A Dictionary of Australian Politics

a dic t io n a r y of au s t r a l i a n p ol i t ic s

robert corcoran & jackie dickenson

A Dictionary of Australian Politics

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A Dictionary of Australian Politics Robert Corcoran and Jackie Dickenson

First published in 2010 © Robert Corcoran and Jackie Dickenson 2010 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10 per cent of this book, whichever is the greater, to be photocopied by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) under the Act. Allen & Unwin 83 Alexander Street Crows Nest NSW 2065 Australia Phone: (61 2) 8425 0100 Fax: (61 2) 9906 2218 Email: [email protected] Web: www.allenandunwin.com Cataloguing-in-Publication details available from the National Library of Australia www.librariesaustralia.nla.gov.au ISBN 978 1 74237 050 7 Set in 11/12 pt Minion by Post Pre-press Group, Australia Printed by Griffin Press, Adelaide 10  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1

INTRODUCTION Two thousand years ago, Pericles, a leading statesman of Ancient Greece, declared ‘You can ignore politics, but politics will not ignore you.’ This dictionary is designed to help those who want to prepare themselves for those moments when politics intrudes into their lives. This will most likely be during an election (a regular event in a democracy like ours) but it could also be because a particular policy or event (such as a war) demands our attention. Although it is intended to be appropriate for any home bookshelf, the authors have compiled the dictionary with serious students of politics in mind. But the term ‘students of politics’ has a broad meaning. Some are engaged in formal studies, while others in overalls or wearing military uniforms are also true ‘students of politics’ because they realise its importance and the need to keep abreast of public affairs. As we have seen recently, the high calibre of politicians is vital for a healthy democracy. But even more important is that the rest of us—the citizens—are engaged in the issues and are well informed. The dictionary aims to help foster a better understanding of the uniquely Australian form of democratic government, and its place in Australian culture. Our system is unique: an eminently sensible combination of the representative democracy of the lower house of the British houses of parliament with the elected upper house of the United States of America. And our political culture is also one of a kind: characterised by practices, processes and political language that have developed over time through the prism of the broader Australian society. As the reader will see, this has resulted in an Australian political language that is sometimes irreverent but always colourful, economic and, as you would expect, highly expressive. Setting the scope for a book such as this presents problems for authors and for potential users because of the extensive range of politics and its complexity in contemporary society. The range is, therefore, broad. While we focus mainly on Australia today, we acknowledge that no nation is completely independent of the rest of the world. We also recognise that reference to history can sometimes help to explain current events. The problem of dealing with the complexity of today’s political culture

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Introduction has encouraged us to employ an unusual format. Each term is explained or defined briefly, which may be adequate for the reader’s immediate need. The term is then explained in greater depth, with cross-references to other, relevant terms. The terms listed range from words with popular currency to the more technical and obscure. Controversial matters or organisations have not been avoided. The aim has been to deal with these impartially but explicitly. It is likely that readers with firm views will sometimes disagree with our definitions or even condemn our choices. Writers of robust books dealing with politics must accept any resulting criticism as an occupational hazard.

A ABC See Australian Broadcasting Corporation

Aborigines The name used for many years for the Indigenous people of Australia who were previously the sole inhabitants of the country The Aboriginal people were cruelly mistreated by some of the early settlers and many were killed or had their land, and consequently their traditional means of survival, taken from them. Despite a growing concern for their rights and welfare, especially since the 1960s, improvements have been slow. The term ‘Aboriginal’—as a noun to replace ‘Aborigine’ and also an adjective, with the initial letter capitalised in both—is recommended in the Australian government Style Manual. [Indigenous Australians, land rights]

absentee vote A vote cast on election day outside the voter’s own electorate Absentee votes are available for voters who are away from their own electorates on election day. To obtain absentee votes, applicants must state to the poll clerk that they will not be in their own electorates during voting hours, but need not explain why. [poll clerk, postal vote, pre-poll voting]

absolute majority More than half the total votes This can also mean the number of votes (or the percentage) by which the votes received by the winning candidate exceed all the other votes polled. When there are more than two candidates, the candidate who receives more than 50 per cent of the first preference votes will be declared elected without the need for distributing preferences. [plurality, preferential voting]

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ACCC ACCC See Australian Competition and Consumer Commission

Access Economics A business-oriented think tank focusing on economics Founded in 1988, Access Economics has offices in Canberra and Melbourne. It is a proprietary company staffed by qualified economists, and operates as an economic consultant to business and government. It takes an active part in public policy debates and the media often publicise its comments. [think tank]

Accord (the Prices and Income Accord) An agreement made in 1983 between the Australian Labor Party and the Australian Council of Trade Unions The Accord was a new development in industrial relations aimed at cooperation between the trade union movement and the anticipated Labor government. The Accord had a major effect on industrial relations through the 1980s and into the 1990s. The Accord ended with the election of a Liberal government in 1996. [industrial relations]

accountability of ministers The requirement that ministers account to parliament for their decisions This obligation is based on the principle of the supremacy of parliament, which is a basic element of the Westminster system and is part of the Australian structure of government. Parliament, in turn, is answerable to the people. [ministerial code of conduct, ministerial responsibility, Westminster system]

ACOSS See Australian Council of Social Services

act of parliament A law created by the procedures and decisions of parliament Acts of parliament make up statute law and, in Australia, are enacted by federal, state and territory parliaments. Parliamentary procedures are designed to give opportunities for consideration of proposed legislation both in broad and detailed terms. Amendments can be made during the parliamentary process. In a bicameral system legislation must be approved by a majority vote in both houses. [bicameral system, statute law]

ACTU ACTU See Australian Council of Trade Unions

addendum An addition, or proposed addition, to a motion An addendum is similar to an amendment but is purely an addition, without any alteration to the original words of the motion. [motion]

adjournment (of debate) Postponement of discussion of a bill or other business Discussion on a particular matter in parliament is seldom continued through to its conclusion without interruption. Any of several circumstances may make an adjournment necessary, such as insufficient time, the need to deal with other business, or to give MPs time to study the details of a bill. Standing orders require that debate on a bill must be adjourned after the minister’s second reading speech. [first reading, second reading, standing orders]

adjournment (of the house) A temporary suspension of parliamentary proceedings This occurs whenever a house of parliament temporarily ceases operation as, for example, at the end of a sitting day. The term also applies to those periods (usually of two weeks) within a sitting period when there are no sitting days. [sitting day, sittings (of parliament)]

adjournment debate A special debate at the end of each sitting day of a house of parliament An adjournment debate provides backbenchers with an opportunity to speak on topics of their own choosing. It is similar to a grievance debate in many ways, including a tight restriction on the length of speeches. [grievance debate, sitting day]

Administrative Appeals Tribunal (AAT) An official body that deals with complaints against actions of federal government departments The decisions of the tribunal can be legally enforced but can be challenged by an appeal to the Federal Court. The tribunal has the power to deal with a wide range of matters affecting organisations and the general public, such as taxation and social services. There are similar state government tribunals.

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adult franchise (or suffrage) adult franchise (or suffrage) The legal right of all adult citizens to vote The term is often used to indicate that women as well as men are entitled to vote. The word ‘suffrage’ refers particularly to the right to vote and is the basis of the name adopted by the suffragettes, early campaigners for votes for women. [franchise, property vote, suffragettes]

adversarial politics A political system in which confrontation and argument is accepted as the norm Politics is mostly of this type in the three tiers of Australian government, although this is sometimes denied, especially at the local government level. It arises partly from custom and partly from the party system.

affirmative action Policy and practice to provide greater opportunities for women Campaigns and legislation have sought to reduce the injustice of discrimination against women. The term ‘affirmative action’ applies particularly to opportunities in employment. [equal opportunity, women’s lib(eration)]

affluenza Term given to the dissatisfaction with life felt by many people despite their relative affluence The term, implying a disease, emerged in a US television documentary in 2002 and was soon taken up in Australia. [quality of life]

alliance An agreement between two or more nations to improve the effectiveness of their military defences Alliances usually include agreement to come to the aid of an ally who is attacked. They often entail cooperation between the defence forces of each nation in defence planning and in training exercises. The ANZUS Treaty is an example of an alliance in which Australia is a partner. [ANZUS Treaty]

AMA See Australian Medical Association

ambassador A diplomat of senior rank, usually in charge of an embassy

amendment The customs of diplomacy include rules relating to rank and titles, comparable to military conventions. An ambassador is usually a nation’s most senior diplomat in a foreign country. A high commissioner has the same rank as an ambassador. [diplomacy, embassy, high commissioner]

amendment In politics, a change to a bill, an act of parliament, or the Constitution Amendments to existing acts of parliament may be printed separately and in studying an act it may be necessary to check whether any amendments have been made since the printing of the copy being used. [act of parliament, bill]

American alliance An imprecise term for the relationship between Australia and the United States since World War II The term can be given various interpretations but the military relationship is a major component. [ANZUS Treaty]

Amnesty International Australia Part of the worldwide organisation Amnesty International, with branches in all Australian states Amnesty International has a consultative status with the United Nations and promotes human rights, including the right to life, to freedom of speech, to food, to water, to decent working conditions, to housing and education. It supports acceptance and observance of the Universal Dec­ laration of Human Rights. [United Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

anarchy The usual meaning is chaos resulting from the absence of effective government A less common meaning of anarchy is the belief that there should be minimal formal government.

another place A term sometimes used in parliamentary debate when referring to the other house This peculiar tradition has been inherited from the British parliament, where the practice arose from the hostility between the House of Commons and the House of Lords.

