (pçi'jÅ+~iãI, pçi'Å+~iI) /pri'jatniji/ πp$rtnee, (&q¢⁄i'j™;, -⁄i'™;) /q…ti'je/ µ$t$e, (&b¢⁄i'ju;, &b¢⁄i'u;) /'b…tiju/ ∫vt$ù˘ Besides, usually /0j’jé/ = /’0jé/ and /ii’0é/ = /i’0é/: (&piç-jI'vjøi, &piçI'vjøi) /pirjji'voi/ πepìebo=, (b¢'CãÅC-jI∆, -Å;CI∆) /b…'cacjix/ ∫vuauì$x, ('kFa=N-ju, 'kFa=~-ju, 'kFa=~u) /'kaznjju/ ka‘nìù, (¬u'bjøv-ju) /lju'bovjju/ lù∫obìù, (Svii'qFaÍ, Svi'-, SvI'-)

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/Svii'qar/ wbe=zap, (Áiist'vi;⁄i¬nx, ÁIst-÷ ÁiiÀ⁄-÷ ÁiÀ⁄-) /diist'vitiljna/ de=ctb$telìno. In the case of prepositions + /’jé/, we have /’`é/ too: (vjI'vjø 'djø;mI, v¢'vjø) /v-ji'vo 'domi/ b ego dome, (sjI'pjønqxmI, s¢'pjøn-) /s-ji'ponqami/ c rπonzam$; however, by now we frequently hear: (vI'vjø 'djø;mI, ÀI'pjønqxmI), and also: ('©ju;gu) /'kjugu/ k ùgy, instead of ('kju;gu). 8.3.1.14. In traditional pronunciation, /ò’i/ >$-≥ preceded in sentences by C (which is di‡erent from /c, S, 0j/ >u˚ ∑˚ tì…≥) becomes /…/ (less systematically so in the case of /k, g, x/, thus we also find (k, g, ∆) + (i, ’I)). However, in modern pronunciation /i/ remains unchanged, even without changing the C (¤, not (J)), but with /k, g, x/ (©, á, â) + (i, ’I)): (s'm™ âI'gjø;çI)m (À'm™ ∆…'gjø;ç‘, ∆i-)t /s'mjex i'gori/ cmex $ gope, ('©i;gxçu)m ('kF…-, 'kji;-)t /'kigarju/ k *gopù, ('dF… mI'Áøt)m (m…-)t /'d…m i'djot/ dvm $det, (å'tjiv¬i[ã]Ivx)m (a'tF…v-)t /a'tivlijiva/ ot *bl$eba, ('kjø tI'pjø;vxÍ)m (t…-)t /'kot i'povar/ kot $ πobap, (&jønIz'djøyb¢)m (&jøn…z-)t /on-iz'doxb…/ on $‘dox ∫v, (ÀI'vFa;nx≈)m (s…-)t /s-i'vanam/ c *banom, (©I'vFa;nu)m (k…-, ki-)t /k-i'vanu/ k *bany, (tå'vFa;çië ëI'vFan)m (-ë C…-)t /ta'variS Si'van/ tobap$∑ *ban. Traditionally, Italia, ¤ *tal$r˚ behaves in the same way, so much so that even for Alitalia (¤ Ali ç©ngsÇ + Italia]˚ we have: (-ı¢-, -ıI-)t rather than (-¬I-)m. Again in traditional pronunciation, even /ò’i/ >u˚ ∑˚ tì…≥), becomes /…/, although it often remains /i/. In modern pronunciation, instead, we have (I) /’i/ (and, above all in alternative pronunciation, (™) ç/’e/Ç), both in absolute initial position and when preceded by Cò: (å&tI¬I'vFa;txRx, &åt™¬I-)m (&åt¢¬i-, &åtI¬i-)t /at-ili'vatara/ ot e≥ /’iò/ (‘)t, >e, r, Ça≥ /i'/ (É', JÙ'J)t˚ >e≥ /’i[ò]/ (É)a, /’0iJ/ (Ù)a, >e≥ in unstressed syllables, and /i/ for (initial) >ò’eò≥, in traditional pronunciation we often find (‘ò)t even for /’…ò/ (in addition to /’iò/, most surprisingly, as we have seen at the end of § 8.3.2.1): ('ıjuCS¢)m (-‘)t /'lucS…/ lyuwe˚ ('∆ju;q¢)m (-‘)t /'xuq…/ xyµe˘ Here we may actually speak of possible neutralization between /’iò/ and /’…ò/, which was more typical in former times. For /’u/, alternative pronunciation may have (0û, 0È, 0‘÷ JÉ, JI, JÙJ, JiJ) (in û 8.3, (û) is indicated by a thin broken line and glossed in brackets): (&kûv‘Í'kFaqqx, &kÈ-, &k‘-)a (&kuv¢Í-)m /kuv…r'kaqqa/ kybvpkatìcr, (&sûmå'tjø;∆x, &sÈ-, &s‘-)a (&su-)m /suma'toxa/ cymatoxa, ('zFa;mûq‘≈, -mÈ-, -m‘-)a (-uq¢≈)m /'zamuq…m/ ‘amyµem, (kx&mÙ~i'©j™;, -mi-)a (-m¯~i-)m /kamjuni'kje/ kommùn$ke, (I'me;ãÙë&ëiiÀx, -[ã]i&-)a (-ã¯&-)m /i'mjejuSSiisja/ $meù∑$=cr, (ÀÉ'dFa;, ÀI-)a (À¯-)m /sju'da/ cùda˘ In traditional pronunciation, we can even find: (mid've;ÁÈmI)t (mId've;ÁimI)m /mid'vjedimi/ medbedrm$˚ (miÁ've;Á‘≈)t (mId've;Ái≈)m /mid'vjedim/ medbedem, ('vF…;~‘s)t (-Is)m /'v…nis/ bvnec÷ and, on the other hand, also: (Ài'vjø_~I)t (ÀI'vjød~x)m /si'vodnja/ cegodnr. 8.3.2.3. Adjectives ending in -k$=, -g$=, -x$=, in traditional pronunciation have /…i/ (¢i), but also (‘i) (usually rendered as ç/Èj/Ç, as if it were (xi) /’ai/ {while being slightly di‡erent, Ô û 8.1}), when they are preceded by (k, g, ∆), instead of the modern rendering as /ii/ (©ii, áii, âii) (according to spelling): (z'vjø~k¢i, -k‘i, -∫k-)t (-˚©ii, -8©ii)m /z'vonkii/ ‘bonk$=, (s'tRjø;g¢i, -g‘i)t (-áii)m /s'trogii/ ctpog$=, ('⁄i;∆¢i, -∆‘i)t (-âii)m /'tixii/ t$x$=˘ Nowadays, this traditional pronunciation sounds non-neutral, or lofty. Also verbs in -$batì behave in this way: (pa'mFaÓk¢vx⁄)t (på'mFaÓ©Ivx⁄)m /pa'malkivatj/ πomalk$batì, (na'⁄a;g¢vx⁄)t (nå'⁄Å;áIvx⁄)m /na'tjagivatj/ natrg$batì, (pa'mFa;∆¢vx⁄)t (på'mFa;âIvx⁄)m /pa'maxivatj/ πomax$batì˘ For unstressed endings with -V=, modern pronunciation has (ii) /ii/ -$=, (ii) /ii/ -e=, (¢i) /…i/ -v=, (xi) /ai/ -o=; the traditional one has ç/Èi/Ç (‘i) for -v=, and the alternative one has ç/ei/Ç (Ùi) for -e= (and, in general, also ç/Èi/Ç (‘i) -v=). ˛ese are often described as neutralization between the first two (and it is the same in modern pronunciation) or between the second two (but we have: (¢i)m/(‘i)a V (xi)): ('Ài;~ii) /'sinii/ c$n$=, ('ju;¬ii)m ('ju;¬Ùi)a /'ulii/ yle=, (t'Rjudn¢i)m (-n‘i)t /t'rudn…i/ tpydnv=, (t'Rjudnxi) /t'rudnai/ tpydno=˘ For pretonic wa, µa, za (even with >o≥), modern pronunciation has /0a'/ (0å'), whereas the traditional one had /0…'/ (0…') (which is now lofty): (Så'ái;)m (S…-)t /Sa'gi/

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wag$, (qå'RFa;)m (q…-)t /qa'ra/ µapa, (d&vxqqå'⁄i;)m (-qq…-)t /dvaqqa'ti/ dbadzat$˘ However, for certain words the traditional type of pronunciation is still frequent: µak™t˚ µacm¢n˚ µab™lì˚ ∫ewam™lì˚ dbådzatì˚ tp¢dzatì˚ lowad™=˘ In general, these sequences even have an alternative pronunciation with (‘', È') for /…'/; the same occurs in pretonic we, µe, ze as well (even with >o≥). But modern pronunciation has /…'/ = (¢'): (S¢p'tFa⁄) /S…p'tatj/ weπtatì˚ (q¢'nFa;) /q…'na/ µena˚ (q¢'nFa;) /q…'na/ zena. 8.3.2.4. Among the greatest di‡erences in comparison with orthography, in traditional pronunciation, we find unstressed verbal endings -rt, -r∑$=, which have /u/ (that however nowadays is rightly considered to be lofty or non-neutral) instead of /’a[0]ò, ’ià/ in modern pronunciation: ('∆jø;ÁUt)t ('∆jø;Áxt)m /'xodjat/ xodrt, (s'tRjø;ãTëëii)t (s'tRjø[;ã]iëëii)m /s'trojiSSii/ ctpor∑$=˘ Another non-neutral pronunciation, which is possible to hear (this time with the opposite timbre), concerns feminine nouns such as ('djøb-Ruãu÷ ≠-xãu) /'dobruju/ do∫pyù, ('Ài;~¯ãu÷ ≠-i[ã]u) /'sinjuju/ c$nùù˘ Traditional pronunciation can have (x) for (non-pretonic initial) /ò’a/ (å) and (å) for (final) /’aò/ (x): (&xdnå'vjø;)t (&åd-)m /adna'vo/ odnogo, ('pjøznå)t (-nx)m /'pozna/ πo‘dno˘ 8.3.2.5. Traditional pronunciation has (ëC)t (or, as we have already said, (ëC)t or (ëCë)t) for (òëë, éëëé, ëò)m /S[S]/, but in Moscow the latter –more agile– pronunciation has always prevailed: (ëCi'kFa;)t (ëëI-)m /SSi'ka/ ∑eka, (ta'vFa;çiëC)t (tå'vFa;çië[ë])m /ta'variS[S]/ tobap$∑˘ Contrary to the most frequent transliteration type (∞£), the grapheme >∑≥ might seem to suggest a closer articulatory relation with >w≥ (S) /S/; and indeed a constrictive pronunciation is decidedly more recommendable: (ë'ëãÅÀ⁄jI) /S'Sastjji/ cuactìe, (&piçi'piëëIk) /piri'piSSik/ πepeπ$cu$k (the -u$k su‚x is not interpreted as a separation element). However, in modern pronunciation also (ëC) /Sc/ is normal, when a clear morphemic boundary –which is shown in writing too– is present, with >cu˚ ‘u˚ wu˚ µu˚ ctu˚ ‘du≥, never >∑≥: (ë'Cã™≈) /S'cem/ c uem, (&IëCI'vjø;) /iSci'vo/ $‘ uego˘ /SS/ or /Sc/ occurs in: (vIs'njuëëIt¢i, -ëC-) /vis'nuSSit…i, -Sc-/ becnywuatv=, (bå'RjøëëIt¢i, -ëC-) /ba'roSSit…i, -Sc-/ ∫opo‘duatv=. But, between a lexeme and a su‚x, we generally find (ëë) /SS/: (Iz'vjøëëIk) /iz'voSSik/ $‘bo‘u$k, (&piçi'beëëIk) /piri'beSSIk/ πepe∫eµu$k, ('qjøëëI) /'qoSSi/ µectue˘ Between a prefix and a lexeme, (ëC) /Sc/ is most frequent: (bië&CIıå'veCn¢i) /biScila'vjecn…i/ ∫ecuelobeunv=, (&IëCIÍ'⁄i⁄) /iScir'titj/ $cuept$tì, (&RxëCI'∆aqqx) /raSci'xaqqa/ pacu$xatìcr. In most commonly used words and when a prefix is no longer thought of as something separated, we usually find (ëë) /SS/: (Rxë'ëãøskx) /raS'Soska/ pacuecka, (ë'ëÅÀ⁄jI) /S'Sastjji/ cuactìe, (ë'ëãøt) /S'Sot/ cuet, (Ië'ëã™s) /iS'Ses/ $cue‘˘ ≈nally, the phoneme /ZZ/ (òò) (which occurs in few words and only within lexemes) is more typical of traditional than modern pronunciation: (ò'òãøt)t (q'qjøt)m /q'qot/ µµet, ('jeòòU)t ('j™qqu)m /'jeqqu/ e‘µy, (&U[ã]iò'òãÄ⁄)t (&u[ã]Iq'qFa⁄)m /ujiq'qatj/ ye‘µatì, ('pjøòòI)t ('pjøqq¢)m /'poqq…/ πo‘µe÷ for derivative forms of ('djøëC)t ('djøë, 'djøS⁄)m /'doS, 'doStj/ doµdì˚ we have: ('djøòòIk)t ('doZZik/ ('djøqÁIk)m

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/'doqdik/, doµd$k, (daò'òi;)t /daZ'Zi/ (dåq'Ái;)m /daq'di/ doµd$, (daò'òãø≈)t /daZ'Zom/ (dåq'Áø≈)m /daq'djom/ doµdem˘ 8.3.2.6. As we have seen, in (even modern) Russian, by voicing assimilation, we have (a voiced semi-constrictive) (y) for /x/: (&jønIz'djøyb¢)m (&jøn…z-)t /oniz'doxb…/ on $‘dox ∫v. In a few words belonging to a particular area, traditional pronunciation has: ('bjø;yx)t ('bjø;gx)m /'boga/ Êoga, (yas'pjø⁄)t (gås'pjø⁄)m /gas'potj/ gocπodì, (buz'yFa1⁄IÍ)t (buz'gFa1⁄IÍ)m /bjuz'galjtir/ ∫ùctgalìtep (besides, /gi/ (JI)t, with a true constrictive): (a'bjø;JI)t (å'bjø;áI)m /a'bogi/ o Êoge). ˛e same occurs for the following forms, which still remain the same even in modern pronunciation: ('bjø∆)t (-∆, -k)m /'box, -k/ Êog, ('yjøspxÁI)t (y-, g-)m /'gospadi/ Gocπod$!÷ however, it is thought that before long, (y) for /g/ will eventually disappear completely (followed by /ZZ/ = /qq, qd/, as we have seen). For the preposition k˚ followed by g-˚ we have: (y'gjø;RxdU)t (g'gjøRxdu)m /g'goradu/ k gopody. Lastly, also in modern Russian we find (H, y) for the ç/h/Ç phonostyleme in exclamations and onomatopoeic words: (å'HFa;, å'yFa;) ç/a'ha/Ç aga! In traditional pronunciation /k, g/ are (∆, y) before stops: (tay'dFa;)t (tåg'dFa;)m /tag'da/ togda, (∆'tjø;)t (k'tjø;)m /k'to/ kto, (∆ka'mju;)t (kkå-)m /kka'mu/ k komy˘ For -g˚ before the ending -k$=˚ and derivatives, we have (©, k÷ â, ∆): ('mÅ©©ii)m, ('mÄ∆k¢i)t /'mjakkii, ±-xk…i/ mrgk$=, ('makkxmu)m, ('ma∆kxmU)t /'mjakkamu, ±-xk-/ mrgkomy, ('¬økk¢i)m, (±-∆k-)t /'ljokk…i, ±-xk-/ legkv=, ('makCI)m, (±-∆CI)t /'mjakci, ±-xci/ mrgue, ('¬P©©ii)m, (±'¬ø∆k¢i)t /'ljokkii, ±-xk…i/ legk$=, ('¬™kCI)m (±'¬™∆CI)t /'ljekci, ±-xci/ legue. But (k) will prevail, even though it is often still considered to be a non-neutral pronunciation. In fact, for instance, trgua=w$= is already (⁄Ik'CãÅiS¢i, ≠⁄I∆-) /tik'caiS…i/, and otrgu$tì is (&å⁄Ik'Ci⁄, ≠-∆'C-) /atik'citj/. In gt, kk sequences we have: ('kjøk⁄I)m (-∆⁄I)t /'kokti/ kogt$, ('njøk⁄I)m (-∆⁄I)t /'nokti/ nogt$, ('Áøk⁄x)m (-∆⁄x)t /'djoktja/ degtr˘ ˛e pronoun uto is always (S'tjø;) /S'to/, as its compounds are, except neuto ('~eCtx) /'njecta/; whereas n$uto can have two pronunciations: (~IS'tjø;÷ ~iC'tjø;) /niS'to÷ nic'to/. In addition, >u≥ stands for /S/ in feminine patronymic names: ('v™;Rx IL'ji;~ISnx) /'vjera ilj'jiniSna/ Bepa *lì$n$una, and in: (kå'~™Snx) /ka'njeSna/ koneuno, (nå'RjøSnx) /na'roSnx/ napouno, (s'kjuSn¢i) /s'kuSn…i/ ckyunv=, (ji'[ã]iS~Iqx) /ji'jiSniqa/ r$un$za˘ ˛e graphemic sequence un used to be /Sn/, in the traditional pronunciation of common words. In modern pronunciation, we have /cn/, even though for some words both pronunciations are used. However, in general, we find: ('bju;ıxCnxãx)m (-Sn-)t /'bulacnaja/ ∫ylounar, ('lFa;vxC~Ik)m (-S~-)t /'lavacnik/ laboun$k, (må'ıjøCn¢i)m (ma'ıjøSn‘i)t /ma'locn…i/ molounv=˘ 8.3.2.7. In traditional pronunciation, the C's that precede Ç (¤ palatal or palatalized C] are more consistently palatalized than in modern pronunciation: (za⁄'me;~i[ã]I)t (zåt-)m /zat'mjeniji/ ‘atmen$e, (s'kjøÌp)t (s'kjøÍp)m /s'korpj/ ckop∫ì, ('CãeÌ⁄I)t ('Cã™Í⁄I)m /'certi/ uept$. More: ('Áeƒ©I)t ('Á™å©I)m /'djefki/ debk$, (Á'veÌ)t (d'v-)m /d'vjerj/ dbepì, (⁄'min)t (t'min)m /t'min/ tm$n, (Á'mit-çii)t (d'm-)m /d'mitrii/ Dm$tp$=, (À'm™;-

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nx)t (s'm™-)m /s'mjena/ cmena, (À'meÌ⁄)t (s'm™Í⁄)m /s'mjertj/ cmeptì, (Àpi'nFa;)t (s'pI-)m /spin'a/ cπ$na, (À'f™;Rx)t (s'f™-)m /s'fjera/ cfepa, (À'v™t)t (s'v™t)m /s'vjet/ cbet, (©'~i;gx)t (k'~i-)m /k'niga/ kn$ga, (pçI&sxq…a'¬i=mI)t (-¢å'¬izmI)m /prisaq…a'lizmi/ πp$ coz$al$‘me. A pronunciation with a generalized palatalization, although quite widespread, is not at all neutral: (&kxmu'~iz≈, -;zõ, -mm-÷ ≠-=))t (&kxmu-)m /kamu'nizjm, -mm-/ kommyn$‘m˘ Not even in traditional pronunciation is /l/ palatalized by assimilation: ('mjøıvI) /'molvji/ molbe, nor by gemination: (&pjøı'¬it-Rx) /“pol'litra/ πol-l$tpa˘ Traditional palatalization is more tenacious within words than at the beginning: (&nxÀvi'~Ä;Ci⁄)t (&nxsvi'~Å;Ci⁄)m /nasvi'njacitj/ nacb$nru$tì, (ÀviN'ja;, sv-)t (sviN'ja;)m /svinj'ja/ cb$nìr˘ In addition, palatalization due to assimilation is normal, even in modern pronunciation, for homorganic phonemes (except for /l, r/), although a pronunciation without palatalization is spreading. In fact, it further shows that a phonemic approach like the one adopted here is more useful: ('SF™À⁄, -s⁄) /'Sestj/ wectì, (kåÀ'~e⁄, -s'~-) /kas'njetj/ kocnetì, (À'⁄ep, s'⁄-) /s'tjepj/ cteπì, (='ÁeÀ, z'Á-) /z'djesj/ ‘decì, (ÀmiÀ'⁄i;, smis'⁄i;) /smis'ti/ cmect$˘ For heterorganic phonemes, indirect palatalization is no longer current: (Iz'b™;)m (i='b™;)t /iz'bje/ $‘∫e, (Råz'mÅ⁄)m (Ra='mÄ⁄)t /raz'mjatj/ pa‘mrtì, (s'm™∆)m (À'm™∆)t /s'mjex/ cmex˘ ‹en palatalization is required, spelling shows it too: (çi='b™;) /rizj'bje/ pe‘ì∫e, (vå='mi;) /vazj'mi/ bo‘ìm$, (⁄iÀ'm™;) /tisj'mje/ tecìme˘ 8.3.2.8. Please, note the di‡erences between modern and traditional pronunciation, as far as /rJ/ is concerned: ('⁄™RmIn)m ('⁄eçmIn)t /'tjermin/ tepm$n, (⁄IÍ'pit)m (⁄iÌ-)t /tir'pit/ tepπ$t, ('À™Rbi[ã]x)m ('Àeçb-)t /'sjerbija/ Cep∫$r, ('v™Íf)m ('veÌf)t /'vjerfj/ bepfì, ('Cã™RvI)m (-çvI)t /'cervi/ uepb$, ('⁄™R~i[ã]I)m ('⁄eç~-)t /'tjerniji/ tepn$e, ('qF™Í⁄)m (-Ì⁄)t /'qertj/ µepdì, (u'À™RÁi[ã]I)m (-eçÁi[ã]‘, -[ã]È)t /u'sjerdiji/ ycepd$e, (À'⁄™R¬i⁄)m (-eç¬-)t /s'tjerlitj/ cteplrdì, ('v™ÍÀi[ã]x)m ('veÌÀ-)t /'vjersija/ bepc$r, (À'v™R=IÓÀx)m (À'veç=IÓsx)t /s'vjerzilsa/ cbep‘$lcr, (kå'm™ÍCIs©ii)m (ka'meÌCiÀ©ii)t /ka'mjerciskii/ kommepueck$=˘ Even in traditional pronunciation, as in the modern one, we find (RJ) after ('0é) (with non-front V]\ ('pFaÍ⁄i[ã]x) /'partija/ πapt$r, ('jøRÁIÍ) /'ordir/ opdep, ('djuR~I) (-‘)t /'durni/ dypne, ('mFaR¬x) /'marlja/ maplr, ('kjuÍÀI) (-‘)t /'kursi/ kypce˘ ˛e same occurs after unstressed V (even if they are front ones): (vIÍ'⁄e⁄) /vir'tjetj/ beptetì, (ÀIR'vis) /sir'vis/ cepb$‘, (vIR'=i;ıx) /vir'zila/ bep‘$la, (=IR'~Ist¢i) /zir'nist…i/ ‘epn$ctv=˘ C + (ç) are not palatalized: (v'çe;mx) /v'rjemja/ bpemr˚ (f'ç™skx) /f'rjeska/ fpecka˚ (påÍ'tç™t) /par'trjet/ πoptpet˚ (∆ån'dçi⁄) /xan'dritj/ xandp$tì˚ (pçIz'çit) /priz'rit/ πpe‘p$t˘ For reflexive forms (in -cr˚ -cì]˚ traditional pronunciation has /s/ (not /sj/), except for final-stressed gerunds: (ba'jÄÀ)t (bå'jÅÀ)m /ba'jasj/ ∫orcì (against (&sxbi'RFa;ãxs)t (-bI-)m /sabi'rajas/ co∫$parcì]˘ On the contrary, in modern pronunciation reflexive verbs have /sj/ (À), except in the third person (in -tcr) and infinitives (in -tìcr): (~i'Àøqqx) /ni'sjotsa, -qqa/ necetcr, (kıå'djuqqx) /kla'dutsa, -qqa/ kladytcr, (u'Ciqqx) /u'citsa, -qqa/ yu$tìcr˘

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In particular, front-lingual C undergo çpalatalizationÇ by assimilation, in modern pronunciation too: ('mjøÀ⁄Ik) /'mostik/ moct$k, (¬iÀ'~ik) /lis'nik/ lecn$k, (u='ÁeCkx) /uz'djecka/ y‘deuka, (Rå'bjø+~Ik) /ra'botnik/ pa∫otn$k, (å_'~i;) /ad'ni/ odn$, ('bFa8ëIk) /'banSik/ ∫an∑$k. Before (¬), after (ı, R), or in prefixed words, or in word-initial position, both pronunciations occur (though çpalatalizationÇ is more traditional): (pIt'¬a;, pi+-, 'pe+-¬x)m (pÙ+-, 'pe+-)t /pit'lja, 'pjetlja/ πetlr, ('jøs¬Ik, -À¬-) /'oslik/ ocl$k, (tåÓs'⁄ak, -À'⁄-)m (taÓÀ'⁄-)t /tals'tjak/ tolctrk, ('møRz~It, -=~-) /'mjorznit/ mep‘net, (s⁄I'nFa;, À⁄-)m (À⁄É-)t /sti'na/ ctena, (z'ÁeÀ, ='Á-) /z'djes/ ‘decì, (s'~™k, À'~-) /s'njek/ cneg, (&Rxs⁄I'RFa⁄, -À⁄I-)m (-À⁄i-)t /rasti'ratj/ pact$patì, (påd'~øs, -_'~-)m (pa_'~-)t /pad'njos/ πodnec. 8.3.2.9. ˛e pronouns $x˚ $m˚ $m$ are more regularly /ix, im, 'imi/ ('i∆, i∆, I∆÷ 'i≈, i≈, I≈÷ 'i;mI, &imI, &ImI), whereas traditionally they had an exceptional pronunciation (for >ò$≥) with /ji/, by analogy with ego /ji'vo/, emy /ji'mu/ (but today this is lofty, or non-neutral). A stronghold of traditional pronunciation had >Cò$≥ as /0ò…/: (v…'tFa;¬i[ã]U)t /v…'taliju/ b *tal$ù, ('kF…;çI)t /'k…ri/ k *pe, by distinguishing them from (vi'tFa;¬i[ã]U)t /vi'taliju/ B$tal$ù, ('©i;çI)t /'kiri/ K$pe˘ However, native speakers spontaneously make things natural, by eliminating artifices, thus today a çpalatalizedÇ pronunciation prevails in both pairs of examples, without doubt because of orthography too. ˛is is a further demonstration that Russian actually has six vowel phonemes, indicated in spelling (with the only problem of unstressed-syllable reductions and historical changes). Purists (of course!) still consider this spontaneous pronunciation non-neutral, but they will have to change their minds sooner or later. As a matter of fact, a well-balanced position gives: /'kiri, ±'k…ri/ (where ± indicates a kind of çintentionalÇ pronunciation – used because çit should be usedÇ). 8.3.2.10. O‚cial Russian orthography maintains quite a few letters which do not correspond (any longer) to actual sounds. ˛e most common case is that of >t, d≥ between other C\ ('m™sn¢i) /'mjesn…i/ mectnv=, (u'Cãas~Ik) /u'casnik/ yuactn$k, (S¢s'sjøt) /S…s'sot/ wectìcot, (tu'çiss©ii, -sq©ii) /tu'risskii, -sqkii/ typ$ctck$=, (kçIs'qFa;) /kris'qa/ kpectza, (&pxdus'qF…;) /padus'q…/ πod y‘dzv, (gå'ıFanq¢) /ga'lanq…/ gollandzv, ('À™Íq¢) /'sjerq…/ cepdze, (ÀIÍ'CiSkx) /sir'ciSka/ cepdu$wko, ('pjøznx) /'pozna/ πo‘dno, (p'RFaz~Ik) /p'raznik/ πpa‘dn$k, (ëëIs'¬iåCIk, ëëiÀ-) /SSis'lifcik/ cuactl$bu$k, ('sjø;vIs¬Iv¢i, -viÀ-) /'sovisliv…i/ cobectl$bv=, (áI'gFans©ii÷ -nqs-) /gi'ganskii/ g$gantck$=, (gå'ıFans©ii÷ -nq©ii) /ga'lanskii/ gollandck$=, (gå'ıFa~kx, -∫kx) /ga'lanka/ gollandka, (Såt'ıFa~kx, -∫kx) /Sat'lanka/ wotlandka. Nowadays, indeed, in certain words the graphic C can be restored: ('b™z[d]nx) /'bjez[d]na/ ∫e‘dna, (z'vøz[d]n¢i) /z'vjoz[d]n…i/ ‘be‘dnv=, (kås[t]'¬a;v¢i, -À[+]'¬-) /kas[t]'ljav…i/ koctlrbv=, (pås[t]'ıFa⁄) /pas[t]'latj/ πoctlatì, (Iz'vøs[t]kx) /iz'vjos[t]ka/ $‘bectka, (mås[t]'©i;) /mas[t]'ki/ moctk$, (på'j™s[t]kx) /pa'jes[t]ka/ πoe‘dka, ('qjøs[t]©ii) /'qos[t]kii/ µectk$=. Other words show correspondence between writing and pronunciation: (stu'Á™ntkx) /stu'djentka/ ctydentka, (å&fIq¢'antkx) /afiq…'antka/ of$z$antka.

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Some other particular cases: ('sjønq¢) /'sonq…/ colnze, ('Cãustvx) /'custva/ uybctbo, ('tF…;ÀiCx, 'tF…ëëx) /'t…sica/ tvcrua, (Ài'Cãas, ë'ëãas, ëas) /si'cas/ ce=uac (in the sense of çnow, at onceÇ), (på'qFa;ıustx, -a;ı¢stx, -aÓstx, b'q-) /pa'qalusta, -l[…]sta/ πoµaly=cta, (z'dRFastvui⁄I, -astui-, -asÀ⁄I, -aÀ⁄, z&dRaÀ⁄, zaÀ) /z'drastvuiti/ ‘dpabctby=te. As a useful reminder, and as a drill (thus in the examples we only mark stress, through accents), we can say that >t≥ = (`) in the graphic sequences >ctd˚ ctìd˚ ctl˚ ctn˚ ctc˚ ctck≥ (the last one is /sk/): wectìdec®tì˚ neb™ctka˚ cuactl¢bv=˚ wectnådzatì˚ $‘b™ctnv=˚ wectìcøt /S…s'sot/, typ¢ctck$=; >d≥ = (`) in >‘dk˚ ‘dn≥\ πo™‘dka˚ πpå‘dn$k˚ πø‘dno˘ Besides, the sequences >tc˚ dc≥ correspond to /q/, in the pronominal endings -t(ì)cr: (smi'jøqqx) /smi'joqqa/ cmeetcr, (smi'jaqqx) /smi'jaqqa/ cmertìcr, and when >t˚ d≥ are followed by the endings -ck$=˚ -ctbo˚ -ctb$e\ ('Á™q©ii) /'djeqkii/ detck$=, (åt'sjuqtvi[ã]I) /at'suqtviji/ otcytctb$e, (&pRå[ã]Iz'vjøqtvx) /prajiz'voqtva/ πpo$‘bodctbo, (À'¬™qtvi[ã]I, s'¬-) /s'ljeqtviji/ cledctb$e˘ Lastly, in the genitive endings -ogo, -ego, >g≥ corresponds to /v/: ('b™;ıxvx) /'bjelava/ ∫elogo, (jI'vjø;) /ji'vo/ ego˘ ˛us the oddity of (ÀI'vjø_~x) /si'vodnja/ cegodnr çtodayÇ (= çof this dayÇ) is only seeming. 8.3.2.11. Here we will present the di‡erences between modern and traditional pronunciation, in reference to poststress-syllable V˚ with /’…/ (‘) for /i/ (>e≥˚ generally described as ç/È/Ç, exactly like /’a/, of unstressed >a˚ o≥, greatly falsifying phonetic reality). ˛e –transcribed or retranscribed– examples are taken from Shapiro (1968). Nominative and accusative singular of neuter nouns, -e: ('pjø;¬I)m (-¬‘)t /'poli/ πole, ('mjø;çI)m (-ç‘)t /'mori/ mope, ('ve;CI)m (-C‘)t /'vjeci/ beue, (q¢'¬iëëI)m (-ëC‘)t /q…'liSSi/ µ$l$∑e, (z'dFa;~i[ã]I)m (-[ã]‘)t /z'daniji/ ‘dan$e. Genitive, dative, and locative singular of nouns and adjectives, -e-: ('Ài;~Ivx)m (-~‘-)t /'siniva/ c$nego, ('Ài;~Imu)m (-~‘-)t /'sinimu/ c$nemy, (å'Ài;~I≈)m (-~‘≈)t /f'sinim/ b c$nem. Nominative and accusative, singular and plural, of neuter adjectives and pronouns, -e: (z'ljø[;ã]I)m (-[ã]‘)t /z'loji/ ‘loe, (z'ıF…[;ã]I)m (-[ã]‘)t /z'l…ji/ ‘lve, (tå'kjø[;ã]I)m (ta'kjø[;ã]‘)t /ta'koji/ takoe, (tå'©i[;ã]I)m (ta'©i[;ã]‘)t /ta'kiji/ tak$e, (¬i'ba;qjI)m (-j‘)t /li'bjaqji/ le∫rµìe, ('vjøÓCjI)m (-j‘)t /'volcji/ boluìe. Collective numerals, -e\ (d'vjø[;ã]I)m (-[ã]‘)t /d'voji/ dboe, (t'Rjø[;ã]I)m (-[ã]‘)t /t'roji/ tpoe˘ Comparatives, -ee: (smi'¬e[;ã]I)m (Àmi'¬e;ã‘)t /smi'ljeji/ cmelee, (vIR'~e[;ã]I)m (viR'~e[;ã]‘)t /vir'njeji/ bepnee. Instrumental singular non-feminine and genitive plural, -em, -eb: (u'Ci;⁄i¬I≈)m (-‘≈)t /u'citilim/ yu$telem, ('pıFa;CI≈)m (-‘≈)t /'placim/ πlauem, (q¢'¬iëëI≈)m (q…'¬ië C‘≈)t /q…'liSSim/ µ$l$∑em, (b'RFa;⁄jIf)m (-‘f)t /b'ratjif/ ∫patìeb, ('SF…L-jIf)m (-‘f)t /'S…ljjif/ w$lìeb. Instrumental of plural nouns, -Çam$: ('kFap-¬imI)m (-¬‘mI)t /'kaplimi/ kaπlrm$, ('tju;CimI)m (-‘mI)t /'tucimi/ tyuam$, ('RjøëëimI)m (-ëë‘mI)t /'roSSimi/ po∑am$.