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anti-communism anti-communism The belief that communism is undesirable or evil The ‘Cold War’, mainly between the USA and the Soviet Union, was important in international politics from the 1940s until the 1980s. In Australian politics, the conservative parties and the Democratic Labor Party used alleged ALP support of communism as a campaign tactic. [Democratic Labor Party]

anti-political political thought Criticism of elected political institutions to gain political advantage The term applies to political tactics in Australia during the 1930s depression, when some conservative politicians sought to benefit from right-wing, extremist criticism of democracy by arguing for authoritarian government rather than party politics.

antisemitism Intolerance or persecution of Jews The term is derived from the word ‘Semite’, which is sometimes used as a synonym for Jew, although this is not its only meaning. Oppression or discrimination against Jews has occurred in various countries over many centuries, and a tragic example was the persecution and slaughter of millions of Jews during World War II.

Anzac Day A public holiday to honour Australians who served in the armed forces in the wars in which Australia has been involved The term is an acronym for ‘Australian and New Zealand Army Corps’ and the date, 25 April, was chosen to commemorate the landing of Allied forces, including Australian and New Zealand troops, on Gallipoli in 1915, during World War I.

ANZUS Treaty A treaty between Australia, New Zealand and the USA to aid one another against aggression in the Pacific region The full name is the Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty. Devised in 1951 when memories of World War II and the war in the Pacific were still vivid, it is seen as a guarantee of protection by the USA. [American alliance]

apathy In the political sense, a lack of interest in public affairs World history has shown that apathy of citizens can contribute to serious political problems, even the demise of democratic systems of government. Although it has become fashionable to scorn or ignore politics, continued

APEC interest and some participation in politics is essential for effective democratic government. [civil rights and responsibilities]

APEC See Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

appropriation Authorisation by parliament for government expenditure Public money cannot be spent unless approved by parliament, although the purposes are not necessarily specified in great detail in the appropri­ ation bill. [Appropriation Bills]

appropriation bills Proposals submitted to parliament to authorise government expenditure Together with taxation bills they are sometimes called money bills and the Constitution requires that they be introduced in the House of Representatives. The Constitution also prohibits the Senate from amending money bills although the Senate may request the House of Representatives to make amendments to them. The Senate has the power to reject appropriation bills but traditionally does not do so. It was exceptional and controversial when the Senate did so in 1975. [money bills]

arbitration For many years a major component of the Australian system of deter­ mining wage rates and conditions of employment Official arbitration began with the establishment of the Arbitration Court in 1904. The Arbitration Commission succeeded the court in 1956, and the Industrial Relations Commission took over in 1989. Arbitration judgements could be legally enforced, although not directly by the commission. The system was radically changed in 2006 by the Howard government’s Work Choices legislation. [enterprise bargaining, Industrial Relations Commission, Work Choices]

aristocracy In Ancient Greece this meant ‘rule by the best’ but it has come to mean an hereditary upper class In countries where the continued existence of such a class is still recognised, membership of the aristocracy is determined by birth and aristocrats frequently have titles such as ‘duke’ or ‘lord’. Aristocrats are not necessarily rich or powerful but are regarded deferentially by many, but not all, of the other citizens.

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arms of government arms of government The legislature, the executive and the judiciary make up the three ‘arms of government’ The legislature is a term used for the parliament, especially in its capacity as the maker of laws. The executive is the administrative arm of government and includes the ministers and their departments. The judiciary is the court structure which, under the Westminster system, is substantially independent of parliament. [executive, judiciary, legislature, Westminster system]

ASEAN See Association of South-East Asian Nations

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) A forum for nations in the Asia-Pacific region, with the aim of enhancing trade and economic prospects APEC comprises 21 member nations, including Australia and New Zealand. Powerful member nations include the USA, China, Russia, Canada, Mexico and Chile. APEC activities include meetings of heads of governments and senior ministers to consider economic matters such as increased trade, tariffs, technical standards, administrative difficulties and investment. [Association of South-East Asian Nations]

ASIO See Australian Security Intelligence Organisation

ASIS See Australian Secret Intelligence Service

aspirationals A term for those hoping to improve their living standards and social standing This is a neologism used by both sides of politics to appeal to the lower middle classes. It is linked to ‘Howard’s battlers’ and Mark Latham’s phrase ‘Climbing the ladder of opportunity’, both used in the federal election campaign of 2004. [battler]

assimilation The idea that Indigenous Australians and migrants should abandon their own social and cultural practices, and adopt the norms of the majority Widely accepted through much of the twentieth century, assimilation policies were responsible for the taking of Indigenous children from their parents. Multiculturalism has largely replaced earlier attitudes towards

Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN)

Reproduced courtesy of Peter Nicholson of the Australian www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au

migrants, but opinions about fair treatment of Indigenous Australians remain mixed and controversial. [multiculturalism, stolen generations]

Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) An organisation with the aim of promoting economic and social development and political stability in the region Founded in 1967 with five members, by 2008 the number had grown to ten: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. Australia is not a member but is one of several ‘dialogue partners’ entitled to be directly informed about ASEAN meetings. [Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]

asylum seeker A person who has arrived in a foreign country asking to be recognised as a refugee The term is used to describe someone who is seeking protection from persecution under the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees but whose application for refugee status has not yet been approved. The plight of asylum seekers in Australia has been much debated, especially during the years of the Howard government because of its policy of mandatory detention for those seeking asylum. [boat people]

attack dog A parliamentarian who is given the job of vigorously taking on members of a rival party

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10 attorney-general Western Australian MP Wilson ‘Iron Bar’ Tuckey was, for many years, the Coalition’s principal attack dog. Others have taken up the role for specific projects such as former Senator Santo Santoro, who attacked the ABC, alleging it supported the Labor Party.

attorney-general The minister with responsibility for legal matters The attorney-general advises all the other ministers on legal matters, and has the responsibility for laws relating to the legal profession and the administration of justice.

auditor-general A federal or state officer with the responsibility of auditing the accounts of departments and other official bodies The auditor-general reports to parliament rather than to a minister and, consequently, is in an independent position to criticise or make suggestions about the financial performance of the government bodies. [public accounts committee]

Australasia Australia, New Zealand and certain islands of the South Pacific Ocean ‘Australasia’ has been widely accepted as meaning, simply, Australia and New Zealand. Many New Zealanders dislike the term as it seems to belittle their independent country. The term is being replaced by ‘Australia and New Zealand’.

Australia Act(s) 1986 Acts of parliament passed in Australia and in the United Kingdom to end the power of the British Parliament to legislate for Australia In both countries the name of the legislation is the ‘Australia Act’. Until the passing of these Acts, British legislation could still affect Australian states and, in theory, the United Kingdom government could still recommend the appointment of state governors. Since 1986 the state premiers can of­ficially make the recommendations, and state legislation is independent of that of the United Kingdom. [state(s), Statute of Westminster]

Australia Council for the Arts A semi-government body with the aim and responsibility of encouraging the arts Usually referred to as the Australia Council, it was established as a statutory authority in 1975 and has greater powers than its predecessor, the Australian Arts Council, which had only an advisory role. The Australia

Australia Day 11 Council distributes substantial funds provided by the government to assist cultural activities, such as opera, drama, music and writing.

Australia Day A public holiday held on 26 January each year to commemorate the arrival of the First Fleet in Australia Captain Arthur Phillip, commander of the First Fleet of convict ships from Great Britain, arrived at Sydney Cove on this day in 1788. Some Indigenous Australians commemorate the day as Invasion Day, and there is sporadic debate about moving Australia Day to celebrate a less divisive event.

Australia First movement A short-lived 1940s political movement, with a mixture of beliefs, in­cluding some sympathy for the fascist nations Australia First was anti-communist, anti-British, pro-Australian, antiSemitic, and friendly towards Germany, Italy and Japan. Its leading members included the writer Percy ‘Inky’ Stephensen, who edited the newsletter The Publicist, and Adela Pankhurst Walsh (daughter of the famous suffragette). She had discarded her early leftist views and turned to the extreme right. Compromised by links with Japan, Australia First was suppressed in 1942, with some members, including Stephensen, being interned.

Australia Institute A think tank that emphasises the importance of ethics in private and public decision-making An independent political research organisation founded in 1994 and based in Canberra. It advocates a government framework in which private markets will operate ethically and effectively. It is funded by philanthropic trusts, memberships and commissioned research. [ethics, think tank]

Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) A semi-government body that provides radio and television services throughout Australia Established as a commission in 1932, the ABC was restructured as a corporation in 1983. It is a statutory authority that is largely independent but depends on the government for most of its funds. It has also provided an overseas broadcasting service. Despite criticism of bias from some quarters, the ABC is widely valued as an independent source of news and comment, and an alternative to the privately owned and controlled commercial broadcasting services. [mass media, statutory authority]

12 Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) An agency set up by the Commonwealth government to compile statistics on matters of public interest The ABS deals with demographic, social and economic statistics and provides information that is valuable for many activities, including planning by government and non-government bodies and individuals. Information is available to anyone interested, although a fee may be charged.

Australian Capital Territory electoral system A multi-member electorate, proportional representation and preferential voting system Adopted in 1992, the Hare-Clark system replaced the modified d’Hondt system, which had been used in both the 1989 and 1992 elections, but was found to be difficult to administer and was unpopular. In accordance with new legislation, the ACT was divided into three electorates, two of them with five members and one with seven. [Australian Capital Territory parliament, d’Hondt voting system, Hare-Clark system, multi-member electorate]

Australian Capital Territory parliament A unicameral (single-house) parliament whose powers are defined by a Commonwealth act of parliament A 1988 Commonwealth act of parliament gave the ACT a degree of self-government but with less power than a state. There is no governor or administrator and the head of the government has the title of chief minister. [Australian Capital Territory electoral system, territories]

Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (ACCI) The peak body representing Australian business and employers Based in Canberra, the ACCI takes a leading role in representing business interests. It was formed in 1992 with the merging of the Confederation of Australian Industry and the Associated Chambers of Commerce.

Australian Christian Lobby (ACL) A political lobby group that promotes conservative Christian attitudes The ACL vigorously opposes same-sex marriage and also expresses opinions on matters that do not have direct connection with religious doctrine. Critics of the ACL emphasise that its manager, Jim Wallace, and a small board dominate the organisation, while ordinary members appear to have little power within the group.

Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) 13 Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) ACMA is a government agency with the power to regulate broadcasting, the Internet and telecommunications The main responsibility of ACMA is to ensure that the co­mmunication industry operates in the best interests of the community, including respect for accepted community standards. It promotes self-regulation but has legal power to enforce its decisions on matters such as advertising standards. [mass media]

Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) A statutory authority with the responsibilities of protecting consumers and ensuring fair competition The ACCC took over from the Prices Surveillance Authority and the Trade Practices Commission in 1996. The commission considers proposed mergers and dangers of collusion between traders and is responsible for compliance with certain sections of the Trade Practices Act and the Prices Surveillance Act. It takes a special interest in industries in which there are very few competitors. [Choice, oligopoly, price control]

Australian Conciliation and Arbitration Commission The major industrial arbitration authority that operated from 1956 to 1988 This commission followed the Commonwealth Arbitration Court in 1956 and, in 1988, was superseded by the Australian Industrial Relations Commission. In 2006 the Australian Fair Pay Commission took over most of the Industrial Relations Commission’s powers under Work Choices legislation. [Australian Fair Pay Commission, Australian Industrial Relations Commission, industrial relations]

Australian Conservation Foundation An important umbrella organisation promoting conservation This is a voluntary group established in the early 1960s. The foundation has acted as a lobby group on many different conservation and environmental matters and emphasises the dangers of climate change. [climate change, conservation]

Australian Consumers Association See Choice (the new name of the organisation)

Australian Council of Social Services (ACOSS) A non-government Australia-wide body concerned with social welfare

14 Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) ACOSS conducts research into social welfare matters and its representatives are frequently quoted in the mass media. It is an umbrella organisation whose members are associations involved in particular aspects of social welfare. [social services]

Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) The leading Australian trade union organisation, usually referred to as the ACTU Founded in 1927, it is a peak organisation whose members are individual trade unions. The ACTU has considerable industrial and political influence, and has taken a leading role in major industrial disputes and cases before the Industrial Relations Commission. [Australian Industrial Relations Commission, industrial re­lations, trade union]

Australian Democrats A minor political party that split off from the Liberal Party Established in 1977 by Don Chipp, an ex-Liberal minister, its early members included remnants of the Australia Party and of the Liberal Movement. By the mid-1990s it was a restraint on some of the more conservative pro­posals of the Howard government through its power in the Senate. It gradually declined in popularity and won no Senate seats in the 2007 federal election. [Australia Party, balance of power, Liberal Movement]

Australian Electoral Commission The commission is the senior body in charge of organising federal elections Established by an act of parliament in 1984, it has greater independence than its predecessor, the Australian Electoral Office, which had been under the control of a minister. The commission has the responsibility for the redistribution of electorate boundaries, the organisation and conduct of House of Representatives and Senate elections, the conduct of referendums and the maintenance of electoral rolls. [electoral office, electoral roll]

Australian Fabian Society See Fabian Society

Australian Fair Pay Commission (AFPC) An official body with power to conduct reviews and adjust rates of pay Established in 2006, it took over some of the responsibilities of the Australian Industrial Relations Commission. The AFPC was part of sweeping changes to industrial relations legislation made by the Howard government. [Australian Industrial Relations Commission, industrial relations]

Australian Industrial Relations Commission 15 Australian Industrial Relations Commission An independent tribunal with the responsibility of dealing with industrial disputes, awards, unlawful and unfair dismissals Established in 1989, it took over from the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission, which had operated from 1956. Its earliest predecessor, the Arbitration Court, was established in 1904. The Australian Fair Pay Commission took over some of its responsibilities in 2006. [arbitration, Australian Fair Pay Commission, industrial relations]

Australian Labor Party (ALP) A major party whose fundamental position in the political spectrum is left of centre, while its policies on topical issues can be influenced by pragmatism The party developed from political groups formed by trade unions in the 1890s when unions decided that they needed political representation. Despite its trade union origins, Labor Party members come from all sections of the community. Since Federation, the Australian Labor Party has alternated with more conservative parties and coalitions as the federal government and has implemented major policies, such as universal health care. It has also been in power in state parliaments frequently, sometimes for extended periods. Factions and internal dissension have periodically weakened the ALP. Three major splits, followed by long periods without electoral success, have occurred at intervals over its 100-plus years of existence. [labour movement, political spectrum]

Australian legend A term for the myth of the Australian national character, which was based on the perceived or idealised characteristics of the men of the Australian bush The bush legend asserted that Australians were pragmatic, sceptical, anti-intellectual and anti-authoritarian. In the late 1800s the legend was propagated by writers such as Henry Lawson and ‘Banjo’ Paterson and by the emerging labour movement, consisting of the unions and the Labor Party. Professor Russel Ward published his famous work, The Australian Legend, in 1958.