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Stress 8.3.3.1. As far as the actual stess force is concerned on the various syllables of words in Russian sentences, we have to make the situation clear since –on this aspect too– confused and misleading ideas freely circulate. As a matter of fact, the prominence of a certain syllable does not necessarily coincide with its stress(ing)˘ As is well-known, prominence (which makes a given syllable stand out from nearby ones) is not constituted by stress alone. Rather it is a complex play of stress force, length, pitch, and timbres of the various segments of the syllables. Now, in Russian, the vocoids in a pre-tonic syllable (¤ the one that immediately precedes the stressed –or tonic– syllable in a rhythm group, that is the çfirst pretonicÇ in Russian texts) are articulated in a fairly clear and distinct way, although slightly less so than in stressed syllables. ˛is fact is most evident for /a/, as a matter of fact we have for instance: (&gxıå'vFa;) /gala'va/ goloba˘ Nevertheless, we must not confuse a vowel timbre with the degree of stress, since for rhythmic reasons a secondary stress falls on the first syllable of a word, not on the second one. Each syllable has a peculiar prominence: (&gx) because of rhythmic stress (in spite of a decidedly more attenuated timbre – less peripheral in the vocogram); (ıå) because of its semi-attenuated timbre and a significantly di‡erent pitch from that of the tonic (syllable) which follows it, although not marked by a particular symbol (Ô û 8.4). Lastly, (çvFa;) is prominent because of primary stress, a full timbre, and a half-lengthening too (in unchecked syllable, in addition to the insertion of (F)). All too often, even in specific handbooks, we come across statements which claim that the pretonic syllable, (ıå), would have the second degree of stress, whereas all the others are weaker, above all those after the stress. However, in (s'tFa;Rxãx) /s'taraja/ ctapar˚ for the last two syllables, we have a timbre attenuation (as for (&gx)) and a stress weakening (as for (ıå)), which might make them seem one degree lower in comparison with the other two – but it is not so. ˛eir weakening –if any– is due to the fact that, generally, words given as examples are considered to occur in an intoneme (even if unintentionally), with a consequent reduction of articulatory and intonational intensity on posttonic syllables. 8.3.3.2. In Russian words, stress undergoes variations – even determined by grammar. In fact, the di‡erent paradigms (of nouns, adjectives, and verbs) are certainly di‚cult, especially for foreigners, who can laboriously find assistance in grammars and dictionaries. Here are some examples of distinctive stress (¤ phonemic minimal pairs): ('Rju;©I) /'ruki/ çhandsÇ and (Ru'©i;) /ru'ki/ çof the handÇ pyk$, ('Fat-ıxs) /'atlas/ çatlasÇ and (åt'ıFas) /at'las/ çsatinÇ atlac, ('mju;kx) /'muka/ çtormentÇ and (mu'kFa;) /mu'ka/ çflourÇ myka, ('pFa;çi⁄) /'paritj/ çto steamÇ and (på'çi⁄) /pa'ritj/ çto planeÇ πap$tì, ('pFa;çu) /'parju/ çI steamÇ and (på'çu;) /pa'rju/ çI planeÇ πapù. ˛e following are sub-minimal pairs (phonemically), but equally functional (linguistically): ('jøRgxn) /'organ/ çorganizationÇ and (åR'gFan) /ar'gan/ çorganÇ opgan, (s'vjøistvx) /s'voistva/ çcharacteristicÇ and (svåist'vjø;) /svaist'vo/ çpropertyÇ

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cbo=ctbo, ('zFa;mxk) /'zamak/ çcastleÇ and (zå'mjøk) /za'mok/ çlockÇ ‘amok, (k'Rjø;ãu) /k'roju/ çI coverÇ and (kRå'ju;) /kra'ju/ çI cut (a dress)Ç kpoù, ('pjø;tx≈) /'potam/ çsweat (instrumental case)Ç and (på'tjø≈) /pa'tom/ çthenÇ πotom, ('ju;q¢) /'uq…/ çnarrowerÇ and (u'qF™;) /u'qe/ çalreadyÇ yµe, ('∆aøs) /'xaos/ çconfusionÇ and (∆å'jøs÷ '∆aøs) /xa'os÷ 'xaos/ çchaosÇ xaoc, ('pFa∆nu⁄) /'paxnutj/ çto smellÇ and (på∆'nju⁄) /pax'nutj/ çto blowÇ πaxnytì. Let us now consider some cases where the stress variation is between neutral and çdialectalÇ or çslangyÇ pronunciation: (då'bF…;Cx) /da'b…ca/ and ('djø;b¢Cx)d /'dob…ca/ do∫vua, (&åb¬Ik'Ci⁄) /ablik'citj/ and (åb'¬™kCi⁄)d /ab'ljekcitj/ o∫legu$tì, (&mi¬i'm™t5, -;t”) /mili'mjetr/ and (mi'¬i;mIt5, -t”)d /mi'limitr/ m$ll$metp; or between neutral and çuneducatedÇ pronunciation: (kRå'Ài;vi[ã]I) /kra'siviji/ and (&kRxÀi've[;ã]I)p /krasi'vjeji/ kpac$bee, (zvå'~iS) /zva'niS/ and (z'vjø;~IS)p /z'voniS/ ‘bon$wì. Otherwise, the di‡erence may be of literary stylistic levels, such as a çfolkÇ one (used in traditional tales and stories): (&mxıå'Á™q) /mala'djeq/ and ('mjø;ıxÁIq)f /'moladiq/ molodez, (Ái'vi;qx) /di'viqa/ and ('Áe;vIqx)f /'djeviqa/ deb$za, (&ÀiçIb'Rjø;) /sirib'ro/ and ('Àe;çIb-Rx)f /'sjeribra/ cepe∫po, ('SjøÓkxv¢i) /'Solkav…i/ and (S¢Ó'kjø;v¢i)f /S…l'kov…i/ welkobv=, ('sFa;∆xRn¢i) /'saxarn…i/ and (så'∆FaRn¢i)f /sa'xarn…i/ caxapnv=, (&bxgå'tF…Ì) /baga't…rj/ and (bå'gFa;t¢Ì)f /ba'gat…rj/ ∫ogatvpì; or a çloftyÇ level: ('nFa;CIt¢i) /'nacit…i/ and (nå'Cãa;t¢i)a /na'cat…i/ nauatv=, ('izbRxnn¢i) /'izbrann…i/ and (Izb'RFann¢i)a /izb'rann…i/ $‘∫pannv=, ('¬¯;biëëii) /'ljubiSSii/ and (¬¯'bÅëëii)a /lju'bjaSSii/ lù∫r∑$=, (∆'vFa;¬iëëii) /x'valiSSii/ and (∆vå'¬Åëëii)a /xva'ljaSSii/ xbalr∑$=, (m¢S'¬e;~i[ã]I) /m…S'ljeniji/ and ('mF…S¬i~i[ã]I)a /'m…Sliniji/ mvwlen$e. Lastly, we also find cases of double neutral stress(ing): (t'vjø;Rxk, två'Rjøk) /t'vorak, tva'rok/ tbopog, (I'nFa;CI, 'i;nxcI) /i'naci, 'inaci/ $naue, ('jø;bu∆, å'bju∆) /'obux, a'bux/ o∫yx, (p'Rjø;bIÓ, pRå'biÓ) /p'robil, pra'bil/ πpo∫$l˘ By considering paradigm variation too, we can see: ('Áe;çIvx) /'djeriva/ depebo, (Ái'çev-jx) /di'rjevjja/ depebìr, (&ÁiçI'vFa;) /diri'va/ depeba÷ including less recommendable pronunciations (which appear after ç;Ç), or are marked as çwrongÇ in pronunciation dictionaries (here marked with ç≠Ç only in phonetic transcriptions): ('jøddxÓ, åd'dFaÓ) /'oddal, ad'dal/ otdal, (&åddå'ıFa;, ≠'jøddxıx, ≠åd'dFa;ıx) /adda'la/ otdala, ('jøddxıx, åd'dFa;ıx÷ &åddå'ıjø;) /'oddala, ad'dala/ otdalo, ('jøddx¬I, åd'dFa;¬I) /'oddali, ad'dali/ otdal$˘ 8.3.3.3. In compounds, every element (before the last one, which firmly maintains its primary stress, /'/ (')) tends to keep a certain degree of stress, which we will mark with /“/ (“) (or (&), if in contact with ('), corresponding to a possible rhythmic stress). Even the vocalic timbre is firmly maintained, with no neutralizations, which are typical of unstressed syllables): (&sxmå“¬øtxstRå'je;~i[ã]I) /sama“ljotastra'jeniji/ camoletoctpoen$e, (kåÍ“tjøfi¬ikå'pFaÓkx) /kar“tofilika'palka/ kaptofelekoπalka, (“bjøÍtpRxvå_'~ik) /“bortpravad'nik/ ∫optπpobodn$k, (s“pjøÍtkRu'qjøk) /s“portkru'qok/ cπoptkpyµok, (å“F™Rx“fjøtåÀ'~i;mxk) /a“era“fotas'nimak/ a<pofotocn$mok, (I“¬™ktRx“pFaRxpx&dxgçI'vFa;⁄i1) /i“ljektra“parapadagri'vatil/ to mo= lù∫$mv= komπo‘$top. /?/: (¿çvF…; jI&vjø•vi;Ái¬I2 2) /¿'v… jivo'vidili?/ Bv ego b$del$?, (¿&F™tx¬I•kkjø;2 2, -∆•k-) /¿etalik'ko?, -x'ko?/ >to legko? /÷/: (çjeÀ¬I &jø~~Iåtçve;⁄It2 2 &janxpI'Sju; jI&vjøåqçqju;3 3) /'jesli on-niat'vjetit÷ ja-napi'Su jivoaq'qu/ Ecl$ on ne otbet$t, r naπ$wy ego otzy. çElliptic questionsÇ (¤ those without a verb) have the pattern /¿ ÷/: (¿aIgçzFa;mIn¢2 2) /¿aig'zamin…÷/ A A;s 'v™TÈ >i'™mjå32 È5nI;i zÈmi'™ts¤li2 zÈ5kh¯uTÈnÈvÈÑ 'phlA;S2 'ph¯uTn¤kå3 3 ì¤5D¯uSc¤vÈ pÈDÈ'>‘¨gi2œ ¤pÈ>¤'S‘;li32| 'ST‘;¨2 5Th‘¨T ¤z'n¤x 'b¯udz¤T2 S¤5ThA;tsÈ 'sA;mÈm 's¤ıniÈm32| &khûm¨'>A;nSÈ2 ¨'DA;stså2\ zes5ThA;v¤ts 'ph¯uTn¤kå32| 5snA;ts 'phlA;S3 3|| 5Th¯uT si'™v¤ÈnIi2 &ph>Iin¤ı5sA: 'D¯uts2| &¤zÈfsi5™x 'si;¤ı3 3|| ì&n‘¨5ch™m s¤ı'n™;I ‘¨n'D¯;uı32œ tsi5™m s¤ıni'™;I2 5kh¯uTÈısÈ 'ph¯uTn¤k2 fÈsvøÙ'phlA;S3 3|| &Thåk'ST‘;¨2\ ìfkûn'ts™;I kûn'tsØf32œ| si5™v¤ÈnIi vi'™c¤È32\ 'Dø;ıZÈmb®2| &åtsvÈ5j™;I zÈ'DA;ci2 &åTkû'zA;tså3 3|| Thûg5DA:

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zÈsi'A;lÈ 'sø;ınÈSkå32| 'ph¯uTn¤k2 ì&pÈn¤m'n‘¨g¯u2œ &åTûg>i'™ısiå32| ¤f5skø;>i sni'A;ı snøÙ'phlA;S3 3|| Thû5khI;im '‘¨b>ÈzÈm32\ si5™v¤ÈnIi vi'™c¤È2 'v‘;n¯uZ[d]z¤m&b¤ı2 p>¤z'nA;ts32 ST‘¨'sø;ntså3 3 &s¤ıni'™;I3 3 ìIi'v‘;¨3 3œ|| ¿&ts¤bi5™;I pÈn'>A;v¤lÈS21 ¿'skA;skå2| ¿&phåftÈ'>Iitsi&‘¨21|||)

9. Arabic 9.0.1. In this chapter, we will deal with the çneutral modernÇ pronunciation of Arabic, corresponding to the çsupraregionalÇ language used in o‚cial radio and television broadcastings, free from local characteristics (which are typical of every-day life in each of the Arabic countries). In fact, as for the other languages treated in this handbook, this is the most suitable form for general teaching and learning purposes. It constitutes the basis for local varieties too (which are more or less important from a numerical and socio-cultural point of view), with some simplifications, modifications and additions. On the other hand, of course, if substantial contact in particular areas is forseen, it is advisable to take on some local lexical, semantic, and morphosyntactic characteristics, as well as the phonic ones (which mainly regard some phonemes). Our transliteration diverges from the more traditional ones used by Arabists (which are far from being homogeneous, however), especially as far as long vowels and diphthongs are concerned: ii˚ aa˚ uu (not as i˚ a˚ u)˚ ai˚ au (but ay˚ aw only when final, or followed by y˚ w÷ therefore, they are not always ay˚ aw). Furthermore, we use ∞˚ ≠˚ É˚ Æ˚ ‚ (for /S÷ †, ∑÷ X, º/, not digraphs: sh˚ th˚ dh˚ kh˚ gh {not even í˚ î˚ for the last two}) and ∆˚ ` (instead of –˚ j˚ for /h, Z/), while keeping =˚ ƒ˚ «˚ „ (for /t, d, †, Ã/)˚ and q˚ '˚ ‘ as well (for /›, ö, H/). Vowels 9.1.1. Neutral Arabic has three short and three long vowels, with some remarkable taxophones, due to the influence of certain consonants and of syllable structure. ˛ere are more variations for /a[:]/ and less for /u[:]/, while /i[:]/ is in an intermediate position. ˛ere are two çdiphthongsÇ as well, /ai, au/, which are best considered as sequences of /a/ + /i, u/, since their neutral realization is obtained precisely by juxtaposing the two elements, which are subject to the influence of consonants and syllable structure. ˛e influence of the local ways of speaking is very strong, even if unintentional, in teaching recordings as well, especially for /ai, au/, but also for the basic V˘ However, the information we will give in this chapter represents the neutral pronunciation, which does not necessarily correspond to everything one may hear even from good native speakers. Nevertheless, the reader who follows exactly what is indicated certainly achieves the çneutralÇ pronunciation (not a regional one), even if –for V– this usage is quite close to that of Levantine Arabic (Ô § 19.2 of NPT/HPh], in particular for /ai, au/, seen that elsewhere they are generally realized as monophthongs ((e:, o:) or, at most, as narrow diphthongs, (™I, øU)); consider also Gulf Arabic and Egyptian Arabic (§ 19.1 “ § 18.25 in NPT/HPh]˚ while

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Maghreb Arabic is di‡erent still (Ô Moroccan Arabic, § 18.2 in NPT/HPh]˘ ˛ese four di‡erent variants of Arabic are not simply çaccentsÇ of the same language, but four partially di‡erent çdialectsÇ, which normally a‡ect the language itself. However, here we will consider only çsupranationalÇ (or çinternationalÇ) Arabic pronunciation (although a few major di‡erences will be dealt with as well). 9.1.2. Always bearing in mind that the unmarked value of /i{:}, a{:}, u{:}/ is (i{:}, Ä{:}, u{:}) (shown by the black markers in the vocogram of û 9.1), we should note well –and constantly recognize– the list of the Arabic realizations, which have the following distributions (besides, /é:/ in unstressed syllables = (é)): /i/

/i:/

1.1 (¢), in contact with /t, d, †, Ã, ›/, 1.2 (I), in contact with /h, H, X, º/, 1.3 (I), in checked syllables (with di‡erent C than in 1.1), 1.4 (i), in unchecked syllables (except if 1.1-2); 1.5 (in /ai/) as /i/, for 1.1-4; 1.6 (¢:), between /t, d, †, Ã, ›/ (in checked or unchecked syllables), 1.7 (I:), in contact with /t, d, †, Ã, ›/ (in checked or unchecked syllables), 1.8 (i:), in all other cases (in checked or unchecked syllables);

/a{:}/ 2.1 (å[:]), between /t, d, †, Ã, ›/, 2.2 (A[:]), in contact with /t, d, †, Ã, ›/ (and (ı)), 2.3 (a[:]), in contact with /h, H, X, º, r/, 2.4 (a[:]), utterance-final unstressed (except 2.2), 2.5 (Ä[:]), in contact with other C (also /ö, h/), 2.6 (Ä[:]), utterance-internal word-final unstressed –even in monosyllables– (except 2.1-3), 2.7 (Ä) /a[h]/, for -a-h (taa' marbuu=a) in pausal position (with no influence as in 2.2-4), 2.8 (in /ai, au/) as /a/, for 2.2-3 “ 2.5; /u/

3.1 (U), between (or in contact with) /t, d, †, Ã, ›, h, H/, 3.2 (U), in checked syllables, 3.3 (u), in unchecked syllables (except 3.1), 3.4 (in /au/) as /u/, for 3.1-3; /u:/ 3.5 (U:), in checked syllables with /t, d, †, Ã, ›, h, H/, 3.6 (u:), in all other cases.

û 9.1. Arabic vowel elements. /i/ (i, I, ¢) /i:/ (i:, I:, ¢:)

/a/ (Ä, a, A, å)

/u/ (u, U) /u:/ (u:, U:)

/a:/ (Ä:, a:, A:, å:)

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9.1.3. According to the distributions just seen, û 9.1 shows the realizations of the Arabic –short and long– vowels, (i[:], I[:], ¢[:]) /i[:]/, (Ä[:], a[:], A[:], å[:]) {and (Ø[:]), çKoranicÇ variant, Ô û 9.2) /a[:]/, (u[:], U[:]) /u[:]/. Here are some examples: ('›¢f) /'›if/ qif˚ (›¢'›A:n) /›i:'›a:n/ qiiqaan˚ ('†I:ni) /'†i:ni:/ «iinii˚ (†A'dI:›) /†a'di:›/ «adiiq˚ ('bInt) /'bint/ bint˚ ('fi:l) /'fi:l/ fiil÷ (†å'›IH÷ †Ø-) /†a'›iH/ «aqi‘˚ ('†Af:) /'†aff/ «a‡˚ ('tA:h) /'ta:h/ =aa∆a˚ ('baHda) /'baHda/ ba‘da˚ ('5a:HIn) /'ra:hin/ raahin˚ ('HÄ:∑a) /'ha:∑a:/ haaÉaa˚ ('wÄlÄd) /'walad/ walad˚ ('bÄ:b) /'ba:b/ baab÷ ('†U:›) /'†u:›/ «uuq˚ ('Huna) /'huna:/ hunaa˚ ('†u:f) /'†u:f/ «uuf˚ (ºU'†u:m) /Xu'†u:m/ Æu«uum˚ ('fUndU›) /'fundu›/ funduq˘ û 9.1 does not show the di‡erent realizations of /ai, au/, which result from the combination (Ä-, a-, A-) + (-i, -I, -¢) or + (-u, -U), according to context: ('bÄIt) /'bait/ bait˚ ('öÄina) /'öaina/ aina˚ ('Haini) /'Haini:/ ‘ainii˚ ('›AIl) /'›ail/ qail˚ ('fÄUz) /'fauz/ fauz˚ ('lÄUn) /'laun/ laun˚ ('HaUdÄ) /'Hauda[h]/ ‘auda-h˚ (mU'›AuwÄm, -AwwÄm) /mu'›awwam/ muqawwam˚ (öÄu'lÄ:d) /öau'la:d/ aulaad˘ û 9.2. Some Arabic vowel variants.

/ai/ (e:, ™I) frequent çcolloquialÇ variants

/au/ (o:, øU) frequent çcolloquialÇ variants

/a[:]/ (Ø[:]) (between (t, d, †, Ã, ›), in the çKoranicÇ kind of pronunciation)

9.1.4. û 9.2 shows some frequent realizations of /ai, au/: (e:, ™I÷ o:, øU), which are very widespread outside neutral and Levantine Arabic. However, one's pronunciation may still be considered neutral, although çcolloquialÇ, even if it uses such variants, provided all other articulations are appropriate; in fact, this pronunciation is quite common indeed: ('be:t, 'b™It) /'bait/ bait˚ ('öe:na, 'ö™I-) /'öaina/ aina˚ ('He:ni, 'H™I-) /'Haini:/ ‘ainii˚ ('›e:l, '›™Il) /'›ail/ qail˚ ('fo:z, 'føUz) /'fauz/ fauz˚ ('lo:n, 'løUn) /'laun/ laun˘ û 9.3. Colloquial variants and neutralizations.

/’i/ (Ù), /’a/ (‘), /’U/ (P) frequent çcolloquialÇ variants

{/’i, ’a, ’u/ (È) ç/È/Ç possible çcolloquialÇ neutralization)

û 9.3 shows further vocalic articulations, all of which are in the intermediate realizational area (typically unused in neutral pronunciation, as can be seen in û 9.1), as happens for the variants of /ai, au/ as well. ˛e white markers indicate unstressed realizations of /i, a, u/, (Ù, ‘, P), which are considerably centralized. ˛e

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broken-line white marker, in turn, indicates the realization of a frequent neutralization of unstressed /i, a, u/ (unified into (È)), which is more typical of quick and familiar speech (here given as a third realization): (si'jÄ:Z, sÙ-, sÈ-) /si'ja:Z/ siyaa`˚ (tIm'†Ä:l, tÙm-, tÈm-) /tim'†a:l/ tim≠aal˚ (sÄ'lÄ:ma, s‘-, sÈ-) /sa'la:ma/ salaama˚ (sÄH'wÄ:n, s‘H-, sÈH-) /sah'wa:n/ sahwaan˚ (su'Hu:la, sP-, sÈ-) /su'hu:la/ suhuula˚ (mUS'tA›:, mPS-, mÈS-) /muS'ta››/ mu∞taqq˘ Another feature –frequent in some colloquial pronunciations– tends to avoid realizations like (Ä[:]) in whole (even long) words, if they have /t, d, †, Ã, ›, h, H, X, º, r/: ('mÄH-Rab, 'maH-) /'mahrab/ mahrab˚ ('tAlÄb, -lab) /'talab/ =alab˚ ('tÄmdI, 'tam-) /'tamdi:/ tamƒii˚ (mÄn'†u:b, man-) /man'†u:b/ man«uub˘ ≈nally, û 9.2 also shows the rounded realization of /a[:]/ between /t, d, †, Ã, ›/, which is more typical of çKoranicÇ pronunciation, as already said. Scattered examples of it can be found here and there, and in § 9.1.3. 9.1.5. Actually, not every single realization given in û 9.2-3 is necessary for a good neutral pronunciation of Arabic. Nevertheless, if they are rationed and used in a natural way (speaking fluently), they help to give greater çspontaneityÇ, similar to natives' speech again within a kind of colloquial neutral pronunciation. ˛is will depend on words themselves – for instance, (Ø[:]) is more likely to occur in çloftyÇ words. Furthermore, still within the neutral accent (but slightly more çinternationalÇ), there is another possibility taking a di‡erent approach, ¤ towards a reduction in the number of vowel taxophones, as regards the realizations of /a[:]/. In fact, they may reduce to two articulations, in stressed or unstressed syllables: (Ä[:]), for 2.37, and (A[:]), for 2.1-3; thus with a slight overlapping for 2.3, variably resolved by single speakers. ˛e vocalic realizations belonging to this kind of çinternationalÇ pronunciation are shown in û 9.4. ˛is çclearerÇ pronunciation generally uses: (i[:], ¤[:]÷ Ä[:], A[:]÷ U[:]) (it may also have (™:, ø:) for /ai, au/), but not necessarily (Ù, ‘, P) (and least of all (È)), seen in § 9.1.4. ˛e systematic and complete shortening of unstressed long vowels belongs to çmodernÇ and çinternationalÇ pronunciation (and to dialects as well, generally). However, in çKoranicÇ pronunciation, /’é:/ (appearing in phonemic transcriptions) are realized as half-long, (’é;). It is not di‚cult to achieve them, if we consider both types of transcription used in this chapter: (›¢'›A:n, ›¢;-) /›i:'›a:n/ qiiqaan˚ ('†I:ni, -ni;) /'†i:ni:/ «iinii˚ ('HÄ:∑a, -∑a;) /'ha:∑a:/ haaÉaa˚ ('Huna, -na;) /'huna:/ hunaa… û 9.4. International vowels. /i/ (i, ¤), /i:/ (i:, ¤:) {/ai/ (™:)}

/u/ (U), /u:/ (U:) {/au/ (ø:)} /a/ (Ä, A), /a:/ (Ä:, A:)

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Geographic variants 9.1.6. Among the main variations and deviations from the neutral form (Ô § 9.1.3), in certain areas, we find that /a:/ never has the (Ä:) timbre, in any context (as often happens in Iraq and northern Lebanon). Furthermore, in an almost general way, in several colloquial variants, the diphthongs /ai, au/ reduce to (e:, ™I÷ o:, øU) (Ô û 9.2), from Maghreb to the Persian Gulf, except in the Levant. However, the diphthongs are kept, generally, when they are in absolute final position or followed by /j, w/: ('bÄIt, 'b™It, 'be:t) /'bait/ bait˚ ('lÄUn, 'løUn, 'lo:n) /'laun/ laun˚ ('HaIn, 'H™In, 'He:n) /'Hain/ ‘ain÷ ('sÄijId, 'sÄjjId) /'sajjid/ sayyid˚ (mu'SÄuw¢›, -Äww-) /mu'Sawwi›/ mu∞awwiq˚ ('nÄi, 'nÄj:, -J:) /'nai/ nayy˚ ('lÄu, 'lÄw, 'lÄ)) /'lau/ law˘ Especially in Maghreb, besides (unstressed) /’i, ’u/, even /’a/ may be dropped (with possible consequent stress shifts): ('öÄnta, ó'tÄ, n'tÄ) /'öanta/ anta˚ ('›AlÄm, '›Alm) /'›alam/ qalam˚ (li'sÄ:n, Í'sÄ:n) /li'sa:n/ lisaan˚ (sÄ'lÄ:m, s'lÄ:m) /sa'la:m/ salaam˘ Consonants 9.2.0. û 9.5 gives the articulations of modern neutral Arabic. ˛e main geographical variants of some phonemes are given in round brackets. û 1.9-15, instead, show –gathered in groups according to manners of articulation– the orograms of all contoids treated in the chapters of this book, even as secondary, occasional, or regional, variants for the 12 languages dealt with.

m ö F pb Ô ƒ _ ß ó ˘ ‹

(M) f

n (˙) t d td †∑ s z

(~) {(G)} {(›)}

{(D)} †Ã

(˙) k {(g)}

laryngeal

pharyngeal

uvular

velar rounded

velar

palatal

postalveo-palalatal protruded

postalveopalatal

uvularized alveolar

alveolar

uvularized dental

dental

bilabial

labiodental

û 9.5. Table of Arabic consonants.

(,) ö h

S Z 5|(R)

j

w

H (h) H º˜

l {ı} (¬) (l) /Ã/ (Ã, {D}), /Z/ (Z, {G}), /h/ (h, H), /r/ (5, R), /X, º/ (º, ˜)

Nasals 9.2.1. ˛ere are two nasal phonemes, /m, n/ (m, M, n, ~, ˙, ,): (mu'mÄ††Äl) /mu'ma††al/ muma≠≠al˚ (tÄm'Zi:d, -'Gi:d) /tam'Zi:d/ tamìid˚ ('SÄms) /'Sams/ ∞ams˚

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('ma5-jÄm) /'marjam/ Maryam˚ (mU'hammÄd) /mu'hammad/ Mu∆ammad˚ ('nImnIm) /'nimnim/ nimnim˚ ('Han-wÄ) /'Hanwa[h]/ ‘anwa-h˚ ('ZÄmb, 'G-) /'Zanb/ ànb˚ (mIm'bÄ:b) /min'ba:b/ min baab˚ ('öÄMf) /'öanf/ anf˚ ('wI~S) /'winS/ win∞˚ ('∑Ä˙k) /'∑ank/ Éank˚ ('ºA,›) /'Xan›/ Æanq˚ (m¢,'›u:wa) /min'›u:wa/ min quuwa˘ However, the çKoranicÇ pronunciation tends to avoid assimilating /n/ to the following C\ ('GÄnb, mIn'bÄ:b, 'öÄnf, 'wInS, '∑Änk, 'ºan›, mIn'›u:wa). Stops 9.2.2.1. Arabic has no ç/p/Ç, but only /b/, which however is realized as (p) when followed by voiceless C\ ('bÄ:b) /'ba:b/ baab˚ ('lÄbÄn) /'laban/ laban˚ ('haps) /'habs/ ∆abs˘ On the other hand, neutral Arabic has no ç/g/Ç, either; while it has two voiceless stops, velar and uvular, /k, ›/ (k, ›) (in phonemic opposition): ('k[h]Uskusu, kUs'k[h]usu) /'kus“kusu/ kuskusu˚ (mIk'†a:5) /mik'†a:r/ mik≠aar˚ ('mÄlIk) /'malik/ malik˚ (›A'di:m) /›a'di:m/ qadiim˚ (öA›'dÄ:m) /a›'da:m/ aqdaam˚ ('sU:›) /'su:›/ suuq˚ (&öAı›UR'öÄ:n) /al›ur'öa:n/ al-Qur'aan˚ (sA›'›å:tA÷ -'›Ø:-) /sa›'›a:ta[h]/ saqqaa=a-h˘ (›) enjoys great prestige, even among speakers who do not use it, although very frequently it is substituted by other articulations (as will be seen in § 9.2.7). Note: ('kÄlb) /'kalb/ kalb çdogÇ and ('›Alb) /'›alb/ qalb çheartÇ. Furthermore, we have the diphonic pairs /t, d/ (t, d) and /t, d/ (t, d) (uvularized), which is quite peculiar. ˛ey are dental; and /t/ may be a little çaspiratedÇ, when at the beginning of a stressed syllable (but we will mark it only here). Often, /t, d/ are denti-alveolar if final before a pause (but it is not necessary to use ((4, 7))): (tÄ'dÄ:wUl) /ta'da:wul/ tadaawul˚ (Si't[h]Ä:ö) /Si'ta:ö/ ∞itaa'˚ ('had:) /'hadd/ ∆add˚ (bA'tå:t¢s÷ -'tØ:-) /ba'ta:tis/ ba=aa=is˚ ('dA5t, 'då5t÷ 'dØ5t) /'dart/ ƒar=˚ ('dAZIR, -GIR) /'daZir/ ƒaìr˘ Although neutral Arabic has no (g), this sound is frequent in di‡erent dialects, as a variant of other phonemes, mainly of /Z/ and /›/. ˛erefore, it is natural that the isolated phonemes may currently be brought to normalization, by changing their articulations, in order to form a more homogeneous and coherent system. Even the shift of /Z/ to (Z) (instead of the more çKoranicÇ –and ancient– (G)), or to (g), is a part of this trend. 9.2.2.2. ˛e last neutral Arabic stop is /ö/ (ö), which may occur in every position, as the other C do, and may be geminated as well. In word-initial position, it automatically occurs when no other C is present: (öÄ'mi:n) /öa'mi:n/ amiin˚ ('sÄ:öIh) /'sa:öih/ saa'i∆˚ ('mÄ:ö) /'ma:ö/ maa'˚ ('zÄnnÄö) /'zannaö/ zanna'˚ (&RuöÄ'sÄ:ö) /ruöa'sa:ö/ ru'asaa'˚ (öÄl'öÄ:n) /öal'öa:n/ al-aan˚ ('5aös) /'raös/ ra's˚ ('bÄdö) /'badö/ bad'˚ (sÄö'öÄ:l) /saö'öa:l/ sa''aal˘ ˛erefore, in Arabic, any word traditionally beginning with a V (¤ vowel), phonically, begins with /ö/ (ö), because in this language all phono-syllables begin with a C\ ('öÄb) /'öab/ ab˚ (öi'dÄ:nÄ) /öi'da:na[h]/ idaana-h˚ ('öUm:) /'öumm/ umm˘ On the other hand, Arabic does not tolerate syllables beginning with more than one C (except rare cases of loanwords not adapted to Arabic phonology). Consequently, in actual pronunciation, a short V is prefixed; generally, it is /i/ (but, sometimes, /u,

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a/, in accordance with the following V]˚ and /a/ in neutral pronunciation, for the article – while, in the dialects, we more often find (™, I)); of course, in isolated forms, /ö/ is prefixed as well. However, when words with CC- (¤ with an initial consonant cluster) occur –in connected speech– after a word ending in a V˚ it is not necessary to add the V (nor /ö/), therefore the two words are linked. If, instead, the preceding word ends in a C˚ then the V is added, but /ö/ is not. ˛e reader is referred to grammars, where this phenomenon (called wa«la) is generally treated quite widely. It is to be found in connection with the article, certain verbal forms, the imperative and a dozen nouns. Among these, the most important are: ('öIbn, -bó, -b¢n) /'öibn/ ibn˚ ('öImRUö) /'öimruö/ imru'˚ ('öIsm, -sõ, -s¢m) /'öism/ ism˚ (öI†'nÄ:ni) /öi†'na:ni/ i≠naani\ (Ra'öÄitUb 'ni:) /ra'öaitu b'ni:/ ra'aitu bnii˚ ('bÄ:bUl 'bÄIt) /'ba:bu l'bait[i]/ baabu al-baiti˘ Constrictives 9.2.3. Among the phonemes belonging to this articulation manner, we find /f/ (f) (but not the corresponding voiced phoneme): (fa'5i:d) /fa'ri:d/ fariid˚ (öIf'sÄ:d) /öif'sa:d/ ifsaad˘ In addition, there are two diphonic pairs, which pose no problems, /†, ∑÷ s, z/ (†, ∑÷ s, z): (†Ä'lÄ:†) /†a'la:†/ ≠alaa≠˚ ('mÄ∑IR) /'ma∑ir/ maÉir˚ ('∑Äm:) /'∑amm/ Éamm˚ ('da5s) /'dars/ dars˚ ('za:5) /'za:r/ zaar˚ ('kÄnz) /'kanz/ kanz˘ However, there are two more diphonic pairs, with variations that may pose some phonemic dilemmas; they are /†, Ã/ (†÷ Ã/D) and /S, Z/ (S÷ Z/G). We prefer (Ã, Z) for their voiced members, as they are more modern and more integrated in the phonologic system than their more çKoranicÇ variants (D, G), which are considered more prestigious (even by those who do not use them), but have di‡erent place or manner of articulation. ˛erefore, they complicate the phonemic system. However, they can be used – especially in a kind of pronunciation which aims at the traditional more than at the international accent: (mah'ÃU:Ã, -DU:D) /mah'Ãu:Ã/ ma∆„uu„˚ ('ÃA:mIö, 'D-) /'Ãa:miö/ „aami'÷ ('†UR†UR, †UR'†u:R) /'†ur†ur, †ur'†u:r/ «ur«u(u)r˚ (Ra'ºI:†) /ra'Xi:†/ raÆii«÷ (öIS'hÄ:d) /öiS'ha:d/ i∞haad˚ (öÄS'jÄ:ö) /öaS'ja:ö/ a∞yaa'˚ (mu'SÄuwÄS, -ÄwwÄS) /mu'SawwaS/ mu∞awwa∞˚ (öÄ'SÄd:) /öa'Sadd/ a∞add˚ (RaS'SÄ:S) /raS'Sa:S/ ra∞∞aa∞˚ (öÄS'SaRu) /öaS'Sarw/ a∞∞arw˚ (ZÄ'mi:l, GÄ-) /Za'mi:l/ àmiil˚ ('öÄZmaH, 'öÄG-) /'öaZmaH/ a`ma‘˚ ('tÄ:Z, -G) /'ta:Z/ taa`˘ In the pharyngeal place of articulation, we find the voiceless constrictive /h/ (h) (currently, the çcorrespondingÇ voiced sound is considered to be constrictive as well, but in neutral pronunciation, it is clearly an approximant, /H/ (H), as we will see below, § 9.2.4): ('hUbbi) /'hubbi:/ ∆ubbii˚ (mah'tu:m) /mah'tu:m/ ma∆tuum˚ (mU'hAdd¢R) /mu'haddir/ mu∆aƒƒir˚ ('faRIh) /'farih/ fari∆˚ (fah'ha:S) /fah'ha:S/ fa∆∆aa∞˘ Arabic also has a diphonic pair of uvular constrictive trills, (º, ˜) (as will be seen), which phonemically may be represented with the o‚cial symbols /X, º/. Approximants 9.2.4.1. Let us first consider the least peculiar ones (although there are rather free occurrences), /j, w/ (j, w), even realized as (i, u), for /0jò, 0wò/ (and, possibly,

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for /òj0, òw0/, in colloquial variants, as no doubt in the dialects) and (ij/jj, uw/ww), for /éjjé, éwwé/): ('jÄ:wIR) /'ja:wir/ yaawir˚ (wA'†I:jÄ) /wa'†i:ja[h]/ wa«iiya-h˚ (wU'†u:l) /wu'†u:l/ wu«uul˚ ('sÄijId, 'sÄjjId) /'sajjid/ sayyid˚ (nÄu'wÄ:m, nÄw'w-) /naw'wa:m/ nawwaam˚ ('nÄi) /'najj/ nayy˚ (mÄn'Hi:) /man'hi:/ manhiyy˚ ('öÄbu) /'öabw/ abw (Ô ('öÄbu) /'öabu/ abu). ˛e çKoranicÇ pronunciation prefers (-jj-, -ww-), as in the cases seen above. Let us also consider these further examples, which show us the di‡erences between modern pronunciation and traditional çKoranicÇ pronunciation. In principle, they coincide even with the most important cases where, even in colloquial accents and dialects, /ai, au/ do not change into monophthongs ((™:, ø:)). ˛is happens when they are in absolute final position, and when in front of /j, w/ or after /i:, u:/, respectively, or when final, after C˚ as the following examples will show: ('kÄi, 'kÄj, -J) /'kai/ kay (Ô ('kÄij, 'kÄj:, -J:) /'kaij/ kayy), ('lÄijÄn, 'lÄjjÄn) /'lajjan/ layyan˚ (jÄu'mi:jÄ, -JÄ) /jau'mi:ja[h]/ yaumiiya-h˚ ('Humi, 'Humj, -mJ) /'Humj/ ‘umy˚ ('lÄu, 'lÄw, 'lÄ)) /'lau/ law˚ ('dÄuwaR, 'dÄww-) /'dawwar/ dawwar˚ (Ha'du:wÄ, -u:)Ä) /Ha'du:wa[h]/ ‘aduuwa-h˚ ('sÄHu, 'sÄHw, -H)) /'sahw/ sahw˚ ('Hafu, 'Hafw, -f‹, -fä) /'Hafw/ ‘afw˘ 9.2.4.2. As we have said above (§ 9.2.3), the Arabic phoneme /H/ (H) is an approximant (and generally it is laryngealized as well, ((ó)), which is fairly easy to detect by its lower intrinsic tonality and creaky voice): ('HaIn) /'Hain/ ‘ain˚ ('maHa) /'maHa/ ma‘a˚ ('baHda) /'baHda/ ba‘da˚ ('naHnaH, naH'na:H) /'naHnaH, naH'na:H/ na‘na(a)‘˚ (&faHHa'li:jÄ) /faHHa:'li:ja[h]/ fa‘‘aaliiya-h˚ ('sÄlH) /'salH/ sal‘˘ It is occasionally possible to hear some peculiar regional –non-neutral– variants, as that with a slight simultaneous laryngeal stop, (?), or else a pharyngealized laryngeal stop, (ö), ™: ('na?na?, na?'na:?, 'nAönAö, nAö'nA:ö). ˛e last Arabic approximant is a true laryngeal phone, /h/ (H, h), and has a very free occurrence; it is typically (lenis) voiced (H), but it becomes (lenis) voiceless, when near a pause, or a voiceless C˚ or when geminate: (&öItti'ZÄ:h, -G-) /öitti'Za:h/ ittiàah˚ ('mUhtaR) /'muhtar/ muhtar˚ ('hÄ:∑iHi) /'ha:∑ihi:/ haaÉihii˚ (mÄH'bu:l) /mah'bu:l/ mahbuul˚ (&öInHi'zÄ:m) /öinhi'za:m/ inhizaam˚ (hÄf'nÄ:f) /haf'na:f/ hafnaaf˚ ('hija) /'hija/ hiya˚ ('ka5h) /'karh/ karh˚ ('bIh) /'bih/ bih˚ ('›AH-wÄ) /'›ahwa[h]/ qahwa-h˚ (wÄh'hÄ:Z, -G) /wah'ha:Z/ wahhaa`˘ In our transliteration, taa' marbuu=a is indicated by a hyphen, -a-h (while another –only seemingly more recommendable and less complicated– solution could be -a–); it is pronounced (Ä, Äh) /a[h]/ (but (a, A), if preceded by C which are capable of modifying timbres). It is to be noted that a realization with (h) represents a very careful, çKoranicÇ pronunciation, while the normal realization of -aò is (a): ('hÄzzÄ) /'hazza[h]/ hazza-h (çmovementÇ) but: ('hÄzza) /'hazza/ hazza (ç(he) shookÇ). Trills 9.2.5. Typically the voiced alveolar /r/ is realized as a velarized trill, (5), generally, in stressed syllable, and as a tap, (R), in unstressed syllables. ˛ey influence the

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timbre of /a/ (a): ('5Ip›) /'rib›/ ribq˚ (maR'bu:H) /mar'bu:H/ marbuu‘˚ ('maRIh) /'marih/ mari∆˚ (mIR'5i:h) /mir'ri:h/ mirrii∆˚ (mi'5a:h) /mi'ra:h/ miraa∆˚ ('fU5fUR, fUR'fu:5) /'furfur, fur'fu:r/ furfu(u)r˘ It is possible to hear (¸), mainly for final /r/, but this pronunciation is not recommendable. As already said above (§ 9.2.4), Arabic has a diphonic pair of uvular constrictive trills, /X, º/ (º, ˜): (baº'Si:S) /baX'Si:S/ baÆ∞ii∞˚ ('ºaUº) /'XauX/ ÆauÆ˚ (faº'ºa:Ri) /faX'Xa:ri:/ faÆÆaarii˚ ('ãdÄn) /'ºadan/ ‚adan˚ (†A'˜i:R) /†a'ºi:r/ «a‚iir˚ ('bÄ:lI˜) /'ba:liº/ baali‚˚ (mÄS'˜u:l) /maS'ºu:l/ ma∞‚uul˚ (tÄ'wa˜˜Ul) /ta'waººul/ tawa‚‚ul˘ Laterals 9.2.6. ˛ere is one lateral phoneme, /l/ (l, ¬, ı) (the third taxophone occurs in contact with /t, d, †, Ã, ›/; it occurs as a phonostyleme (¤ a stylistic phoneme), too, in Allaah and derivatives (provided that it is not preceded by /i/): (&mutÄ'lÄölIö) /muta'laöliö/ mutala'li'˚ (tÄl'bi:s) /tal'bi:s/ talbiis˚ ('lÄIl) /'lail/ lail˚ (mÄ¬'jÄ:n) /mal'ja:n/ malyaan˚ (zÄl'lA:›A) /zal'la:›a[h]/ zallaaqa-h˚ (tAı'›I:h) /tal'›i:h/ talqii∆˚ (&bIsmIl'lÄ:h) /bismil'la:h/ bismillaah˚ (öAı'ıA:h) /öal'la:h/ Allaah˘ For the typical complete assimilation of /l/ in the article al˚ see below (§ 9.3.1.1). Geographic variants 9.2.7. Very often, /†, ∑/ are pronounced like /t, d/, mainly in big cities in North Africa, or like /s, z/ as well, particularly in the Middle East. In each one of these cases a phonemic distinction is lost. In Iraq, /Ã/ is (D), as in traditional and çKoranicÇ pronunciations; elsewhere it is often realized as (Ã), as in Egypt and Syria, but it may even be confused with /t, d/, above all in Maghreb. ˛e grapheme ìim˚ /Z/ (Z), has very many geographical, social, and religious, variants. ˛e normal (Z) prevails in the Middle East and in North Africa, while (G) (typical of Koranic reading) is used in Jordan, Saudi Arabia (typical of Bedouins) and Iraq. But in some areas, as in Egypt (Cairo), Sudan and Oman, we find (g); elsewhere, even (›), as in Luxor (southern Egypt), and (J). For instance, /'Za:b/ àab is ('ZÄ:b) in the Levant (Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria) and in Africa (except Egypt and Sudan, as we have just said); it is ('GÄ:b) in Arabia, the Persian Gulf, Jordan, Iraq and among the rural and the nomadic peoples in Morocco. ˛e grapheme qaaf˚ /›/ (›), very often becomes (ö), above all in Cairo and other big cities; but it becomes (H, k) as well, or even (g), particularly in central-southern Egypt, in rural areas of Morocco, and among Saudi Arabia Bedouins (who often, typically, change /k/ into (c)). For instance, /'›alb/ qalb may be: ('›Alb÷ 'öÄlb, 'Halb, 'kÄlb, 'gÄlb). In the Levant, /òö/ is generally quite weak, therefore we could transcribe it as (,) (instead of (ö)). In Maghreb, /ö/ may not even be present at all.