Australian Loan Council A body that regulates borrowing by federal, state and territory governments The Loan Council consists of the treasurers of each government with the federal treasurer as chairman. It was established in 1927 and usually meets once a year. Between meetings its members maintain contact and decisionmaking by correspondence. [Council of Australian Governments meetings]

16 Australian Medical Association (AMA) Australian Medical Association (AMA) The AMA is the largest and best known organisation representing members of the medical profession The stated aims of the association include concern for the interests of it members and high standards in all aspects of medicine. It is sometimes politically conservative and it opposed Medibank in the 1970s and Medicare in the 1980s. Following the establishment of other, smaller associations representing members of the medical profession since the 1960s the AMA’s influence has declined, but it remains the most influential. [Doctors Reform Society, Medicare, Private Doctors of Australia]

Australian Republican Movement (ARM) An organisation that advocates that Australia should become an independent republic Formally launched in 1991, the organisation maintains that it is inappropriate to have another country’s monarch as Australia’s head of state. The ARM, then headed by Malcolm Turnbull, played a leading part in the 1999 referendum on the issue. Supporters of a republic believe the referendum was defeated because the wording of the proposal narrowly defined a type of republic that was unacceptable to many who wanted a change from the monarchy. [Australians for a Constitutional Monarchy, head of state, republicanism]

Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS) An official Australian intelligence organisation that operates in overseas countries ASIS was established secretly in the early 1950s to gather information in foreign countries pertinent to Australia’s security. Similar to the British Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) and the American CIA, though small in comparison, its existence was unknown to most Australians until the 1970s. [intelligence]

Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO) An official Australian intelligence organisation that operates within Australia Established in 1949 by the Chifley Labor government as a defence against espionage and subversion within Australia, ASIO has similar responsibilities to those of the British Security Service (MI5). Some Australians, especially Labor Party supporters, have regarded its activities with sus­ picion, suspecting that ASIO was being used to influence the internal politics of Australia. [intelligence]

Australian Settlement 17 Australian Settlement A term used by political commentators to describe the characteristics of Australian society and politics that had developed by the time of Federation The term implies that the character of colonised Australia had stabilised by that time. Elements of the so-called settlement included the White Australia policy, trade protection, arbitration over wages and conditions, the beginnings of a welfare state and reliance on British military power for defence. Critics argue that this interpretation is simplistic and, for example, omits mention of women’s rights and fails to appreciate the place of Indigenous Australians in modern Australia.

Australians for a Constitutional Monarchy An organisation advocating the continuation of Australia as a consti­ tutional monarchy Founded in 1992 to resist the campaign to make Australia a republic, prominent signatories to the organisation’s charter included Dame Leonie Kramer and the Hon. Michael Kirby. Supporters of the organisation assert that the Constitution needs no change. [Australian Republican Movement]

Australian Socialist Party (ASP) A Marxist organisation that hosted the first meeting of the Communist Party of Australia in October 1920 The ASP joined the Communist International in 1919, then moved to unify the diverse socialist and communist groups active in Australia. It published the newspaper International Socialist in Australia until 1921. [Communist Party of Australia]

Australian Workplace Agreement (AWA) A written agreement between an employer and an employee that sets out the terms and conditions of employment Introduced as part of the Howard government’s Work Choices industrial relations legislation in 1996, an AWA replaced any existing award or workplace agreement that would otherwise apply to the employee. In 2008 the Rudd government prohibited any new AWAs, although existing ones continued. [enterprise bargaining]

Australia Party A small political party operating in the 1970s Established by businessmen Gordon Barton in 1969, most of its members were disaffected Liberals who were regarded as social progressives and disagreed with Liberal Party policy on the Vietnam War. Together

18 autarky with others, Australian Party members helped to establish the Australian Democrats in 1977. [Australian Democrats]

autarky Self-sufficiency within a nation With complete autarky, all materials, products and services would be provided from within the country and there would be no imports. [protection, tariffs]

authoritarianism Government by a small group with total power An authoritarian government rules without restriction and demands complete obedience, while the people have no democratic rights. [autocracy]

autocracy Government by a single all-powerful ruler, such as a dictator In an autocracy the ruler wields absolute power without the people having any legal right to influence government. [political theory, responsible government]

autonomy Self-rule or political independence of a country or state The term is sometimes applied to a political entity that does not have complete self-government but is part of a larger group, such as a state within a federation. The states in Australia are examples. [federalism]

B baby bonus A lump sum payment of $5000 to parents after the birth of each child, first introduced in 2007 Falling birth rates in Australia prompted the Howard government to offer the payment and it was paid irrespective of the parents’ financial circumstances. The Rudd government introduced an income test, excluding families if the chief income earner received more than $150 000 a year, and changed to fortnightly payments believing that, overall, this would be a more effective method of assisting families.

baby boomers The generation born after World War II—from about 1946 to the mid 1960s The population in Australia increased quickly during this period. With job security taken for granted many turned to idealistic causes, such as en­vironmental concerns, which had political implications. Some members of later generations blame the baby boomers for various social and political problems. [Generation X, Generation Y]

backbencher A member of parliament who is neither a minister nor a shadow minister Backbenchers have the obvious duties of attendance and contributing to debates in parliament. They also have to participate in committee meetings. In their electorates they assist local constituents and community organisations. In the parliament, backbenchers sit behind the so-called front bench seats occupied by ministers and shadow ministers. [committee system, constituent, front bench]

20 balance of payments balance of payments A statement of transactions between Australia and other countries over a specified period of time This calculation takes into account the values of exports and imports, investments, interest payments, borrowing and lending. There are two parts: current account and capital account. Public statements and news about balance of payments usually refer to the current account data. [economy (of a nation)]

balance of power Control of enough votes by a minority of members of parliament to determine the outcome of debates in parliament A balance of power situation can only occur when no party (or coalition of parties) has a majority in parliament. This is more likely in a house elected on a proportional representation basis, which gives candidates from small parties a greater chance of being elected. Examples are the Senate and the Tasmanian House of Assembly. [proportional representation, two-party system]

ballot The process of voting at an election The term is used in a variety of ways and is frequently used simply to mean an election. [election, poll]

ballot paper The printed form on which electors mark their votes The same term ‘ballot paper’ is applied before and after the voter has written on it. Ballot papers are carefully counted and checked to avoid malpractice but, to safeguard the secrecy of the ballot, they are not numbered. [scrutiny, secret ballot]

banana republic A derisory reference to any country that fails to successfully manage its economic affairs Some smaller tropical countries have been regarded, fairly or otherwise, as being in this category, and this is the origin of the expression. It gained prominence in Australia following the comment in 1986 of the then treasurer, Paul Keating, that Australia could become a ‘banana republic’ unless certain economic strategies were adopted. [economy (of a nation)]

barbecue stopper 21

Reproduced courtesy of Cathy Wilcox

barbecue stopper The introduction into conversation of a matter of major topical interest, especially a controversial one The term was first used by Prime Minister John Howard in 2001 and again at an electorate dinner in 2002 when he said: 
‘And nothing is more important than the debate that goes on in the community, I call it a barbecue stopper, about the balance between work and family.’
 Other party leaders adopted the phrase. As opposition leader in 2007, Kevin Rudd applied it to the problem of homeownership; and Greens leader, Bob Brown, associated it with climate change.

basic wage The minimum legal wage in Australia from 1907 to 1967 Introduced in the ‘Harvester’ award of the Arbitration Court in 1907, the basic wage was calculated on the basis of the minimum needs of an average family. It remained a significant element in the setting of all wage rates until 1967, when the total wage concept was adopted. [arbitration, Harvester judgement, total wage]

battler Traditionally, a person with few social or financial advantages who works doggedly, usually with little reward

22 BCA More recently, there has been an attempt to modify its meaning. When John Howard was prime minister he applied it to anyone aspiring to higher financial and social status, including those already comfortable. This led to the derisive term ‘Howard’s battlers’. [aspirationals, dog-whistle politics]

BCA See Business Council of Australia

bear pit A journalistic term for the cut and thrust of political life, especially on the floor of parliament The term is derived from the sometimes rude and ugly behaviour displayed in parliament. It is also a symptom of the denigration of politics by emphasis on its faults.

bellwether seat Electorates that are regarded as indicators of the overall outcome of an election These are seats where the major parties are closely matched. Eden-Monaro in New South Wales is a typical example. The term is derived from the old practice of the leading sheep of a flock wearing a bell round its neck. [psephology]

bicameral system A system in which there are two houses of parliament Both houses must approve bills before they can become law, with an exception in Australian politics. Under certain circumstances (defined in the Constitution), a joint sitting of both houses of the Federal parliament may resolve a deadlock. All Australian parliaments, except Queensland, the Northern Territory and the ACT parliaments, have two houses. [deadlock (between two houses), joint sitting]

big end of town An Australian term for big business when corporations present a unified opinion The phrase does not refer to a locality, although it conjures up impressions of large offices on the top floors of city buildings. The term is useful in reports and discussions, and indirectly acknowledges the influence of corporate leaders. [Business Council of Australia, Main Street, Wall Street]

bill A proposed act of parliament

Bill of Rights 23 Most bills are introduced into parliament by the government, although there are opportunities for private members to introduce bills. They may be introduced in either house excepting money bills, which the Senate cannot originate. In a bicameral system, both houses must approve bills. Technical experts usually write government bills, but the ideas come from the government, or have its support. The procedure for dealing with bills has several stages, important ones being the second reading and the ‘consideration in detail’ stage, which give opportunities for debate and amendment. [amendment, consideration in detail stage (of a bill), private members’ bills, second reading]

Bill of Rights A document guaranteeing basic human rights, usually part of a nation’s constitution These rights, sometimes called civil liberties, include freedoms of speech, assembly, religion, and several more. The Australian Constitution does not include a Bill of Rights, and whether or not one is needed is a matter of debate. [civil liberties, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

black armband view of history A term used in the debate over the history of Australian colonisation and development Coined by eminent historian Geoffrey Blainey, the term has been used by the conservative side in the History Wars or Culture Wars to counter the view that colonisation had tragic consequences for Indigenous Australians, and that this should be acknowledged to assist reconciliation. [assimilation, Culture Wars, History Wars, stolen generations]

black ban Concerted action, sometimes by several trade unions, to obstruct a particular project or a company’s operation The aim of a black ban may be to apply pressure on a company that is regarded as unfair to its workers, or to prevent the commencement of a project that is seen as undesirable for conservation or other reasons. For such a ban to be effective the trade union or group directly concerned usually needs to convince other trade unions to participate. [industrial dispute]

bleeding heart liberal Derisive term which the more hard-hearted apply to those they consider to be too sympathetic to people in trouble or suffering disadvantage

24 blind trust (investments for an MP) In this context ‘liberal’ has the traditional meaning of social concern, rather than the Australian meaning of politically conservative. The term is derived from the phrase ‘my heart bleeds for them’. [liberalism, small-l Liberals]

blind trust (investments for an MP) A trust that makes investments on behalf of a member of parliament without the MP knowing the nature of the investments This procedure is adopted as a guard against possible conflicts of interest that might influence the voting by members of parliament if they knew the details of their investments.

blind trust (political party funding) An organisation associated with political parties, set up to disguise the original source of donations Large donations to political parties have been recognised as potentially dangerous, and legislation requires that they be made public. Blind trusts circumvent the spirit of the legislation by acting as intermediaries between the undisclosed donors and the political party. Critics describe such manoeuvres as ‘laundering’ the money. [public funding (election campaigns), slush fund]

blue-collar union An unofficial term indicating that most of the members of a union are manual workers This term has come into prominence since the extension of unionism to many non-manual and professional occupations, whose unions are sometimes called white-collar unions. [trade union, white-collar union]

blue-ribbon seat A parliamentary seat that is very safe for a particular party The term is usually applied to safe Liberal electorates because of the association of the colour blue with the conservative side of politics. [political spectrum, safe seat]

blue-rinse set A mildly derogatory term for elderly middle-class women, especially those who meet socially with others of similar characteristics The expression comes from the practice of tinting their greying hair. This is one of the sections of the community seen by some political tacticians as having influence and, therefore, their reactions must be considered when planning policies and election campaigns. [chardonnay socialist, doctors’ wives]

boat people 25 boat people People who leave their countries and travel in small boats to seek refuge elsewhere Small numbers of boat people from South-East Asia came directly to A­ustralia in the 1970s and 1980s. Others sailed to other countries as boat people and came to Australia later as legal immigrants. Those who come without permission are allowed to remain as permanent residents if of­ficially accepted as refugees. Australia has been criticised for holding boat people in custody for a long time before a decision about their fate is finalised. [asylum seeker, detention centres, Pacific Solution, refugee]

branch stacking Organised enrolment in a political party branch of new members who would not otherwise have joined Branch stacking occurs in all parties and is usually done to increase a faction’s strength at party conferences, to improve the chances of a particular candidate for preselection or to alter the degree of support for a particular policy. Branch stacking is sometimes organised by groups that have little interest in the party other than to promote a particular policy. [faction, preselection]

budget A statement of estimated government income and expenditure for the next financial year Budgets give an indication of a government’s economic policy, especially on revenue and expenditure. The treasurers in federal and state parliaments present budgets, usually once a year, although ‘mini-budgets’ are sometimes announced at other times of the year if it becomes necessary to substantially amend the original budget. Budgets are part of the system of control over expenditure by government departments as each must keep within its allocation of funds. [estimates, treasurer]

budget debate The parliamentary debate that follows the treasurer’s presentation of the budget This is an important debate in which many MPs take part. The budget and associated documents deal with all departments and do so in some detail. The matters that can be legitimately discussed extend over a wide area and the debate may continue through several weeks.

bureaucracy The administrative structure of any large organisation, but especially of government authorities

26 Business Council of Australia (BCA) The term is often applied in a derogatory sense, implying over-regulation, red tape and delay. Bureaucracy can also mean the form of government that operates when the nominal government is weak or indecisive and, in practice, officials govern the country. [delegated legislation, red tape]

Business Council of Australia (BCA) An important organisation founded in 1983 to represent business interests The chief executives of 100 of the largest companies in Australia are its members. It is an active lobbying group and makes submissions to the Industrial Relations Commission. Statements by its representatives are given wide publicity in the media. [big end of town, industrial relations]

by-election An election held between general elections, for a single parliamentary seat A by-election is held to fill a vacancy resulting from the death or resig­ nation of a member of parliament between general elections, but not if a general election is imminent. A Senate vacancy is filled without an election but in accordance with a procedure, specified in Section 15 of the Constitution, which requires the new senator to be of the same party as the previous senator. If the government has a comfortable majority in parliament the outcome of a by-election is not likely to have any major consequences, although by-elections do attract attention as tests of the government’s popularity. [casual vacancy]

C cabinet A group of senior ministers or, in some governments, all the ministers as a body Cabinet makes decisions for government action and its timing, usually on the recommendation of the minister responsible for the matter under consideration but also having regard for the attitude of the party caucus. In some cases a small informal ‘inner cabinet’ may be formed. The proceedings of cabinet meetings are confidential and once a decision is made it is usual for all ministers to support it. [junior minister, kitchen cabinet]

campaign Organised activity of political parties and candidates to obtain votes in an election The term usually refers to the time between the announcement of the election and election day. Campaigns include party leaders’ policy speeches, attempts to gain media coverage and advertising. Marginal electorates receive special attention, such as visits by party leaders. An election campaign also includes local activities, including the distribution of leaflets to mailboxes and house-to-house canvassing, known as ‘doorknocking’. Public meetings in local halls, once an important and colourful part of election campaigns, have become rare. Part of the cost of election campaigns can be recouped from government funds, in proportion to the percentage of votes received. [blind trust (political party funding), doorknocking, public funding (election campaigns)]

Canberra Press Gallery The journalists and support staff who report the workings of the Federal parliament

28 candidate The name comes from the areas overlooking chambers of the Senate and the House of Representatives that are reserved for reporters. The term is also used for the professional association that represents the journalists who report news from the parliament.

candidate A person who nominates for election, especially for a seat in parliament Most parliamentary candidates contest elections on behalf of a political party. The first step for the prospective candidate is to win selection by the political party and become its official candidate, and this is usually difficult if the party has a good chance of winning the particular seat. Candidates who stand without party support are known as ‘independents’ and few are successful. [independent member of parliament, preselection]

capital gains tax A tax levied on the increase in the value of assets Introduced in Australia in 1985, capital gains tax is paid when selling an asset and is based on the increased value since its purchase. Conditional allowance for inflation and other complex rules are involved. The taxpayer’s home is excluded from the tax.