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Structures 9.3.0. Here we will deal with assimilation, quantity, and some typical reductions of colloquial speech, still within neutral pronunciation (although with geographical variants). Taxophonics 9.3.1.1. ˛e definite article, (öÄl) /öal/ al˚ obligatorily assimilates completely to all apical or laminal C following it. ˛erefore, in such cases we may say that the article is /a0/ with a following homorganic /0/ – ¤ something like ç/a*/Ç, as in the neutral-Italian pronunciation phenomenon called co-gemination. ©th /Z/, assimilation takes place if it is pronounced (Z), but there is no change if it is pronounced (G), or (g), Â: (öÄS'SÄms) /öal'Sams/ al-∞ams˚ (öaR'5A›†, -5å›†) /öal'ra›†/ al-raq«˚ (öÄt'tutUn) /öal'tutun/ al-tutun˚ (öÄz'zÄlÄl) /öaz'zalal/ al-zalal˚ (öAd'd¢:›) /öad'di:›/ al-ƒiiq˚ (öÄZ'ZÄmÄl, öÄ¬'GÄ-÷ öÄl'gÄ-) /öal'Zamal/ al-àmal˚ (öÄl'kUSk) /öal'kuSk/ al-ku∞k˚ (öÄl'bahR, -ah{) /öal'bahr/ al-ba∆r˚ (öÄl'wÄlÄd) /öal'walad/ al-walad˘ Even voicing assimilations are quite common indeed, therefore a voiced final C may become voiceless, or devoiced, mainly after voiceless C÷ while voiceless C may become fully (or partially) voiced, between voiced phones. Besides, many cases of assimilation (regarding place or manner of articulation) are possible, even accompanied by the dropping of some phones: (›As'sÄmIHa) /›ad'samiHa/ qad sami‘a˚ ('lÄm 'juRIS 'SÄiöÄn) /'lam 'jurid 'Saiöan / lam yurid ∞ai'an˚ ('öIbHa∑ '∑Ä:lika) /'öIbHa† '∑a:lika/ ib‘a≠ Éaalika˚ ('HUttu) /'Hu∑tu/ ‘uÉtu˚ ('öIhfaZ 'Za:Raka, -G 'G-) /'öihfaÃ 'Za:raka/ i∆fa„ àaraka˘ In Arabic both vowel and consonant quantities are distinctive. Consonant quantity is shown by gemination ((00)) between V˚ but by lengthening ((0:)) elsewhere: ('öÄb) /'öab/ ab˚ ('öÄ:b) /'öa:b/ aab˚ (ZÄ'mÄ:l, G-) /Za'ma:l/ àmaal˚ (ZÄm'mÄ:l, 'G-) /Zam'ma:l/ àmmaal˚ ('öUm:) /'öumm/ umm˚ ('›AtÄla) /'›atala/ qatala˚ ('›A:tÄla) /'›a:tala/ qaatala˚ ('›AttÄla) /'›attala/ qattala˘ Unstressed /é:/ are (é;) only in the çKoranicÇ kind of pronunciation, since they are generally shortened, (é) (Ô § 9.1.5). 9.3.1.2. In colloquial speech, unstressed /i, u/ tend to drop whenever this does not form three-C clusters. On the other hand, when in connected speech two word-final C are followed by a word-initial C˚ then a short V˚ generally /i/, is inserted to divide the cluster. In certain cases, the added V may even bear stress; and sometimes a V inserted in a certain place may cause –or allow– the dropping of another short V˘ Furthermore, long V tend to shorten a little in checked syllables (but less than in unstressed syllables); and short final V in polysyllables tend to drop (above all grammemes, and /énò/ as well, except for accusative /anò/, which may become /a:ò/, in any position, even non-pausal). Verbs and pronouns are more likely to maintain the V˚ since endings have distinctive and pragmatic values.

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Let us see some examples: ('hÄ:∑Ä ki'tÄ:b, 'hÄ:∑Äk 'tÄ:b) /'ha:∑a: ki'ta:b[un]/ haaÉaa kitaabun˚ (öÄl'hIb-RU 'tAijIb, 'tAjjIb) /öal'hibru 'tajjib[un]/ al-∆ibru =ayyibun˚ (kÄ'tÄptu&biHi, -tUb&Hi) /ka'tabtu 'bihi/ katabtu bihi˚ ('kÄ:nÄ fIl'bÄIt) /'ka:na fi:albait[i]/ kaana fii al-baiti˚ (Ra'öÄitUl 'bÄIt) /ra'öaitu al'bait[a]/ ra'aitu al-baita˚ (kÄ'tÄpt) /ka'tabt[u]/ katabtu˚ (&sÄkÄ'ki:n) /saka:'ki:n/ sakaakiin˘ 9.3.1.3. As far as çpausal formsÇ are concerned, let us take from Mitchell (1990) some examples (which we will transcribe again appropriately), keeping in mind that this is an çorthologicalÇ phenomenon people use to pronounce words in intonemes, including preceding words, semantically and syntactically linked (to the exclusion of grammemes). ˛is category includes final short V (with or without infinitive -n) – ('kÄtÄb) /'katab[a]/ kataba˚ ('jÄktUb) /'jaktub[u]/ yaktubu˚ ('liöÄ~ 'jÄktUb) /'liöan 'jaktub[a]/ li'an yaktuba˚ (&fimÄ'da:RIs) /fi:ma'da:ris[a]/ fii madaarisa˚ (fIl'bÄIt) /fi:l'bait[i]/ fii al-baiti÷ ('bÄIt) /'bait[un]/ baitun˚ (fi'bÄIt) /fi:'bait[in]/ fii baitin˚ ('mUn∑u 'zÄmÄnI˙ wÄ'Zi:z, -'Gi:z) /'mun∑u 'zamanin wa'Zi:z[in]/ munÉu zamanin waìizin˘ However, (accusative) -an /an/ may be substituted by /a:/: (öaH'tA:HU HIS'5i:nÄ di'na:Ra) /öaH'ta:hu HiS'ri:na di:'na:ra:/ a‘=aahu ‘i∞riina dinaaran˚ except for adverbs like: ('ha:lÄn) /'ha:lan/ ∆aalan˚ ('öÄ¢dAn) /'öaidan/ aiƒan˘ Lastly, taa' marbuu=a [¤ -atin˚ -atan˚ -atun] is substituted by /a[h]/, which is generally pronounced (Ä) (or (Äh) in a {more} çKoranicÇ style): (ZÄ'mi:lÄ) /Za'mi:la[h]/ àmiila-h ((ZÄ'mi:lÄtUn, &ZÄmi'lÄtUn, %G-) /Za'mi:“latun/ àmiilatun]˚ ('fÄtahat mÄ'da:RisÄ lÄi'li:jÄ, &mÄda'5isÄ) /'fÄtahat ma'da:“risa lai'li:ja[h]/ fata∆at madaarisa lailiiya-h ((lÄi'li:jÄtÄn, &lÄili'jÄtÄn) /lai'li:“jatan/ lailiiyatan]˚ (&fIlZu'nÄinÄ, -Gu-) /fi:lZu'naina[h]/ fii al-ùnaina-h ((Zu'nÄinÄ&ti, &ZunÄi'nÄti, %G-) /Zu'nai“nati/ ùnainati]˘ 9.3.1.4. Colloquially, very often /ö/ is not maintained when it occurs within words or at the end of words – it is dropped or changed into /j, w/, or else it lengthens a possible preceding V\ ('miöÄ, 'miÄ, 'mijÄ, 'mi:Ä) /'miöa[h]/ mi'a-h˚ ('jÄöºu∑u, 'ja:ºu∑u, ja'ºu∑u) /'jaöXu∑u, jaö'Xu∑u/ ya'ÆuÉu˚ ('5aös, '5a:s) /'raös/ ra's˚ (sÄ'mÄ:ö, sÄ'mÄ:) /sa'ma:ö/ samaa'˘ ‹en two hamzas occur in contiguous syllables, the first one is maintained: ('ZÄ:öÄ &[ö]ÄZÄ'luHUm, '[ö]ÄZÄ&luHUm, [ö]Ä'ZÄlHUm, 'GÄ:öÄ, -ÄGÄ-) /'Za:öa öaZa'luhum, 'öaZaluhum/ àa'a aàluhum˘ In /0j, 0w, 0r, 0l/ sequences, Arabic syllabification is heterosyllabic, /0˘j, 0˘w, 0˘r, 0˘l/: (mIt'5a:s) /mit'ra:s/ mitraas˚ ('öÄtlÄfa, öÄt'lÄfa) /'öat“lafa/ atlafa˚ ('mÄdRasÄ, mÄd'Ra-) /'mad“rasa[h]/ madrasa-h˚ ('öÄd-la) /'öadla/ adla˚ ('ma5-jÄm) /'marjam/ Maryam˚ ('mUsRIH) /'musriH/ musri‘˚ (mIs'wÄ:k) /mis'wa:k/ miswaak˚ ('mÄS-wi) /'maSwi/ ma∞wi˚ ('öÄfRaza, öÄf'Raza) /'öaf“raza/ afraza˚ ('mÄk-wa) /'makwa/ makwa˚ ('öÄ¬-jÄn) /'öaljan/ alyan˚ ('öÄH-wa) /'öahwa/ ahwa˘ 9.3.1.5. In final position, after C˚ the sonants (/m, n, r, l/) may be realized in di‡erent ways, according to how accurately one speaks. From a phonemic point of view, they are just C˚ but –phonetically– they may be plain (or devoiced, mainly in front of a voiceless C]˚ or intense (çsyllabicÇ), or even with a short epenthet-

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ic V (like (I, ¢)): ('›¢s≈, -sõ, -s¢m) /'›ism/ qism˚ ('lÄdn, -dó, -d¢n) /'ladn/ ladn˚ ('fÄtn, -tó, -t¢n) /'fatn/ fatn˚ ('dUHn, -hn, -Hó, -H¢n) /'duhn/ duhn˚ ('bÄdR, -d{, -d¢R) /'badr/ badr˚ ('m¢†R, -†á, -†{) /'mi†r/ Mi«r˚ ('fÄtú, -tÍ, -t¢l) /'fatl/ fatl˚ ('5AtÓ, -t–, -t¢l) /'ratl/ ra=l˘ 9.3.1.6. Here are some examples of typical Arabic phonotactics: (taö'bi:n) /taö'bi:n/ ta'biin˚ (mÄö'†u:R) /maö'†u:r/ ma'≠uur˚ ('mÄtHUb) /'matHu:b/ mat‘uub˚ ('öÄ†›Al) /'öa†›al/ a≠qal˚ ('mÄdºal) /'madXal/ madÆal˚ (mÄ∑'Hu:R) /ma∑'Hu:r/ maÉ‘uur˚ ('tÄzHu) /'tazhu/ tazhu˚ ('mÄsZId, -GId) /'masZid/ masìd˚ ('mÄSta) /'maSta/ ma∞ta˚ (mÄS'˜u:l) /maS'ºu:l/ ma∞‚uul˚ ('mA†5aH) /'ma†raH/ ma«ra‘˚ ('öAdZaHa, öAd'ZaHa) /'öadZaHa/ aƒà‘a˚ ('öAdHafa, öAd'Hafa) /'öadHafa/ aƒ‘afa˚ ('öAÃlÄma, öAÃ'lÄma, -D-) /'öaÃlama/ a„lama˚ (maH'Zu:n, -Gu:n) /maH'Zu:n/ ma‘ùun˚ (maH'5u:f) /maH'ru:f/ ma‘ruuf˚ (öaH'mÄ:l) /öaH'ma:l/ a‘maal˚ (ma˜'Su:S) /maº'Su:S/ ma‚∞uu∞˚ ('mA›ha) /'ma›ha/ maqha˚ (mÄl'öÄ:n) /mal'öa:n/ mal'aan˚ ('jÄiöÄsu, jÄi'öÄsu) /'jai“öasu/ yai'asu˚ ('öÄuHÄma, öÄu'HÄma) /'öau“hama/ auhama˘ Stress 9.3.2.1. For words of two or more syllables, we have the patterns given below. It should be kept in mind that ç/à/Ç stands for çlightÇ syllables (/0é/); ç/9/Ç for çheavyÇ ones, ¤ consisting of çheavyÇ sequences like /é00, é:0, éé0/, which are located counting from their syllabic nucleous onwards, up to the next (belonging to another sequence). ˛erefore, in this kind of calculation, we do not consider them to be true phono-syllables. In addition, ç/à/Ç indicates a light or heavy syllable –indi‡erently– with no direct influence on stress assignment. ˛e symbol ç/“/Ç indicates alternative stressing, which is substitutive (certainly not simultaneous – as a matter of fact, one is free to choose either stress pattern from sequences showing both /'/ and /“/): 2 syll. /'àà, à'9, '9à/, 3 syll. /'ààà, àà'9, à'9à, '9“àà/, 4 syll. /“àà'àà, ààà'9, àà'9à, à'9“àà, “9'ààà/, 5 syll. /à“à'ààà, àààà'9, ààà'9à, àà'9“àà, à“9à'àà, 9“àà'àà/, 6 syll. /àà“àà'àà, ààààà'9, àààà'9à, ààà'9“àà, àà“9à'àà, à9“àà'àà, 9àà'ààà/. ˛ey function as a useful point of reference, for analyses and to find correspondences; in fact, it would not be easy to try to memorize them. 9.3.2.2. ˛e solution to the formulae with variants, to read along columns, provides: /'9àà, 9'àà/÷ /àà'àà, 'àààà/, /à'9àà, à9'àà/, /9'ààà, '9ààà/÷

/àà'ààà, à'àààà/, /àà'9àà, àà9'àà/, /à9à'àà, à'9ààà/, /9àà'àà, 9'àààà/÷

/àààà'àà, àà'àààà/, /ààà'9àà, ààà9'àà/, /àà9à'àà, àà'9ààà/, /à9àà'àà, à9'àààà/.

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In patterns with two possible stressings, the variants may be of two types: çEgyptianÇ (Cairo), as: /'9“àà, à'9“àà, àà'9“àà, ààà'9“àà/; or çliteraryÇ (— dialectal, like those of southern Egypt), with the following possibilities: /“àà'àà, “9à'àà/, /à“à'ààà, à“9à'àà, 9“àà'àà/, /àà“àà'àà, àà“9à'àà, à9“àà'àà/. For /à9“àà'àà/, we may find the patterns /à'9àààà/, /à9à'ààà/ as well (which constitute çloftierÇ stressings, as can be seen in the story in § 9.4.2.1-2). All the stress patterns we give belong to modern neutral pronunciation. ˛erefore, one is free to choose, provided certain structural homogeneousness is maintained. A dialectal peculiarity found in Lebanon (which should not be followed) puts final stress on words ending in /é:ò, ééò/ (which, in neutral pronunciation, are not çheavyÇ enough to bear the stress): ('mInHuma, mIn'Huma) (and (&mInHu'ma:)) /'min“huma:/ minhumaa˘ 9.3.2.3. Prefixes do not influence the application of the stress rule, in di‡erent actual words; nor does the article even when it assimilates completely. But the rule is modified by the dropping of some (vocalic or consonantal) phones, because this changes the syllabic structure, both within words and at their end, before a pause. As far as secondary stress in polysyllabic words is concerned, it tends to occur on alternate syllables, but preferring the heaviest ones, whenever possible. Lastly, here are some examples: (Ra'su:l) /ra'su:l/ rasuul˚ (sÄ'fÄ~Z, -~G) /sa'fanZ/ safan`˚ (mu'5a:sIl) /mu'ra:sil/ muraasil˚ (ta'5assUl) /ta'rassul/ tarassul˚ ('HA:†¢mÄ, HA'†¢-) /'Ha:“†ima[h]/ ‘aa«ima-h˚ (&mutÄ'fÄuw¢›, -Äww¢›) /muta'fawwi›/ mutafawwiq˚ (mu'fa:RA›A, &mufa'5A›A) /mu'fa:“ra›a[h]/ mufaaraqa-h˚ ('mÄd-Ra&sÄ, mÄd'5asÄ) /'mad“rasa[h]/ madrasa-h˚ ('daRa&ki) /'daraki:/ darakii˚ (&kÄtÄ'bÄHu, 'kÄtÄ&bÄHu) /“kata'bahu/ katabahu˚ (mUº'tÄli&fÄ, 'mUºtÄ&lifÄ) /“muX'talifa[h]/ muÆtalifa-h˚ (&öÄZÄ'luHUm, 'öÄZÄ&luHUm, öÄ'ZÄlHUm, -GÄ-) /“öaZa'luhum, öa'Zalhum/ aàluhum˘ 9.3.2.4. We give further useful examples (again completed and retranscribed from Mitchell, 1990), both with çpausalÇ and çpre-pausalÇ forms (Ô § 9.3.1.3): ('5amÄt) /'ramat/ ramat˚ (Ra'mÄthu) /ra'mathu/ ramathu˚ ('öahad) /'öahad/ a∆ad˚ (&öaha'duHUm, 'öaha&duHUm) /“öaha'duhum/ a∆aduhum˚ ('SÄdda) /'Sadda/ ∞adda˚ ('SÄddÄHu, SÄd'dÄ-) /'Sad“dahu/ ∞addahu˚ ('öa5dA) /'öarda:/ ardaa˚ (öa5'dA:Hu) /öar'da:hu/ ardaahu˚ (kÄ'tÄpti) /ka'tabti/ katabti˚ (kÄ'tÄptiHi, &kÄtÄp'tiHi) /ka'tab“tihi/ katabtihi˚ (öIs'taı›A) /öis'tal›a:/ istalqaa˚ (&öIstaı'›A:Hu) /öistal'›a:hu/ istalqaahu˚ ('kÄ:tÄ&ba, kÄ'tÄba) /'ka:“taba:/ kaatabaa˚ (&kÄtÄ'bÄ:Hu) /ka:ta'ba:Hu/ kaatabaahu˚ (&kÄtÄ'bÄta, 'kÄtÄ&bÄta) /“kata'bata:/ katabataa˚ (&kÄtÄ'bÄtÄ:&Hu) /kataba'ta:hu/ katabataahu˚ (kÄ'tÄbÄ&ta, 'kÄ:tÄ&bÄta) /“ka:'tabata:/ kaatabataa˚ (&kÄtÄbÄ'tÄ:Hu, kÄ&tÄ-) /ka:taba'ta:hu/ kaatabataahu˚ (&SÄZa'5atUn, 'SÄZa&RatUn) /“SaZa'ratun/ ∞aàratun˘ Here are some more –longer– examples: (&öÄdwijÄ'tuHu, öÄd'wijÄ&tuHu) /ad“wija'tuhu/ adwiyatuhu˚ (mUR&tÄbi'tAtUn, mUR'tÄbi&tAtUn) /mur“tabi'tatUn/ murtabi=atun˚ (&SÄZa'5atu&Hu, SÄ'ZaRa&tuHu) /Sa“Za'ratuhu/ ∞aàratuhu˚ (&SÄZa&Ratu'Huma, &SÄZa'5atu&Huma) /SaZa“ratu'huma:/ ∞aàratuhumaa˚ (&öÄdwijÄ'tuHu&ma, öÄd'wi-) /öadwija'tuhuma:/ adwiyatuhumaa˚ (mu&tÄZÄn'nibÄ&tUn, &mutÄ'ZÄnni&bÄtUn, -GÄ-) /muta“Zan'nibatun/ mutaànnibatun˚ (mu&tA›A'tilÄtUn, &mutA'›Ati&lÄtUn) /muta“›a:'tilatun/ mutaqaatilatun˘

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Intonation 9.3.3. û 9.6 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of modern neutral Arabic. ˛e continuative intoneme is not very di‡erent from the suspensive one; therefore, generally, the pause which follows the suspensive type has greater duration. ˛e interrogative intoneme in the Levant is of the rising-falling type, /?/ (2 ' 1 2), instead of that given here. It will be interesting to compare the tonograms (but also the V and C] referring to the four geographic Arabic varieties (Ô § 9.1.1 – which di‡er in grammar as well, but most of all in their vocabulary). We will merely give some illustrative examples, for neutral intonation, to be used for comparisons: /./: ('lÄ: 'öaHRIf mÄ&dinÄ'tÄkUm23) {(mÄ'di:nÄ&tÄkUm23)} /'la: 'öaHrif[u] ma“di:na'takum./ Laa a‘rifu madiinatakum. /?/: (¿'hÄl öÄlki'tÄ:b ZÄ'di:d21) {(GÄ-)} /¿'hal öalki'ta:b[u] Za'di:d[un]?/ Hal al-kitaabu àdiidun? /÷/: ('jUmkIn &öÄnnA'›u:m bi'ZÄulÄ2 2) {(bi'GÄu-)} /'jumkin[u] öanna'›u:m[a] bi'Zaula[h]÷/ Yumkinu an naquuma bi-àulatin… û 9.6. Arabic preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

Text 9.4.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows. According to the Phonetic method we start with the version in Arabic pronunciation of (neutral British) English (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Arabic translation follows, in its neutral version. At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronunciation of Arabic, by neutral British speakers, fluent in Arabic (after prolonged contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and suprasegmental elements which are typical of neutral British English (for reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciations of English, given first. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Arabic pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Arabic, as an excel-

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lent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12). Arabic pronunciation (of English) 9.4.1. (då'nø5s 'wInd2 öåndå'sån2 w™5dIs'bjutI˙ 'wIS wåzzåst'5ø˙gå523| 'w™n öåt'5åfålå52 'k™:m öå'lø˙k2 ì'5åbt öinå'wø5m 'klø:k23œ| z™å'g5i:d2\ &dåtzå'wån Hu'f™5s såk'si:dId2 öIn'm™:kIn dåt'5åfålå52 't™:k hIsk'lø:k 'øf2 2| &SUdbikån'sidå5ds "t5ø˙gå5 &zåndi'åzå523|| 'd™n2 då'nø;5s 'wInd2 'blu:2 öåz'Hå5d2 öåzHi'kUd23| &båtdå'mø5 HIb'lu:2 2| zå'mø5 'klø:sli2 &dIdzåt'5åfålå52\ 'fø:ld HIsk'lø:k å'5åUndHIm23| ì&öåndåt'lÄ{:}st2œ\ zå'nø5s 'wInd2 'g™:f 'öåb diå't™mt23|| ì'd™n2œ då'sån 'Søn 'öÄUt23 ì'wø5mli23œ| &öåndi'mi:djåtli2\ ˚dåt'5åfålå5 'tUk 'öøf23 ˚hIs'klø:k23|| ìöånd'sø:2œ zå'nø5s 'wInd2 wåzåb'låIZd tukåM'f™s2| &zåtdå'sån23 wøsdåst'5ø˙gå523 ì&öåfzå'tu:23œ|| ¿&didju'låIk21 ¿dås'tø:5i2| ¿&duju'wøn tå'Hi5It öå'g™n21|||) Arabic text 9.4.2. ˛is passage highlights the fact that the çmodern classicalÇ Arabic language is a rather artificial concept. In fact, the currently unwritten short V have very fluctuating realizations, due to both their presence or absence and to their timbres (themselves) (/i, a, u/). As the number of recordings (of di‡erent speakers) increases, the number of variations also increases (even for stressing and orthology, ¤ the use of intonemes and pauses). 9.4.3. Kaanat rii∆u al-∞amaali tataàadalu wa al-∞amsu fii ayyin minhumaa kaanat aqwaa min al-uÆraa, wa iÉ bi-musaafirin ya=la‘u mutala‚‘an bi-‘abaa'atin samiikatin. Fa ittafaqataa ‘alaa i‘tibaari al-saabiqi fii i`baari al-musaafiri ‘alaa Æal‘i ‘abaa'atihi al-aqwaa. ‘a«afat rii∆u al-∞amaali bi-aq«aa maa ista=aa'at min quuwatin. Wa laakin kullumaa izdaada al‘a«fu, izdaada al-musaafiru tada≠≠uran bi-‘abaa'atihi, ilaa an usqi=a fii yadi al-rii∆ fataÆallat ‘an mu∆aawalatihaa. Ba‘da'iÉin sa=a‘ati al-∞amsu bi-dif'ihaa, famaakaana min al-musaafiri illaa an Æala‘a ‘abaa'atahu ‘alaa al-tauu. Wa hakaÉaa iƒ=arrat rii∆u al-∞amaali ilaa al-i‘tiraafi bi-anna al-∞amsa kaanat hiya al-aqwaa. Hal kaanat al-qi««atu àmiila? Hal turiidu an nuraddidahaa? 9.4.4. ('kÄ:nÄt2 '5i:hUS SÄ'mÄ:l[i]2 &tÄtÄ'ZÄ:dÄ&lu wÄS'SÄms[u]2 2| fi'öÄij[In] 'mInHu&ma2»| 'kÄ:nÄt 'öA›wa2 &mInöÄl'öuºRa23| wÄ'öI∑ bimu'sÄ:fIR[In]2| ì'jAtıAHU” &mutÄ'lÄffI&Ham2 &bI-

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Ha'bÄ:öÄ[tIn] sÄ'mi:kÄ23œ|| 'fÄt tÄfA'›Ata2 2|’ 'HalaH ti'ba:RIs 'sÄ:b¢›[¢]2[ &fiöIZ'ba:RIl mu'sÄ:fIR[i]2| 'Hala 'ºalHI Ha&bÄöÄ'tiHIlÌ 'öA›-wa23|| 'HA†AfÄt2 '5i:hUS SÄ'mÄ:l[i]|| bi'öA›†A 'mÄ: öIstA'tA:öÄt m¢,'›u:wa23|| wÄ'lÄ:kIn2 ì'kUllÄmÄz• 'dÄ:dÄl 'HA†f[u]2 2œ|| öIz'dÄ:dÄl mu'sÄ:fIR[u] tÄ'dÄ††u&Ran2] &biHa'bÄ:öÄ&tIh2 2| ì'öilÄ öÄn'öUs›¢&tA2Ô fi'jÄdIR '5i:h23œ|| &fÄta'ºallÄt 'Ham mU&hawÄlÄ'tiHa23||»Ò baH'dÄöi&∑In2|»» &sAtA'öÄtIS»” 'SÄmsu bi'dIföi&Ha2| &fÄmÄ'kÄ:nÄ mIn&öÄlmu'sÄ:fIR[i]2| 'öIllÄ öa,'ºala&Ha»’ Ha&bÄöÄ'tÄHu23»[ ì'HalÄt 'tÄu23œ|| 'wÄ 'HÄkÄ&∑Ä»Ì ö¢d'tA5Rat2 '5I:hUS SÄ'mÄ:l[i]2 2| 'öilÄl &öIHti'5a:f[i]2 bi'öÄnnÄS 'SÄms[Ä]2| 'kÄ:nÄt2 'hijÄl 'öA›-wa23|| ¿'hÄl 'kÄ:nÄt öAı'›¢††Atu2 ¿ZÄ'mi:lÄ21|| ¿'hÄl tu'5i:d[u]2 'öÄn &nuRad'didÄ&Ha21|||)»• » mIn'Huma2 — ” jAt'ıAHU — ’ 'tÄfA&›Ata2 2| — [ sÄ'b¢›¢2| — Ì Ha'bÄ:öÄ&tiHIl — • kUl'lÄmÄz — ] &tÄdÄ†'†uRan2 —  bI&HabÄ'öÄtIh2 2| — Ô &öÄnöUs'›¢tA2 — »Ò mUha'wÄlÄ&tiHa23||, mU'ha:wÄ&lÄti&Ha23||, mU&hawÄ'lÄti&Ha23|| — »» -öI∑2|, 'baHdÄ&öi∑In2|, -&öI∑2| — »” 'sAtA&öÄtIS — »’ 'öa,ºa&laHa — »[ Ha'bÄ:öÄ&tÄHu2 — »Ì HÄ'kÄ∑Ä — »• nu'5addidÄ&Ha21||| English pronunciation of Arabic 9.4.5. ('khπnπ˛2 5>Iih¯uS SÈ'mπli2» &TπTÈ5GπDÈ&l¯u wπS'Sπms¯u32| fIi5aÙ¤m 'm¤nhÈ&mA;2|” 5khπnπT 'A;kwû2 &m¤nπı'¯uk>å3 3| wπö5¤∑ &bIimÈ'sπfÈ>¤n2| ì5jA;tlÈ&h¯u’ &m¯uTÈ'lπf¤håm2 &b¤hÈ5bπöÈT¤n sÈ'mIikå3 3œ|| 5fπT[ TÈfû'khA;Tå32| 5hålÈö T¤'bA;>¤s 'sπbûk[û]2Ì &fIiG5bA;>¤ı mÈ'sπfÈ&>Ii2| 5hålû 'khåıhi hÈ&bπöÈ'ThIih¤ı 'A;kwå3 3|| 'hA;sÈ&fπT2 '¯u tÈ'Dπ†È&>ån2 &bIihÈ'bπöÈ&TIi32| ì5IilÈ πn'¯uskû&TA;2 fIi5πD¤È '>Iix3 3œ|| &fπTû5khπlÈT 'håm mÈ&hA;wûlÈ'ThIihå3 3|| båö'DaÙ&∑¤n2| &sA;TA;5πT¤S 'Sπms¯u bIi'D¤f¤hå2| &fπmû5khπnÈ m¤n&πımÈ'sπfÈ&>Ii2| 5¤ı lπ˙'khålÈhÈ A;&bπöÈ'Thπh¯u3 3 ì5hålπT 'Tha;Ö3 3œ|| 5wπö 'hπkû∑ÈÔ öÈD'ThA;>ÈT2 5>Iih¯uS SÈ'mπli32|»Ò 5öIilπı &ö¤ÈT¤'>A;fi2 bi5πnÈS 'Sπmså2| 'khπnπT2 5hIiπı 'A;kwå3 3|| ¿5hπı 'khπnπT A;ı'kh¨såT¯2 ¿GÈ'mIilÈ21|| ¿5hπı T¯u'>IiD¯u2 ¿5πn»» &n¨È>È'DIiDÈ&hå21|||) » -'mπ;ı2 — ” m¤n'h¯umå — ’ jåT'lA;h¯ — [ 5faÈT — Ì sÈ'bIik[i] — • -'mA;li2 — ] k¨'lA;mÈ —  &πnÈ'skIiTÈ2 — Ô hû'khπ∑È — »Ò -'mA;li32| — »» ¿&πıTÈ'>I;iD2 ¿5πn

10. Hindi 10.0.1. Neutral Hindi pronunciation is presented in detail (whereas regional variants are given only for the /EE, OO/ ae˚ ao phonemes, which constitute the major peculiarity – Ô û 10.2.å). Our transliteration diverges from more traditional one(s) – and from English orthography as well, which neglects vowel duration. It shows çlongÇ vowels by doubling their graphemes (ii˚ aa˚ uu), as it does for consonants (pp˚ nn), even when there is no opposition between short and long (ee˚ oo), for coherence. On the contrary, the historical indication of diphthongization is kept, for the two vocalic phonemes mentioned at the beginning (ae˚ ao), instead of using a more complicated spelling (even if a little less inaccurate, perhaps, such as ùù˚ §§]˘ We can still find –and quite often, even if it is, rightly, losing ground– a kind of transliteration which shows the three short vowels, /i, a, u/ (I, å, U), as i˚ a˚ u˚ and the three corresponding long, /ii, aa, uu/ (ii, aa, uu), as i˚ a˚ u÷ but, at the same time, it shows /ee, oo/ (ee, oo), just as e˚ o (since there are no corresponding short phonemes). ‹en transcriptions are not added, in that kind of system, it would be decidedly better to write e, o. However, we are left with the problem of /EE, OO/, which –if transcriptions are still lacking– could perhaps coincide more with the last indications given above, if one chose to write them as ™, Ø. 10.0.2. Nasalized vowels are marked with the çtildeÇ sign (i˚ q˚ ãã); however, in accordance with the system of marking long vowels with a macron, awkwardly, the tilde should be put over the macron (≤˚ >˚ I;i hÈ'wA:2 5aÖÈ 's¨È>ÈG32| ¤s'bA;T2 &pA;Gû5gA: &>åhÈ'Th™;I32| khIi5håm 'D‘¨n‘¨&m™In2| zi5A;DÈ bÈı'wA:n2| 'khaÖn&haÙ3 3|| ¤T'n™Im™In2| gû5>åm c‘¨'gA: &pπhÈ'n™;I32| 5™Ik mÈ'sA;f¤å32| ¨'DA:2\ 5A: n¤k'lA:3 3|| hÈ'wA:32| 5aÖÈ 's¨È>ÈG2| 'D‘¨n‘¨n32 ¤s'bA;T2 &på>È5zI;i &h‘¨gû'j™;I32|| khIi5D‘¨n‘¨n 'm™In&s™I32 &G‘¨pÈ5l™;I mÈ'sA;f¤å2| &khåcû'gA:3 3| ì¨5ThA;wû D™I'gA:32œ|| wû'hI;i2| zi5A;DÈ bÈı'wA:n2 såm5GA: GaÙû'gA:3 3|| '¤spA;32| ì&¨TÈ5>I;i hû'wA:2œ åp5nA: 'ph¨È>È 'zø:2 lû5gA;kû cÈı'n™;I lû'gI;i3 3|| 'l™Ik¤n2| 'wA:2 ì5GaÙs™I 'GaÙs™I2 &åpnÈ'zø:32\ bA;5hA;Ti gû'jI;i32œ| 5waÙs™I 'waÙs™I2\ mÈ'sA;f¤å2| ìåp5n™;I bÈ'Dåm 'phA:2œ| 5ch‘¨gû 'kh‘;¨2| 5aÖÈ 'bI;i zi'A;Dû 'khåskA;2| lÈ5ph™ITû gû'jA:3 3|| 5ånT 'm™;In2| hû5wA;n™I 'åpni 'kh‘¨S¤S32| 5bå˙â kA;'DI;i3 3|| 'ph¤;å2| 's¨È>ÈG2 T™I5zI;i k™I'sA;T n¤k'lA:3 3|| 5aÖÈ mÈ'sA;f¤È 'n™;I2| 5Th¨È>ÈnT 'åpnA; c‘¨'gA:3 3 ì¨5ThA: di'A:3 3œ| ¤s'lIi™I32| hû5wA: k‘¨'mA;nÈ pÈ'>A:2| &khIiÈn5D‘¨n‘¨n 'm™;In32| 5s¨È>ÈG 'hI;i2 zi5A;DÈ bÈı'wA:n&h™I3 3|| ¿5khjA: T¨m'h™;In2| ¿5jA: kû'hA;ni2 ¿È5chI;i lû'gI;i21| ¿5khjA: &ph¤È's™;I sÈ'na;Ön21|||)

11. Chinese 11.0.1. We provide the modern neutral pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese [pàto«huà /¶phu5thu˙6hwa/ (çp·u^thU,7˜wa), çcommon languageÇ, based on Pekin{g}ese), by using the o‚cial transliteration [pinyin /5phin5jin/ (^p·I~5jIn)), but accompanied by a careful phonetic transcription (which is necessary to show and acquire a good pronunciation) and by a phonemic transcription (established according to precise descriptive and teaching strategies). Chinese has various (especially vocalic) taxophones and a syllabic structure with definite phonotactic limitations. ˛erefore, in the presentation of phonemes it is always useful to deal with all the various possible syllables, especially when they have peculiar characteristics. We maintain the criterion that Chinese syllables have a consonantal initial before a final element, which –in addition to a vocalic nucleus (/i, y, M, u÷ e, X, o÷ a/)– may have an intermediate consonantal element (/j, ¥, w/ i˚ ü˚ u) — a terminal one (which can be vocalic: /i, e÷ u, o/; or consonantal: /n, ˙, >/). 11.0.2. We will see that Chinese syllables always begin with a contoid, even when they lack a real initial. In the case of close vowels, //òi, òy, òu// (whereas /M/ only occurs after the initials /q[h], s/}, we actually have /ji, ¥y, wu/ (recognized by pinyin too: yi˚ yu˚ wu). ˛e other vowels, /e, X, o, a/, are preceded by (ö) (or, but less advisably, by the following voiced phones (y, H, r, «) – respectively, velar semi-approximant, {lenis} laryngeal approximant, uvular tap, and semi-provelar nasal). 11.0.3. Let us observe that the Chinese phonetic çtraditionÇ still follows the phonic çfantasiesÇ of the Swedish sinologist Karlgren, who thought that Mandarin had two çretroflexÇ (or çapicalÇ) vowels, rendered with çq, QÇ. Actually, the former is simply a back-central vocoid, (M) (where neither çretroflexionÇ nor the lamina are active); the latter, on the other hand, is precisely a postalveolar approximant contoid found in the initial (⁄) />/ r˚ changed into the corresponding intense (çsyllabicÇ) contoid, (Ö). ˛e same çphonetic traditionÇ also lists another rare çretroflex (mid) vowelÇ, rendered with çæ&Ç which in actual fact is just the sequence (öX⁄) /X>/ er˘ It seems surprising, to say the least, that the Journal of the International Phonetic Association has accepted and published (in 2003), as an çillustration of the IPAÇ, a paper which still proposes çq, QÇ –although ipa-like masqueraded as ç(≥)Ç in both cases!– by describing them as ç(apico-)laminal denti-alveolarÇ (where no groove is rightly mentioned) and çapical post-alveolarÇ approximants respectively. ˛e latter is correctly described (¤ can(Ö)), while the former is still not (¤ can(¡)); there is a great (articulatory, auditory, and acoustic) di‡erence between (¡) and (M).

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Continuing our review of the peculiarities of this kind of phonetics çà la chinoiseÇ (done in China) and based on a çKarlgrenizedÇ pinyin, we will then see a real phonetic transcription (whose appropriate symbols we will present here in square brackets, ( )). In the West, some things can be rectified, but generally others are messed up… ˛erefore, Mandarin would have seven vowels: first, i (i, I, ¤) /i/, but with two additional çvariantsÇ –incorrectly placed among front vowels (because of the grapheme i]– èq¶ (M) /M/, in zi (qM) /qM/, ci (qhM) /qhM/, si (sM) /sM/, and èQ¶ (Ö) /ˇ/, in ˜i (fiÖ) /fiˇ/, >i (fihÖ) /fihˇ/, í (ßÖ) /ßˇ/, ri (⁄Ö) />ˇ/; however, they are true phonemes, not çvariantsÇ. ˛en, ü (y, Y) /y/ and u (u, U) /u/, with the additional çvariantÇ (y, Y) /y/, in yu˚ ju˚ qu˚ xu÷ where the only actual variant would be just the grapheme: u instead of ü˚ after çpalatalÇ consonantal graphemes, since –as a phoneme– /y/ is always /y/, irrespective of the way it is spelled. 11.0.4. Continuing, we have e (X, É, ‘, x, ∑) /X/, with its çvariantÇ (™) /e/, in contact with /j, ¥, i/, and (É) in /ae/. But it is decidedly safer to consider /X/ and /e/ as two separate phonemes, given the great phonetic di‡erence, because of interphonemic reasons (even if, from an intraphonemic point of view, ¤ just within the Chinese language, they could –or should– be considered as taxophones of the same phoneme). In addition, o (ø, Ö) /o/, with its çvariantÇ (U) /u/ – which, on the contrary, is a di‡erent phoneme. Instead, o –in contact with labials [mo˚ bo˚ po˚ fo˚ ou˚ wo/Cuo]– could be considered as a variant of /X/, as many Chinese phonologists do, by using ç(X, È)Ç. However, the occurrence of the syllables o˚ yo˚ lo (although rare) requires that a phoneme /o/ is introduced, which will obviously occur near labials as well. ˛en we have a (a, Å, A) /a/, with its variants (jEn, ¥Än), for ian˚ üan˘ ≈nally, this phonetics çà la chinoiseÇ even has a çzero (graphic) vowelÇ, when pinyin çsmartlyÇ economizes on vowels, by writing un for /wXn/ (w‘n), and iu for /jou/ (jPU), ui for /wei/ (wÙI), where a vowel is definitely present, phonically! No doubt, uen˚ iou˚ uei would have been much better. ˛anks to the use of diaphonemes, then, more realistically we will also have the diphthongs /ae, ao/ (ÅÉ, AÖ), instead of a more abstract representation as /ai, au/: ai˚ ao (pinyin stays on the fence: -i˚ -o)! 11.0.5. We will now present the o‚cial romanization. Starting from the (consonantal) initials, which are 23 (with a double occurrence of y˚ with two di‡erent values), we will not present them alphabetically, but by logical phonic groups, accompanied by their phonemic and çsimpleÇ phonetic transcriptions. ˛e latter is çsimpleÇ, because it shows only one variant (whereas, below, we will provide all necessary details): b /p/ (p), p /ph/ (ph), m /m/ (m), f /f/ (f)÷ d /t/ (t), t /th/ (th), n /n/ (n), z /q/ (q), c /qh/ (qh), s /s/ (s), l /l/ (l)÷ ˜ /fi/ (fi), > /fih/ (fih), ´ /ß/ (ß), r />/ (⁄)÷ j /q/ (Â), q /qh/ (Âh), x /s/ (¿)÷ g /k/ (k), k /kh/ (kh), h /h/ (˜)÷ w /w/ (w), y /j/ (j) “ /¥/ (¥).