capitalism A political, economic and social system based on a high degree of private ownership In theory, pure capitalism may be regarded as a system in which the means of production, distribution and exchange are completely under private ownership and control. In practice, even in countries that are recognised as thoroughly capitalist, there is a mixture of government and private ownership and some government regulation. Supporters of capitalism contend that it maximises production, and provides goods and services at minimum prices. Critics maintain that it has little concern for the welfare of workers and can lead to damaging ‘booms and busts’. The term ‘capitalism’ has been largely replaced by ‘private enterprise’ and the ‘market system’. [market system, political theory]

capital punishment Legally sanctioned execution of persons convicted of capital offences Also called the ‘death penalty’, capital punishment was a widely applied penalty for some crimes, especially murder, until the twentieth century. It is still practised in many countries, including parts of the USA, China, Indonesia and Singapore, but was abolished federally in Australia in 1973. The last state to abolish the death penalty was New South Wales. This was in 1955, although no execution had taken place there since 1940.

carbon trading 29 carbon trading Also known as emissions trading, it is a program to reduce atmospheric pollution in accordance with Kyoto Protocol principles A carbon trading scheme aims to give some flexibility to industry while reducing carbon emissions by offering economic incentives. A regulatory body decides the appropriate amount of a pollutant that a company may emit and issues an equivalent number of credits. If the company wishes to emit more, it is permitted to do so if it can buy credits from other companies that have them to spare. [Kyoto Protocol]

caretaker government A temporary government commissioned by the governor-general or a state governor, usually for a short period, until a stable government can be formed Caretaker governments are established during a time of uncertainty when it is not clear whether any party or coalition of parties is capable of forming a stable government. Caretaker governments carry on the routine business of government, but they are expected to refrain from making important policy decisions. [deadlock (lack of a majority)]

casting vote The vote of a presiding officer when the voting would otherwise be tied The rules relating to casting votes vary. For example, the Speaker of the House of Representatives does not normally vote, but does have a casting vote. The President of the Senate is permitted to vote in divisions, but does not have a casting vote. [division (voting), presiding officer]

casual vacancy A vacancy occurring in a parliamentary seat between general elections A casual vacancy occurs after the death or resignation of a member of parliament between general elections and, in lower houses, generally results in a by-election. A casual Senate vacancy is filled by a procedure, specified in Section 15 of the Constitution, which ensures that the new senator is from the same party as the former one. [by-election]

Catholic Social Studies Movement See Movement, the

caucus The members of parliament belonging to one party as a group; also their official meetings

30 censure motion The term applies to any political party. Meetings are held frequently during parliamentary sessions. They are nominally secret, but caucus activities and decisions are frequently leaked to the media. Caucuses have had, up until recently, a big influence on the choice of ministers and shadow ministers, especially in the ALP. [leaks]

censure motion A formal attempt in parliament to register disapproval of the government, a minister or a member of parliament Censure motions are mostly used as a debating tactic over alleged improper behaviour or mistakes by the government. They can also be aimed at individual members of parliament. Voting is almost always on party lines. If a censure motion against the government is carried in the lower house, the government is expected to resign. Under these circumstances a censure motion is similar to a no-confidence motion. [no-confidence motion]

census A statistical survey of the people in a nation In Australia a census is usually held every five years and gathers data on the numbers and ages of the population together with other information. The Australian Bureau of Statistics is responsible for conducting each census and making the information available to the public, but a fee may be charged in some instances. The results are presented in a form that does not disclose information about individual persons. [Australian Bureau of Statistics]

centralism The belief that more of the powers exercised by the states should be transferred to the Commonwealth Abolition of the states would result in complete centralism in Australia. While retaining separate states and territories, some continuing problems might be eased by transferring carefully selected powers and responsibilities to the Commonwealth, for example, education and health. [states’ rights, unitary system]

Centre for Independent Studies (CIS) A well-known and well-resourced think tank located in Sydney promoting a free society and the market system with minimal government regulation or participation in economic activity Founded in 1976 by Greg Lindsay, the CIS had modest beginnings but has grown to possess sufficient support and financial resources to employ a

Centre Left (faction) 31 large staff. It is self-styled as ‘the leading independent public policy think tank within Australasia’ and has an offshoot in New Zealand. [market system, think tank]

Centre Left (faction) A minor faction within the Australian Labor Party Formed in 1984, the Centre Left concentrated mainly on policy and decision-­making and was influential in the Hawke and Keating governments. Its significance has gradually declined. [factions—Australian Labor Party]

Centre Unity (faction) A strong faction within the Australian Labor Party in New South Wales, with considerable influence in federal politics It is also referred to as the New South Wales Right. Although widely regarded as belonging to the right wing of the ALP, its members maintain that Centre Unity members differ widely in their opinions on political policy. In the Federal parliament its members usually join forces with likeminded MPs from other states, such as the Labor Unity faction members from Victoria. [factions—Australian Labor Party]

chamber A hall in a parliament house in which members of parliament officially meet and engage in debate In a bicameral parliament the upper house and the lower house have sep­ arate chambers. [bicameral system]

chardonnay socialist A sarcastic label for a person who expresses left-wing views while enjoying a comfortable lifestyle This is a derogatory term, similar to calling Liberal supporters ‘bloated capitalists’. It first appeared in the 1980s, when chardonnay became popular in Australia. A similar British term is ‘champagne socialist’. [blue-rinse set, doctors’ wives]

chief electoral officer The senior person in charge of parliamentary elections The responsibilities of this officer are not confined to election day, and include the compilation of electoral rolls and keeping them up to date. Commonwealth electoral officers and state electoral officers cooperate closely. [Australian Electoral Commission]

32 chief minister chief minister The head of government in each of the Australian mainland territories The Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory each has a chief minister whose position is similar to that of a state premier. [premier, territories]

CHOGM See Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting

Choice A non-profit body that tests products, advises consumers, supports their rights and publishes Choice magazine Founded in 1959, it was originally named the Australian Consumers Association. It has achieved considerable public recognition and its research is often published in the mass media. Its influence has been credited as being a factor in the establishment of government ministries devoted to consumer protection. The magazine Choice is published eleven times a year and carries no advertising. It describes and compares products and ser­ vices, and recommends ‘best buys’. [Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, oligopoly, price control]

citizenship Full political membership of a nation, with the rights and duties of a citizen Australian citizenship may be acquired by birth or by naturalisation. Citizens have the right to vote and stand for election except those with dual citizenship, who cannot stand for election. Some rights and responsibilities of citizens are legally defined, but Australia has no formal Bill of Rights. Consequently some rights exist because of tradition and contemporary values. [Bill of Rights, civil liberties, dual citizenship]

citizenship test The Australian citizenship test is intended to promote the successful integration of migrants into the Australian community Introduced by the Howard government in 2007, the test was designed to encourage an understanding of Australia’s values, history and sport. The choice of questions was criticised for over-emphasising popular and sporting culture. The Rudd government revised the test in 2008 with greater focus on Australia’s democratic processes. [immigration, mores]

civic and community organisations These work for the benefit of the community and usually avoid party politics, although their representatives sometimes express views on political matters related to their organisations

civic participation 33 These organisations include: charitable bodies such as the Brotherhood of St Laurence, the St Vincent de Paul Society; organisations that assist people with special needs; sports clubs and cultural organisations such as amateur theatrical and art groups; advisory bodies such as a Community Advice Bureau; and youth organisations such as Scouts and Guides. They rely partly on government assistance as well as support from the general public. At times they indirectly participate in politics by lobbying for government assistance or action in their areas of concern. [lobby, voluntary association]

civic participation Active engagement in civic, political or community affairs by seeking information and making a positive contribution Voting is a minimal form of political involvement, but for democracy to be effective it is also necessary for citizens to understand political events and to value their rights. Engagement in civic affairs includes conver­ sation, letters to newspapers and politicians, and membership of political parties. Participation in community groups, such as school committees or volunteer fire brigades, is also part of the responsibilities of people who are able to make these kinds of contributions for the wellbeing of the community. [apathy, citizenship, civil rights and responsibilities]

civics The study of the rights and the responsibilities of citizens As a subject of study civics has been interpreted in different ways, in­cluding its extension to the study of a country’s political, legal and community systems, and personal matters such as health and social behaviour.

civil liberties The basic rights of people in a free society Civil liberties, sometimes called human rights, include freedom of speech, freedom of assembly and freedom of religion. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights declares many other freedoms. In Australia there is no official document guaranteeing civil liberties and, in the absence of a Bill of Rights, civil liberties depend upon tradition and continuing public awareness. [Bill of Rights, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

civil rights and responsibilities Members of a community are entitled to a range of benefits and also have the responsibility of contributing to the wellbeing of their community Civil rights include personal rights and freedoms, the opportunity to use established industry and services and, through the democratic system, the