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11.0.6. ˛e finals are 39 (with a triple occurrence of i˚ with three di‡erent values). ˛ey are presented according to their graphic syllabic nucleus. ˛is time, they are given in alphabetical order, even in the seven cases where the romanization has not been a happy one (as we will show in >ç Ç≥). Also the exclamations e /e/ (™), yo /jo/ (jø) occur (with various tonemes, including çzeroÇ). ˛e three finals which do not occur without an initial are marked with an asterisk (*): å a /aò/ (a), ia˚ òya /jaò/ (ja), ua˚ òwa /waò/ (wa)÷ ai /ae/ (ÅÉ), uai˚ òwai /wae/ (waÉ)÷ yai /jae/ (sole word, yái) an /an/ (Ån), ian˚ òyan /jan/ (jEn), uan˚ òwan /wan/ (wÅn), üan˚ òyuan (j/q/x + uan) /¥an/ (¥Än)÷ a« /a˙/ (a,), ia«˚ òya« /ja˙/ (ja,), ua«˚ òwa« /wa˙/ (wA,)÷ ao /ao/ (AÖ), iao˚ òyao /jao/ (jaÖ). ™ e /Xò/ (X, Xx|, ’x|), ie˚ òye /jeò/ (j™), üe˚ òyue (j/q/x + ue) /¥eò/ (¥™)÷ ei* /ei/ (™I) {(ÉI)}, en /Xn/ (Én), er /X>/ (X⁄)÷ e«* /X˙/ (x,), ue«˚ òwe« /wX˙/ (w∑,) {(wø,)}. ¤ i /iò, òjiò/ (i, ji), (s-/z-/c-) /Mò/ (M) > ï (with ü]≥, (´-/˜-/>-) /ˇò/ (Ö) > ï ≥÷ in˚ òyin /in/ (In, òjIn)÷ i«˚ òyi« /i˙/ (¤˙, òj¤˙)÷ ui˚ òwei /wei/ (wÙI) {(w¤i)} > uei ≥. ø o /oò/ (ø, øx|), ou /ou/ (øU) {(∑U)}, uo˚ òwo /woò/ (wø, wøx|) {(w∑, w∑x)}÷ o«* /u˙/ (U,) > u« ≥, io«˚ òyo« /ju˙/ (jU,) {(¥U,)} > iu«˚ yu« ≥. ¨ u˚ òwu /uò, òwuò/ (u, wu)÷ ü˚ òyu (j/q/x + u) /yò, ò¥yò/ (y, ò¥y)÷ un˚ òwen /wXn/ (w‘n) > uen ≥; ün˚ òyun (j/q/x + un) /yn, ò¥yn/ ([ò¥]Yn) {([ò]¥In, [òj]Yn)}÷ iu˚ òyou /jou/ (jPU) {(jü)} > iou ≥. Vowels 11.1.1. In our analysis, Chinese has eight vowel phonemes: /i, y, M, u÷ e, X, o÷ a/ (û 11.1). Instead, û 11.2.å-∫ show the thirteen taxophones (¤ contextual allophones – grey markers), which are very important for a good neutral pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese. On the other hand, û 11.8 presents the most recommendable realizations for an çinternationalÇ pronunciation, which is slightly simplified, but not distorted. Of course, this çinternationalÇ pronunciation will not use the realizations shown in û 11.2-7, which however are very important, because the foreign speakers who can recognize them will be greatly helped in better understanding spoken Chinese (though they need not be able to use actively those shown in û 11.6-7). Let us start then, by systematically considering each phoneme, with all the taxo-

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phones belonging to neutral pronunciation (indicating some possible phonetic variant as well, again more to for recognition than for actual use, û 11.4). 11.1.2. We first find the close front phoneme, /i/: /[òj]i, [òj]in, [òj]i˙/ ([òj]i, [òj]In, [òj]¤,) (C/y)i˚ (C/y)in˚ (C/y)i«\ (5ji) /5ji/ yi˚ ([~ii) /¶ni/ n`˚ (4jIn) /•jin/ yìn˚ (5ÂIn) /5qin/ jin˚ (7j¤¥) /6ji˙/ yí«˚ (5Â¤,) /5qi˙/ ji«˘ ˛e close front-central rounded, /y/, has a fairly limited distribution, ju˚ qu˚ xu˚ yu˚ nü˚ lü (with or without -n), /[¥]y, [¥]yn/ (¥y, ¥Yn) [variants with -n˚ (¥In, jYn)]: (5Ây) /5qy/ ju˚ ([Â·yy) /¶qhy/ qà˚ (7¿y) /6sy/ xú˚ ([¥yy) /¶¥y/ yà˚ (5ÂYn, 5Â¥In) /5qyn/ jun˚ (4Â·Yn, 4Â·¥In) /•qhyn/ qùn˚ (7¿Yc, 7¿¥Ic) /6syn/ xún˚ (4¥Yn, 4¥In, 4jYn) /•¥yn/ yùn˘ More conveniently, pinyin could have used çzü˚ cü˚ sü˚ yüÇ, by phonemically interpreting these syllables as we do: (Ây, Âhy, ¿y) /qy, qhy, sy/. It could also have avoided introducing an allograph without dieresis, by using yü for o‚cial yu (¥y) /¥y/ as well. Indeed, /¥y/ could even be /jy/; but since the phoneme /¥/ is present, it is more adequate to use it. In this way, as it seems convenient, it could also be used to show –even phonemically– the possible oscillations between (¥Yn, jYn, ¥In): /¥yn/, and ç/jyn, ¥in/Ç). ˛erefore, it could have been possible to write çz/c/siu«Ç, instead of the o‚cial j/q/xio« for (ÂjU,, ÂhjU,, ¿jU,) /qju˙, qhju˙, sju˙/ (thus also è-u«¶˚ instead of the o‚cial -o« for (0U,) /0u˙/). 11.1.3. ˛en we find the close back-central (without lip rounding!), /M/, which only occurs in /qM, qhM, sM/ (qM, qhM, sM) zi˚ ci˚ si\ (7qœ) /6qM/ zí˚ (4q·M) /•qhM/ cì˚ (5sM) /5sM/ si (but we could extend its use to a sequence like ç/M>/Ç, in place of /ˇ/, for /fiˇ, fihˇ, ßˇ, >ˇ/ (fiÖ, fihÖ, ßÖ, ⁄Ö) ˜i˚ >i˚ í˚ ri\ ([fiÎÎ) /¶fiˇ/ ˜`˚ (5fi·Ö) /5fihˇ/ >i˚ (4ßÖ) /•ßˇ/ ´ì˚ (7⁄Î) /6>ˇ/ rí]˘ ˛e last close phoneme is back rounded, /u/ (u, U), and we are obliged to use two di‡erent graphemes, because of the nature of pinyinization: u˚ o« (instead of a more logical u«]\ ([wuu) /¶wu/ wà˚ (4lu) /•lu/ lù˚ (5kU,) /5ku˙/ go«˚ (7fiU¥) /6fiu˙/ ˜ò«˘ û 11.1. Mandarin vowels. /[òj]iò/ ([òj]i) (òy)i /[ò¥]yò/ ([ò¥]y) (l/n)ü˚ yu (“ j/q/x + u] /jeò/ (j™) ie˚ òye /¥eò/ (¥™) (l/n)üe˚ òyue (“ j/q/x + ue]

/M/ (M) (z/c/s)i /[òw]uò/ ([òw]u) (òw)u /Xò/ (X, Xx|) (ò)e˚ /X>/ (X⁄) (ò)er /[w]oò/ ([w]ø, [w]øx|) (u)o˚ ò(w)o

/aò/ (a) (ò)a÷ /jaò/ (ja) ia˚ òya÷ /waò/ (wa) ua˚ òwa

11.1.4. ˛e inventory of the vowels of neutral Chinese continues with three mid vowels. We always find /e/ (™) e in the sequences /jeò, ¥eò/ (j™, ¥™) ye/Cie˚ yue/Cüe\ (4j™) /•je/ yé˚ (5tj™) /5tje/ die˚ ([¿¥™™) /¶s¥e/ xu‘˚ (7¥™) /6¥e/ yuè. ˛en, /X/, with the following distribution /Xò, X>, [w]Xn, [w]X˙/ (öX[x|], öX⁄, Én,

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w‘n, x,, w∑,) e˚ er˚ en˚ un/wen˚ e«˚ ue«/we«. ˛e last one has the variant (wø,) (which, if necessary, could be indicated as /wo˙/): (7ö$[*|]) /6X/ è˚ (5öÉn) /5Xn/ en˚ (4öX⁄) /•X>/ ér˚ (7fËc) /6fXn/ fèn˚ ([w‘‘c) /¶wXn/ w‘n˚ (7f*¥) /6fX˙/ fè«˚ (5w∑,÷ 5wø,) /5wX˙/ we«˚ (7w≤¥÷ 7wø¥) /6wX˙/ wè«˘ ≈nally, we have /o/ (öø[x|]) o˚ which can occur in the syllables /o, jo/ (ø[x|], jø[x|]), in addition to normal /mo, po, pho, [0]wo/ ([ø[x|], (ø[x|], (hø[x|], [0]wø[x|]), mo˚ bo˚ po˚ wo/Cuo\ (5[ø[x|]) /5mo/ mo˚ (4(ø[x|]) /•po/ bó˚ (7(·ø[*|]) /6pho/ pò˚ ([wøø, [wø*|) /¶wo/ wœ˚ (5fiwø) /5fiwo/ ˜uo˚ (ÒÃ,5jø) /•ha˙5jo/ há«yo˚ (7öø[*|]) /6o/ ò! ‹en final, before a pause, /X, o/ normally have the accompaniment (x), as can be seen from various examples. Instead of /mo, po, pho/, we could even pose /mwo, pwo, phwo/, for ([ø[x|], (ø[x|], (hø[x|]), while maintaining /mou, phou/ (møU, phøU) (/pou/ does not occur), by dissimilation. 11.1.5. Lastly, we find the open vowel, /a/, with its distributions and various taxophones, /[0]aò, jan, ¥an, [w/0]an, [j]a˙, wa˙/ (öa, jEn, ¥Än, [w/0]Ån, [j]a,, wA,): (5öa&ëa) /5aqa/ aza˚ (7t·a) /6tha/ tà˚ (4jEn) /•jan/ yán˚ ([tjEEc) /¶tjan/ di∑n˚ (7¥Éc) /6¥an/ yuàn˚ (5Â·¥Än) /5qh¥an/ quan˚ ([öÅÅc) /¶an/ ∑n˚ (4p·Ån) /•phan/ pán˚ (4p·a,) /•pha˙/ pá«˚ ([wÅÅc) /¶wan/ w∑n˚ (5ja,) /5ja˙/ ya«˚ ([wAA¥) /¶wa˙/ w∑«˘ û 11.2.å. Important taxophones. /[òj]in/ ([òj]In) (òy)in

/jan/ (jEn) ian˚ òyan /¥an/ (¥Än) yuan (“ + j/q/x + un, “ lüan]

/[ò¥]yn/ ([ò¥]Yn) {([ò]¥In), [òj]Yn)} yun (“ j/q/x + un, “ lün) /Xn/ (Én) (ò)en /wXn/ (w‘n) un˚ òwen /[w]an/ ([w]Ån) (u)an˚ ò(w)an

û 11.2.∫. Further important taxophones.

/[òj]i˙/ ([òj]¤,) (òy)ing /X˙/ (x,) eng /’Xò|/ (x) e /[j]a˙/ ([j]a,) (i)ang˚ ò(y)ang

/u˙/ (U,) ong /ju˙/ (jU˙) {(¥U,)} iong˚ òyong {/[w]oò/ ([w]∑, [w]∑x|) (u)o˚ ò(w)o] /wX˙/ (w∑,) {(wø,)} ueng˚ òweng /wa˙/ (wA,) uang˚ òwang

Diphthongs 11.1.6. Moving to diphthongs (Ô û 11.3), we have /[w]ei, [w]ae, [j]ao, [j]ou/ (™I, wÙI, ÅÉ, waÉ, jaÖ, AÖ, øU, jPU) ei˚ ui˚ (u)ai˚ (i)ao˚ ou˚ iu÷ for /[w]ei, [j]ou/ there are also the possible variants (shown in û 11.4, which are not necessary for a good pronunciation, and will be given only here), (ÉI, w¤i, ∑U, jü): (5f™I÷ 5fÉI) /5fei/ fei˚ (5twÙI÷ 5tw¤i) /5twei/ dui˚ ([öÅÅË) /¶ae/ ∑i˚ (7waË) /6wae/ wài˚ ([öAAÖ) /¶ao/ ∑o˚ ([ÃAÖ)

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/¶hao/ h∑o˚ (4jaÖ) /•jao/ yáo˚ (5öøU÷ 5ö∑U) /5ou/ Ou˚ ([møøU÷ [m≤≤U) /¶mou/ mœu˚ (5tjPU÷ 5tjü) /5tjou/ diu˘ û 11.3. Mandarin diphthongs.

/wei/ (wÙI) ui˚ òwei /ei/ (™I) ei /ae/ (ÅÉ) (ò)ai /wae/ (waÉ) uai˚ òwai

/jou/ (jPU) iu˚ òyou /ou/ (øU) (ò)ou /jao/ (jaÖ) iao˚ òyao /ao/ (AÖ) (ò)ao

û 11.4. Possible diphthong variants. {/wei/ (w¤i) ui˚ òwei] {/ei/ (ÉI) ei]

{/jou/ (jü) iu˚ òyou] {/ou/ (∑U) (ò)ou]

Vowels with final in />/ (⁄) -r 11.1.7. ˛is characteristic is typical of Peking (Beijing). It enjoys prestige, but is not completely accepted into neutral language, pàto«huà, although it is regularly indicated in dictionaries and grammars. Actually, the Pekinese themselves often try to avoid it; whereas the other Chinese (whether Mandarin or non-Mandarin) have not fully master of its use, fluctuating considerably. However, its true and genuine distribution shows very substantial neutralizations, since the segments that actually occur (besides /ˇ/, preceded by /fi[h]-, ß-, >-/: (fiÖ, fihÖ, ßÖ, ⁄Ö) ˜i˚ >i˚ í˚ ri, already seen in § 11.1.3) are /X>, X˙>, a>, a˙>/ (X⁄, ≈⁄, å⁄, ˙⁄), as shown in û 11.5 (which includes (öX⁄) /X>/ er˚ § 1.4). ˛ey are represented in pinyin either by e(n)r˚ e«r˚ a(n)r˚ a«r˚ or by the original syllables with the addition of -r˚ although their pronunciation is reduced to the four already seen, which can be preceded by the middle consonants /j, ¥, w/, often deriving from original /i, y, u/. Let us see at once the four types: (5kX⁄) /5kX>/ ger˚ ([p$$Y) /¶pX>/ b‘nr˚ (4˜≈⁄) /•hX˙>/ hé«r˚ ([nååY) /¶na>/ n∑r˚ (7påY) /6pa>/ bànr˚ (5q˙⁄) /5qa˙>/ za«r÷ (5˜wå⁄) /5hwa>/ huar˚ (7mjåY) /6mja>/ miànr˘ We will now consider those with etymological writing, but which are always realized as /X>, X˙>, a>, a˙>/ (X⁄, ≈⁄, å⁄, ˙⁄), preceded –or not– by /j, ¥, w/ (sometimes /¥, w/ correspond to ü and u/o]\ (4p·å⁄) /•pha>/ páir˚ (7Â·¥$Y) /6qh¥X>/ qúr˚ (7ßw$Y) /6ßwX>/ ´úr˚ (7q·$Y) /6qhX>/ cír˚ ([q$$Y) /¶qX>/ z`r˚ (5kwå⁄) /5kwa>/ guanr˚ (5kw≈⁄) /5kwX˙>/ go«r˚ (5sw‘n&~¥X⁄, -~&~-) /5swXnn¥X>/ sunnür˚ (4¿i&fwX⁄) /•sifwX>/ xìfur˚ (^fiÖ4ljX⁄) /5fiˇ•ljX>/ ˜iliùr˚ (4ÂjX⁄) /•qjX>/ jiér˚ (5ã2bå[t·w$$Y) /5hapa¶thwX>/ habatu`r˚ (7tU¥œ¸j/ dò«ji«r˚ (7j$Y) /6jX>/ yínr˚ ([s$$Y) /¶sX>/ s`r˚ (5˜X⁄)

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/5hX>/ heir˚ (5t·jå⁄) /5thja>/ tianr˚ (4mjå⁄) /•mja>/ miáor˚ (7q·w$Y) /6qhwX>/ cuòr˚ (4t·wX⁄) /•thwX>/ tóur˚ (^ßÅm5p·wX⁄) /5ßan5phwX>/ ánpor˘ û 11.5. Vowels with />/ (⁄) -r.

/X>/ (X⁄) -e(n)r… /X˙>/ (≈⁄) -engr… /a>/ (å⁄) -a(n)r…

/a˙>/ (˙⁄) -angr…

11.1.8. O‚cial orthography separates the forms which in Chinese characters are çnormalÇ plus ér˘ ˛erefore, non-Mandarin people tend to pronounce the two syllables separated and with their tones (as in a sort of çinternationalÇ Mandarin). In addition, many non-Pekinese Mandarin people join the two syllables into one, but with less neutralizations. Hence, besides the four genuine syllables (with or without middle consonants), we can also find the following ones, excluding those with front close vowels, /i, y/ (i, I, ¤÷ y, Y), that articulatorily do not adapt to (⁄), which is postalveolar. ˛us, we mark them with an asterisk, to advise that, although it is possible to hear them pronounced in that way by Chinese people, they do not fall within neutral pronunciation: *(7ßuY) /6ßwX>/ ´úr˚ *(5kU⁄÷ 5kÚ⁄) /5kwX˙>/ go«r˚ *(4¿i&fu⁄) /•sifwX>/ xìfur˚ *(^fiÖ4ljPU⁄÷ -4ljü⁄) /5fiˇ•ljX>/ ˜iliùr˚ *(4Âj™⁄÷ 4ÂjÉ⁄) /•qjX>/ jiér˚ *(5ãbå[t·wÙÙY) /5hapa¶thwX>/ habatu`r˚ *(5˜™⁄÷ 5˜É⁄) /5hX>/ heir˚ *(4mjaÖ⁄) /•mja>/ miáor˚ *(7q·wøY÷ 7q·w≤Y) /6qhwX>/ cuòr˚ *(4t·øU⁄÷ 4t·∑U⁄) /•thwX>/ tóur˚ *(^ßÅm5p·ø⁄) /5ßan5phwX>/ ánpor˘ In any case, of course, these pronunciations are not to be imitated. Vowel reductions 11.1.9. In syllables with neuter/zero tonemes (Ô § 11.3.3.4), some timbric reductions occur (together with shortenings), mainly in di‡erent positions from word-final ones, or in intonemes. As a matter of fact, in actual language, apart from in slow and accurate speech, some neutralizations occur too. It is fundamental to know them, at least to understand spoken Chinese (well). ˛ey need not be used actively, although an appropriate use of them decidedly improves pronunciation. In order to adequately show the behavior of di‡erent unstressed syllables (for vowel, consonant, and pitch reductions), sometimes we also had to use rare words, rather than omitting something significant. û 11.6 shows the most important reductions, which actually occur in non-tonic syllables (¤ in the real sense of çdeprived of any of the four basic tonemesÇ, Ô § 11.3.3.1-3). ˛e examples given are to be interpreted as in a sort of decreasing scale, starting from a prepausal position, in an intoneme (for the first variants), up to modifications produced within a sentence, in a preintoneme (for the others). As

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can be seen, (¤) applies to /i[n/˙], y[n]/: (7tiœ∂i), (-3d¤) /6titi/ dídi˚ (5kwÅ~&ñi), (-3B¤) /5kwansi/ guanxi˚ (7¿jaœ¸y), (-3¸i, -3©¤) /6sjaqy/ xiàqu÷ and (û), to /M[>], u[˙]/: (7jiœΩœ), (-3zŒ) /6jisM/ yísi˚ (7⁄Ë∫œËÎ), (-3ΩŒ) /6>Xnßˇ/ rèní˚ (5ßu&Ñu), (-vû) /5ßufu/ úfu˘ û 11.6. Reductions in syllables with çzeroÇ tones (in quick speech, not in an intoneme; whereas, in an intoneme, the distinct timbers of û 11.1-3 are used).

/i, y/ (¤) /Xn, e/ (È), /[w]ei/ ([j]È¤) /a[n]/ (å[n]), /[w]ae/ ([j]åÉ)

/M, u/ (û) /X[˙], o/ (X), /[j]ou/ ([ã]X¨) /a˙/ (√,), /[j]ao/ ([ã]√Ö)

11.1.10. In addition, we have (È), for /[j/¥]e, [w]Xn/, and (È¤) for /[w]ei/: ([Âj™™^©ã™), (-1©ã™, -1©ãÈ) /¶qjeqje/ ji‘jie˚ (7öÅËœ⁄Ëc), (-3⁄Ëc, -3⁄Èc) /6ae>Xn/ àiren˚ (7m™Iœm™I), (-3mÈ¤) /6meimei/ mèimei÷ then (X), for /X, [w]X˙, [w]o/, and ([j]X¨), for /[j]ou/: (5kX&âX), (-2gX) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (çt¤¥^2X), (-1"X) /¶ti˙fiX/ d`«˜e˚ (5¿jEN&Ëx,), (-2ΩX,) /5sjanßX˙/ xiané«˚ (7Âj™œm$), (-3m$) /6qjemo/ jièmo˚ (çnwÅ©^∆jø), (-1hjX) /¶nwanhwo/ nu∑nhuo˚ (7¥U¥œ∂øU), (-3d$¨) /6¥u˙tou/ yò«tou˚ (4p·x,&jøU), (-2ãX¨) /•phX˙jou/ pé«you˘ Lastly, we have: (å) in /a[n], [w]a, [w]ae/: (7paœÊa), (-3bå) /6papa/ bàba˚ (5ma&ma), (-2må) /5mama/ mama˚ (ç¿i^∆wan), (-1hjån) /¶sihwan/ x`huan˚ (7t·ÅËœthaË), (-3tåË) /6thaethae/ tàitai÷ and (√) in /a˙, [j]ao/: ([wÅÅ∫^Ëa,), (-1Ω√,) /¶wanßa˙/ w∑ná«˚ (5fiÖ&∂AÖ), (-2d√Ö) /5fiˇtao/ ˜idao˘ û 11.7. Further reductions in syllables with çzeroÇ tones (in even quicker speech, not in an intoneme; then, in an intoneme, the realizations of û 11.6 are also possible).

/i, y, M[>], u/ (¢) /ae/ (É), /ja/ (jÉ)

/ou, uo, ao/ (∑) /X, -X-÷ a, -a-/ (‘)

11.1.11. In û 11.7 other attenuations are shown, or neutralizations too, which are possible in even faster –but still çnormal and genuineÇ– speech. We find (¢) for /i, y, M, u÷ >/ (z/c/s˚ ˜/>/´)i˚ ü˚ u\ (7tiœ∂i), (-3d¤, -3d^) /6titi/ dídi˚ (5kwÅ~&ñi), (-2B¤, -2B^) /5kwansi/ guanxi˚ (7¿jaœ¸y), (-3©i, -3©¤, -3©^) /6sjaqy/ xiàqu˚ (7jiœΩœ), (-3zŒ, -3z^) /6jisM/ yísi˚ (7⁄Ë∫œËÎ), (-3ΩŒ, -3Ω^) /6>Xnßˇ/ rèní˚ (5ßu&Ñu), (-2vŒ, -2v^) /5ßufu/ úfu÷ and (∑) for /ou, uo, ao/: (çnwÅ©^∆wø), (-1hjX, -1h∑) /¶nwanhwo/ nu∑nhuo˚ (7¥U¥œ∂øU), (-3d$¨, -3d≤) /6¥u˙tou/ yò«tou˚ (4p·x,&jøU), (-2ãX¨, -2ã∑) /•phX˙jou/ pé«you˚ (5fiÖ&∂AÖ), (-2d√Ö, -2d∑) /5fiˇtao/ ˜idao˘

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Besides, (É) in /ae, ja/ (É, ãÉ): (7t·ÅËœthÅË), (-3tåË, -3tË) /6thaethae/ tàitai˚ (4⁄É~&¸ãa), (-2©ãå, -2©ãÉ) /•>Xnqja/ rénjia÷ and (‘) for /X/ an for any other /a/ a: (5kX&âX), (-2g‘) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (çt¤¥^ËX), (-1Ω‘) /¶ti˙ßX/ d`«˜e˚ (7öÅËœ⁄*c), (-3⁄‘c) /6ae>Xn/ àiren˚ (5¿jEN&Ëx,), (-2Ω‘,) /5sjanßX˙/ xiané«˚ (7paœÊa), (-3bå, -3b‘) /6papa/ bàba˚ (5maœma), (-3må, -3m‘) /5mama/ mama˚ (ç¿i^∆wan), (-1hjån, -1hj‘n, -1hÏn) /¶sihwan/ x`huan˚ (çwÅ∫^Ëa,), (-1Ωå,, -1Ω‘,) /¶wanßa˙/ w∑ná«˘ £International Mandarin∞ vowels 11.1.12. û 11.8 shows the vowel realizations that are su‚cient for an çinternationalÇ pronunciation of Chinese, without taxophones (thus, without either attenuations or neutralizations such as those given in û 11.6-7; equally, we do not even mark creaky voice, which is çsuperfluousÇ in an international kind of pronunciation). So we have only eight monophthongs (and four diphthongs, obtained by combining five of the eight basic ones). ˛ey are a satisfactory result, once (M, x) have been learned. ˛erefore, we have: (5ji) /5ji/ yi˚ ([~ii) /¶ni/ n`˚ (•jin) /•jin/ yìn˚ (5Âin) /5qin/ jin˚ (7ji˙) /6ji˙/ yí«˚ (5Âi˙) /5qi˙/ ji«˘ ˛en: (5Ây) /5qy/ ju˚ ([Âhyy) /¶qhy/ qà˚ (7¿y) /6sy/ xú˚ ([¥yy) /¶¥y/ yà˚ (5Âyn) /5qyn/ jun˚ (•Âhyn) /•qhyn/ qùn˚ (7¿yn) /6syn/ xún˚ (•¥yn) /•¥yn/ yùn˘ Besides: ([wuu) /¶wu/ wà˚ (•lu) /•lu/ lù˚ (5ku˙) /5ku˙/ go«˚ (7fiu˙) /6fiu˙/ ˜ò« (•j™) /•je/ yé˚ (5tj™) /5tje/ die˚ (7¥™) /6¥e/ yuè˚ ([¿¥™™) /¶s¥e/ xu‘÷ and (7öx) /6X/ è˚ (5öxn) /5Xn/ en˚ (•öX⁄) /•X>/ ér˚ (7fxn) /6fXn/ fèn˚ ([wxxn) /¶wXn/ w‘n˚ (7fx˙) /6fX˙/ fè«˚ (5wx˙) /5wX˙/ we«˚ (7wx˙) /6wX˙/ wè«˘ More: (5mø) /5mo/ mo˚ (•pø) /•po/ bó˚ (7phø) /6pho/ pò˚ ([wøø) /¶wo/ wœ˚ (5fiwø) /5fiwo/ ˜uo˚ (Òha˙5jø) /•ha˙5jo/ há«yo˚ (7öø) /6o/ ò! and (5öa&qa) /5aqa/ aza˚ (7tha) /6tha/ tà˚ (•jan) /•jan/ yán˚ ([tjaan) /¶tjan/ di∑n˚ (7¥an) /6¥an/ yuàn˚ (5Âh¥an) /5qh¥an/ quan˚ ([öaan) /¶an/ ∑n˚ (•phan) /•phan/ pán˚ (•pha˙) /•pha˙/ pá«˚ ([waan) /¶wan/ w∑n˚ (5ja˙) /5ja˙/ ya«˚ ([waa˙) /¶wa˙/ w∑«˘ 11.1.13. And with />/: ([fiÖÖ) /¶fiˇ/ ˜`˚ (5fihÖ) /5fihˇ/ >i˚ (•ßÖ) /•ßÖ/ ´ì˚ (7⁄Ö) /6>ˇ/ rí÷ (5kx⁄) /5kX>/ ger˚ ([pxx⁄) /¶pX>/ b‘nr˚ (•h≈⁄) /•hX˙>/ hé«r˚ ([naa⁄) /¶na>/ n∑r˚ (7pa⁄) /6pa>/ bànr˚ (5qÅ⁄) /5qa˙>/ za«r÷ (5hwa⁄) /5hwa>/ huar˚ (7mja⁄) /6mja>/ miànr÷ and (•pha⁄) /•pha>/ páir˚ (7Âh¥x⁄) /6qh¥X>/ qúr˚ (7ßwx⁄) /6ßwX>/ ´úr˚ (7qhx⁄) /6qhX>/ cír˚ ([qxx⁄) /¶qX>/ z`r˚ (5kwa⁄) /5kwa>/ guanr˚ (5kw≈⁄) /5kwX˙>/ go«r˚ (5swxn&n¥x⁄) /5swXnn¥X>/ sunnür˚ (•¿i&fwx⁄) /•sifwX>/ xìfur˚ (^fiÖ•ljx⁄) /5fiˇ•ljX>/ ˜iliùr˚ (•Âjx⁄) /•qjX>/ jiér˚ (^ha2pa[thwxx⁄) /5hapa¶thwX>/ habatu`r˚ (7tu˙œÂj≈⁄) /6tu˙qjX˙>/ dò«ji«r˚ (7jx⁄) /6jX>/ yínr˚ ([sxx⁄) /¶sX>/ s`r˚ (5hx⁄) /5hX>/ heir˚ (5thja⁄) /5thja>/ tianr˚ (•mja⁄) /•mja>/ miáor˚ (7qhwx⁄) /6qhwX>/ cuòr˚ (•thwx⁄) /•thwX>/ tóur˚ (^ßam5phwx⁄, -n5p-) /5ßan5phwX>/ ánpor˘ For diphthongs, we have: (5f™i) /5fei/ fei˚ (5tw™i) /5twei/ dui˚ ([öaa™) /¶ae/ ∑i˚ (7wa™) /6wae/ wài˚ ([öaaø) /¶ao/ ∑o˚ ([haaø) /¶hao/ h∑o˚ (•jaø) /•jao/ yáo˚ (5öøu) /5ou/ Ou˚ ([møøu) /¶mou/ mœu˚ (5tjøu) /5tjou/ diu˘

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11.1.14. In a type of çinternationalÇ pronunciation, even vowel reductions are not so necessary; thus (fairly safely) we have: (7ti3ti) /6titi/ dídi˚ (5kwa~&¿i, -n&¿i) /5kwansi/ guanxi˚ (7¿jaœÂy) /6sjaqy/ xiàqu÷ and (7jiœsM) /6jisM/ yísi˚ (7⁄xNœßÖ, -nœßÖ) /6>Xnßˇ/ rèní˚ (5ßu&fu) /5ßufu/ úfu˚ ([Âj™™^Âj™) /¶qjeqje/ ji‘jie˚ (7öa™œ⁄xn) /6ae>Xn/ àiren˚ (7m™iœm™i) /6meimei/ mèimei. In addition: (5kx&kx) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (çti˙^fix) /¶ti˙fiX/ d`«˜e˚ (5¿jaN&ßx˙, -n&ßx˙) /5sjanßX˙/ xiané«˚ (7Âj™œmø) /6qjemo/ jièmo˚ (çnwa˙^hwø, çnwan-) /¶nwanhwo/ nu∑nhuo˚ (7¥u˙œtøu) /6¥u˙tou/ yò«tou˚ (•phx˙&jøu) /•phX˙jou/ pé«you÷ also (7paœpa) /6papa/ bàba˚ (5ma&ma) /5mama/ mama˚ (ç¿i^hwan) /¶sihwan/ x`huan˚ (7tha™œtha™) /6thaethae/ tàitai÷ and (çwaN^ßa˙, -n^ßa˙) /¶wanßa˙/ w∑ná«˚ (5fiÖ&taø) /5fiˇtao/ ˜idao˘ û 11.8. çInternational Mandarin ChineseÇ vowels. /i[n/˙]/ ([òj]i[n/˙]) /y[n]/ ([ò¥]y, [ò¥]yn) /je/ (j™), /¥e/ (¥™), /[w]ei/ ([w]™i)

/M/ (M) /u/ ([òw]u), /[j]u˙/ ([j]u˙) /X/ (x), /[w]Xn/ ([w]xn), /[w]X˙/ ([w]x˙) /[w]o/ ([w]ø), /[j]ou/ ([j]øu)

/[j/¥/w]a[n/˙], [w]ae, [j]ao/ ([j/¥/w]a[n/˙], [w]a™, [j]aø)

Consonants 11.2.0. ˛e consonant system of (Mandarin) Chinese has some interesting peculiarities, as we will see, including some alternative possibilities of phonemic analysis. ˛e most important one regards the choice on the phonemic status of (Â, Âh, ¿); in fact, pinyin has chosen their ço‚cialÇ acknowledgement –as j˚ q˚ x– to the detriment of vowels, which are rendered as i˚ u˚ after (Â, Âh, ¿), with the following values: /i, y÷ j, ¥/. On the contrary, it would have been su‚cient to systematically use ï˚ ü (instead of fluctuating between yu˚ ju˚ qu˚ xu and nü˚ lü] – that is always yü˚ jü˚ qü˚ xü˚ nü˚ lü (all the more so because with nü˚ lü both a dieresis and tone-accents must be used). Besides, zï˚ cï˚ sï˚ (fiM, fihM, ßM) would have been useful as well, by producing even greater coherence (which is always useful). Consequently, also ˜ï˚ >ï˚ ´ï˚ rï ought to have been used (instead of the pinyin o‚cial ˜i˚ >i˚ í˚ ri]˚ with the value of (fiÖ, fihÖ, ßÖ, ⁄Ö). At this point, having seen the vowel phonemic inventory (which we have established, Ô § 11.1.1-5), it is obvious that our analysis prefers to consider (Â, Âh, ¿) as the result of the assimilation of /q, qh, s/ in contact with /i, y÷ j, ¥/. All this, of course, is irrespective of morphological considerations, which are lexically derived, since they are not at all absolute (rather, they are quite capricious indeed). ˛us, even for native speakers, the o‚cial choices have only limited (or seeming) advantages; therefore, we are convinced that the possibility of considering (Â, Âh, ¿) as realizations of /k, kh, h/ is much less preferable – even though sequences like */ki, khi, hi, ky, khy, hy/ do not occur, which would allow to speak of complementary

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distribution. Phonology, in order to be useful, must be explicit and not at all esoteric (although this would not be wrong diachronically). In the table of û 11.9, which gives the consonantal articulations of Mandarin Chinese, to save space, we show as /05/ (whereas here we use ç/0[h]/Ç = /0, 0h/) the consonants which are distinct phonemically. In fact, simple consonants oppose çaspirationÇ sequences (Ô Stops, § 11.2.2, and Stopstrictives, § 11.2.3). Instead, û 1.9-15 show the orograms, grouped by manners of articulation, of all the contoids given in the chapters of this handbook for the 12 languages dealt with, including secondary, occasional, or regional variants.

ö F Ô ƒ _ ß ‹

m ([) (M) p5 (b) ((5 {)

(n) n (N) t5 (d) q5 (Q) fi5 (")

(~)* (Â5 ©)

(˙) k5 (g)

laryngeal

uvular

velar rounded

velar

postpalatal rounded

palatal

bilabialized prepalatal (* prepalat.)

postalveolar

alveolar

dental

labiodental round.

labiodental

bilabial rounded

bilabial

û 11.9. Table of Chinese consonants.

,

f (v) (5 ç)

(ö) (·)

s (z)

ß (Ω) ⁄

(¿ B)

j|(ã) ¥|(%) (∆) l /˙/ (,), />/ (⁄), /h/ (·, h, ˜, ∆)

w|(j) (˜)

h

Nasals 11.2.1.1. ˛ere are three nasal phonemes, /m, n, ˙/ (m, [÷ M, n, N, ~, ˙÷ ,) m˚ n˚ «˘ In syllable-final position only /n, ˙/ occur; and the latter always maintains its uvular articulation ((,)) even before any consonants. Instead, /n/ regularly assimilates (except in very slow and accurate pronunciation), even if assimilation is only partial for /nj, n¥, nw/ (~j, ~¥, ˙w) (instead of *(Nj, N¥/”¥, ˙w) which are theoretical). However, let us notice the reduced forms of wœmen and tamen, which become monosyllabic, with /mò/ (Ô § 11.3.1.2). ˛e tendency of /nò/ to assimilation is so strong that we can find cases such as: (¿ÒÂj™5˜j‘n2lX&ma31, -j‘l2lX-) /•qje5hwXnlXma?/ Jié hun le ma? Mandarin has /n/ (~) + /i, y÷ j, ¥/ (although Pekinese presents instead (n), which can be used fairly safely). On the other hand, we need not use a more specific symbol, ((˙)), before dentals /t, th, q, qh, s/. On the contrary, it is useful to choose ([) in /mo/ (which could be rendered as /mwo/ ([ø[x]), whereas /mou/ is (møU), by dissimilation). Syllable- and word-final nasals always have an inaudible release, even before a pause: ((næ, ,æ)). (˛is is quite normal for other oriental languages such as Cantonese, ˛ai, Cambodian, cetnamese, Tagalog, Malay, and Indonesian – even for final voiceless stops, which Mandarin has lost.)

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11.2.1.2. Here are some examples: (5mAÖ) /5mao/ mao˚ (5[ø) /5mo/ mo˚ ([nAAÖ) /¶nao/ n∑o˚ (4p·Én) /•phXn/ pén˚ (4p·x,) /•phX˙/ pé«÷ (œ˜Ëc7ö$[*|]) /¶hXn6X/ h‘n è˚ (ÒÂ·¥Än[t·ii) /•qh¥an¶thi/ quánt`˚ (œÂIc[qAAÖ) /¶qin¶qao/ j`nz∑o˚ (0twÅn7ljEc) /6twan6ljan/ duànliàn˚ (Ò⁄Ém4mIn) /•>Xn•min/ rénmìn˚ (Òlw‘m5pÅn) /•lwXn5pan/ lùnban˚ (0k·aü[faa) /6khan¶fa/ kànf∑˚ (^pjE~4Âi) /5pjan•qi/ bianjì˚ (0ÂI∫[fiÎÎ) /6qin¶fiˇ/ jín˜`˚ (0p·ÅÊ4Â¥™) /6phan•q¥e/ pànjué˚ (œpjEÊ4¥y) /¶pjan•¥y/ bi∑nyù˚ (ÒkÅ∫[⁄ÅÅc) /¶kan¶>an/ g∑nr∑n˚ (ÒpI˙[kwÅÅc) /5pin¶kwan/ bingu∑n˚ (0ÂjE˙7wA¥) /6qjan6wa˙/ jiànwà«˚ (ÒljE,5˜wÅn) /•ljan5hwan/ liánhuan˘ ©th /˙/: (Òji7lu Òp·¤,5öÅn) /•ji6lu •phi˙5an/ yìlú pì«'an˚ (^fx,7mjEc) /5fX˙6mjan/ fe«miàn˚ (œk·U¥7pu) /¶khu˙6pu/ kœ«bú˚ (0la,7f™I) /6la˙6fei/ là«fèi˚ (^fx,[tii) /5fX˙¶ti/ fe«d`˚ (œk·U¥7¿i) /¶khu˙6si/ kœ«xí˚ (Òp·¤,4¥y) /•phi˙•¥y/ pì«yù˚ (^ßx,7⁄Î) /5ßX˙6>ˇ/ é«rí˚ (^fx,7ßÅc) /5fX˙6ßan/ fe«´àn˚ (Òp·¤,[kwøø, -[kwø*|) /•phi˙¶kwo/ pì«guœ˘ In an çinternational-likeÇ pronunciation, it is su‚cient to use (˙), instead of (,), and also (n) before /i, y÷ j, ¥/ (and, possibly, before other consonants too]˘ Stops 11.2.2.1. We have three voiceless phonemes, /p, t, k/, which occur as either plain, /0/, or in çaspirationÇ sequences, /0h/, with distinctive values. Before seeing some examples, we have to explain the nature and consistency of both voicelessness and çaspirationÇ. In fact, except in slow (or very accurate) speech, /pé, té, ké/, are realized as (p, t, k) only in fully stressed syllables (or after pauses), whereas in half-stressed syllables they are (Ê, ∂, â) or, in unstressed syllables, even (b, d, g). On the other hand –in a parallel way– /phé, thé, khé/, in fully stressed syllables (or after pauses), are sequences of voiceless stops and a laryngeal constrictive (decidedly çstrongÇ, (p·, t·, k·) (however, it is possible to find a semi-constrictive as well, ((0Ö)), which is weaker). In half-stressed syllables, we have sequences with a laryngeal approximant, (ph, th, kh); whereas, in unstressed syllables, we can even find plain voiceless stops, (p, t, k). We choose to adopt this kind of normalized transcription (although oscillations are frequent indeed, including sequences with a voiceless laryngeal semi-approximant, ((0h))). A degree of distinctivity between çaspirationÇ and çnon-aspirationÇ, however, is guaranteed. In fact, we have: /0h/ ('=·, &=h, ’=), /0/ ('=, &Ò, ’Ê), with strong and weak extremes meeting, as (=). Although they coincide phonetically, they remain distinct functionally, from a phonemic point of view. Before /o/ (not /ou/, by dissimilation) we find ((), which sounds rather di‡erent from the common (p) of other languages. 11.2.2.2. Let us now see the following examples: (5pIn) /5pin/ bin˚ (4(ø) /•po/ bo˚ (7(·ø) /6pho/ pò˚ (4tj™) /•tje/ dié˚ (4k·wÙI) /•khwei/ kuì˚ (^p·¤,5p·a,) /5phi˙5pha˙/ pi«pa«˚ (0t·jAÖ[wuu) /6thjao¶wu/ tiàowà˚ (5k·x,) /5khX˙/ ke«÷ (7paœÊa|, 7pa3bå) /6papa/ bàba˚ (7tiœ∂i|, 7ti3dI) /6titi/ dídi˚ (5kX&âX|, 5kX2gÈ) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (7ßÎ-

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œphÅË|, 7ßÎ3påË) /6ßˇphae/ ´ípai˚ (4p·u&thAÖ|, 4p·u2t√Ö) /•phuthao/ pùtao˚ (4p·u2t√Ö[ÂjÕÕU÷ -2t∑-) /•phuthao¶qjou/ pùtaojià˚ (7q·œœkh$|, -3kÈ) /6qhMkhX/ cíke˘ As we have seen (§ 11.0.2 “ § 11.2.1), there is also a laryngeal stop, which is important though not phonemic (with some less advisable alternative variants, (y, H, r, «)). It is useful to adequately maintain the articulatory identity of final consonants (/n, ˙, >/) before initial vowels. Stop-strictives 11.2.3. As far as this manner (of articulation) is concerned, in our analysis (with the same normalized characteristics of voicing and çaspirationÇ as for Chinese stops) we have /q, qh/ ('q, &ë, ’Q÷ 'q·, &qh, ’q) z˚ c˚ in addition to ('Â, &¸, ’©÷ 'Â·, &Âh, ’Â) j˚ q˚ before /i, y÷ j, ¥/ (Ô § 11.2.0), and /fi, fih/ ('fi, &2, ’"÷ 'fi·, &fih, ’fi) ˜˚ >˘ Here are some examples (expressly chosen with final syllables without tonemes): (5qÅÉ) /5qae/ zai˚ (7q·wÅc) /6qhwan/ cuàn˚ (5Ây) /5qy/ ju˚ (4Â·¥U,÷ 4Â·jU,) /•q¥u˙/ qió«˚ (7fi™I) /6fiei/ ˜èi˚ (4fi·Ö) /•fiˇ/ >ì÷ (4pi&ëM|, 4pi2Qû) /•piqM/ bìzi˚ (4¥Yn&qhÅÉ|, 4¥Yn2qåÉ÷ 4jYn-) /•¥ynqhae/ yùncai˚ (7tjEÊœ¸i|, 7tjEÊ2©¤) /6tjanqi/ diànji˚ (5t·jE~&Âhi|, 5t·jE~Â¤) /5thjanqhi/ tianqi˚ (4q·ÅÉ&2Ö|, 4q·ÅÉ2"Ö) /•qhaefiˇ/ cái˜i˚ (4p·™I&fihÉn|, 4p·™I2fiÈn) /•pheifihXn/ péi>en˘ Constrictives 11.2.4. ˛ere are three constrictive phonemes. Again they are all phonemically voiceless, but with the usual voicings which depend on syllable-strength attenuation. ˛us we have: /f/ ('f, &Ñ, ’v) f, /s/ ('s, &Ω, ’z) s and ('¿, &ñ, ’B) x, /ß/ ('ß, &Ë, ’Ω) ´\ (4fu) /•fu/ fù˚ (4ma&ÑÅn|, 4mavån) /•mafan/ máfan˚ (7swÙI÷ 7sw¤i) /6swei/ suí˚ (5fx,&Ωu|, 5fx,2zû) /5fX˙su/ fe«su˚ (4¿¥™&ñi|, 4¿¥™2B¤) /•s¥esi/ xuéxi˚ (5ßu) /5ßu/ ú˚ (4lja,&ËÖ|, 4lja,2ΩÖ) /•lja˙ßˇ/ liá«í˘ Before /o/ (not /ou/) we find (5) (as happens for other labial phonemes): (45ø{x}) /•fo/ fó˘ ˛erefore, we could even pose /fwo/ instead of /fo/ (but /fou/ (føU), by dissimilation). Approximants 11.2.5.1. Chinese has five approximant phonemes in our analysis. ˛e first is postalveolar, />/ (⁄): (4⁄Én) /•>Xn/ rén˚ (4⁄w‘c) /•>wXn/ rún˚ (4öX⁄) /•X>/ ér˚ ([ßÎÎ) /¶ßˇ/ ´`˘ (British English />/ (>) is laterally contracted and has a certain amount of lip rounding, thus is di‡erent – Ô English ('>a;Ö) /'u/ pírù˚ (0p¨[faa) /6pu¶fa/ búf∑˚ (0t·î5ßÉn) /6thi5ßXn/ tíén˚ (0t¨[k·øøU) /6tu¶khou/ dúkœu˚ (0Âÿ4t·wÅn) /6qy•thwan/ jútuán˚ (0k·¨[fi·aa) /6khu¶fiha/ kú>∑˚ (0k¨7k·$) /6ku6khX/ gúkè˚ (0q·¯5Âi) /6qhM5qi/ cíji˚ (0q¯[muu) /6qM¶mu/ zímà˚ (0fi·¨7fÅc) /6fihu6fan/ >úfàn˚ (0Âî,7qwø) /6qi˙6qwo/ jí«zuò˚ (0f¨7pu) /6fu6pu/ fúbú˚ (0¿ÙÊ[jaa¥) /6sin¶ja˙/ xíny∑«˚ (0¿ÿ[Â·yy) /6sy¶qhy/ xúqà˚ (0ß¨4fu) /6ßu•fu/ ´úfù˚ (0˜¨7fiAÖ) /6hu6fiao/ hú˜ào˘ Besides, in syllables with çzeroÇ tones, but not in an intoneme, approximant realizations are possible: (¸, ã), for /s/ (s, z÷ ¿, B), and (⁄) for /ß/ (ß, Ω), but also for (q[h], Q÷ Â[h], ©) and (fi[h], "): (7kAÖœzœ|, 7kAÖ3¸Œ, -3¸^) /6kaosu/ gàosu˚ (5p™I&QM|, 5p™I2¸û, -2¸¢) /5peiqM/ beizi˚ (4q·øU&QøU|, 4q·øU2¸û, -2¸¢) /•qhouqhou/ cóucou˚ (5tU,&Bi|, 5tU,2ã¤, -2ã¢) /5tu˙si/ do«xi˚ (çjaa¥^©¤,|, çjaa¥1ã¤,, -1ã¢,) /¶ja˙qi˙/ y∑«ji«˚ (5fi·u&Ây|, 5fi·u2ã¤, -2ã¢) /5fihuqhy/ >uqu˚ (5fiÖ&ΩÖ|, 5fiÖ2⁄Ö) /5fiˇßˇ/ ˜ií˚ (5pa,&"u|, 5pa,2⁄û, -2⁄¢) /5pa˙fiu/ ba«˜u˚ (5Â·¤,&fiu|, 5Â·¤,2⁄û, -2⁄¢) /5qhi˙fihu/ qi«>u˘ 11.3.1.2. As we have said, Chinese words are formed by initial and final elements. However, their combinations have some limitations; in fact, among all theoretical possibilities, only 55% are actually used, for slightly over 400 typical syllables (which are regularly indicated in teaching textbooks, with some oscillations for the less frequent ones). Here we will report only the most remarkable characteristics. (öX⁄) /X>/ er occurs with no initial; /f/ has a fairly limited distribution: it does not occur before /i, j÷ y, ¥÷ w/ and some other phonemes; whereas, only in loanwords /v/ is found (which is thus a xenophoneme added to the (v) taxophone of /f/). Besides, (Â[h], ¿) (with other variants already seen) are taxophones of /q[h], s/, which only occur before /i, j÷ y, ¥/, and are spelled j˚ q˚ x˘ Equally, /M/ only occurs after /q[h], s/; and /ˇ/ after /fi[h], ß, >/÷ /o/, only after /m, p[h], f, w/ (and in

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some particular forms after /j, l/ or with a çzeroÇ segment); and /y/, only after /j, ¥÷ l/, /n/ (~), or after /q[h], s/ (Â[h], ¿). ≈nally, we would like to add that /m, p[h], f/ do not occur before /X, M, w÷ y, ¥÷ >÷ [j]u˙/ or some other segments; neither do /fi[h], ß/ occur before /i, j÷ y, ¥/ (or some others), nor /k[h], h/ before /i, j÷ y, ¥/ or /o, wX˙/. ˛ere are some other more specific limitations; but this is the spirit of Mandarin phonotactics – /n, ˙/ are the only, very frequent, syllable-final consonants (besides, />/, which is extremely rare). ˛ere are some remarkable reductions of words such as the following (which are quite normal, except in intonemes or in formal speech): (4ßXm, 4ßXõ, 4ßX2mÈ, 4ßX2mX) /•ßXnmX/ ´énme˚ ([q$$C, çq$1õ, çq$1mÈ, çq$1mX) /¶qXnmX/ z‘nme˚ ([wøøC, çwøøõ, çwø1mÈn, -1mÉn) /¶womXn/ wœmen˚ (5t·am, 5t·aõ, 5t·amÈn, -mÉn) /5thamXn/ tamen˘ Contrary to some other Chinese languages, in Mandarin there is a somewhat exceptional occurrence of /m/ in final position, as indeed that of (õ), which we find in : (4õ) /•Xm/ µ çreally?/what??Ç, (7≠) /6Xm/ û çyes/I understandÇ. Stress 11.3.2.1. At the end of the previous section, as well as in § 11.1.9-11, we saw a few words with çweakÇ syllables too, ¤ without either a toneme or a strong stress (at most they had a secondary stress on posttonic syllables). We will see below that weak syllables may also occur before the last one, and that generally even grammemes (or grammatical particles) are weak. On the contrary, in most Mandarin words all syllables bear one of the four marked tonemes (Ô § 11.3.3.1-3). Among these, two-syllable words have the following stress pattern (&I'I): (^fiÖ4¥Än) /5fiˇ•¥an/ ˜iyuán˚ (ÒljE~7¿i) /•ljan6si/ liánxí˚ (^˜™I[pÅÅc) /5hei¶pan/ heib∑n˚ (0ÂjAÖ5ßÖ) /6qjao5ßˇ/ jiàoí˘ Chinese writing has separate characters (çideogramsÇ), but without separation between words, phrases, and sentences, except for punctuation (which also includes a çmini-commaÇ (˝) that is used to separate words in a list, but it is used less and less). In trisyllables, without any weak syllables, we have the pattern ('I&I'I): (5jPU0[ø[kÅÅc) /5jou6mo¶kan/ youmòg∑n˚ (•fx,0⁄ËÊ5Âi) /•fX,6>Xn5qi/ fé«rènji˚ (ç˜wø^fihX7fiÅc) /¶hwo5fihX6fian/ huœ>e˜àn˘ ‹en Chinese words reach four or five syllables, lexical compounding coincides with syntactical composition. In fact, the various components are simply juxtaposed. However, there is a way to manage to show lexicalization better, within sentences. As a matter of fact, if –for instance– we separately have (0qœ[muu) /6qM¶mu/ zímà çletter, graphemeÇ, (^p·I~5jIn) /5phin5jin/ pinyin çsyllabificationÇ, when we put the two words together, we obtain (5p·I~^jIn 0ëœ[muu) /5phin5jin 6qM¶mu/ pinyin zímà çromanization, transliteration, alphabetic writing (to show pronunciation)Ç, instead of a çsimplerÇ –but more artificial– (^p·I~5jIn 0ëœ[muu); consider also (6ti0∂i0∂AÖ7tAÖ) /6ti6ti6tao6tao/ dídídàodào˘

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11.3.2.2. In sentences, however (as will be seen from the text in § 11.4.2.2 as well), there are frequent oscillations with regard to actual stresses on di‡erent syllables, both for rhythmic reasons and prominence interplay, and even for communicative purposes, even when they are not çdistinctiveÇ. ˛us, for instance, /5ßa˙¶kan¶fiu6ji¶fiX/ á«g∑n˜àyí˜‘ can have two frequent realizations, (5ßa,œâÅ∫çfiu0ji[fi$$, 5ßa,œâÅ∫œ2u7jiœ2$); equally, even forms such as the following often oscillate: (0ji[tjEEc, 7jiœ∂jEc) /6ji¶tjan/ yídi∑n˚ (0(ø4f™I, 7(ø&Ñ™I) /6po•fei/ pòféi˚ (^qM7wÙI, 5qM0wÙI) /5qM6wei/ ziwèi˚ (0¿Iü[fuu, 7¿IüœÑu) /6sin•fu/ xínfù˚ (^ÂIn5t·jEn, 5ÂIn^thjEn) /5qin5thjan/ jìntian˚ (0öÅË[lii, 7öÅËœli) /6ae¶li/ àil`˚ (^kÅm5p™I, 5kÅm^Ê™I) /5kan5pei/ ganbei! All this can happen both in intonemes and preintonemes. And, what is more, even opposite cases are frequent, that is syllables with çzeroÇ tone which bear a strong stress, verging on mid pitch (again independently of any intoneme): (4p·x,&jPU, &p·x,'jPU) /•phX˙jou/ pé«you˚ (7tÅ∫œËÎ, 0∂Å∫'ßÖ) /6tanßˇ/ dàní˚ (4ßÖ&∆øU, &ßÖ'˜øU) /•ßÖhou/ ´ìhou˘ In addition, even forms bearing a tone (even written) are weakened, as happens to the grammemes and locatives in the following examples: (5fiwø0Ëa¥, -&Ëa,) /5fiwo 6ßa˙/ ˜uo ´à«˚ (6ti0ñja, -&ñja) /6ti 6sja/ dí xià˚ (5wuœli, 5wu&li) /5wu ¶li/ wu l`˚ (4t·¤,œli, -&li) /•thi˙ ¶li/ tì« l`˘ Tones 11.3.3.1. ˛e most remarkable aspect of the various Chinese languages (and one of the most serious problems for foreigners) resides in the use of çtonesÇ. In fact, in languages such as Mandarin, a di‡erent pitch on a syllable is able to make its meaning change completely. ˛erefore, we have to speak of tonemes for distinctive elements of a phonemic system, and of tones for their actual realizations, including taxotones, ¤ combinatory variants, as can be seen from the examples given below. In order to draw attention to their importance, and not to confuse concepts and words, let us choose the example of ([mÅÅË) /¶mae/ m∑i çto buyÇ and (7mÅË) /6mae/ mài çto sellÇ. We now add some classical examples (giving some of the most frequent meanings, among the possible ones, since transliterations may unify di‡erent words {as phonic transcriptions do too}, represented by di‡erent characters, or çideogramsÇ): (5ma) /5ma/ ma çmotherÇ, (4ma) /•ma/ má çhempÇ, ([maa) /¶ma/ m∑ çhorseÇ, (7ma) /6ma/ mà çscold, curseÇ˘ As some transcriptions have already shown, tonemes 3 and 4 are realized with creaky (or laryngealized) voice, when their çlowÇ taxophones occur: ([), (ç) and (7) (with secondary stress, (0)), but not when the çhighÇ ones occur: (•) and (6). Tonemes 1 and 2, which are çhighÇ, (5), (4), always have normal voice quality. A prudential warning is necessary about some diagrams which appeared in certain publications, not only in çtourist-likeÇ books, since they are too often completely wrong – so they are of no help at all to unfortunate readers… Mandarin is relatively simple, in comparison with other Chinese languages, also as far as taxotones are concerned. In fact, Mandarin has only four marked tonemes, traditionally indicated and listed as 1 (5) /5/ >1≥ o\ (5ji) /5ji/ yi÷ 2 (4) /•/ >Q≥ ó\

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(4wu) /•wu/ wù÷ 3 ([) /¶/ >5≥ œ\ ([¿¥™™) /¶s¥e/ xu‘÷ 4 (7) /6/ >Z≥ ò\ (7Â·ja¥) /6qja˙/ qià«˘ û 11.10 shows –for the four tonemes– the four basic tones, in addition to three taxotones, which are as important phonetically (or rather çtoneticallyÇ): in addition to ç3=2 (¤ 3+3 = 3+2)Ç (•) /¶/ >5≥ œ (¤ a toneme 3 –occurring before another 3– which becomes almost a tone 2 {although it is generally –but falsely– identified with an actual tone 2}), we have a çhalf 3Ç, (ç) /¶/ >5≥ œ (¤ a 3 before one of the other three), and a çhalf 4Ç, (6) /6/ >Z≥ ò (¤ a 4 before another 4). As can be seen, from both tonograms and phonetic transcriptions which will follow, the last two are actually realized as the first half of their full forms. In a kind of çinternationalÇ pronunciation, toneme 2 can be realized as (•) (instead of (4) ((-1))), as the o‚cial taxotone of /¶/ followed by another /¶/. ˛e pitch characteristics of the other ton(em)es ought to be very similar to the o‚cial ones, even for the çzeroÇ toneme, as we have done in our transcriptions (although for the latter, somehow, a realization of mid pitch {and weak stress} could be su‚cient, (2), again in this type of çinternationalÇ pronunciation). û 11.10. Mandarin tonemes and tones.

1 /5/ (5) >1≥ 2 /•/ (4) >Q≥

3 /¶/ ([) >5≥ 3‘ /¶/ (ç) >5≥ 3“ /¶/ (•) >5≥ 4 /6/ (7) >Z≥ 4‘ /6/ (6) >Z≥

11.3.3.2. Obviously, although at first all this might seem to be a useless complication, in actual fact, it is a real facilitation for contextual realizations. As a matter of fact, it is a simplification, from a tonetic point of view, which is visible only thanks to accurate phonetic (or rather phonotonetic) transcriptions, whereas phonemic (¤ phonotonemic) transcriptions, as well as graphemic renderings, do not change at all, since their entity, their essence, remains the same. As can be seen from the following examples, and –above all– from û 11.11, the allotones (¤ taxophones) of tonemes 3 and 4 present a simplification, by assimilation. û 11.11. Fundamental taxotones. /¶ 5/

=

(– 5)

/¶ •/

=

(– 4)

/¶ ¶/

=

(Ò [)

/¶ 6/

=

(– 7)

/6 6/

=

(0 7)

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In fact, toneme 3, ([) = (ç), /¶/ >5≥˚ shortens (even as its segmental duration does), when it occurs before tonemes which are di‡erent from itself: (œ˜wø5fi·X) /¶hwo5fihX/ huœ>e˚ (œt*¥4¥y) /¶tX˙•¥y/ d‘«yù˚ (œk·AÖ7ßÎ) /¶khao6ßˇ/ k∑o´í÷ on the other hand, when it occurs before itself, /¶ ¶/ >5 5≥˚ it has the taxotone (•): (ÒßøU[pjAAÖ) /¶ßou¶pjao/ ´œubi∑o˘ Even in this case, it is right to keep its tonemic and graphemic representation unchanged, since, should we modify them, they would lead us to think of di‡erent structures, not only from a phonic point of view, but also lexically and, then, semantically. Toneme 4 resorts to a (halved) taxotone before itself: (0fa,7Âja) /6fa˙6qja/ fà«jià˘ Tonemes 1 and 2 do not have any variants; and, although the taxotone of 3 (+ 3) is tonetically (more) similar to toneme 2, it nevertheless remains a taxotone of toneme 3 (except in the çinternationalÇ accent {which is a simplification}). û 11.12. Taxotones of particular tonemic sequences. /5 • 5/ =

/5 5 5/ (5 — 5)

/5 • •/ =

/5 5 •/ (5 — 4)

/5 • ¶/ =

/5 5 ¶/ (5 — [)

/5 • 6/

/5 5 6/ (5 — 7)

=

û 11.13. Taxotones of other tonemic sequences. /• • 5/ =

/• 5 5/ (4 — 5)

/• • •/ =

/• 5 •/ (4 — 4)

/• • ¶/ =

/• 5 ¶/ (4 — [)

/• • 6/ =

/• 5 6/ (4 — 63)

û 11.14. Further taxotones of tonemic sequences. /5¶ ¶/ =

(5 Ò [) =

(5 — [)

/•¶ ¶/ =

(4 Ò[) =

(4 — [)

/¶ ¶ ¶/ =

(• Ò[) =

(• — [)

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11.3.3.3. As far as sequences of three tonemes are concerned, there are some di‡erences (and they must be indicated and applied too) in comparison with tonemic (and graphemic) representations. û 11.12 shows what happens to sequences of /5 •/ followed by one of the other four tonemes: (5tU,^nÅM5fx,) /5tu˙•nan5fX˙/ do«nán-fe«˚ (5sÅ~^~jE~4Âi) /5san•njan•qi/ sannián-jì˚ (5¿jEN^⁄É~[Âjaa¥) /5sjan•>Xn¶qja˙/ xianrén-ji∑«˚ (5¿i^∆U,7ßÎ) /5si•hu˙6ßˇ/ xihó«´í. û 11.13 shows sequences of /• •/ followed by one of the other four tonemes: (4m™I^laM5fa,) /•mei•lan5fa˙/ Méi Lánfa«˚ (4˜ÅÉ^m™I4lÅÉ) /•hae•mei•lae/ hái méi lái˚ (4wÅ~^Âh¥Än[tUU¥) /•wan•qh¥an¶tu˙/ wánquán dœ«˚ (4¿Y~^ja,7ÂjEc) /•syn•ja˙6qjan/ xùnyá«-jiàn˘ ≈nally, û 11.14 shows the behavior of the sequence /¶ ¶/ preceded by one of the first three tonemes: (5sÅ~^jEn[Âjuan˜e yìjiàn hòu páozi. Tamen li∑ jiú á«lia« h∑o le úo, è´éi né« xian jiào ˜ège zœudàorde b∑ tade páozi tuole xiàlai a, jiú suàn ´éide b‘ní dà¶. H∑o, b‘ife« jiú ´`qi dà jín lái j`ngua j`ngua, k‘´í ta guade yuè líhai, nèige rén b∑ páozi guœde yuè j`n; dào mòli∑or b‘ife« méile fázi, ˜`h∑o jiú suànle. Yíhu`r tàiyá« jiú >ulái rèrerde yì ´ài, nèi zœudàorde m∑´à« jiú b∑ páozi tuole xiàlai. Suœy` b‘ife« bú né« bú >é«rèn dàod` háií tàiyá« b` ta b‘ní dà. N` x`huan ˜è ´œu érge ma? Wœmen zài >à« yì biàn ma? Neutral Mandarin Chinese pronunciation 11.4.3. §Æ #@ (ìœjÕU7jiœ∆wÙI^œ| œÊ™I5fx,2 2gÉn7t·ÅË&ja,2\ 6fix,&ëÅÉ3nåY ^2x,7lw‘c13| 4ß™I2dX çpË∫1ΩÖ 7ta13|| ì5ßwø2"X^ßwø2"X2œ| 4lÅÉ2lX &ãi2gXœëøU7tåY3d$13|| 5ßÉN&Ëa,2 5fi·wÅN2"X2 4ji0¸jE¥ 7˜øU 4p·AÖ2Qû13|| 5t·am [ljaa2\ 0¸jÕU5ßa,2lja, çÃÖ1lX 5ßwøx2|| ^4ß™I &nx,5¿jE~0¸jAÖ2\ 7fi$3g$œëøU7tåY3d$2| œpa5t·a2dX 4p·AÖ2Qû2| 5t·wø2lX 7¿ja3lÅËœa2|| 0¸jPU7swÅ∫2 4ß™I2dX çpË∫1ΩÖ 7ta13Œ|| [ÃAÖ^|| œp™I5fx,2 0¸jÕUçßÎ1©i 7ta2 7ÂIc&lÅÉ2 œ¸I©5kwa2 œ¸I©5kwa13|| çk·$1ΩÖ5t·a^|| 5kwa2dX 7¥™ 7li3hÅË2 0n™I3g$4⁄Én^|| [paa2| 4p·AÖ2Qû2 çkwø1dX 0¥™[ÂIIc13|| 7tAÖ 0[ø[ljååY^|| œp™I5fx, 4m™I2lX 4fa2Qû13|| 4fiÖœ∆AAÖ2 0ÂjÕU7swÅc3l$13|| 0ji[˜w$$Y^|| 7t·ÅËœja, 0¸jÕU5fi·u&lÅÉ2|| 0⁄$5⁄X⁄2dX Òji7ßÅË13|| nÈ¤œëøU7tåY3d$2|| œma7ßa¥2 0ÂjÕU[paa 4p·AÖ2Qû2 5t·wø2lX 7¿ja3lÅË13|| ì•swøœji2œ| œp™I5fx,2|| 0pu4nx,0Êu Òfihx,7⁄Ëc^|| ì7tAÖœ∂ii2œ 4˜ÅÉΩÖ 7t·ÅË&ja,2| œpi5t·a2 çpË∫1ΩÖ 7ta13|| ¿Ò~iç¿i^∆wÅN 7fi$œßøU œö$Y5kX2ma31|| ¿œwøC7qÅË2 ¿7fi·a¥ Òji7pjEC3ma31|||)

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£International∞ Mandarin Chinese pronunciation 11.4.4. (ìçjøu0ji4hw™i^œ| œp™i5fx˙2 kxn0tha™4ja˙2\ 0fix˙7qa™3na⁄ ^fix˙7lwxn13| 4ß™i2tx çpxN1ßÖ 7ta13|| ì5ßwø2fix 5ßwø2fix2œ| 4la™2lx 4ji2kx œqøu7ta⁄3tx13|| 5ßxN&ßa˙2 5fihwaN2fix2 Òji7Âjan 7høu 4phaø2qM13|| 5tham[xn] [ljaa2\ 0Âjøu5ßa˙2lja˙ çhaø1lx 5ßwø2|| ^4ß™i &nx˙5¿ja~ 7Âjaø2\ 7fiX3kX œqøu7ta⁄3tx2| œpa5tha2tx 4phaø2qM2| 5thwø2lx 7¿ja3la™œa2|| 0Âjøu7swaN2 4ß™i2tx çpxN1ßÖ 7ta13Œ|| [haaø^|| œp™i5fx˙2 0ÂjøuçßÖ1Âi 7ta2 0Âin4la™ œÂi˙5kwa2 œÂi˙5kwa13|| çkhx1ßÖ5tha^|| 5kwa2tx 7¥™ 7li3ha™2 7n™i3kx 4⁄xn^|| [paa2| 4phaø2qM2 çkwø1tx 0¥™[Âiin13|| 7taø 0mø[ljaa⁄^|| œp™i5fx˙2 4m™i2lx 4fa2qM13|| ÒfiÖ[haaø2 0Âjøu7swan3lx13|| 0ji[hwxx⁄^|| 0tha™4ja˙ 7Âjøu^fihu4la™2|| 0⁄x5⁄x⁄2tx Òji7ßa™13|| n™iœqøu7ta⁄3tx2|| œma7ßa˙2 0Âjøu[paa 4phaø2qM2 5thwø2lx 7¿ja3la™13|| ìÒswø[jii2œ| œp™i5fx˙2|| 7pu&nx˙7pu Òfihx˙7⁄xn^|| ì0taø[tii2œ 4ha™ßÖ 0tha™4ja˙2| œpi5tha2 çpxN1ßÖ 7ta13|| ¿•ni œ¿i5hwaN 0fix[ßøøu œöx⁄5kx2ma31|| ¿œwø2m[xn]7qa™2 ¿7fiha˙ Òji7pjam3ma31|||) English pronunciation of Chinese 11.4.5. (ìj‘¨'jI;i&hw™I32œ| b™I'få˙:2 gûn'ThaÙ&jå˙:2\ 5chå˙&tsaÙnÈ &Gå˙l¯'‘:n3 3| 5S™IDÈ 'ph™‘~ZÈ 'ThA:3 3|| ìS¯'‘¨GÈs¯&‘¨Gå2œ| 5laÙlÈ &jIigûts‘¨'ThA;Då3 3|| 'S‘;n&Så˙:2 c¯'A;~GÈ2 5jIiGi&™˙ 'h‘;¨ 'phaÖts¨3 3|| 5ThA:m li'A:2\ G‘¨5Så˙li&å˙ 'haÖlÈ S¯'ø:2|| ^5S™;I nå˙Si'™nGi&aÖ2\ 'c‘;gû ts‘¨'ThA;Då2| phA;5ThA;DÈ 'phaÖts¨2| Th¯5‘¨lÈ Si'A;laÙå2|| Gi&‘¨s¯'πn2 'S™IDÈ 'ph™‘~SÈ 'ThA:3 3Œ|| 'ha;Ö32|| b™I'få˙:2 Gi‘¨'S‘;Gi 'ThA:2 'ch¤n&laÙ2 &G¤˙k¯'A: &G¤˙k¯'A:3 3|| 5kh‘;ZÈ 'ThA:32|| kh¯5A;DÈ 'j™;I 'lIi&haÙ2 &n™Igû'>‘:n32|| 'phA:2| 'phaÖts¨2 'khw‘¨DÈ j™I'ch¤n:3 3|| 5Tha;Ö &m‘¨li'A:32|| b™I5få˙ 'm™IlÈ 'fA;ts¨3 3|| 'ch‘:&haÖ2 ci&‘¨'swπnlå3 3|| &jIi'hw‘:32|| 5Tha;Ù&jå˙ Gi&‘¨'ch¯ulaÙ2|| >È'>‘;DÈ &jIi'Sa;Ù3 3|| &n™Its‘¨'thA;Då2|| mA;'Så˙:2 ci‘¨5phA: 'phaÖts¨2 5Thwø;lÈ Si'A;laÙ3 3|| ì'swø;jIi2œ| b™I5få˙:2|| &ph¯u5nå˙&ph¯u chå˙'>‘:n32|| ì'ThaÖDi2œ 5haÙZÈ 'Tha;Ù&jå˙2| phIi'ThA:2 5ph‘;~ZÈ 'ThA:3 3|| ¿nIi5SIi&hwπn 'ch‘;S‘¨ û'kh‘;må21|| ¿&w‘¨m'tsa;Ù2 ¿5chå˙ &jIipi'™nmå21|||) A short appendix 11.4.6. (6ta0ëM7pAÖ) /6ta6qM6pao/ dàzíbào˚ (5kU,&Ñu) /5ku˙fu/ go«fu (çkung fuÇ, Ô § 11.1.9 for (-2vû)), (0Â·i5kU,) /6qhi5ku˙/ qígo«˚ (7tAÖ) /6tao/ dào˚ (4Âj™ÒÂh¥Än7tAÖ) /•qje•qh¥an6tao/ jiéquándào (çjeet kune doÇ), (5t·ÅÉÒ¸i4Â·¥Än) /6thae•qi•qh¥an/ tàijìquán˚ (5pa0âwa[fiaa¥) /5pa6kwa¶fia˙/ baguà˜∑«˘ Besides: (^fiU,4kwø[x]) /5fiu˙•kwo/ ô«guó çChinaÇ˚ (œp™I5Â¤,) /¶pei5qi˙/ B‘iji«, (5t·jEn^öÅm4mÉ˙ ÒâwA¥[fi·aa¥) /5thjan5an•mXn ¶kwa˙¶fiha˙/ Tian'anmén Gu∑«>∑«˚ (0sœ5fi·wÅn) /6sM5fihwan/ Sí>uan˚ (Òt·ÅÉ5wÅn) /•thae5wan/ Tái-

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wan˚ (œkwA¥5tU,) /¶kwa˙5tu˙/ Gu∑«do« çCantonÇ˚ (0ßa¥[˜ÅÅË) /6ßa˙¶hae/ Øà«h∑i˘ More: (4mAÖ^ëX5tU,) /•mao•qX5tu˙/ Máo Zédo«˚ (4¥ÄN0⁄ÉN7fiAÖ) /•¥an6>Xn6fiao/ Yuán Rèn ˆào (traditionally: Yuen Ren ≥ao ]˚ (5fiøU ^öÉn4lÅÉ) /5fiou 5Xn•lae/ ôu Enlái˚ (7t*¥ œñjAÖ4p·¤,) /6tX˙ ¶sjao•phi˙/ Dè« Xi∑opì«˚ (ÒlIm5pjAÖ) /•lin 5pjao/ Lìn Biao˚ (•ljPU œËAÖ4Â·i) /•ljou ¶ßao•qhi/ Liù Ø∑oqì˘ Lastly: (5sÅnœli4t·w‘n, -4t·wX⁄) /5san¶li•thwXn, -•twX>/ Sanl`tùn(r)˚ (0ku5kU,) /6ku5ku˙/ Gúgo«˚ (Òfi·a,4fi·x,) /•fiha˙•fihX˙/ ≥á«>é«˚ (4jiÒ∆X4¥Än) /•ji•hX•¥an/ Yìhéyuán˚ (5fia, 0ji4[øU) /5fia˙ 6ji•mou/ â« Yímóu˚ (œkU¥7li) /¶ku˙6li/ Gœ« Lí˚ (^öøU5fiøU) /5ou5fiou/ Ouõu çEuropeÇ, (Òlw‘n5tw‘n) /•lwXn5twXn/ Lùndun çLondonÇ, (—j¤,4kwø[x]) /5ji˙•kwo/ Yi«guó çEnglandÇ, (5suÒâX4lÅn) /5su•kX•lan/ Sugélán çScotlandÇ, (6ji0∂a7li) /6ji6ta6li/ Yídàlí çItalyÇ, (Òlø[maa) /•lo¶ma/ Lóm∑ çRomeÇ, (5wÙI^~i5sM) /5wei•ni5sM/ Weinìsi çVeniceÇ, (7p™I—∂wø5fÉn) /6pei5two5fXn/ Bèiduofen çBeethovenÇ.

12. Japanese 12.0.1. We provide the modern neutral pronunciation of Japanese, based on that of Tokyo. Our transliteration avoids diacritics for vowels, by indicating long vowels as ii˚ ee˚ aa˚ oo˚ uu (instead of i˚ e˚ a˚ o˚ u˚ or î˚ ê˚ â˚ ô˚ û]˘ As far as consonants are concerned, we prefer the most widely used system (by Japanese authors too: the Hepburn system, with the exception –methodologically considerable– of the choice to use n even before m˚ p˚ b˚ instead of m]. ˛us, the phonemic transcription has the task of indicating the systemic structuration; whereas the phonetic transcription, of course, aims at precision, without which everything would be approximate and –frankly– useless. ˛erefore, we have: (qM) /tM/ _u˚ (FM) /hM/ fu˚ (¿i) /si/ í˚ (¿jå) /sja/ á˚ (¿jø) /sjo/ ó˚ (¿jM) /sjM/ ú˚ (Âi) /ti/ >i˚ (Âªå) /tja/ >a˚ (Âªø) /tjo/ >o˚ (ÂªM) /tjM/ >u˚ (©i, Bi) /zi/ ji˚ (©jå, Bjå) /zja/ ja˚ (©jø, Bjø) /zjo/ jo˚ (©jM, BjM) /zjM/ ju˚ (QM, zM) /zM/ zu˘ But we prefer to use a more çlogicalÇ c> (ÂÂ[ª]) /tt[j]/ (which is less eurocentric than t>]˚ and n (with n' + V or y] (P, õ, ó, «, ô) /ô/ (that some systematically render with â˚ thus resolving in a çgraphonemicÇ way the slight problem of n'˚ before V and y˚ and also that of m˚ before m˚ p˚ b]˘ In addition, we have (˙) /˙/, that we render with g˚ which can alternate with (g) /g/, as we will see below, Ô § 12.2.1.1-2 (others use ä˚ to compensate for the absence of any transcriptions). Length is distinctive both for vowels and consonants. We will mark it by doubling the phonemic and graphemic symbols – /kappoo/ and kappoo˚ respectively. In our phonetic transcriptions, for contoid lengthening it is necessary to add (:): (3kåp'p:øø) (but, as can be seen and heard, after the second element). 12.0.2. In Japanese, even the pitch of the di‡erent morae is distinctive. ˛ey form syllables, words, phrases, and sentences. ˛e example just seen shows that pitch is not marked in spelling, that is in the transliteration, as well as in normal hiragana writing – (3âi'må2˙åœnå, 3âi'må3˙åœnå÷ 3âi'må2˙å&nå) /hiRaù˙aùna÷ -naå (which is added to characters, çideogramsÇ, that were taken from Chinese). Normally, this does not happen in the other type of writing, katakana (3kÄ'tå3kåœnå, 3kÄ'tå2kåœnå) /kataùkaùna/, which is generally used in teaching and scientific textbooks, in order to çhintÇ at the pronunciation of onomatopeic terms and recent loanwords (more recent than the Chinese ones, which adapted to Japanese), or for stylistic reasons. Instead, in phonotonemic transcriptions, we indicate with Å the point after which the voice goes from a mid pitch to a low one. We call this akusento (Ô § 12.3.2.1), by using the term taken from English [accent]˚ in order to indicate this particular pitch phenomenon. As a matter of fact, it is not properly a stress element, since, in actual fact –as we will see– both pitch patterns and segmental con-

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sistency –or syllabic çweightÇ– determine stress, Ô § 12.3.2.5-14. Indeed, these points may even be more than just one, as can be seen from the two previous examples. However, these points have to be interpreted as possible variants, in a paradigmatic opposition, which is typical of phonemes, that manifest themselves on the syntagmatic axis, as is typical of words in sentences. ˛is means that one must be çchosenÇ, excluding all the others. On the contrary, phonotonetic transcriptions more concretely show the pitch of every syllable in a word, or rhythm group, since there are precise patterns for neutral Japanese (as we will see in detail later on, § 12.3.2.2), even if with variants. As a matter of fact, for the word hiragana we find as many as three possibilities (although the last is less favorite and older), as we have just seen, and as many as two for katakana˘ ‹ile, for a word like katana˚ there is just one possible neutral toneme: (3kÄ'tå2nå) /katanaå (/kataùna/ is only regional). We prefer to use ( ) Å (instead of a more popular –in Japan– but less satisfactory (^ Œ) /Œ/), since the marked pitch is low, whereas the unmarked one is mid, not high (as a more traditional notation would lead to think, being based more on a tonemic rather than a tonetic criterion, which considers çhighÇ what is çnon-lowÇ). Vowels 12.1.1. Japanese has only five vowels, which can be distinctively short or long (or rather doubled, being realized almost as monotimbric diphthongs), and they can combine into di‡erent kinds of sequences (as happens in a slow pronunciation of Spanish in Saavedra or La Habana (ßaa'B™;ƒRa, laa'Ba;na). However, too often Japanese pronunciation is hastily çdescribedÇ as having the vowels of Spanish and the consonants of English. We will see that this is not the case at all. û 12.1 shows the actual articulations of the five vowels: (i, ™, å, ø, M÷ ii, ™™, aa, øø, MM) /i, e, a, o, M÷ ii, ee, aa, oo, MM/ i˚ e˚ a˚ o˚ u÷ ii˚ ee˚ aa˚ oo˚ uu˘ Since çlongÇ vowels are phonemic sequences (and phonetic geminations), the marker of (short) /a/ (å) is grey, seeing that it is articulated as a less open vocoid (even in stressed syllables). ˛e most problematic Japanese vowel –of course for non-native speakers– is (M) /M/ u˚ which lacks the typical lip rounding of (u) so widespread in many languages. Besides, it is articulated with the tongue dorsum in a fronter position than (u) in most languages; in fact, it is back-central, not simply back. Mostly, the younger generations articulate /M/ in a further front position, as high central –with partial or full rounding, (˚) or (%), respectively– but we always notate (M), since those are youth characteristics which generally change into (M), sooner or later. ˛is peculiarity continues in relative time, without really changing the structure. Obviously, real non-neutral pronunciations are a di‡erent thing. Let us now see some examples for each phoneme: (3i'™) /ieå ie˚ (Çáiô2køø) /giôkoo/ ginkoo˚ (3så'6i3¿ii) /sabisiùi/ sabiíi÷ (Ç™i2™P) /eieô/ eien˚ ('™3˙åø) /eù˙ao/ egao˚ (3kå'må2t™) /kaRate/ karate÷ (Çåi) /aùi/ ai÷ (çQå¿2¿:i) /zassi/ zasí˚ (3må'tø) /mato/ mato÷ ('n™3kø) /neùko/ neko˚ (3ø'©i3mM) /okiùRM/ okiru˚ (3ø'tø2kø) /otokoå otoko÷ (3sM'mi) /sMmiå sumi˚ (2åçkM3må) /aùkMma/ akuma˚ (3mM'¿i) /mMsiå muí.