34 classes right to influence government. Responsibilities of citizens include taking an interest in the government and its services. Civic rights and also civic responsibilities are not only those that are defined by law, such as payment of taxes, but include many that are traditional and depend on a sense of community and fair play. [civic participation, civil liberties]

classes Groups within a community identified by various criteria such as influence, wealth, social status, education or occupation Traditional English terms, sometimes used in Australia, include ‘upper class’, ‘middle class’ and ‘working class’. Many others exist, such as ‘ruling class’, ‘lower class’, ‘white-collar workers’ and ‘blue-collar workers’. Australia is regarded as being less class-conscious than many other countries, but class-consciousness sometimes emerges, for example, in political argument. In Australia, movement from one class to another is not uncommon, and social mobility is aided by the absence of major differences in accents and an aversion to subservience. [egalitarianism, Establishment, meritocracy, squattocracy]

clause A distinct part of a bill, usually identified by a number Dividing a bill into clauses assists the efficiency of debate in parliament. Clauses become sections after a bill becomes an act. [bill, section (of an act of parliament)]

clerk (of parliament) The most senior official of the staff of a house of parliament The clerk has an active role in parliamentary sittings and needs a good knowledge of the rules and procedures of the house of parliament. The responsibilities of the clerk also include administration and the clerical work associated with parliament. [protocol (ceremonial), standing orders]

climate change A significant change in the normal weather pattern The accepted characteristics of a weather pattern in a particular area—or worldwide—are not precise and are usually based on long-term records and other scientific evidence. Despite some argument, scientific opinion favours the belief that industrial activity in recent centuries has caused a significant climate change. [global warming, greenhouse effect]

closure 35

Reproduced courtesy of Simon Kneebone

closure The abrupt curtailment of parliamentary debate, often called the ‘gag’ This occurs when a motion for the immediate closure of debate is carried. (The wording of such a motion is ‘that the question be now put’.) The pro­ cedure was introduced to prevent excessively long debates. It can save time but is open to the criticism that it can be used to prevent adequate discussion on contentious legislation. It should be distinguished from the guillotine. [filibuster, guillotine]

coalition A combination of political parties in parliament, while each party retains its separate identity In federal politics, the Liberal Party and the National Party consistently join together in coalition whether as the government or the opposition. Conservative coalitions also occur in state politics. Partners in a coa­ lition must make compromises on policy and in the choice of ministers or shadow ministers.

Coalition, the The combination of the Liberal Party and the National Party in government and in opposition is often referred to as ‘the Coalition’ Such an arrangement is reached to provide a workable non-Labor government or opposition. In a federal parliamentary coalition, the Liberal Party is dominant and the leader is a Liberal, while the Nationals supply the deputy leader. [Liberal Party (of Australia), National Party]

36 Cold War Cold War The armed but non-violent confrontation between anti-communist ‘Western’ nations and the Soviet Union and its satellites, such as East Germany, Poland and the Baltic states, absorbed after World War II The Cold War continued for about forty years, starting immediately after World War II and ending with the collapse of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s. A frightening feature of the Cold War was the possession of nuclear armaments by both sides and the possibility of their sudden use, with terrible consequences. This was called ‘the balance of terror’. [anti-communism]

collectivism The theory and its implementation based on the assumption that the wellbeing of a group should take priority over that of its individual members Supporters of collectivism argue that it provides maximum benefits for sharing between all members of the group. Collectivism is often contrasted with ‘individualism’, which advocates the opposite priorities. A third belief is that a compromise between the two would be preferable. [individualism]

colony A settlement in another country, governed by the country from which the settlers came In Australia, the areas now known as states were British colonies until Federation, although they had gradually gained a substantial degree of self-government during the nineteenth century. [Federation, state(s)]

commerce The distribution, sale or exchange of goods and services, especially on a large scale Commerce probably began with the bartering of goods. The development of money and written records gradually made trading more convenient and efficient. Recent inventions such as the means of rapid communi­ cation and computers provide great benefits for commerce but also increase the danger of manipulation and fraud. [free trade, protection]

commission The responsibility and authority to carry out defined tasks In the political sense, parliament can commission individuals or organis­ ations to undertake specified duties. Examples include royal commissions, which are set up to investigate matters of public concern, and other

Committee for Economic Development in Australia (CEDA) 37 commissions with continuing duties such as the Australian Electoral Commission. [royal commission]

Committee for Economic Development in Australia (CEDA) A long-established independent organisation promoting research for national economic development Founded in 1960 by Sir Douglas Copland, a leading economist, CEDA is a not-for-profit organisation without political or other partisan leanings. It seeks to bring together a wide range of people, including representatives of business and trade unions, academics, journalists and others to share ideas and to cooperate in fostering development.

committee system The use of committees composed of MPs to assist in the work of parliament Parliamentary committees undertake a variety of work related to matters of policy and legislation, and to the procedures and operation of parliament. In addition to their prescribed tasks, committees provide an opportunity of utilising the abilities of backbenchers. There are several different types of committees, including the main committee, joint committees, select committees, single-house committees, standing committees and statutory committees. The main committee sits separately in its own meeting room and its major role is to consider in detail those bills—usually non-controversial—that have been referred to it. [consideration in detail stage (of a bill), joint committee, main committee, select committee, standing committee, statutory committee]

common law Law based on custom, precedent and court judgements Common law is distinct from statute law, which is made by the parliamentary process. Common law gradually changes as new court judgements follow trends in community attitudes. [law, statute law]

Commonwealth, the An association of nations, including Australia, most of which were once part of the British Empire The Commonwealth began as the British Commonwealth of Nations but changed to the Commonwealth of Nations and then the Commonwealth. It is a loosely organised group of about 50 nations, its membership occasionally changing with the admission of new members and the expulsion or resignation of others. Among its principal aims are respect for human rights and peace among nations. It has some international influence, although no formal power. Diplomats representing a country which is a

38 Commonwealth Grants Commission member of the Commonwealth in a country that is also a member are known as commissioners or high commissioners, depending on rank. [Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, high commission]

Commonwealth Grants Commission An independent statutory body with the responsibility of advising the Commonwealth government on making financial grants to the states Created by an act of parliament in 1933, the Commonwealth Grants Commission assesses claims by states for grants (as permitted under Section 96 of the Constitution) and makes recommendations to the Commonwealth. The aim of the grants procedure is to cope with the needs that are beyond the financial resources of the states, including the special needs of the smaller ones. [Australian Loan Council, premiers’ conferences]

Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) A meeting of the leaders of the countries, including Australia, which belong to the group known as the Commonwealth The meetings are held at two-yearly intervals. They have no legal standing but have international influence and are also regarded as useful in maintaining contacts and understanding between member nations. [Commonwealth, the]

Commonwealth of Australia The official title of the Australian nation Adopted at the time of Federation in 1900, the term ‘Commonwealth’ was enshrined in the Constitution. In more recent years, the word ‘Australian’ has replaced ‘Commonwealth’ in some official names, such as the Australian Taxation Office. The government may be called the Federal government, the Commonwealth government, or the Australian government (the same applies to parliament, which may be called the Federal parliament, etc.) The best choice may depend on the context but ‘Commonwealth’ has been favoured in official documents. [Constitution of Australia, Federation]

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) The most significant government research organisation in Australia In its present form the CSIRO dates from 1949. Its predecessor, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, was founded in 1926 and replaced the Institute of Science and Industry. The work of the CSIRO ranges over a wide field but is mainly directed to the needs of industry, including primary industry. [research and development]

communism 39 communism A political ideology proposing a classless society and minimal private ownership There is much uncertainty and argument over the meaning of ‘communism’. Broadly based on the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, it advocates public ownership of property and the means of production. It is regarded as the most extreme form of socialism. The political and social systems that operated for several decades after World War II in the Soviet Union and in China were considered to be examples of communism, although it has been also argued that they were not true expressions of communist ideology. [ideology, Marxism]