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12.1.2. For monomorphemic ei and ou (but the latter is generally transliterated as oo] it is normal to have /ee, oo/ (™™, øø): (3s™PÇs™™) /seôseùe/ sensei˚ (3sM'i™™) /sMiee/ suiei˚ (Ç™™2©ªøø) /eekjoo/ eikyoo÷ (Çøø3¿jMM) /oùosjMM/ ooúu÷ (Çøø2gøP) /oogoô/ oogon˚ (Çøø2™P) /ooeô/ ooen˘ Instead, for heteromorphemic ei and ou it is normal to have /ei, oM/ (™i, øM): (Çk™i2tø) /keito/ keito˚ (Çs™i) /seùi/ sei˚ (3å2måÇsøM) /aRasoùM/ arasou˚ (ÇsøM) /soM/ sou˘ û 12.1. Japanese vowels. /i/ (i), /ii/ (ii)

/e/ (™), /ee/ (™™) /a/ (å)

/M/ (M), /MM/ (MM) /o/ (ø), /oo/ (øø) /aa/ (aa)

12.1.3. Besides, neutral Japanese has the peculiarity of presenting vowel devoicing. Indeed, there are two partially di‡erent degrees. ˛e first type is complete, and produces voiceless vocoids, that is with no vibration of the vocal folds, as also happens with consonants, such as (voiceless) (s) /s/ in comparison with (voiced) (z) /z/. More appropriately, these voiceless vowels are lenis too (or lenited), ¤ only the arytenoids are open, as for (h). ˛is concerns (i, ¨) between voiceless consonants, or between a voiceless consonant and a pause, when in low-pitched syllables (but occasionally even in non-low-pitch ones, however never on çaccentedÇ morae, after which pitch becomes low), and never in interrogative post-intonemes (which shows a raising of the basic pitch): (3©i'¿i) /kisiå kií˚ (3k¨2Âi'6i2mM) /kMtibiRM/ ku>ibiru˚ (3hå'nå2¿i) /hanasiå hanaí˚ (3âi'tø3q¨) /hitoùtM/ hito_u. ˛e second type, or degree, of devoicing is half-voicing, which concerns the other three vowels, but acts less systematically. In fact, we find (Ä, ), especially in the first syllable of words, when followed by syllables containing the same vowel (more rarely /e/ (É) is devoiced too): (3kÄ'tå2nå) /katanaå katana˚ (3t'kø2mø) /tokoRo/ tokoro÷ (3kÉ'så2nåi) /kesanai/ kesanai˘ ˛e second type again applies, instead, to all vowels before a pause, either short or long, preceded by any consonant. Obviously, /i, M/ become (i, ¨), when they are in the condition of total devoicing, in the context (=é|). ˛erefore, before a pause, the last vocoid is (î, É, Ä, , ¯) (even in diphthongs). It is important to state that this type of devoicing is syntagmatic, which means that we have one vocoid –not two– which begins as voiced and ends as voiceless. So the first part is voiced, whereas the second one is voiceless: ((é‚)) – and this is hinted at by the pause context, even if the actual pause is short. Examples relating to this phenomenon can be found in the passage of the Text section, § 12.4. In simpler terms, we could say that the auditory e‡ect is almost that of a very short (h), ((éh)) or a semiapproximant ((éh)). For emphasis, strictly speaking (or for other paraphonic implications connect-

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ed with states of mind), often an actual (éh|) sequence may be heard: (˚Çsøø3d™3s¨œkåh2) /˚soùodesMka,/ Soo desu ka?! Consonants 12.2.0. As we have already said, it is currently thought that Japanese consonants are pronounced as those of English. We have to correct this false information, which is further reinforced by the widespread use of >˚ j˚ ´˚ f˚ _ in transliteration (as we do ourselves, for the sake of simplicity). In fact, >˚ j˚ ´ stand for (Âª÷ ©j, Bj÷ ¿j), with no absorption at all of (j) /j/; besides, f is not (f), but (F). ≈nally, there is («), that –as we will see– is an intense (çsyllabicÇ) provelar semi-nasal: (P) /ô/. ˛e table of û 12.2 gives the consonantal articulations of Japanese which are necessary for an adequate pronunciation of this language. Instead, û 1.9-15 show the orograms –grouped by manners of articulation– of all contoids treated in the chapters of this handbook (including secondary, occasional, and regional variants), which are needed for the 12 languages dealt with. ˛is exposition renders the necessary comparisons among di‡erent languages more useful.

m (n) n (~) (N) ö F p b t d (© á) (q Q) (Â ©) Ô ƒ (6) s z (¿ B) _ ß (F) (â) j /r/ m|(¬) ‹

«

µ

laryngeal

velar

provelar

postpalatal

palatal

bilabialized prepalatal

prepalatal

alveolar

dental

bilabial

û 12.2. Table of Japanese consonants.

˙ k g {(w)}

(ö)

{(∆)}

h {(H)}

Nasals 12.2.1.1. At the beginning of syllables, Japanese has three possible nasal phonemes: /m/ (m) m (bilabial), /n/ (n) n (alveolar; realized, however, as prepalatal, (~), before /i, j/, by assimilation): (3~i'mø2nø) /nimono/ nimono˚ and /˙/ (˙) g (velar): (3å'˙å3k¨) /a˙aùkM/ agaku. But we must add at once that, within words, /˙/ (˙) g (which is sometimes transliterated as ä) can be systematic only in the most neutral type of pronunciation, after /é, ô/. In fact, nowadays the oscillation between /g ˙ ˙/ (g ˙ Ÿ ˙ ˙) is very widespread, but with much fluctuation among people and words. However, no native speaker systematically has only (g) /g/. In (sentence, phrase, lexeme, or grammeme) initial position, (g) /g/ occurs, even for speakers who possess (˙) /˙/;

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for (enclitic) ga we normally find (˙å) /˙a/; for ga (conjunction) we have (gå), but (˙å) is possible too, even after a pause. Again, there is (g) /g/ –above all– in loanwords, in onomatopeic expressions, in Chinese reduplicate words, and after certain proclitics (which are obviously heterorganic): ('ái3˙å) /giù˙a/ giga˚ (Çáiô3˙å) /giùô˙a/ ginga; (3mi'ái) /migi/ migi˚ (3må'gM2mø) /magMRo/ maguro˚ (3møôÇg™P) /moôgeùô/ mongen˚ (3må'gø) /magoå mago˘ 12.2.1.2. An even bigger phonic problem regarding nasals arises from a fourth Japanese nasal phoneme, ¤ çmoraic nÇ, /ô/ (sometimes transliterated as â]˚ which always occurs in a syllable coda and has a prevailing articulation as semi-provelar (¤ provelar semi-nasal, with no actual contact between the dorsum and the velum). It is phonetically more energetic, ¤ intense (P). It occurs in three positions: (1) before continuous consonants (¤ those produced with an incomplete occlusion of the oral cavity), that is /s, z÷ j, µ÷ h/ (s ˙ ¿, z ˙ B÷ j, µ÷ h ˙ F ˙ â), (2) before a vowel (which is heterosyllabic, of course), and (3) in final position before a pause (or, again, before continuous consonants, or vowels)\ (3™P'såP) /eôsaô/ ensan˚ (Çhå«2¿jå) /haôsja/ haná˚ (ÇMN2jM) /MôjM/ un'yu˚ (ÇkåP2µå) /kaôµa/ kanwa˚ (3s™™ÇsåP3âi) /seesaùôhi/ seisanhi˚ (Çs™P3âjå3k¨) /seùôhjakM/ senhyaku˚ (3gø's™P3F¨) /goseùôhM/ gosenfu˚ (ÇtåP3i) /taùôi/ tan'i˘ However, by assimilation, /ô/ has other realizations too. In fact, it is articulated as a homorganic nasal (to a following consonant and is always intense): (1) (õ, ó÷ ›, ô), before the correspondent stops /p, b÷ t, d/ (p, b÷ t, d) and /k, g/ (k, ©÷ g, á): (Çsåõ3pø) /saùôpo/ sanpo˚ (Ç¿iõ2bMP) /siôbMô/ ínbun˚ (ÇMó2t™P) /Môteô/ unten˚ (Çt™N3©i) ((-3£i)) /teùôki/ tenki˚ (Çtåô3kå) /taùôka/ tanka÷ and (2) (ó, «) before dental or bilabialized prepalatal stopstrictive taxophones of /t, z/ (q, Q) and (Â, ©): (3båóÇQåi) /baôzaùi/ banzai˚ (Ç™«2Âªøø) /eôtjoo/ en>oo˚ (Ç~i«2©iP) /niôziô/ ninjin÷ and, naturally, (ô) before the frequent stop(semi){con}strictive variant, (wå, ˜å), of /ka/ (kå) ka\ (Çtåô3wå, -3˜å) /taùôka/ tanka. In addition, we have (3) (õ, ó, «, ô) before nasals, /m, n, ˙/ (m n g) and again (ó) before r /R/ (¬), ™: (ÇMõ3m™™) /Mùômee/ unmei˚ (3åóÇnåi) /aônaùi/ annai˚ (Ç~i«2~i2k¨) /niônikM/ ninniku˚ (Çåô2˙åi, -3˙åi) /aô˙ai, aôù-/ angai˚ and (3åó'¬å2k[¨]3¿i) /aôRakMùsi/ anrakuí˘ Stops 12.2.2.1. Japanese has three (voicing) diphonic pairs for stops: the voiceless are /p, t, k/ (p, t, k) (as already seen, often /k/ is (w, ˜) + /a{a}/; occasionally /t/ becomes (th) + /a{a}, o{o}/; and often /p/ is (ph), in the context between /ô/ and /i{i}, a{a}/): (3kåõ'påi, 3wå-, 3˜å-, -'phåi) /kaôpai/ kanpai˚ ('tå3kø÷ 'thå-) /taùko/ tako˚ (3©ip'p:M) /kippM/ kippu˚ (3µå'tå÷ -'thå) /µataå wata˚ (Çk™õ3pøø) /keùôpoo/ kenpoo (word-initial /p/ only occurs in loanwords and onomatopeic forms). In emphatic speech, there is more çaspirationÇ. ˛e greatest çoddityÇ regards /t/ (t) which, by assimilation, before /i, j/ (i, j) is realized as a bilabialized prepalatal stopstrictive (Â) (transliterated as >˚ even if /j/

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(j) remains; but it is important to note that lip rounding is reduced, by assimilation to /i, j/, but the phone remains di‡erent from (⁄)): (3Âi'Âi) /titiå >i>i˚ (ÇÂªåó2tø) /tjaôto/ >anto˘ In addition –and even more çstrangelyÇ– /t/ (t), before /M/ (M) is realized as a dental stopstrictive (q) (transliterated _): (3qM'Ni) ((-∞i)) /tM˙i/ _ugi˘ Let us observe, once and for all, that the çpalatalÇ realizations of /k, g, ˙/, ¤ (©, á, N), are instead çpostpalatalÇ, or retracted palatal, and can be represented better with çspecialÇ symbols, ((£, 8, ∞)). ˛ey may safely be used (although, more often, (©, á, N) are used), after stating that they are realized in the rear part of their articulatory space, we define çpostpalatalÇ, which in any case remains distinct from the çprevelarÇ articulation, (´, Ò, ”), typical of most languages before front vowels and (j), as in English (('´hI;i, '>™ÒjÈlå)) {Am. Engl. (('i, ki˚ gi÷ (¿i÷ Bi, |©i, «©i÷ âi) /si÷ zi÷ hi/ í÷ ji÷ hi\ (Ç~i«2©jMM) /niôzjMM/ ninjuu˚ (3kå'Ni2mM) /ka˙iRM/ kagiru÷ (3Âi'™) /tieù/ >ie˚ (3©i'™2mM) /kieRM/ kieru˚ (3ái'µå2k¨) /giµåkM/ giwaku÷ (3¿i'må) /simåå íma÷ (3å'Bi) /azi/ aji˚ (3©i'mi) /zimiå jimi˚ ('må3âi) /maùhi/ mahi˘ In addition, we find: (~j, Nj) /nj, ˙j/ ny, gy÷ (Âª, ©ª, áj) /tj, kj, gj/ >, ky˚ gy÷ (¿j÷ Bj, |©j, «©j÷ âj) /sj÷ zj÷ hj/ ´÷ j÷ hy\ (Ç~jMM2˙å2k¨) /njMM˙akM/ nyuugaku˚ (ÇåN2Njå) /aô˙ja/ angya÷ (ÇÂªMM3Âªø) /tjMùMtjo/ >uu>o˚ (3©ªMMÇ©ªMM3¿jå) /kjMMkjMùMsja/ kyuukyuuá˚ (ÇájMM2~jMM) /gjMMnjMM/ gyuunyuu÷ (3¿i«Ç~jMM3s™™) /siônjMùMsee/ ínnyuusei÷ (ÇkåN2jMM) /kaôjMM/ kan'yuu˚ (3©iÇdøø3¿jå) /zidoùosja/ jidooá˚ (3âjå'kM) /hjakMå hyaku˘ Again, we must remember that, for /k, g, ˙/ + /i, j/, the actual articulation is çpostpalatalÇ ((£, 8, ∞)) (rather than fully palatal, (©, á, N)), and that (j) remains. 12.2.6.2. All other consonants have no çpalatalizationÇ (although certain linguists and phonologists state the contrary, because they carry theorism to an ex-

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cess). So, we regularly have: (émi, |¬i, ó¬i) /Ri/ ri÷ (mi, pi) /mi, pi/ mi, pi÷ (bi, 6i) /bi/ bi. ˛us: (3ø26i'™2mM) /obieRM/ obieru˚ (3mi'nø2mi) /minoRi/ minori˚ (3¬i'sø2k¨) /RisokM/ risoku˚ (Ç¿ió3¬i) /siùôRi/ ínri˚ (Ç™õ2pi2q¨) /eôpitM/ enpi_u˘ In addition, /0jé/ (0jé) CyV, ChV\ (mj, |¬j, ó¬j) /Rj/ ry÷ (mj, pª) /mj, pj/ my˚ py÷ (bj, 6j) /bj/ by: (Ç™ó3¬jø) /eùôRjo/ enryo˚ (Ç¬jMM) /RjMùM/ ryuu˚ (3¬øp'p:ªå2k¨) /RoppjakM/ roppyaku˚ (Çbjøø) /bjoùo/ byoo˚ (ÇbMõ2mjå2k¨) /bMômjakM/ bunmyaku˚ (3QåiÇmjøø) /zaiRjoùo/ zairyoo˘ £Gairaigo∞ – loanwords 12.2.7. As in any language, even in Japanese, loanwords (of which about 10,000 are of English origin) require some adaptation to the syllable structure (which is based on morae in Japanese) and new phonemic combinations for new sounds. For these typical adaptations, let us consider two examples: (2kMçmå36M) /kMùRabM/ çclubÇ˚ (3s[¨]tøÇmåi3©[i]) /sMtoRaùiki/ ç(workers') strikeÇ˚ (3s[¨]tøÇmåi3k[¨]) /sMtoRaùikM/ ç(baseball) strikeÇ. It is clear how the Japanese syllabic structure changes original monosyllables, with consonant clusters, into actual polysyllables. Among new combinations, in the traditional phonotactics (which is quite rigid and with a fairly limited number of possibilities), the most common are: (Çpaa3ti) /paùat-i/ çpartyÇ˚ (3di'm™3k[¨]3taa) /d-iReùkMtaa/ çdirectorÇ˚ (ÇÂ[ª]™«3©i) /tjeùôzi/ çchangeÇ˚ (Ç©[j]™t3t:ø) /djeùtto/ çjetÇ˚ ('¿[j]™3F[¨]) /sjeùhM/ çchefÇ˚ (3FM'i2mM2mM, -3mM3mM, 'âi-, 'Fµi-, 'Fi-) /hMiRMmM, h[M]iùRMmM/ çfilmÇ˚ (Ç¿iõ3Fø3~ii) /siùôhMonii/ çsymphonyÇ˚ (3kåóÇqøø3n™) /kaôtMoùone/ çcanzoneÇ. Some examples clearly show that, besides placing some phones into new combinations, certain sequences are slightly çdenipponizedÇ (as the possible dropping, in these words but not in genuine ones, of (j) after prepalatal {rounded} articulations), becoming slightly more çinternationalÇ. Structures 12.3.0. In particular, we will deal with Japanese akusento, which is determined by pitch (even if it does not lack a stress component), and with intonation, which is superimposed to akusento, slightly changing it. A typical Japanese pronunciation shows a particular kind of voice with a paraphonic setting with lowered larynx §æ@, especially for men. Taxophonics 12.3.1.1. ˛e basic things have already been said. In fact, we have seen devoiced vocoids (Ô § 12.1.3), and the few taxophonic characteristics regarding Japanese consonants.

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Gemination 12.3.1.2. We must state that a çmoraÇ coincides with a light syllable, as the one formed by a short vowel (/i, e, a, o, M/), or by /ô/, or else by the first element of a geminate consonant (/é-0-0é/ (0-0:)). A half-heavy syllable corresponds to a geminate vowel (/ii, ee, aa, oo, MM/) or a diphthong, or to a short vowel + /ô/ (/éô/) or + the first element of a geminate consonant (whose second element belongs to the following syllable, together with its vowel). Instead, a heavy syllable presents a geminate vowel (or diphthong) + /ô/ (/ééô/) or + the first element of a geminate consonant: /éé0[-0é]/. As we have seen from various previous examples, in Japanese, vowel length is distinctive, ¤ short and çlongÇ or rather geminate (or doubled) vowels: (sø) /so, soå so (one mora), (Çsøø) /soo, soùo/ soo (two morae); ('tø3©i) /toùki/ toki, (Çtøø3©i) /toùoki/ tooki. Even consonant length is distinctively present, as in (3©i't™) /kite/ (from kiru /kiRM/ çto wearÇ) and /kiteå kite (from kuru /kMRM/ çto comeÇ), both with two morae; (3©it't:™) /kitte[ù]/ (çstampÇ) and ('©it3t:™, 3©it't:™) /kiùtteå kitte (from kiru /kiùRM/ çto cutÇ), both with three morae: /ki-t-te/; (3gå'kå) /gaka/ gaka çartistÇ, (3gåk'k:å) /gakka/ gakka çlessonÇ. From a phonetic point of view, a doubled consonant consists of two morae: the first one coincides with the first element of the gemination (even if it is actually shorter, (t)), whereas the second one (which is decidedly longer, since actually lengthened, (t:)) constitutes another mora together with the vowel that follows it: (©it-t:™) (although here we have omitted the pitch features given above). In fact, /sotto/ is (3søt't:ø) sotto çsoftlyÇ (while a similar Italian word sotto /'sotto/ çunderÇ is ('sot:to) in an intoneme, or ('sotto) in a preintoneme). Let us observe well –and listen even more carefully to– the di‡erence between (0:0) and (00:). Both for Japanese /sotto/ or for Italian /'sotto/, however, we always have two phono-syllables, even if Japanese /sotto/ has three morae. çMoraicÇ n is always postvocalic, but it can also be followed by a vowel (and it is transliterated as Vn' V˚ in order to make people realize we are dealing with /éôé/ (éP-é), not with VnV /éné/ (é-né), and the same goes for Vn'yV /éôjé/ (éP-jé), which is di‡erent from VnyV /énjé/ (é-~jé)): (Çt™ó3døø) /teùôdoo/ tendoo (Ô, a similar Italian word, tendo /'tEndo/, or ('tEn:do) in an intoneme). However, in Japanese, in addition to /éôé/ (éP-é) and /éné/ (é-né), as in (ÇåP3i) /aùôi/ an'i˚ ('å3~i) /aùni/ ani, we can also have /éô˙é/ (éô-˙é) (which is the combination of /éô/ and /˙é/): (Ç™N2Ni) /eô˙i/ engi and /éôné/ (éó-né) too (combination of /éô/ and /né/): (Çåó2nå) /aôna/ anna˚ (Çå«3~i) /aùôni/ anni (Ô Italian: /'anna, 'anni/ ('an{:}na, 'an{:}ni) Anna, anni]˘ Let us add this –not useless– example: (ÇhøP3jå) /hoùô-ja/ hon'ya˘ ˛erefore, the structure of /ô/ (õ, ó, «, N, ô, P) (one mora) is di‡erent from the geminate one /0-0é/ (two morae, or three including the first vowel: /é-0-0é/). However, there is no di‡erence for the counting of morae.

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Japanese £accent∞ – akusento 12.3.2.1. Both phonetic and phonemic transcriptions, as we have seen in the previous section too, indicate that in Japanese akusento is actually a pitch accent. We are not faced with real tones (and tonemes), as in Chinese or cetnamese (languages where even gliding or compound movements on each syllable are prevailing). On the contrary, in Japanese a pattern stretches over whole words, or whole rhythm groups formed by one or more words and by their (strictly connected) enclitic functional syllables (grammatical particles). ˛e term akusento˚ (2å3k[¨]çs™ó3tø) /aùkMseôto/, indicates the point, ¤ the mora, after which pitch is lowered, that is the change from mid to low pitch. In our transcriptions, this is marked by writing Å after the mora in question. Any other morae before the akusento have mid pitch, except for the very first one, which is low. If a word or rhythm group has no akusento, the first mora is low, whereas all the successive ones are mid; thus without going back to low pitch, according to the pattern that follows shortly (which is limited here to four morae). 12.3.2.2. Only in the following table (which relates to û 12.3), we will show a tonemic (å) and a tonetic pattern (∫, where (3ø) indicates a low-pitched syllable, with the vowel timbre of /o/; whereas (2ø) indicates mid pitch). We consider them to be more useful and convenient, in order to describe and learn/teach. We add pattern (©) that is most recommendable in transliterations which do not ignore akusento, when no transcriptions are used. According to the general principles of not explicitly writing unmarked prosodic elements, in transcriptions, the notation (2) –for mid pitch– could or should be left out. However, it is certainly more useful to show it, all the more so because in actual examples it is much less obtrusive than in the table. In any case, in pattern (∆) it has been left out. For useful comparisons, we will add the most widespread patterns used in transliterations (∂, ™), and the one used in katakana moraic transcription (ƒ) with typically oriental graphic complexities. We also show a phonotonetic pattern turned into a more çorthodoxÇ one (Ÿ), originating from pattern (™). To indicate any mora, here we use (ø), /o/, o˚ $ (the last one to çindicateÇ katakana, in ƒ): å ∫ © ∂ ™ ƒ Ÿ ∆

/oooo/ (3ø2ø2ø2ø) oooo oooo oôoo $999 (øœøøø) (3øøøø)

/ooooå (3ø2ø2ø2ø) oooò ooooŒ oôooŒ $990 (øœøøøì) (3øøøø)

/oooùo/ (3ø2ø2ø3ø) ooòo oooŒo oôoŒo $90$ (øœøøìø) (3øøø3ø)

/ooùoo/ (3ø2ø3ø3ø) oòoo ooŒoo oôŒoo $0$$ (øœøìøø) (3øø3ø3ø)

/oùooo/ (2ø3ø3ø3ø) òooo oŒooo ôŒooo 0$$$ (œøìøøø) (ø3ø3ø3ø)

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û 12.3. Pitch-accent patterns.

/oooo/ (3øøøø)

/ooooå (3øøøø)

/oooùo/ (3øøø3ø)

/ooùoo/ (3øø3ø3ø)

/oùooo/ (ø3ø3ø3ø)

12.3.2.3. In type-å tonetic transcriptions, the first instance (/oooo/) di‡ers from the second (/ooooå), because for the latter we also indicate the succeeding lowering (which –for obvious reasons– is absent in type-∫ transcriptions). Indeed, it is not objectively present in actual reality, when no words follow (as we will see shortly). In type-© transliterations, the accent could even be acute [ó]˚ but the grave one is to be preferred since it can show actual movements better – in fact, the pitch falls from mid to low. Type-∂ and type-™ transliterations reflect the first ones in a more abstract way: tonemic and tonetic (å, ∫); even the katakana transliteration –or çtranscriptionÇ– (ƒ) shows the same characteristic, but in a more abstract way in comparison with real transcriptions (å, ∫, Ÿ). We do not use transcriptions of the type /oŒooo/ (^øŒøøø), which some use though (on the wake of type ∂ and type-™ transliterations), because if syllables/morae were really pronounced in a high pitch, instead of the mid one, the result would not be at all convincing. Let us add that in certain textbooks it is possible to find both types ∂ and ™ with katakana, and type ƒ with transcriptions. As far as the indication or pitch variants is concerned, as we have done in § 12.0.2, for hiragana ((3âi'må2˙åœnå, 3âi'må3˙åœnå÷ 3âi'må2˙å&nå) /hiRaù˙aùna÷ -naå) and katakana ((3kÄ'tå3kåœnå, 3kÄ'tå2kåœnå) /kataùkaùna/), the most important thing is to indicate them (unless there are usage di‡erences). Our phonotonetic transcription also shows their (wider or narrower) di‡usion and recommendability (which is to be interpreted gradually – from the first onwards). On the other hand, in a pronouncing dictionary, which would be worth publishing (using a transliteration, followed by the o‚cial writing and, of course, by an IPA transcription, certainly a phonemic one), preferences could and should be shown, by indicating /hiRa˙aùna, hiRaù˙ana, hiRa˙anaå and /kataùkana, katakaùna/, obviously in a shortened form: /hiRa˙aùna, -Raù-÷ -naå and /kataùkana, -kaù-/. Of course, in an introduction, the precise phonetic and tonetic characteristics would be fully treated, with accurate transcriptions, and with all the necessary vocograms, orograms, and tonograms, Â. 12.3.2.4. A short –mono-moraic– syllable may have two pitch possibilities: /ne/ ne çsound, toneÇ (absence of akusento), /neå ne çrootÇ (presence of akusento), but tonetically they are both çnon-lowÇ (¤ said in a mid pitch: ('n™); the same goes for /ki/ ki çspiritÇ, /kiå ki çtreeÇ, ('©i), and /ha/ ha çleaveÇ, /haå ha çtoothÇ, ('hå). In the case of two morae, we can have (Çsøø) /soùo/ soo çmonkÇ, (Çsøø) /soo/ soo çvilla, innÇ, which are monosyllables realized right as (Çsøø), with half-low pitch – but slightly falling or rising, respectively, since they combine mid and low, or low and mid, pitch (Ô û 12.4).

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In unstressed bimoraic syllables, we find (3) (which is low, but raised up to the border with the mid band, as can be seen from the figure, in comparison with the low pitch of (ç)), as in: (3s™PÇs™™) /seôseùe/ sensei˚ (Çkøø3âii) /koohiùi/ koohii. For two syllables formed by adding –to a monomoraic monosyllable– particles such as (˙å, µå) /˙a, µa/ ga˚ wa˚ which are akusento-less (since their pitch depends on what precedes, even if {when pronounced metalinguistically in isolation} they are obviously ('˙å, 'µå) /˙a, µa/), we obtain respectively: (3n™'˙å) /ne˙a/ ne ga and ('n™3˙å) /neù˙a/ ne ga, (3©i'˙å) /ki˙a/ ki ga and ('©i3˙å) /kiù˙a/ ne ga, (3hå'˙å) /ha˙a/ ha ga and ('hå3µå) /haùµa/ ha wa. It is fundamental not to believe that Japanese has two çtonemesÇ – low and mid. As a matter of fact, akusento is not at all a kind of actual pitch height (as it is not stress either). On the contrary, it is a pitch fall. It is a sort of çcatatonic pointÇ, after which the pitch falls, passing to the low band, as the examples clearly show. But above all, akusento is either present or absent. In English, (the position of) stress is phonemic; whereas it is not so in Japanese. Besides, in English, pitch depends only on intonation (and paraphonics); whereas, in Japanese, pitch is phonemic and fundamental. ˛is language has mid pitch until an akusento comes, after which the pitch becomes low. If no akusento occurs, the pitch remains mid. On the contrary, stress in Japanese is not phonemic and depends on a complex interplay of various factors, such as the presence or absence of akusento, where it is placed, and the syllable structures of the rhythm group. Naturally, the tonograms su‚ciently highlight that, in a rhythm group (or in an isolated word), the first mora is low and contrasts with the second one, which is mid; provided that (as we have already seen) the first mora is not followed by an akusento, in which case it is mid and what follows is low. Again with two morae, we also have ('hå3nå) /haùna/ hana çedgeÇ, (3hå'nå) /hanaå hana çflowerÇ, (3hå'nå) /hana/ hana çnoseÇ (all bisyllabic), as for the monosyllabic examples with a particle seen above. As soon as we add a particle, the e‡ect of akusento is immediately clear: (3n™'µå) /neµa/ ne wa çsound, toneÇ, ('n™3µå) /neùµa/ ne wa çrootÇ, ('hå3nå3˙å) /haùna˙a/ hana ga çedgeÇ, (3hå'nå3˙å) /hanaù˙a/ hana ga çflowerÇ, (3hå'nå2˙å) /hana˙a/ hana ga çnoseÇ; and so on. û 12.4. Movements in syllables with morae of di‡erent pitch. £ £

Ç /éé, éô/ = Ç /éùé, éùô/ =

≥ (Çéé, ÇéP),

(3éé, 3éP)

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Stress in Japanese 12.3.2.5. Although stress is not distinctive in Japanese, nevertheless it has a fundamental phonetic function. On the other hand, when acculturated native speakers talk about Japanese accent, they surely mean pitch accent –akusento– which is distinctive. However, in an automatic way, even non-acculturated natives –inevitably– use di‡erent degrees of stress for the various syllables which form sentences. Since stress is not distinctive, it can oscillate and shift in sentences, phrases, and rhythm groups. ˛is can also depend on communicative, pragmatic, paraphonic, and emotional factors. It can even change according to which monosyllables are added. However, we will give some indications about the phenomenon of stress, since we believe it is impossible to continue ignoring it; although this is exactly what still happens. Let us now proceed in order and start from monosyllables, by reflecting on the fact that bimoraic words, as the following, are actually monosyllables (in spite of contrary confused indications): (Çii) /iùi/ ii˚ (ÇåM) /aùM/ au˚ (Çbåi) /baùi/ bai˚ (Çkø™) /koùe/ koe˚ (Ç©ªøø) /kjoùo/ kyoo˚ (ÇbMP) /bMùô/ bun˚ (Çøøi) /ooùi/ ooi˚ (Çbaai) /baai/ baai˚ (Çbjøø2iP) /bjooiô/ byooin (this last example has four morae, but not four syllables, rather only one! – Ô English ('g‘¨¤˙, 'gø¨¤˙) /'gOUI˙/ going). In these examples, a stressed syllable is always half-low, but it is slightly falling (since it derives from the combination of mid and low pitch, within the same syllable), except in the last two examples, where it is slightly rising instead (since it derives from the combination of low and mid pitch, tautosyllabically – Ô û 12.4). 12.3.2.6. True problems begin with bisyllables, though. In fact, there are di‡erences between (3å'm™) /ame/ ame çcandyÇ, ('å3m™) /aùme/ ame çrainÇ, and (3n™'mM) /neRM/ neru çto sleepÇ, ('n™3mM) /neùRM/ neru çflannelÇ. Bisyllables of two morae, that is with two light syllables, are stressed on the second syllable, unless akusento follows the first one, which is then stressed: (3k'kø) /koko/ koko˚ (3å'Bi) /azi/ aji˚ (3M'™) /Me/ ue˚ (3i'M) /iM/ iu˚ (3ø'i) /oi/ oi and (3ø'tø) /otoå oto˚ (3å'¿i) /asiå aí˚ (3mM'må) /mMRaå mura˚ (3qM'Ni) /tM˙iå _ugi˚ (3¿i'ø) /sioå ío˚ (3i'™) /ieå ie˘ However, we have: ('dø3m™) /doùRe/ dore˚ ('å3©i) /aùki/ aki˚ ('qM3må) /tMùma/ _uma˚ Â. ˛ree-mora bisyllables are stressed on the heaviest syllables (¤ with more morae than others), although there are some oscillations that we will indicate. It is important to accurately observe akusento di‡erences (which are pitch di‡erences), in phonemic transcriptions, since sometimes they are the only actual di‡erences (but û 12.4 must be carefully considered): (3ø'møi) /omoi/ omoi˚ (3øÇmøi) /omoùi/ omoi˚ (3kå'søø) /kasoo/ kasoo˚ (3kåÇsøø) /kasoùo/ kasoo˚ (3i'måi) /iRai/ irai˚ (2içmåi) /iùRai/ irai˚ (3å'øi) /aoi/ aoi˚ (3åÇøi) /aoùi/ aoi˚ (3¿i'åi) /siai/ íai˚ (3©i'nøø) /kinoo/ kinoo˚ (3jø't™™) /jotee/ yotei˚ (2âiç˙åi) /hiù˙ai/ higai (but ('©i3Njøø) /kiù˙joo/ kigyoo]˚ (2kMçmøø) /kMùRoo/ kuroo˚ (2båçm™™) /baùRee/ baree˘ More: (3©iÇkåi) /kikaùi/ kikai˚ (3¿iÇk™P) /sikeùô/ íken˚ (2içk™P) /iùkeô/ iken˚ (3i'k™P) /ikeô/ iken˚ (2gøçz™P) /goùzeô/ gozen˚ (2QMç6øP) /zMùboô/ zubon˚ (Çkøø2Bi) /koozi/ kooji˚ (Çkøø3Bi) /koùozi/ kooji˚ (Ç™N2Ni) /eô˙i/ engi˚ (Çåi2då) /aida/ aida˚ (Çhåi3mM) /haùiRM/ hairu˚ (Ç©ªøø3tø) /kjoùoto/ Kyooto˚ (Çkåi2Ni) /kai˙iå kaigi˚ (Çdåi3k¨) /daùi-

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kM/ daiku˚ (Çb™ó3¬i) /beùôRi/ benri˚ (Çmió2nå) /miôna/ minna˚ (3miq'q:M) /miqqMå mit_u˚ (3åk'k:å) /akka/ akka (but: ('åk3k:å) /aùkka/ akka˚ ('¬™¿3¿:jå) /Reùssja/ resá˚ where pitch prevails on other factors). Generally, in four-mora bisyllables, stress falls on the first syllables, unless it is a light one (¤ with just one mora) or there is an akusento after the second one (or if the first is only çhalf-heavyÇ, ¤ checked by (=˘=:)): (Ç©jMM26jøø) /zjMMbjoo/ juubyoo˚ (Ç©jMM36jøø) /zjMùMbjoo/ juubyoo˚ (Çhøø2køø) /hookoo/ hookoo˚ (Ç©jMM3døø) /zjMùMdoo/ juudoo˚ (Çkøø2Bjøø) /koozjoo/ koojoo˚ (3køøÇBjøø) /koozjoùo/ koojoo˚ (3tåiÇFMM) /taihMùM/ taifuu˘ More: (Çk™ó2tøø) /keôtoo/ kentoo˚ (3k™óÇtøø) /keôtoùo/ kentoo˚ (Çs™ó2tøø) /seôtoo/ sentoo˚ (Çs™ó3tøø) /seùôtoo/ sentoo˚ (3s™PÇs™™) /seôseùe/ sensei˚ (Ç©iP2™P) /kiôeô/ kin'en˚ (ÇjMM26iP) /jMMbiô/ yuubin˚ (3gåk'k:øø) /gakkoo/ gakkoo˚ (3tø©'©:ªMM) /tokkjMM/ tokkyuu (but: (ÇbøÂ3Â:ªåP) /boùttjaô/ boc>an]˚ (3™'©iiP) /ekiiô/ ekiin˚ (3¿ip'p:åi, 3¿i-) /sippai/ íppai˚ (Çtøø2©ªøø) /tookjoo/ Tookyoo˘ 12.3.2.7. ˛ree-mora trisyllables are stressed on their second syllable, unless it contains a devoiced vowel, which makes stress shift forwards (if an akusento is there) or backwards: (3©i'mø2nø) /kimono/ kimono˚ (3jM'6i2µå) /jMbiµa/ yubiwa˚ (3Âi'kå2må) /tikaRaå >ikara˚ (3F¨'tå2mi) /hMtaRi/ futari˚ (2åçmå3¿i) /aùRasi/ araí˘ Besides: (3kå'™2mi) /kaeRiå kaeri˚ (3kå'™2mM) /kaeRM/ kaeru˚ (3kå'™3mM) /kaeùRM/ kaeru (but (Çkå™3mM) /kaùeRM/ kaeru), (2tåçø3mM) /taùoRM/ taoru˚ (3M'™2©i) /Meki/ ueki˚ (3¿i'kå2kM) /sikakMå íkaku÷ (2kåçzø3k¨) /kaùzokM/ kazoku (with this pitch pattern, and especially with non-devoiced /i, M/ in the last but one syllable, it is also possible to have: ('dø3Âi3må) /doùtiRa/ do>ira˚ ('d™3˙M3Âi) /deù˙Mti/ degu>i]÷ ('k™3¿i3©i) /keùsiki/ keíki˚ ('i3k¨3qM) /iùkMtM/ iku_u˚ ('pø3s¨3tø) /poùsMto/ posuto˚ (3µå2F¨'kM) /µahMkM/ wafuku˚ (3å2¿i'tå) /asitaå aíta˚ (3jå2k¨'¿jø) /jakMsjo/ yakuó˘ Four-mora trisyllables are stressed on the first syllable, unless it is a light one: (Çkåi2mø2nø) /kaimono/ kaimono˚ (Çøø2så2kå) /oosaka/ Oosaka˚ (Çsaa36i3s¨) /saùabisM/ saabisu˚ (Ç¿jøø2Bi3©i, -2Bi2©i) /sjooziùkiå óojiki˚ (Çt™õ2pM2må) /teôpMRa/ tenpura˚ (ÇQ™ô3kø3k¨) /zeùôkokM/ zenkoku˚ (2¿içmøø3tø) /siùRooto/ írooto˚ (3bM'qM2zøø) /bMtMzoo/ butuzoo˚ (3s™'©i2~iP) /sekiniô/ sekinin˚ (2åçkå3ÂªåP) /aùkatjaô/ aka>an˚ (3må'™M2mi) /maeMRi/ maeuri˚ (3ø'i2µåi) /oiµai/ oiwai˚ (3M'™2©iå) /Mekija/ uekiya˘ More: (3sM'i2s™P) /sMiseô/ suisen (but: (3øø'å3m™) /ooaùme/ ooame˚ (3¬øø'må3Bi) /Roomaùzi/ roomaji˚ (3kåP'˙ø3F¨) /kaô˙oùhM/ kangofu˚ (3¬øø'sø3k¨, -'sø2kM) /RoosoùkMå roosoku˚ (3©jMM'˙å2qM) /zjMM˙atMå juuga_u˚ where the akusento prevails). Regularly, also: (3~i'høP2˙ø) /nihoô˙o/ Nihongo˚ (3på'Âiô2kø) /patiôko/ pa>inko˘ In compounds, usually we find a seemingly irregular pattern, such as: (3båõ'm™2¿i) /baômesi/ banmeí˚ (3gåi'kø2kM) /gaikokM/ gaikoku˚ (3jMM'då2Âi) /jMMdati/ yuuda>i˚ (3håi'zå2må) /haizaRa/ haizara˘ 12.3.2.8. Four-mora quadrisyllables tend to be stressed on the second syllable from the beginning: (3kå'mi2då&må) /kamidama/ kamidama˚ (3nå'˙å2˙M2q¨, -&qM) /na˙a˙MtM/ nagagu_u˚ (3nø'mi2mø&nø) /noRimono/ norimono˚ (3bM'tå2~i&kM, -ik¨) /bMtanikM/ butaniku˚ (3så'kå2nå&jå) /sakanaja/ sakanaya˚ (3¿i'åµå&s™) /siaµase/ íawase˚ (3å'm™2mi&kå) /ameRika/ Amerika˚ (3M'mi2©i&m™) /MRikiRe/ urikire˚ (3tø'mø2då&Âi)

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/tomodati/ tomoda>i˚ (3M'k™2q¨2k™, -2qM&k™) /MketMke/ uke_uke˚ (3Âi'kå3¿i3qM, -iœqM) /tikaùsitM/ >ikaí_u˚ (3øô'˙å2k¨3kåi, -2kMœkåi) /oô˙akMùkai/ ongakukai˘ More: (3kM'då3møœnø) /kMdaùmono/ kudamono˚ (3tå'6M3kMœmø) /tabMùkMRo/ tabukuro˚ (3kå'nå2zMœÂi) /kanazMùti/ kanazuti˚ (3âi'mø2¿i&må) /hiRosima/ Hiroíma˚ (3hå'nå2¿i2t™, -i&t™) /hanasiteå hanaíte˚ (3tå'nø2¿i&mi) /tanosimi/ tanoími˚ (3kå'n™2mø&Âi) /kanemotiå kanemo>i˚ (3i'n™2mM&mi) /inemMRiå inemuri˚ (2©i't™P2¿jå&jå) /ziteôsjaja/ jitenáya˚ (3høP's™2©i3Âi) /hoôsekiùti/ honseki>i˘ However, stress generally falls on the last but one syllable, when it is a heavy one, or is followed by an akusento, or when the second one contains a devoiced vowel. Mainly, this also happens with final -_u˚ -ri or in obvious compounds: (œå2så'n™36øø) /asaneùboo/ asaneboo˚ (œgåi2kø'kM3BiP, -3©iP) /gaikokMùziô/ gaikokujin˚ (œå2mMÇ6åi3tø) /aRMbaùito/ arubaito˚ (œg™2qMÇjøø36i) /getMjoùobi/ ge_uyoobi˚ (œmø2kMÇjøø36i) /mokMjoùobi/ mokuyoobi˚ (&bi3mMçdiô3˙M) /biùRMdiô˙M/ birudingu˚ (œ~i2µå'kaa3m™) /niµakaaùme/ niwakaame˚ (œÂªø2køÇm™™3tø) /tjokoReùeto/ >okoreeto˚ (œÂªMM2˙ø'kM2˙ø) /tjMM˙okM˙o/ >uugokugo (but (3gåi'kø2kM&˙ø) /gaikokM˙o/ gaikokugo]˘ In addition: (3ø2F¨'kM2mø, œø2FM-) /ohMkMRo/ ofukuro˚ (3jå2k¨'sø2kM, œjå2kM-) /jakMsokM/ yakusoku˚ (3kå2©i'kå2tå, œkå2©i-, -3tå) /kakikataù, -ùta/ kakikata˚ (3jø2q¨'kå2dø, œjø2qM-) /jotMkado/ yo_ukado˚ (œtø2¿i'ø2mi) /tosijoRiå toíyori˚ (œkå2mi'nå2mi, -3mi) /kaminaùRiå kaminari˚ (œså2måi'˙™2qM, -2q¨) /saRai˙etM/ saraige_u˚ (œhå2Âi'˙å2qM) /hati˙atMå hatiga_u˚ (œ¿i2Âi'˙å2qM, œ¿i-) /siti˙atMå ítiga_u˚ (œ©jMM2~i'˙å2qM) /zjMMni˙atMå juuniga_u˚ (œå2så'm™2¿i) /asamesi/ asameí˚ (œi2mM'm™2¿i) /iRMmesi/ irumeí˚ (œøó2nåçnø3kø) /oônaùnoko/ onnanoko˚ (œd™N2©iÇgåi3¿jå, -Ç˙åi-) /deôkigaisja, -˙ai-/ denkigaiá˚ (œâi2©i'då2¿i, 3âi-) /hikidasi/ hikidaí˚ (œkå2¿i'då2¿i) /kasidasi/ kaídaí˚ (œhå2tå'mi2Âi) /hatamiti/ hatami>i˘ 12.3.2.9. In five-syllable words, which are generally not simple words, stress decidedly tends to fall on the last but one syllable, except for particular compounding or devoicing: (3kå&tå2zM'k™3mM) /katazMkeùRM/ katazukeru˚ (3i&nå26içkå3mi) /inabiùkaRi/ inabikari˚ (3ø&tø2køçnø3kø) /otokoùnoko/ otokonoko˚ (3n™&Bi2måçµå3¿i) /nezimaùµasi/ nejimawaí˚ (3jå&må2nøç6ø3mi) /jamanoùboRi/ yamanobori˚ (3ø&kM2mi'mø2nø) /okMRimono/ okurimono˚ (3ø&©ªå2kM'så2må, œø2©ªå2k¨-) /okjakMsama/ okyakusama˚ (3ø&t™3qMçdåi3såP) /oteùtMdaisaô/ ote_udaisan˚ (3å&m™2mi'kå3BiP, -3©iP) /ameRika ùziô/ amerikajin˘ More: (3s™ó&tå2kM'mø2nø) /seôtakMmono/ sentakumono˚ (3i&Âi2~i'Âi2BjMM) /itinitizjMM/ i>ini>ijuu˚ (œd™N2©i2s¨'tøø36M) /deôkisMtooùbM/ denki-sutoobu˚ (œÂªMM2˙ø2kMÇmjøø3mi) /tjMM˙okMRjoùoRi/ >uugokuryoori˚ (œkøø2då«Ç©jMM3tå3k¨) /koodaôzjMùMtakM/ koodan-juutaku˚ (œdåõ2bøø's™3qM36i, çdåõ2bøø 's-) /daôbooseùtMbi/ danboo-se_ubi˚ (œø2må'µå2mi&såP) /omaùµaRisaô/ omawarisan˚ (3~jMM&˙å2kM2¿iÇk™P) /njMM˙akMsikeùô/ nyuugaku-íken˚ (œmå2ÂiÇåi2¿i3qM, -i3q¨) /matiaùisitM/ ma>iaií_u˘ 12.3.2.10. In verbs in -ru generally stress is on the preceding syllable and akusento immediately after it: (œø26ø'™3mM) /oboeùRM/ oboeru˚ (œkåô2˙å'™3mM) /kaô˙aeùRM/ kangaeru˚ (œå2qM'må3mM) /atMmaùRM/ a_umaru˚ (œ¿i2må'6™3mM) /siRabeùRM/ íraberu˚

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(œkø2¿i2kå'k™3mM) /kosikakeùRM/ koíkakeru÷ but (3å'må2µå3s¨) /aRaµaùsM/ arawasu˚ (3Âi'kå2zå3k¨) /tikazaùkM/ >ikazaku˘ Usually, adjectives are stressed on the last, or last but one, syllable: (3å&tå2tåÇkåi) /atatakaùi/ atatakai˚ (œmM2¿iåÇqMi) /mMsiatMùi/ muía_ui˚ (3jå&kå2måÇ¿ii) /jakamasiùi/ yakamaíi˚ (3å'6M2nåi) /abMnai/ abunai˚ (Çøi2¿ii) /oisii/ oiíi˚ (Ç©ii2møi) /kiiRoi/ kiiroi˚ (3å'kå2mMi) /akaRMi/ akarui˚ (3qM'm™2tåi) /tMmetai/ _umetai÷ but there are even cases like: (3mM'zM2kå&¿ii) /mMzMkasii/ muzukaíi˚ (3å'tå2måœ¿ii) /ataRasiùi/ ataraíi˚ (3ø'mø2¿iœmøi) /omosiRoùi/ omoíroi˚ (3mM'¿iå2qMi) /mMsiatMùi/ muía_ui˚ (3m™ó'døø2k¨œsåi) /meôdookMsaùi/ mendookusai˘ In iterated forms stress and akusento belong to the first syllable: ('mM3zMœmM3zM) /mMùzMmMzM/ muzumuzu˚ ('µå3zåœµå3zå) /µaùzaµaza/ wazawaza˘ ≈nally, here are some akusento-less forms: (3så'µåRM, 3qM'˙åRM, M'k™RM) /saµaRM, tM˙aRM, MkeRM/ sawaru˚ _ugaru˚ ukeru˘ 12.3.2.11. Since there are no real rules for akusento and stress in compounds, especially for less long ones, we just give some examples, to rouse reflection (also on the paramount importance that a real pronouncing dictionary would have {by using IPA} for akusento˚ stress, segments, devoicing, Â): (3FMjM'˙™3¿[i]3©i) /hMjM˙eùsiki/ huyugeíki˚ from (3FM'jM) /hMjMå huyu˚ ('k™3¿[i]3©i) /keùsiki/ keíki˘ Other examples: (3jM&~jMM2kM'då3mø3nø) /jMnjMMkMdaùmono/ yunyuukudamono˚ from (3jM'~jMM) /jMnjMM/ yunyuu˚ (3kM'då3mø3nø) /kMdaùmono/ kudamono÷ and more: (œjMM2jå2k™'zø3må) /jMMjakezoùRa/ yuuyakezora˚ from (ÇjMM2jå2k™) /jMMjake/ yuuyake˚ ('sø3må) /soùRa/ sora÷ (3så&tø2˙øçkø3mø) /sato˙oùkoRo/ satogokoro˚ from (3så'tø) /sato/ sato˚ (3k'kø3mø) /kokoùRo/ kokoro. Furthermore: (3~i'˙M3mM3må) /ni˙MùRMma/ niguruma˚ from ('~i) /niå ni˚ (3kM'mM2må) /kMRMma/ kuruma÷ (3å'så3kå3z™) /asaùkaze/ asakase˚ from ('å3så) /aùsa/ asa˚ (3kå'z™) /kaze/ kaze÷ (3iP2s[¨]&tåó2tøÇkøø3âii) /iôsMtaôtokoùohii/ insutantokoohi˚ from (3iP2s[¨]Çtåó3tø) /iôsMtaùôto/ insutanto˚ (Çkøø3âii) /koohiùi/ koohi÷ (œgåi2kø'kM3BiP, -3©iP) /gaikokMùziô/ gaikokujin˚ from (Çgåi2kø2k¨) /gaikokM/ gaikoku˚ (Ç©iP) /ziùô/ jin÷ (œgåi2kø&kM2BióÇtøø3mø3k¨, -2©ió-) /gaikokMziôtoùoRokM/ gaikokujin-tooroku˚ from (œgåi2kø'kM3BiP, -3©iP) /gaikokMùziô/ gaikokujin˚ (Çtøø2mø2k¨) /tooRokM/ tooroku˘ 12.3.2.12. In forming Japanese sentences, some modifications are introduced regarding akusento (and somehow for rhythm-group stress too). Let us consider the following examples, in order to see how they work, by carefully observing the pitch of the syllables in the second rhythm group. In fact, normally, the rhythm groups that are not separated by pauses, after a rhythm group with akusento, remain mid-pitched as the previous one. Here are some sentences: (3µå'tå2k¨2¿i&nø 2nå'må™) /µatakMsino namae/ watakuí no namae (in (3nå'må™) /namae/, na- becomes (2nå), by pitch assimilation to the preceeding syllable), ('bø3kMœnø 3s™Pçs™™) /boùkMno seôseùe/ boku no sensei (in (3s™PÇs™™) /seôseùe/, -see becomes low), (3~i'hø« 'Âi3zM) /nihoô tiùzM/ Nihon >izu (without modifications). More sentences: (2åçså36åP) /aùsa baô/ asa ban (from ('å3så) /aùsa/ and (ÇbåP) /baô/, by unifying everything into one rhythm group and lowering ban]˚ (3jå'så2¿ii ÇhøP)

390


/jasasiùi hoùô/ yasaíi hon (without modifications), (Çii 3Biç6i3©i, 3©i-) /iùi zibiki/ ii jibiki (from (3©i'6i2©i) /zibikiå, with lowering of -biki]˚ (3sM'zM3¿ii 3h™çãå) /sMzM¿iùi hejaå suzuíi heya (in (3h™'ãå) /hejaå, -ya is lowered), (3s™PÇs™™œd™3s¨, -s:, -s) /seôseùe desM/ sensei desu (with stress reduction on ('d™3s¨, -s:, -s) /deùsM/ and lowering of de-]˘ More: (3tø't™2mø 2ø'mø2¿iœmøi çhøP) /totemo omosiRoùi hoùô/ totemo omoíroi hon (from (3ø'mø2¿iœmøi), with raising of o- and lowering of hon]˚ (3âi'Bjøø2~i 2F¨&kM2zå'qM2nå 'møó2dåi) /hizjooni hMkMzatMna moôdai/ hijoo ni fukuza_una mondai (with raising of fu- and mon-]˚ ('møt3t:ø 3jåçsMi çhøP) /moùtto jasMùi hoùô/ motto yasui hon (with lowering of -sui and hon]˚ (3ø'hå2jøø 2gø'zåi2må3s¨, -s:, -s) /ohajoo gozaimaùsM/ ohayoo gozaimasu (with raising of go-]˘ Some others: (3å'mi3˙å3tøø 3gøçzåi3s¨, -s:, -s) /aRiù˙atoo gozaimaùsM/ arigatoo gozaimasu (with lowering of -zaima-\ everything is low, except -ri-]˚ (Çdøø3mø 3åçmi3˙å3tøø 3gøçzåi3må3s¨, -s:, -s) /doùomo aRiù˙atoo gozaimaùsM/ doomo arigatoo gozaimasu (with lowering of -ri- and -zaima-\ everything is low, except doo-˚ which is half-low). In addition: (çM2Âi 'kå2må '™3©i çmå3d™| 3å&mM2©i'må3s¨, -s:, -s) (in the case of fast speech with no breaks: (çM2Âi 'kå2må '™3©i çmå3d™ 3åœmM3©içmå3s¨, -s:, -s); but, separately, word by word: (3M'Âi, 3kå'må, '™3©i, 'må3d™, 3å&mM©i'må3s¨, -s:, -s)} /Mti kaRa eùki maùde aRMki maùsM/ u>i kara eki made arukimasu (please, note the stress change in the first rhythm groups, mainly due to /i/ devoicing). Also: ('~i3Bi&kå3må\ Çså«3©i çmå3d™| 3©i'mM3¿jø3~i\ 3içmå3s¨, -s:, -s)÷ possibly with fewer breaks, in less slow speech: ('~i3Biœkå3må çså«3©i çmå3d™| 3©i'mM3¿jø3~i 3içmå3s¨, -s:, -s). On the other hand, in separate rhythm groups, we have: ('~i3Bi, 3kå'må, Çså«3©i, 'må3d™| 3©i'mM3¿jø3~i, 3i'må3s¨, -s:, -s) (with modifications on kara]˚ /niùzi kaRa saùôzi maùde ziùmMsjoni imaùsM/ niji kara sanji made jimuó ni imasu÷ ('jø3Bi 3måçd™3~i\ 3k'kø2~i 2©i't™ 2kM2dåÇsåi) (slower: ('jø3Bi 3måçd™3~i\ 3kø'kø2~i\ 2©i't™ 2kM2dåÇsåi); on the other hand, in separate rhythm groups, we have: ('jø3Bi, 3måçd™3~i, 3kø'kø~i, 3©i't™, 3kM2dåÇsåi), with stress modifications on made ni˚ in comparison with made]˚ /joùzi maùdeni kokoni kite kMdasaùi/ yoji made ni koko ni kite kudasai˘ 12.3.2.13. Here are further examples illustrating stress modifications, in forming rhythm groups: (2måçd™3~i–µå) /maùdeniµa/ made ni wa˚ (3ø'©i2nå2µå) /okinaµa/ Okinawa˚ but (3ø&©i2nå'µå2µå) /okinaµaµa/ Okinawa wa… Obviously, it is not always easy to readily distinguish between the e‡ect of pitch prominence and stress prominence. On the contrary, when mid pitch coincides with stress, prominence is quite clear. If all this combines with a fairly heavy syllable, prominence is even more evident. In any case, if several nearby syllables share the same characteristics, it becomes less easy to distinguish clearly. However, pitch remains the most important element, being the distinctive one, though undoubtedly stress has a considerable role. It is important to find an appropriate balance between the elements, although oscillations are quite possible and normal, indeed. In an example like (œtå26™'må3¿i3tåœkå31) /¿tabemaùsitaka?/ tabemaíta ka?˚ the low pitch and secondary stress on the syllable ta- and the mid pitch and weak stress on

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-be- may give a similar prominence e‡ect. But, of course, it is inferior to that of the syllable -ma-˚ and decidedly inferior to that of ta˚ and even less so than in the syllable -í-˚ with devoicing up to the loss of syllabicity: (3¿i, 3¿:, 3¿). In the case of loanwords, the interplay of pitch and stress (as well as of syllabic weight and akusento placing) often undergoes some hierarchic reversal, by moving closer to the original (stress) pattern: (Çkøø3âii) /koohiùi/ koohii (çco‡eeÇ), (2høçt™3mM) /hoùteRM/ hoteru (çhotelÇ). 12.3.2.14. Obviously, in current speech, some reduction phenomena occur in Japanese too. Here we will consider some of the most çnormalÇ ones. ˛e particles no and ni˚ in particular, are often reduced to /ô/: ('kM3mMó 'nå3må) /kMùRMno naùRa/ kuru no nara˚ (ç©i2miP 2M'Âi) /kimino Mtiå kimi no u>i˚ (Çg™›2©ió 'nå3mM) /geùôkini naùRM/ genki ni naru˘ In the negative, forms with -r-V-nai˚ change /Ré/ into /ô/: (3¿ió'nåi) /siRanai/ íranai˚ (3ø2kMó'nåi) /okMRenai/ okurenai˘ More frequently, there can even be contractions such as: (2miçÂªåM) /miùte simaM/ mite ímau˚ (2jø«ç©jåM) /joùôde simaM/ yonde ímau˘ Intonation 12.3.3.1. ‹en actual Japanese sentences are pronounced, the pitch of their single rhythm groups is partially modified by intonation (too), which is added with its characteristics, according to the four types of intoneme. û 12.5 shows the Japanese preintonemes and intonemes, with their characteristics. Every preintoneme forces the pitch of its individual tones, by canalizing them into the indicated shapes (which, in more sophisticated notations than necessary, could even be marked with small rings, as we will see shortly). A normal preintoneme is compressed (/ / ( ), ((” ))), the interrogative is raised (/¿ / (¿ ), ((» ))), whereas the imperative one is falling (/¡ / (¡ ), ((»’ ))); finally, an emphatic preintoneme is non-compressed, (/˚ / (˚ ), ((ˇ ))). Again in û 12.5 it is possible to see the modifications of the intonemes: the conclusive is falling (/./ (13)), the interrogative is rising (/?/ (31)), the suspensive is extended (/÷/ (^)), whereas the continuative intoneme is compressed (/,/ (2)). û 12.6 shows the modifications undergone by light and heavy syllables (on two morae of di‡erent pitch {Ô û 12.4}), when the four Japanese intonemes superimû 12.5. Japanese preintonemes and intonemes. / / ( ) ((” ))

/./ (13)

/¿ / (¿ ) ((» ))

/?/ (31)

/¡ / (¡ ) ((»’ ))

/÷/ (^)

/˚ / (˚ ) ((ˇ ))

/,/ (2)

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pose on them. Mainly the last syllable of an intoneme undergoes these changes, whether it be stressed (as in these examples) or unstressed. As can be seen, a conclusive intoneme makes the last syllable lower and slightly falling; an interrogative one makes it raise by giving it a clear rising movement. A suspensive intoneme practically does not modify anything; whereas, a continuative one slightly compresses it towards the mid band. Before moving to the illustrastive examples, let us observe that, in Japanese, questions are made by adding the particle ka (kå) /ka/ at the end, and using an interrogative intoneme with total questions, but a conclusive (or a continuative) one with partial questions. ˛is is the most recommedable and common pattern. However, since ka is very recognizable, as an interrogative element, a simple conclusive intoneme can be used, even with total questions, or an interrogative one even with partial questions. Lastly, above all colloquially, ka need not necessarily be used, in which case then an interrogative intoneme is necessary with total questions. Lastly, here are three examples to illustrate the most recommendable use of marked intonemes: /./: (3µå&kå2mi2måÇs™óœd™3¿i3tå13) /µakaRimaseùô desita./ Wakarimasen desita. /?/: (¿3µå&kå2mi'må3¿i3tå3kå31) /¿µakaRimaùsitaka?/ Wakarimasita ka? /÷/: (3FM'jM çdåt3t:å 3k™çm™3døö^ 3i2©i'må3¿i3tå13) /hMjMù datta keRedo÷ ikimaùsita./ Fuyu datta keredo, ikimasita. Typically, Japanese has a peculiar paraphonic setting, with lowered larynx §æ@, mostly for men. û 12.6. Pitch movements for light or heavy Japanese syllables, with the four intonemes. /çé/ =

(çé13)

(çé31)

(çé^)

(çé2)

/'é/ =

('é13)

('é31)

('é^)

('é2)

/çéé/ =

(Çéé13)

(Çéé31)

(Çéé^)

(Çéé2)

/'éé/ =

(Çéé13)

(Çéé31)

(Çéé^)

(Çéé13)

Text 12.4.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in four di‡erent çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (neutral) Japanese pronunciation of (neutral British) English – this is the first step of the phonetic method (the written text is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Japanese translation follows, in its neutral phonotonetic and phonotonemic versions, since it is important in this language to see its akusento and the actual phonotonetic rendering, to make useful reflections. At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronunciation of Japanese, by neutral British speakers, fluent in Japanese (after prolonged

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contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmental and intonation elements which are typical of neutral British English (for reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciation of English, given first. Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Japanese pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Japanese, as an excellent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12). Japanese pronunciation (of English) 12.4.1. (3Qå'nøø2sM 'µió2dø2 3öåó2Qå'såP2 3µå2©i2s¨'pªMM2ÂiP 'µi2Âi 3µå2zå2s¨2t¯'mø˙2gÄ13| 'µ™P 3å2t¯'må26M2må2 'k™™2mM 'møP2 ì'må2p¨2t 3i2nå'µøø2mM 3k¨'møø2k¨13œ| 3Q™2öå2˙M'mii2d2\ 3Qå2t¯2zå'µåP 3FM'hå2mM2s¨2t 3så2k¨'¿ii2©i2dø2 3öiõ'm™™2©iP 3zå2t¯'må26M2må2 Çt™™2©i 2âi2zM2k¨'møø2k¨ 'öø2F¨^| '¿ªM2dø 36i2kåP'¿i2då2dø 3s¨2t¯'mø˙2gå 3zå«2©i'å2zÄ13|| ÇQ™ó2 3Qå'nøø2sM 'µió2dø2 36M'mMM2 3å2zM'haa2dø2 3å2Bi'kM2d13| Ç6åt2t:ø 3zå'møø 3âi26M'mM¯^| 3Qå'møø 3k¨'møø2sM2mi2 Ç©i2dø2zå2t¯'må26M2mÄ2\ Çhøø2mM2dø 3âi2zM2k¨'møø2k¨ 3å'måMó2©i2m¯13| ì3åó2då2t¯'maa2s¨2t2œ\ 3Qå'nøø2sM 'µió2dø2 Çg™™ '6åp2p:¯ 2Biå't™õ2p¨2t13|| ìÇQ™ó2œ 3Qå'såP '¿ªøP 'åM2t13 ìÇµøø2mM2mî13œ| 3öå«2©i'mii2©jå2t¯2mî2\ ˚3Qå2t¯'må26M2må çqM2k¯ 'ø2F¯13 ˚3âi2zM2k¨'møø2k¨13|| ì3öåó'søø2œ 3zå'nøø2sM 'µió2dø2 3µå2zå26M'måi2Bi2dø 3qM2kåP'h™2s¨2| 3Qå2tå'såó13 3µå2zå2s¨2t¯'mø˙2gå13 ì3å26å2zå'qM¯13œ|| ¿–©i2BjM'måi2©i31 ¿3zå2s¨'tøø2mî2| ¿3©jM'µøó 3tå'âiå2mi 3qM'˙™P31|||) Japanese text 12.4.2. Arutoki Kitakaze to Taiyoo ga >ikara-kurabe o ímaíta. Tabibito no gaitoo o nugaseta hoo ga ka>i to yuu koto ni kimete, mazu Kitakaze kara hajimemaíta. Kitakaze wa, èNani, hitomakuri ni íte miseyoo¶, to, hageíku fukitatemaíta. Suru to tabibito wa, Kitakaze ga fukeba fuku hodo gaitoo o íkkari to karada ni kut_ukemaíta. Kondo wa Taiyoo no ban ni narimaíta. Taiyoo wa kumo no aida kara yasaíi kao daíte, atatakana hikari o okurimaíta. Tabibito wa dandan yoi kokoromo>i ni natte, ímai ni wa gaitoo o nugimaíta. Soko de Kitakaze no make ni narimaíta. Kono hanaí omoírokatta? Moo i>ido yomu?

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Phonotonemic transcription 12.4.3. /aùRMtoki,| kitakazeto taùijoo˙a, tikaRakMùRabeo simaùsita.|| tabibitono gaitooo,\ nM˙aùseta hoùo˙a,\ katiù tojMM, kotoùni kimete.|| maùzM,| kitakaze kaRa, hazimemaùsita.|| kitakazeµa÷| ^naùni,| hitomaùkMRini site, misejoùo,Œ| to÷| ha˙eùsikM, hMkitatemaùsita.|| sMRMto,\ tabibitoµa÷| kitakaze˙a hMkeùba,\ hMkMùhodo÷| gaitooo,\ sikkaùRito,\ kaRadani kMttMkemaùsita.|| koùôdoµa, taùijoono baùôni, naRimaùsita.|| taùijooµa,\ kMùmono aida kaRa. jasasii÷\ kaoo daùsite,| atataùkana hikaRiùo, okMRimaùsita.|| tabibitoµa,| daôdaô "joùi,\ kokoRomotini naùtte.|| simainiùµa,\ gaitooo nM˙imaùsita.|| sokode÷\ kitakazeno,\ makeni naRimaùsita.|| ¿kono hanasiù, ¿omosiùRokatta?| ¿moùo itidoù, ¿joùmM?|||/ Phonotonetic transcription 12.4.4. (2åçmM3tø3©i2| 3©i&tå2kå'z™2tø 2tåiçøø3˙å2 3Âi&kå2må'kM3må36™œø 3¿i'må3¿i3tÄ13|| 3tå'6i26i&tø2nø Çgåi2tø;2\ 3nM'˙å3s™3tå Çhøø3˙Ä2\ 3kå2Âiçtø3jMM2 3kø'tø3~i 3©i'm™2tÉ2|| 'må3z¯2| 3©i'tå2kå&z™ 2kå'må2 3hå&Bi2m™'må3¿i3tÄ13|| 3©i&tå2kå'z™2µÄ^| ^'nå3~î2| 3âi&tø2måçkM3mi3~i3¿i3t™2 3mi's™3ãø2Œ| 'tøö^|| 3hå'˙™3¿i3kM2 3F¨&©i2tå2t™'må3¿i3tÄ13|| 3sM'mM2t2\ 3tå'6i26i&tø2µÄ^| 3©i&tå2kå'z™2˙å 2F¨'k™36Ä2\ 3F¨'kM3høœdøö^| Çgåi2tø;2\ 3¿ik2k:åçmi3t2\ 3kå'må2då&~i 3k¨q&q:M2k™'må2¿i3tÄ13|| Çkøó2dø2µå2 Çtåi3øø3nø Çbå«3~i2 3nå2mi'må3¿i3tÄ13| 2tåiçøø3µÄ2\ 2kMçmø3nø Çåi2då 2kå'må13 3jå'så2¿iî^\ 3kå'øø2 'då3¿i3tÉ2| 3å&tå2tåçkå3nå 3âi'kå2miœø2 3öø&kM2mi'må3¿i3tÄ13|| 3tå'6i26i&tø2µÄ2| Çdåó2dåP ∞jøî2\ 3k&kø2mø2mø'Âi2~i 'nåt3t:É13|| 3¿i'måi2~i3µÄ2\ Çgåi2tø;ø 3nM2Ni'må3¿i3tÄ13|| 3s2kø'dÉ^\ 3©i&tå2kå2z™'n2\ 3må'k™2~i œnå2mi'må3¿i3tÄ13|| ¿3kø'nø 2hå'nå2¿i2 ¿3ø&mø2¿i2møçkåt3t:Ä31| ¿Çmøø 3i2Âi'd2 ¿'jø3m¯31|||) English pronunciation of Japanese 12.4.5. (È'>¯uTû&kIi1| &khIiTûkû5z™IT‘¨ taÙ'j‘¨˙gû2 cIi&kå>û5kh¨È>Èb™I&j‘¨ S¤'måStå3 3|| ThÈ5bIib¤&T‘¨n‘¨ 'gaÙT‘¨2\ n¨˙5gåsÈTÈ 'h‘¨˙gå2\ &khåcÈ'Th‘¨j¯u2 kû5Th‘¨ni k¤'m™T™I2|| 'måz¯u2| k¤5Thåkûz™I kû'>A: hÈ&Z¤mÈ'måSTå3 3|| kh¤&Tåkû'z™wå32| ^'nA;ni2| h¤&T‘¨mû'kh¨È>¤n¤S&T™I2 m¤'s™I&j‘¨2Œ| 'Th‘;¨32|| hå˙'g™Sk¯u2 f¯u&k¤TåTÈ'måSTå3 3|| sÈ'>¯uT‘¨2\ ThÈ'bIib¤&T‘¨å32| kh¤&Tåkû5z™˙gû f¨'kh™bå2\ f¨'kh¯uhÈ&D‘¨32| 'gaÙT‘¨2\ S¤kû'>IiT‘¨2\ khû5>A;DÈ&nIi k¨&ts¯ukû'måSTå3 3|| 'khØnD‘¨È2 5ThaÙ‘¨n‘¨ 'bån-i2 &nA;>¤'måSTå3 3| ThaÙ'j‘¨å2\ kû5m‘¨n‘¨ 'aÙDû kû'>A:3 3 jÈ'sA;SIi32\ khA;'‘;¨2 'DåST™I2| È&TåTû5khA;nû h¤'khå>i&‘¨2 û&k¨È>¤'måSTå3 3|| ThÈ'bIib¤&T‘¨å2| 5DånDå˙ 'jø;Ù2\ khû&kø;>‘¨mÈ5ch¤ini 'nåT™I3 3|| S¤'maÙn¤&wA;2\ 5gaÙT‘¨ &n¨˙g¤'måSTå3 3|| &s‘¨kû'D™;I32\ kh¤&Tåkûz™I'n‘;¨2\ mA;5kh™ni &nå>¤'måSTå3 3|| ¿khû'n‘;¨ hÈ'nåSi2 ¿‘¨&m‘¨S¤>û'khåTå21| ¿5m‘;¨ ¤c¤'D‘;¨2 ¿'j‘¨m¯u21|||)

13. Esperanto 13.0.1. Esperanto is a social fact and a living language. It is an easily accessible language that can be mastered fairly well in a short time. It can be quite useful both in cultural and working environments, including commerce and tourism. In particular, Esperanto is an ideal language for science. For a real world circulation, to know and allow all people in all nations to grasp any subject, avoiding the problems and costs of having good translations done. Furthermore, it is extremely appropriate as a general basis for learning and teaching foreign languages with all their historical complications, and even to reflect on the structures and functioning of one's own national — native tongue. Perhaps, the day is still a long way o‡ when peoples and governments can realize that an international auxiliary language (¤ a second language for all mankind, certainly not as a substitute for the present various languages) can have many advantages. All the more so because it is not merely a (rough) vehicular language, but can also meet every-day needs in addition to technical and scientific demands as well as general cultural ones. Its most evident advantage is that it is nobody's mother tongue, but everybody's second language. Everyone has to study it, and no-one need not do it only because all the others accept to çlearnÇ and use one particular native language. ©th a language which is a second one for all, nobody has any more linguistic privileges that allow them to take advantage of others… Esperanto is not so complicated to learn as other languages are. In fact, its grammar is simple, logical, and regular; with no çcapriciousÇ exceptions so typical of natural languages. Even lexically, there are no surprises such as child, do, say /'caEıd, 'dUu, 'sEI/ and children, does, said /'cIıd-n≥ (of the accusative case) regularly assimilates (whereas only in formal and solemn pronunciation can we find (si'a;man man't™;løn) /si'aman man'telon/). In spite of this, there is a general tendency to keep words separated, both under the influence of ethnic languages, and because E-o is a çdi‡erentÇ language, not yet adequately internalized (or free from any interference). ©thout such rules, inevitably everyone would use one's own most familiar structures – since, subjectively, they are thought to be quite çnaturalÇ. Stops 13.2.2. Esperanto has three diphonic pairs of stops: /p b, t d, k g/ (p b, t d, k g). Of course, /t, d/ are dental (t, d), not alveolar as in English, since most languages have dental articulations. Besides, g is velar, with no exception, even before i and e (where it becomes prevelar ((Ò)), and /k/ as well ((´)) as in: ('g¤fT, 'g™T) /'gIft, 'gEt/ gift˚ get}: (gi'gantø, &g™øgRa'fiø) /gi'ganto, geogra'fio/ giganto˚ geografio çgiant, geographyÇ; ('p™nsi, ba'bi;li, 'tr™;ti, d™'qi;di, 'kRa;ki, 'ga;gø) /'pensi, ba'bili, 'treti, de'qidi, 'kraki, 'gago/ pensi˚ babili˚ treti˚ decidi˚ kraki˚ gago çto think, to chat, to tread, to decide, to clap/crack, gagÇ. Stopstrictives 13.2.3. In addition, there are three stopstrictives: /q÷ c, G/ (the last two are a diphonic pair): (q) c (as in German: ('hInq) /'hInq/ Hintz, not as in English: ('h¤nts) /'hInts/ hints); then, there are (c) c and its voiced counterpart, (G) g (as in English: ('f™c, 'Gø;Ù) /'fEc, 'GOE/ fetch˚ joy). ˛ey always maintain the values we have seen, before any vowel or consonant: ('q™nt, 'pa;qø) /'qent, 'paqo/ cent˚ paco çhundred, peaceÇ, (c™'va;lø, f™'li;ca) /ce'valo, fe'lica/ cevalo˚ felica çhorse, happyÇ, (GaR'd™;nø, 'pa;Gø) /Gar'deno, 'paGo/ gardeno˚ pago çgarden, page (of book)Ç. ˛e spelling dz represents a (rare) sequence, (dz), not the voiced counterpart of c (which would be (Q), as in Italian ('QE:Ro) /'QEro/ zero çzeroÇ]\ ('™dzø) /'edzo/ edzo çhusbandÇ. Constrictives 13.2.4. ˛ere are three diphonic pairs of constrictives and a rare voiceless velar one (which should be withdrawn from modern and future Esperanto, Ô § 13.4.3-

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4): /f, v÷ s, z÷ S, Z÷ x/ (f,v÷ s, z÷ S, Z÷ x). It is su‚cient to recall that s is always (s) (voiceless, as in English: ('s¤ns) /'sIns/ since]˚ whereas z is always (z) (voiced, as in: ('z¤p) /'zIp/ zip]\ ('mu;zø, 'mu;sø, 'sli;pø) /'muzo, 'muso, 'slipo/ muzo˚ muso˚ slipo çMuse, mouse, slip (of paper)Ç. Besides, (S, Z) /S, Z/ s, j are as in English ('S¤p, 'v¤ZÈn) /'SIp, 'vIZÈn/ ship˚ vision: ('fi;Sø, ZuR'na;lø) /'fiSo, Zur'nalo/ fiso˚ jurnalo çfish, newspaperÇ. ˛e last Esperanto constrictive is the rarest (and practically useless, so it could profitably be withdrawn, by merging into k or h˚ as has already happened for quite a few forms). It is h (x), voiceless velar, as in (Austrian) German ('Êax) Bach: (mø'na;xø) /mo'naxo/ monaho çmonkÇ. Approximants 13.2.5.1. Among the Esperanto approximants (which have a freer passage of phono-expiratory air in comparison with constrictives, and a fairly reduced friction noise, which on the contrary is very strong in constrictives), we find the laryngeal /h/ (h) h. It can e‡ectively be pronounced as a voiced (H), instead of voiceless (h), in order to become more di‡erent from the inconvenient and disadvantageous (x) (but this requires particular phonic considerations). ˛e most important thing, especially for Romance-language speakers, is not to completely neglect the phoneme /h/; in fact, ('hø;Rø) /'horo/ horo çhourÇ is quite di‡erent from ('ø;Rø) /'oro/ oro çgoldÇ. And it is also di‡erent from ('xø;Rø) /'xoro/ horo çchorusÇ (by now very often wisely substituted by koruso (kø'Ru;sø)), and from ('kø;Rø) /'koro/ koro çheartÇ, as well. 13.2.5.2. ˛e other two approximants, /j, w/ (j, w), are represented by j and ¨˚ and correspond to English ('j™s, 'w¤n:) /'jEs, 'wIn/ yes˚ win\ ('j™s, 'vø;jø, si~'jø;Rø, 'w™stø) /'jes, 'vojo, sin'joro, 'westo/ jes˚ vojo˚ sinjoro˚ ësto çyes, road, gentleman, westÇ. However, when j and ¨ are not followed by any vowels in the same word, they are realized as the corresponding vowels /i, u/ (i, u) (and it is to be avoided for spelling to lead people to think that, in such positions, they have to pronounce what are actually normal and real vowels as consonants): ('tui, 'Raitøi, 'nau, 'laudi) /'tui, 'raitoi, 'nau, 'laudi/ tuj˚ rajtoj˚ na¨˚ la¨di çimmediately, rights, nine, praiseÇ. Apart from this last case of greater phonetic naturalness, i and u always need to be distinguished from j and ¨ before vowels: (mi'™;lø) /mi'elo/ mielo çhoneyÇ, ('mj™;lø) /'mjelo/ mjelo çspinal cordÇ, (fi'askø, &mani'™;Rø) /fi'asko, mani'ero/ fiasko˚ maniero çfiasco, mannerÇ. Let us also consider the following cases, for which (as will be seen in § 13.2.5.2) j is forced to have two di‡erent values owing to the stress-assignment rule: ('pl™idø) /'pleido/ plejdo çplaidÇ, but (pl™'ja;do) /ple'jado/ Plejado çPleiadÇ. In lexical derivation, when ¨ is followed by a vowel, we have two possibilities, /w, u/: ('na;wa, 'naua) /'nawa, 'naua/) naä çninthÇ; the same goes for (bal'da;wa, -aua) /bal'dawa, -aua/) baldaä çpromptÇ, from ('baldau) /'baldau/) balda¨ çsoonÇ.

400


However, in compounding, we only have ¨ /u/: (lau'i;gi) /lau'igi/) laïgi çto adaptÇ. All this must not be unduly modified by the di‡erent analogical extensions of the various ethnic languages. 13.2.5.3. In addition, even for stressing, let us consider cases (that we present here in advance) such as: ('j™s, 'jam) /'jes, 'jam/ jes˚ jam çyes, alreadyÇ and ('i™s, 'iam) /'ies, 'iam/ ies˚ iam çsomeone's, onceÇ, and (sø'i;fi, 'søilø, ba'lau, 'baldau) /so'ifi, 'soilo÷ ba'lau, 'baldau/ soifi˚ sojlo˚ balau!˚ balda¨ çto be thirsty, threshold, sweep!, soonÇ. To write ¨ has always been a severe problem both for the press and typewriting (and today for computers, too, unless some special fonts have been installed). ˛e first o‚cial Esperanto publication by Zamenhof appeared in 1887. ˛e International Phonetic Association was founded in 1886 and the first version of the International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA] was produced in 1888. ˛ese coincidences explain why they were not aware of each other's existence. Today, however, the parallelism between (j, w) and j˚ w is quite evident and it spontaneously leads to the substitution of ¨ with w˚ which would certainly be to the advantage of E-o itself. It is neither weakness nor betrayal at all… It would just be common sense! Trills 13.2.6. ˛ere is an alveolar tap, (R) (which, for emphasis, can oscillate with a true trill (r), alveolar as well): ('Ra;nø, 'køRpø, 'tR™;) /'rano, 'korpo, 'tre/ rano˚ korpo˚ tre çfrog, body, very (much)Ç. Any other pronunciation of /r/ (although frequent, because of the di‡erent national languages used by Esperanto speakers) is not neutral. Laterals 13.2.7. Lastly, we find a pure alveolar lateral, (l), with no particular nuances (so it is di‡erent from the English {non-prevocalic} l sound as in ('w™ı:{Ω}) well(s)]\ ('la;nø, mul't™;ga) /'lano, mul'tega/ lano˚ multega çwool, very veryÇ. Not even a slight palatalization (ç(¬)Ç, perhaps before /i/) would be acceptable: ('li;gi) /'ligi/ ligi çto bindÇ˘ ˛e only normal assimilation occurs before dentals, (l) ((l)), and before postalveo-palatal protruded consonants, within lexemes or in unstressed grammemes, (¬) ((L)): ('alta, 'fa¬ci) /'alta, 'falci/ alta˚ falci çhigh, mowÇ. Structures 13.3.0. In addition to the realization of its segments (¤ vowels and consonants, as in the previous sections), an international language must be as free as possible from microstructural peculiarities (¤ syllabification, assimilation, stress, rhythm, and intonation) and without typical characteristics of any particular languages.

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˛erefore, it must have strict rules, which are coherent and systematic, yet clear and simple, without concessions to any language, or to groups of languages. Most of all, any peculiarities of one's mother tongue should be avoided. In fact, if this is not done, in the end all Esperantists will speak their own çdialectÇ of Esperanto. As a matter of fact, this is what happens when people use E-o without considering its phonic aspect. ˛us what they obtain is quite close to the linguistic Babel which E-o seeks to solve. In neutral Esperanto pronunciation stressed vocoids are realized as half-long in (either word-internal or word-final) unchecked syllables, when they occur in prominent positions, ¤ in intonemes, as usually at the end of sentences: ('sa;na, 'a;) /'sana, 'a/ sana˚ A çhealthy, (the letter) AÇ. In checked stressed syllables (either in word-internal or word-final position), Esperanto vocoids are always short: ('paRtø) /'parto/ parto çpartÇ. Besides, Esperanto diphthongs are always short, as in German (while in English they are long when not followed by voiceless consonants or by unstressed syllables, as in ('w™;I{Ω}, 'w™;I∂÷ 'w™IT, 'w™IDå/-D≥) /'wEI{z}, 'wEId÷ 'wEIt, 'wEIdÈ≤/ way(s)˚ wade÷ wait˚ waider]\ ('™uRø) /'euro/ e¨ro çEuroÇ, ('ti™) /'tie/ tie çthereÇ. Consonant clusters 13.3.1. Consonant sequences neither undergo voicing assimilation (except for the place of articulation with n in lexeme-internal position or in unstressed grammemes), nor do they simplify. Everything must be pronounced according to the values of each element: (&s™n'nø;ma, &mal'lø˙ga, &huf'f™;Rø, &dis'sølvø, &lip'ha;Røi, 'gli;ti, 'digna, d™s'q™ndi, 'kna;bø, 'kvin, 'li˙gvø) sennoma˚ mallonga˚ hu‡ero˚ dissolvo˚ lipharoj˚ gliti˚ digna˚ descendi˚ knabo˚ kvin˚ lingvo çanonymous, short, horseshoe (èhoof-iron¶), disintegration, moustache (èlip-hair¶), to slide, dignified, to go down, boy, five, languageÇ. E-o would have a more modern and international aspect, by introducing the variants ('kwin, 'li˙gwø) (in place of (kv, gv)}, with a corresponding spelling: kïn˚ lingö or, better still, at last: kwin˚ lingwo (and (p™Rs'va;di) /pers'vadi/ persvadi çto persuadeÇ = (p™R'swa;di) /per'swadi/ persädi = perswadi). ˛e consonant assimilation of place of articulation, for /n/ + /0/, occurs in two cases only: firstly, in lexeme-internal position: ('si˙ki) /'sinki/ sinki çto sinkÇ, as (køm'pR™;ni) /kom'preni/ kompreni çto understandÇ implicitly shown, unlike (&kun'pR™;ni) /kun'preni/ kunpreni çto bringÇ, (&kun'm™;ti) /kun'meti/ kunmeti çto combineÇ, (&s™n'pa;ga) /sen'paga/ senpaga çfree/for nothingÇ; secondly, in pragmatically unstressed grammemes: (miam'pla˙køn) /mian'plankon/ mian plankon çmy floor (accus.)Ç. In (&siamman't™;løn) /sianman'telon/ sian mantelon çone's own mantle (accus.)Ç, there is a rhythmic secondary stress. On the other hand, for emphasis, we have: (&mian'pla˙køn) (where the secondary stress is not rhythmic), or even ('mian 'pla˙køn) /'mian 'plankon/ mian plankon. Here we show that voiced and voiceless consonants do not influence each other in the least in neutral pronunciation (unlike in many ethnic languages): (™k'zisti, &absø'lu;t™, &naz'tu;kø, &økd™k'du;) /ek'zisti, abso'lute, naz'tuko, okdek'du/ ekzisti˚

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absolute˚ naztuko˚ okdek du çto exist, absolutely, handkerchief (çnose-kerchiefÇ), eighty-twoÇ. 13.3.2. Some Esperantists strive to follow çto the letterÇ the indications that Zamenhof (1962•, the inventor of E-o) used to give enthusiastic people in answer to their questions and doubts. However, it is to be understood that, when he stressed the point that çeach letter must be pronounced clearly separated from the neighboring onesÇ, his sole aim was to make people avoid overly marked ethnic pronunciations. Surely, he had no clear intention to lead them to reflect on the Esperanto phonic structure, which is certainly neither based on avant-garde theories nor expressed in strict phonetic terms (least of all phonemic ones!). Here are some examples of di‡erent current ethnic pronunciations (even by expert and fluent Esperantists): (™u'Rø;pø) E¨ropo *(°'˜∏pP, j¨È'>‘¨p‘¨)÷ ('laudi) la¨di *('l∏_i, 'lø;DIi, 'lAÈdi, 'laodi, 'ıOudi)÷ ('pa~-jø) panjo *('pa;No, 'phπni‘¨)÷ ('lø˙g™) longe *('lØ˙, 'lO˙¢, 'lA˙™I)÷ ('vøRtø) vorto *('vO‰to, 'vø;T‘U, 'føi, 'stØORi)÷ (la't™mpø) la tempo *(ı√'tEm:b‘, l√'thEmp{h}P)÷ (in't™nsa) intensa *(in'dEn:Qa, ì'tÕ:sa, in't™nså)÷ (la'pa;qø) la paco *(la'Faq:qP, la'baqqso, lÅ'pÅt†o)÷ (mi'Gø;jas) mi gojas *(miG'GOj:jasse, mi'Z∏:jasse)÷ (™b'l™;qø) ebleco *(eb'b]™q:qø, ji'b¬™;qå)÷ (la'ku;bø) la kubo *(la'guubbo, la'h¯:BP)÷ (li'b™;lo) libelo *(ıib'bE;™ı‘, li'B™;lo)÷ ('kRu;cø) kruco *('kru:So, k'Rju;Cx)÷ ('pa;Si) pasi *('paS:Si, 'paaßi)÷ (mi'p™;tas) mi petas *(mi'bE;Edas:, mi'phe:t{h}as)÷ ('j™s) yes *('á™ß, 'jÄEÀ). Paying excessive attention to spelling can lead people to uselessly force themselves to always unnaturally realize the grapheme n as (n), in every possible context, only because the way it is written seems to require such an articulation. On the contrary, other –even more evident– di‡erences which elude control are unconsciously produced, like those we have just seen. However, the fact of writing n before all consonants except p˚ b certainly does not mean that (n) has illogically to be maintained, against (mp, mb). It is quite the contrary, even if it has been expressed in a rather rudimentary way. Indeed, all languages having a homorganic /ö/ to a following consonant (¤ with (mp, Mf, ~c, Ná, ˙k) Â) show this fact by using the only other unitary grapheme which is a phoneme as well: m /m/. Otherwise, they would even write np and nb, as is done by serious orthographies of heterorganic dialects (like, in general, those of northern Italy). Ending with some Esperanto examples, we have: ('kømbi, køm'pR™;ni) /'kombi, kom'preni/ kombi˚ kompreni çto comb, to understandÇ, (køM'v™;ni, køM'f™;si) /kon'veni, kon'fesi/ konveni˚ konfesi çto be suitable, to confessÇ, (køn'du;ki, 'køntRau) /kon'duki, 'kontrau/ konduki˚ kontra¨ çto drive, againstÇ, (kø~'c™Rtø) /kon'certo/ koncerto çconcertoÇ, (kø˙'gR™;sø, kø˙'ka;va) /kon'greso, kon'kava/ kongreso˚ konkava çcongress, concaveÇ. But (&kunm™'t™b-la, &kun&pRøduk'ta;dø, &kun&bata'lantø) /kunme'tebla, kunproduk'tado, kunbata'lanto/ kunmetebla˚ kunproduktado, kunbatalanto çcombinable, coproduction, comrade in armsÇ; in fact, they belong to di‡erent lexemes, because they are compounds.

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Syllabification 13.3.3. ˛e neutral Esperanto phonic syllabification, within a word, regularly occurs between two consonants: ('R™s-ti, 'lib-Rø, '™b-l™, 'sig-nø, si~'jø;Rø, ™d'zi;nø) /'resti, 'libro, 'eble, 'signo, sin'joro, ed'zino/ resti˚ libro˚ eble˚ signo˚ sinjoro˚ edzino çto remain, book, perhaps, sign, gentleman, wifeÇ. Instead, at lexeme-boundaries, the sequences are maintained intact: (mi'blø;vis) /mi'blovis/ mi blovis çI blewÇ, (mi'sqias) /mi'sqias/ mi scias çI knowÇ, (lian&taw™n'i;Ris, -au™n'-) /liantawen'iris, -auen'-/ li antaëniris çhe came alongÇ, (&Sisa'lu;tis23 'antau øl&føR'i;Ri23) /Sisa'lutis. 'antau olfor'iri./ si salutis anta¨ ol foriri çshe greeted before leavingÇ. ‹en the formation of words is respected, the meaning is more easily understood. In other words, if something is correctly understood, this means that its formation has been analyzed well. For instance: (&vøRt'a;Rø) /vort'aro/ vortaro çdictionary = word [vort-) collection [ar-]Ç. As can be seen, a stressed syllable maintains the lexemes (or stems) separated, whereas the grammemes do not. As a matter of fact, we do not have *(&vøRt'aR-ø) */vort'ar-o/. It should be obvious, however, that the transcription we have shown does not allude at all to excessive pronunciations such as *(&vøRt'öaRöø). Naturally, as a more çTeutonicÇ way of pronouncing it like *(&vøRt'öa;Rø) would not respect the internationality of this language, neither would a more çRomanceÇ pronunciation like *(&vøR'ta;Rø). ˛e correct solution, for all nations, is to follow a middle course, thus: (&vøRt'a;Rø) (otherwise the structures of some particular languages prevail, since all speakers are led to believe that the most familiar solutions for them are the most çcorrectÇ ones, as happens for regional or foreign accents). ©th clusters of several consonants, words are syllabified according to the criteria of natural phonetics: ('™ks-t™R, ™ks'qi;ti, ™s'tRa;do) /'ekster, eks'qiti, es'trado/ ekster˚ eksciti˚ estrado çoutside, to excite, platformÇ. In lexical compounding, neutral pronunciation separates the lexemes, but not the desinential grammemes (which are then resyllabified into more natural structures, even by modifying word boundaries): fervojisto˚ malantaë˚ bankroti (&f™Rvø'jistø, &mal-an'ta;w™, -au™, &ba˙k'Rø;ti) /fervo'jisto, malan'tawe, -aue, bank'roti/ çrailwayman, backwards, to go bankruptÇ (without introducing –here too– sharp separations as the laryngeal stop, (ö): *(&f™R-vøö'jistø, -voi'öis-÷ &malöan'taöw™, -auö™)}. Word stress 13.3.4. In Esperanto, there is no stress exception, contrary to most ethnic languages: it invariably falls on the last vowel but one of each (non-monosyllabic) word, even if this may cause seemingly çstrangeÇ or çcuriousÇ di‡erences for similar forms in various languages: fra¨lo ('fRaulø) çbachelorÇ, praulo (&pRa'u;lø) çancestorÇ, balda¨ ('baldau) çsoonÇ; balai (ba'lai) çto sweepÇ, soifi (so'i;fi) çto be thirstyÇ, sojlo ('søilø) çthresholdÇ; masino (ma'Si;nø) çmachineÇ, muziko (mu'zi;ko) çmusicÇ, tragedio (&tRag™'diø) çtragedyÇ, sukero (su'k™;Rø) çsugarÇ, logika (lø'gi;ka) çlogicÇ, emfazo (™m'fa;zø) çemphasisÇ, stacio (sta'qiø) çstationÇ, jam ('jam) çalreadyÇ, iam

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('iam) çonceÇ, sabato (sa'ba;tø) çSaturdayÇ, oceano (&øq™'a;nø) çoceanÇ. Instead, talking about the last syllable, for word-stress assignment, is extremely inaccurate. In fact, completely di‡erent and contrasting criteria are still followed upon the actual judgment and nature of syllables. ˛ese are too often considered only from a graphic, grammatical, and metrical point of view, which is incredibly subjective and variable depending on languages, when not totally absurd. Sentence stress 13.3.5. Let us now give some thought to the stressing of utterances. As it would be absurd in ethnic languages to stress every single word appearing in a sentence, such is the case even in E-o, whose grammemes (¤ grammatical words, lacking a real semantic value) are completely unstressed, unless they are voluntarily emphasized for some particular reasons. A sentence like Mi estas la amiko de via frato çI'm your brother's friendÇ would certainly not be *('mi; 'ö™stas 'la; öa'mi;kø 'd™; 'via 'fRa;tø), which would –rightly– make people hate E-o as something unbearable! (On the other hand, even for foreign languages, it is not rare to hear such things, but this depends on incomplete learning, as well as on widespread ignorance of phonetics and its advantages.) A more appropriate rendition of the example given would be: (mi&™stasl{a}a'mi;kø &d™via'fRa;tø). As can be seen from previous transcriptions, even in compounds, we find di‡erent stress-degrees in their components, depending on their semantic relevance. However, the main stress of compounds falls on the stem vowel of the last element. Quite evidently, a slow and strained delivery, with too many stresses on grammemes as well, in addition to the inevitably high frequency of the (sole) auxiliary verb esti˚ can before long become a real nightmare if estas˚ estis˚ estos… are always stressed in a rather mechanical way. ˛erefore, accurate speakers carefully avoid falling into this nasty habit. In fact, they will destress, even completely, the forms of esti˚ by introducing the stylistic refinement of using instead the allomorphs with 'st-: (&mistas&ci'ti™, &listøsf™'li;ca) /mistasci'tie, listosfe'lica/ Mi 'stas ci tie˚ Li 'stos felica çI'm hereÇ, çhe'll be happyÇ (either only when pronouncing or when writing as well – by providing a considerable visual-mnemonic help). Even the phrase (tiø'™stas) /tio'estas/ tio estas çthat isÇ, when it is not emphasized, surely gains by becoming (&tiøstas…) /'tiostas/ tio 'stas. Obviously, it is quite the contrary for: (¿&cu'™sti2| ¿&au"n™; '™sti23) /¿cu'esti,| ¿au"ne 'esti./ Cu esti, a¨ ne esti? çTo be, or not to be?Ç. Unfortunately, this use is not generally followed, since the backward-looking ideas that characterize most language teaching (starting from one's own language) do not manage to clearly separate the graphic level (which is secondary) from the phonic one (which is primary). All this leads people to believe that reduced forms are a signal of corrupted and slovenly language. ˛is is the case of (&aÙSDÈÑ'ThÖ¨ıDÈm, -ø¨-), which is quite normal for I should have told them˚ while –on the contrary– something like *(5a;Ù S¨fl&hπv'ThÖ¨ıd&∑™m, -ø¨-) would be quite unusual in-

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deed. As a matter of fact, (&aÙSDÈÑ'ThÖ¨ıDÈm, -ø¨-) is exactly what is uttered by competent people, when they do not speak too slowly and are free from any spelling blackmail; since it is very important to be able not to confuse real language with current writing, because real language is, first of all, pronunciation (which is above all not çembalmedÇ). 13.3.6. Returning to our first example, we will have the following realization: (&mistasla'mi;kø d™&via'fRa;tø), which is possible to write as: Mi 'stas l'amiko de via frato. ˛e elision of la is o‚cial, although it is often erroneously limited to poetry. Likewise, personal pronouns, which frequently appear at the end of sentences, do not need to be always and mechanically stressed. On the contrary, only for emphasis or contrast may they have a strong stress, otherwise they are destressed and enclitic (although written as separated forms, as in English, but not in many other languages); other monosyllabic particles behave in the same way: (Si'vi;dis&lin) /Si'vidislin/ si vidis lin çshe saw himÇ, ('da˙kønal&vi) /'dankonalvi/ dankon al vi çthank youÇ, ('tiø&ci) /'tioci/ tio ci çthisÇ, (¿'cu;&n™21) /¿'cune?/ cu ne? çisn't it?, aren't you?, doesn't he?, haven't they?Ç… It is worthwhile comparing the following cases: (Si'vi;dis 'lin) /Si'vidis 'lin/ si vidis lin çshe saw himÇ, ('da˙køn al'vi;) /'dankon al'vi/ dankon al vi çthank you!Ç, (&tiø'ci;) /tio'ci/ tio ci çthis hereÇ, (¿&cu'n™;21) /¿cu'ne?/ cu ne? çisn't that so?Ç. ˛e case of ju (mal)pli…, des (mal)pli… is very interesting for stressing: ('ju; &plivipa'Rø;las2 2 'd™s &malpli&mikøm'pR™;nas23) /'ju plivipa'rolas÷ 'des malplimikom'prenas./ ju pli vi parolas, des malpli mi komprenas çthe more you speak, the less I understandÇ, ('ju; &pli'mult™2 2 'd™s &pli'bø;n™23) /'ju pli'multe÷ 'des pli'bone/ ju pli multe˚ des pli bone çthe more, the betterÇ. Intonation 13.3.7. û 13.3 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of neutral E-o (free from any influence from ethnic languages), so we will see only three fundamental examples: /./: (&ili'øft™ køn'sultas &l{a}™sp™'RantaM &vøRt'a;Røn23) /ili'ofte kon'sultas l{a}espeû 13.3. Esperanto preintonemes and intonemes. / / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/./ (2 ' 2 3)

/¿ / (¿ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/¡ / (¡ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

/˚ / (˚ 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

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'rantan vort'aron./ Ili ofte konsultas la esperantan vortaron ç˛ey often consult the Esperanto dictionaryÇ. /?/: (¿&cu&ili'øft™ køn'sultas &l{a}™sp™'RantaM &vøRt'a;Røn21) /¿cuili'ofte kon'sultas l{a}espe'rantan vort'aron./ Cu ili ofte konsultas la esperantan vortaron? çDo they often consult the Esperanto dictionary?Ç. /÷/: (&ili'øft™ køn'sultas &l{a}™sp™'RantaM &vøRt'a;Røn2 2| &s™d'tu;t™ &s™n'fRukt™23) /ili'ofte kon'sultas l{a}espe'rantan vort'aron÷| sed'tute sen'frukte./ Ili ofte konsultas la esperantan vortaron, sed tute senfrukte ç˛ey often consult the Esperanto dictionary, but that's of no use.Ç 13.3.8. Besides being used in total questions, cu occurs in indirect questions too, with a subordinate function: (&min™'sqias &culi'v™;nøs) /mine'sqias culi'venos/ mi ne scias, cu li venos çI don't know whether he will comeÇ. Cu is also used in disjunctive clauses with a coordinate function: cu li, cu si çeither he or sheÇ. In these cases –where, by the way, no final question mark is written– it is obvious that no (rising) interrogative intonation has to be used. ˛us, the choice of an intoneme becomes important, decisive, and not at all redundant or useless. On the other hand, in colloquial and expressive usage sometimes it is possible to omit an interrogative cu: (¿li'døRmas21) /¿li'dormas?/ li dormas? ç(is he) sleeping?Ç, (¿'v™;R™21) /¿'vere?/ vere? çreally?Ç. ˛erefore, it is fundamental to use an interrogative intonation. (In cases such as these, in all ethnic languages of the world, colloquially, it is possible to omit initial or final particles.) In partial questions, instead (with\ ('kiu, 'kiui, 'kiø, 'kia, 'ki™s, 'kial, 'kiam, 'ki™, 'ki™l, 'kiøm) /'kiu, kiui, 'kio, 'kia, 'kies, 'kial, 'kiam, 'kie, 'kiel, 'kiom/ kiu, and kiuj, çwhoÇ (and a plural çwhoÇ), kio çwhatÇ, kia çwhat kind (of)Ç, kies çwhoseÇ, kial çwhyÇ, kiam çwhenÇ, kie çwhereÇ, kiel çhowÇ, kiom çhow muchÇ), the most natural intoneme to use is conclusive (falling, (2 ' 23)), but combined with a regular interrogative preintoneme (tendentially rising): (¿'kial &ili'øft™ køn'sultas &l{a}™sp™'RantaM &vøR'ta;Røn23) /¿'kial ili'ofte kon'sultas l{a}espe'rantan vort'aron./ Kial ili ofte konsultas la esperantan vortaron? ç‹y do they often consult the Esperanto dictionary?Ç. In the case of commands or orders, an imperative preintoneme is used, where the falling movement of the conclusive intoneme is brought forward, although in a rather limited way (as happens for the interrogative one, which however moves in an opposite direction): (¡'øft™ køn'sultu &l{a}™sp™'RantaM &vøR'ta;Røn23) /¡'ofte kon'sultu l{a}espe'rantan vort'aron./ Ofte konsultu la esperantan vortaron! çConsult the Esperanto dictionary often!Ç. Spelling and internationality 13.4.1. A consideration about E-o spelling, in the third millennium, is inevitable with regards to the six letters çwith a hatÇ {(ca&p™l'i;tai li't™;Røi) /capel'itai li'teroi/ capelitaj literoj]. In fact, the time is ripe for definitely admitting that they are the major obstacle to the printing and di‡usion of Esperanto publications, as we

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have already said (§ 13.0.1). Besides, before Unicode, computers needed special fonts to be installed, or particular programs to create new characters or to modify existing ones in order to use them, and they are still necessary for the many things which are not yet part of Unicode. But even in this way, these six letters are still a problem for orthographic correction or alphabetical arrangement. Besides, few normal typewriters could combine 4, and only for small letters; to say nothing of T, for ¨, too often replaced by 5, or Z, or Q, or 4: à, ú˚ ù˚ û (unless one studies hard to become… a magician). ˛e problem could be overcome by simply modifying not the language (!), nor its phonemic system (!), but merely its spelling, although for many people this seems to mean –instead– to çalterÇ the very essence of E-o itself (whereas this is normal for natural languages)! ˛us some evolution and structural simplification would be quite logical, as in natural languages. ˛e way has already been indicated by Zamenhof himself, although it should be followed with rigorous criteria. On the other hand, we find an appealing and reassuring parallelism with the International Phonetic Alphabet, which consists in the use (already suggested by various scholars) of w˚ x˚ instead of ¨˚ h˘ Even for c˚ g˚ j˚ s, Zamenhof himself was aware of the anti-modernism inherent in these signs, and suggested that –if there were typographical di‚culties (which is not merely hypothetical)– they could be substituted with ch˚ gh˚ jh˚ sh˚ hh˚ u (for h˚ ¨]. As usual, it is hard to manage to separate the prevailing graphic level from the underrated phonic level. But it is even more di‚cult to separate personal emotionality from linguistic objectivity. 13.4.2. Apart from the obvious inappropriateness of confusing ¨ and u (especially seeing that w was clearly available!), even in the other cases –since in E-o compounding is the rule– it ought to have been quite clear that forms like the following were not just a possibility: (&mus'ha;Rø, &paq'hu;lø) /mus'haro, paq'hulo/ musharo˚ pachulo ça hair of a mouse, a hull of peaceÇ, which must not be confused with (&muS'a;Rø, pa'cu;lø) /mu'Saro, pa'culo/ musaro˚ paculo ça horde of flies, patchouliÇ. On the other hand, the forced use of digraphs (with a second Roman letter) should not be with h˚ as we have seen, but with another letter having no value in E-o, one which is not already used, but is common and normal. ˛erefore, given that these sounds have a strong palatal component, added to their main articulation (which is lamino-postalveolar), the letter that will function as a diacritic has to be y\ agyo˚ ajyo˚ kacyo˚ kasyo. In fact, by itself it has no value, except possibly when writing foreign family names, in addition to other characteristics which may lead to an appropriate identification of the language. It is nothing but a diacritic, without ambiguities; certainly it is no longer above the letters, but immediately after them; and this is their advantage-disadvantage of having no more technological limitations for the press and international communications by any possible means based on the Roman alphabet, with no further complications. On the Internet, often the çdiacritic-letterÇ is x˚ seemingly more by a visual-mnemonic influence (in fact, the lower part of x can recall 4˚ and the higher one, T; all the more so because x is quite rare in many languages), rather

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than for useful phonic and graphic considerations. Lastly, c (q), which has a di‡erent IPA value, would remain such, as in many Slavic languages. Esperanto £26∞ 13.4.3. Certainly, the most modern solution –and most useful to E-o itself– would be to move on to Esperanto ç26Ç, (&™sp™'Rantø &dud™k's™s), which uses only the twenty-six letters of the Roman alphabet, by renouncing –with more gains than losses– the two rarest and less useful sounds: (x, Z) /x, Z/ h˚ j. ˛us the phonemic inventory will be simplified, by removing the source of some main problems, when we consider the di‡erent phonemic systems of the various languages of the world: it is not always easy to distinguish (h, x÷ G, Z) (as few languages systematically do). Obviously, it is not su‚cient to delete. It is necessary to merge the forms containing these two signs (and sounds) with words having more similar sounds. ˛is means: (x) = (k÷ h), (Z) = (G÷ j). It is already a common practice to e‡ect the former substitution: (x) = (k), as for kaoso˚ kemio˚ jakto çchaos, chemistry, yachtÇ; also the change (Z) = (G) has already been recorded: jazo = gazo çjazzÇ. ˛is same application needs only to be generalized. ‹en similar words containing (k, G) already exist, (h, j) will (have to) be used; otherwise, the shape of the new words which would coincide will be slightly changed; or else they will have to be substituted, if necessary. In the case of horo çchorusÇ, since we already have horo çhourÇ and koro çheartÇ, the new form koruso has been added in order to finally replace it. For holero çcholeraÇ, since kolero çangerÇ is already there, the solutions can be: holero or kolro (ç26Ç). In a series of oppositions like justa çjust, fairÇ and gusta çright, exactÇ, we may insert juro çlawÇ, juro = guro çvowÇ, jako çjacketÇ, jako = gako çjackÇ as well. As far as jeto çjetÇ, geto çjettyÇ, jeto çthrowÇ are concerned, if this last one becomes ('G™;tø) yeto (ç26Ç), the second example can safely become (G™'t™ø) yeteo (ç26Ç), approaching the related form (mø'l™ø) moleo çmoleÇ. A really concrete case is ajo çthingÇ (and the corresponding su‚x aj˚ with an analogous meaning, which is very widely used) and ago çageÇ. Here, so as not to risk overlapping with the exclamation aj! çow!, ouch!Ç, from which in E-o it is certainly possible to derive ajo ça cry of painÇ, and without thinking of changing a whole series of words already formed with aj (and some more in the future), it would be convenient –and unproblematic– to change ('a;Zø) into ('a;Gø) [ajo = ago = ayo ç26Ç), and ('a;Gø) into ('aiGø) [ago = ajgo = ajyo ç26Ç) or probably, better still, into ('™iGø) [ago = ejgo = ejyo ç26Ç). 13.4.4. Once the number of (distinctive) sounds has appropriately decreased to twenty-six, we have to decide how to pair the sounds with the çnew lettersÇ, as we have already shown in brackets. ˛e advantage of not having to worry about the diacritics will certainly help to overcome some initial perplexities (leaving aside

13. esperanto

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any consideration about the çperversionÇ of the language, since they are not at all natural, nor necessary). Obviously, as seen above, ¨ would become w (w), ('na;wa, 'naua) [naä = nawa ç26Ç), çninthÇ; however g would become y (G), without causing much ado, given that even in Spanish, in many contexts and variants, for y we find a very similar pronunciation, ('pa;Gø) [pago = payo ç26Ç) çpage (of book)Ç. In addition, c would become q (c), and here again we find similar pronunciations in Chinese and Albanian, (c™'va;lø) [cevalo = qevalo ç26Ç) çhorseÇ. (On the other hand, does Esperanto not want to be the second language for çallÇ peoples?) ≈nally, x (having no further need to indicate (x) or to function as a diacritic) would be used for (S), which has a similar sound in Portuguese, Catalan, Basque, Chinese, Maltese, and Sicilian (besides in Old Spanish), ('fi;Sø) [fiso = fixo ç26Ç) çfishÇ. It would be a matter of becoming accustomed to the value of the new letters; after all only for Slavists is c for (q) actually familiar, ('q™;lø) celo çaimÇ. For instance, is not h a real çnothingÇ for most Romance-language speakers: ('ha;vi) havi çto haveÇ (and consequently a real problem)? ˛ose who defend the preservation of (Z, x), because they are useful to render some personal and place names of certain languages (with similar but not identical sounds), should also worry about all the other sounds that E-o does not manage to render (which are many more)… ˛e exchange of j and y (with the value of j /G/ and y /j/), although more in tune with a widespread English-like graphemic tradition, would push E-o away from both IPA usage and from the orthography of many languages. Text 13.5.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in a number of çnormalizedÇ accents, mostly as useful introductory examples of the phonetic method of natural phonetics. As always, first there is the version which gives the typical Esperanto pronunciation of English. ˛en follows the actual Esperanto text, showing neutral E-o pronunciation. Esperanto pronunciation (of English) 13.5.1. (z™'nøRs 'wind2 andz™'san2 w™Rdis'pju;ti˙ 'wic wøzz™'stRø˙g™R23| 'w™n ™'tRavl™R2 'k™m a'lø˙2 ì'Rapt in™'wøm 'kløuk23œ| z™a'gRid2\ zatz™'wan hu'f™Rst sak'si;did2 im'm™;ki˙ z™'tRavl™R2 't™k iz'kløuk 'øf2 2| &Subbikøn'si;d™Rd "stRø˙g™R &zanzi'a;zå23|| 'z™n2 z™'nøRs 'wind2 'blu;2 az'haRd2 azhi'kud23| &batz™'møR hi'blu;2 2| z™'møR 'kløusli2 &didz™'tRavl™R2\ 'føld hiz'kløuk a'Raøndhim23| ì&andat'last2œ\ z™'nøRs 'wind2 'g™v 'ap zia't™mpt23|| ì'z™n2œ z™'san 'Søn 'aøt23 ì'wøRmli23œ| &andi'mi;diatli2\ ˚z™'tRavl™R 'tuk 'øf23 ˚hiz'kløuk23|| ìand'søu2œ z™'nøRs 'wind2 wøzø'bla™G{d} tukøM'f™s2| &zatz™'san23 wøzz™'stRø˙g™R23 ì&øvz™'tu;23œ|| ¿&didju'la™k21 ¿z™'stø;Ri2| ¿dju'wønt tu'hi;Rit a'g™n21|||)

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Esperanto text 13.5.2. Iam, la norda vento kaj la suno disputis, car ciu el la du asertis esti pli forta ol la alia. En tiu momento, ili ekvidis vojaganton, kiu antaëniris volvite en sia mantelo. La du disputantoj, do, decidis, ke konsideratos pli forta tiu el la du kiu sukcesos igi la vojaganton forpreni sian mantelon. La norda vento ekblovis tre forte; sed, ju pli gi blovis, des pli la vojaganto mallozigis sian mantelon, kaj, finfine, la kompatinda vento devis rezigni. Tiam, la suno montrigis en la cielo, kaj, mallonge poste, la vojaganto, al kiu estis varme, forprenis la mantelon. Tiel, la norda vento devis agnoski, ke la suno estas pli forta el la du. Cu vi satis la historion? Cu ni ripetu gin? Esperanto pronunciation 13.5.3. ('iam2 la'nøRda 'v™ntø2 &kaila'su;nø2| dis'pu;tis23 'caR2 ìciu &™lla'du;2 a's™Rtis23 &™sti&pli'føRta2 &øll[a]a'lia23œ| ™n&tiumø'm™ntø2 2| &ili&™k'vi;dis23 &vøja'Gantøn23 &kiuan&taw™n'i;Ris23 vøl'vit™ ™n&siaman't™;lø23|| la'du &dispu'tantøi2 ì'dø;2œ d™'qi;dis23 &k™køn&sid™'Ra;tøs2 &pli'føRta2 2|| &tiu™lla'du;2| &kiusuk'q™;søs2 &igila&vøja'Gantøn2 2| &føR'pR™ni &siamman't™;løn23|| la'nøRda 'v™ntø2 2| &™k'bløvis &tR™'føRt™23| 's™d2 'ju; &pliGi'blø;vis2 2| 'd™s2 &plila&vøja'Gantø2 &mallø'zigis &siamman't™;løn23| &kaifiM'fi;n™2| la&kømpa'tinda 'v™ntø2| &d™visR™'zigni23|| 'tiam2| la'sunø møn'tRi;Gis2 &™nlaci'™;lø23| &kaimal'lø˙g™ 'pøst™2 2| la&vøja'Gantø2 ìal&kiu[™]stis'vaRm™2 2œ ˚&føR'pR™;nis23 ˚&laman't™;løn23|| 'ti™l2| la'nøRda 'v™ntø2 ˚&d™vis-ag'nøski23 &k™la'su;nø2 ˚&™stas&pli'føRta23 ì&™lla'du;23œ|| ¿&cuvi'Sa;tis21 ¿la&histø'Riøn2| ¿&cuniRi'p™;tu&Gin21|||) Foreign pronunciations of Esperanto 13.5.4. We add 13 foreign accents (¤ {British and American} English, Italian, French, German, Spanish, {Brazilian and Lusitanian} Portuguese, Russian, Arabic, Hindi, Chinese, and Japanese. In the Italian version of this book 11 regional accents are also given, which are omitted in this English adaptation (¤ Turinese, Genoese, Milanese, Venetian, Bolognese, ∫orentine, Roman, Neapolitan, Barese, Palermitan, Cagliaritan). Speakers of other languages could prepare their own versions. ˛e author would be happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12).

13. esperanto

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British pronunciation 13.5.5. ('IiÈm2 lÈ5nø;Då 'v™nT‘¨2 &khaÙlÈ's¯un‘¨2| D¤'sp¯uT¤s3 3 'chA:2 ì5chIi¯ ™ılÈ'D¯;u2 È's™‘T¤s3 3 &™sTi&phlIi'fø;T√2 &ø;ılåÈ'lIiå3 3|œ ™n&ThIi¯mÈ'm™nT‘¨32| &Iili™k'vIiD¤s23 &vøÙÈ'GA;nTØ˙3 3 5khIi¯ ån&Tåw™n'¤È>¤s3 3 vØı5vIiT™I ™n&sIiÈmmÈn'Th™l‘¨3 3|| lÈ5D¯u &D¤spÈ'ThA;nTøÙ2 ì'Dø:2œ D¤'tsIiD¤s3 3 kh™I&khØns¤DÈ'>A;TØs2 &phlIi'fø;Tå32|| &ThIi¯™ılÈ'D¯;u2| &khIi¯s¨k'ts™sØs2 5Iigi &låvøÙÈ'GA;nTØn32| fø;5ph™I'fø;T™I3 3| 's™;fl2 'j¯;u &phlIiGIi'bl‘¨v¤s32| 'D™s2 &phlIilÈvøÙÈ'GA;nT‘¨2 &mA;ıl‘¨5zIig¤s &sIiÈmmÈn'Th™lØn3 3| &khaÙf¤M'fIin™I2| lû&khØmpÈ'ThIinDå 'vEnT‘¨2| &D™v¤s>¤'zIigni3 3|| 'ThIiÈm2| lÈ5s¯;un‘¨ mØN'˛h>IiG¤s2 &™nlÈci'™l‘¨3 3| &khaÙmåı5lØ˙g™I 'phØsT™I32| lÈ&vøÙÈ'GA;nT‘¨2 ìåı&khIi¯5™sT¤s 'vA;m™I32œ ˚fø;'ph>™n¤s3 3 ˚&låmÈn'Th™lØn3 3|| 'ThIi™ı2| lÈ5nø;Då 'v™nT‘¨2 ˚&D™v¤sûg'nØski3 3 &kh™IlÈ's¯un‘¨2 ˚&™sTÈs&phlIi'fø;Tå3 3 ì&™ılÈ'D¯;u3 3œ|| ¿&ch¯uvi'SA;T¤s21 ¿lÈ&h¤sTÈ'>IiÈn2| ¿ch¯&nIi>¤'ph™T¯&GIin21|||) American pronunciation 13.5.6. ('IiÈm2 lÈ'nø;

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