Communist Party of Australia (CPA) The original Communist Party in Australia, established in 1920 The party grew in strength during the years of the Great Depression of the 1930s but did not win parliamentary seats, although it gained considerable influence in the trade union movement. In 1944 a Communist candidate, Fred Paterson, won the Queensland state seat of Bowen, becoming the only communist to win a parliamentary seat in Australia. After the 1960s the Communist Party declined and split into separate groups. In 1996 a group known as the Socialist Party of Australia renamed itself the Communist Party of Australia but failed to gain significant support. [communism, depression (economic), Socialist Party of Australia]

communitarianism A prominent interpretation of the term (among a number of others) is that it deals with individual rights in relation to those of the community Definitions of communitarianism are so disparate or vague that the term is of little help unless the meaning adopted within a discussion is made clear. But it does raise the problem of the degree to which rights and preferences of the individual should be modified to benefit the welfare of the community. [civil rights and responsibilities, society]

community A group of people with interests in common, usually living in the same area A characteristic of a community is that its members depend on one another. Sizes range from the inhabitants of a small village to the people of an entire country. The term is also applied to groups of people who deliberately live separately from the rest of the people in an area. Communities of monks or artists are examples. [citizenship, civics, society]

40 comparative politics and comparative government comparative politics and comparative government Studies of similarities and differences of various theories of politics and government, and their practical outcomes Comparative studies can cover examples from the whole of recorded history, as well as recent and current theories and practices. Study of comparative politics is of special value in Australia as the structure, traditions and practices of Australian politics and government are largely based on those of other countries, especially the United Kingdom and the USA. Successes and failures of policies in those countries can be a guide for Australia. [democracy, politics]

compulsory unionism A misleading term applied to compulsory student fees charged to ensure the delivery of student services on Australian campuses Compulsory payment of these fees was replaced by voluntary student unionism (VSU), which the Howard government introduced in 2005 for ideological reasons. The fees cover a wide range of campus services, including health services, counselling, employment, child care and welfare services, and it is argued that these services were greatly reduced after the introduction of VSU. [voluntary student unionism]

compulsory voting The legal requirement that people must vote if they are registered to do so In Australia, compulsory voting applies to parliamentary elections and referendums, and those eligible must take the steps necessary to be included in the electoral roll. A major benefit is that it encourages wide debate on policies rather than concentration on bringing known party supporters out to vote. In Australia it was applied to federal elections in 1924 and has been widely accepted and approved. [electoral roll]

conflict of interests A circumstance that occurs when a member of parliament or a minister has financial or personal interests that are affected by parliamentary or ministerial decisions To reduce the problem, the rules of some parliaments require MPs to declare publicly their financial interests and those of their spouses and children. Ministers usually resign from any company directorships. A conflict of interests is regarded as applying to financial matters and not to ideological beliefs and, consequently, a member of parliament could properly be influenced by concerns regarding ethical or other ideological beliefs. Another type of conflict of interests (or loyalties) occurs when the perceived attitude of a majority of an MP’s constituents differs on a

confrontation 41 particular issue from that of the party to which the member also owes loyalty. [blind trust (investments for an MP), ideology, pecuniary interest]

confrontation Aggressive, uncooperative behaviour and a traditional element in Aus­ tralian politics Confrontation is prominent in politics and is demonstrated during elections, parliamentary tactics and debate. It is consistent with the division of parliament into government and opposition. It occurs in other fields, including the ‘adversarial’ legal system and in industrial affairs, although in the latter there have been intermittent and sometimes successful efforts to achieve conciliation. [Accord, attack dog, consensus]

conscience vote A parliamentary vote in which members of a political party are not constrained to vote in accordance with a party decision Political parties usually require their members to vote as a bloc. This rule is sometimes relaxed, especially when ethical or religious convictions may make it difficult for some members to follow a party decision. [conflict of interests, cross the floor, party discipline]

conscription Compulsory enlistment for military service Policies on conscription have played an important part in Australian politics, particularly during World War I and the Vietnam War. The conservative parties have traditionally supported conscription but the Labor Party has usually opposed it; however, it supported conscription during World War II when Australia was directly threatened. [defence]

consensus Agreement achieved by discussion and compromise In politics, consensus is the theory and practice of obtaining acceptance in advance of political action, usually by compromise between the various groups involved including the government. Consensus contrasts sharply with confrontation. [confrontation]

conservation Protection and preservation of the natural environment and resources

42 conservatism This has become an important issue and all political parties give it attention, although there are wide differences in attitudes towards conservation in general and in particular cases. With almost universal acceptance that significant climate change could become disastrous, conservation has become a major problem facing governments. The term is also applied to the preservation of some natural assets and historic structures. [climate change, environmentalism, national parks, National Trusts]

conservatism In politics, favouring retention of long-established attitudes, institutions and power structures In most countries the term is applied to right-wing political ideology and parties. Party names can be confusing and the Liberal Party of Australia is similar to the British Conservative Party, rather than the British Liberal Democrats. The National Party is also conservative but with particular concern for country interests. In the USA ‘liberal’ is applied to left-wing political attitudes. [neoconservatism, political spectrum, political theory]

consideration in detail stage (of a bill) A stage in parliamentary debate when a bill is discussed clause by clause This can take place in the main chamber of the house or at a meeting of the main committee in a committee room. Bills referred to the main committee for this stage in their progress are expected to be less contentious than those retained for debate in the main chamber. It replaces what was formerly known as the ‘committee stage’ before the reorganisation of the committee system in 1994. [committee system, main committee, second reading, third reading]

constituency An electorate; also the people within an electorate The term is less frequently used in Australia than in the United Kingdom, but the related word ‘constituent’ is well known and often used in Australia. [electorate]

constituent A resident within an electorate, especially in relation to the local member of parliament Members of parliament use the term when they refer to local residents in official letters, especially when making representations or requests on their behalf.

Constitution of Australia 43 Constitution of Australia The document that specifies the powers and duties of the Commonwealth parliament, and the relationship of the monarch to Australia The Australian Constitution was included in a British act of parliament, which was passed in 1900 and authorised the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. It defines the powers of the Commonwealth parliament and of the Queen and the governor-general. The substantial powers given to the governor-general have seldom been used. In practice, and largely in accordance with Westminster conventions, it has been the ministry, with the approval of parliament, that has governed Australia. The independence of Australia was enhanced and clarified by the Statute of Westminster passed in the United Kingdom in 1931 and the Australia Act(s) of 1986. The Constitution lists the matters on which the Commonwealth parliament has power to legislate but defines them very briefly, which has been a continuing source of argument and litigation. It states how elections are to be held and how parliament is to operate; it also defines the relationship between the Commonwealth and the states. Amendment of the Consti­ tution is possible only by a process that includes approval by a referendum. History has shown that amendment is very difficult if one of the major parties is opposed to the change. [Australia Act(s) 1986, Commonwealth of Australia, constitutional reform, Federation, reserve powers, Statute of Westminster, Washminster system, Westminster system]

constitutional monarchy The form of government of a country which has a monarch as its head of state whose limited powers are defined by a constitution The Australian Constitution defines the role of the Queen (or the Queen’s representative, the governor-general) in the Commonwealth parliament and the executive council. In practice, the parliament has the real power under almost all circumstances and the roles of the monarch and the governor-­general are usually confined to formal or ceremonial ones. [Australia Act(s) 1986, Constitution of Australia, Executive Council]

constitutional reform Change to the Australian Constitution The Constitution has frequently been criticised as being out of date or inappropriate. In particular, amendment of the constitutional powers of the monarch has been advocated, while an opposing argument is that the Constitution has served Australia well for many years and needs no amendment. [Constitution of Australia]

44 consumer price index (CPI) consumer price index (CPI) An official statistical figure that gives a measure of retail price changes The CPI is prepared by the Australian Bureau of Statistics and is based on prices of a selected list of goods and services collected at different places throughout Australia. The list is not a comprehensive one but the items are chosen to make up a fair sample of goods and services purchased by an average family. The consumer price index has been used for a variety of planning and decision-making purposes, including variations in wage and pension rates. [Australian Bureau of Statistics, wage indexation]

consumption tax A form of indirect taxation or sales tax Consumption tax is charged as a percentage of the retail price of goods and services. The term has a similar meaning to a goods and services tax or a value-added tax. [goods and services tax, sales tax]

contempt of parliament Behaviour that impedes the work or effectiveness of a house of parliament Parliament itself decides on cases of alleged contempt and has the power to sentence offenders. The rules relating to ‘contempt of parliament’ and ‘parliamentary privilege’ have the aim of enhancing the effectiveness of parliament and ensuring that members of parliament may speak freely. They are based on British parliamentary traditions, but the Commonwealth parliament has the power to make its own rules. [parliamentary privilege]

core promise Important item of election policy The term is used in response to criticism of broken election promises that cannot be denied. It is asserted that the important ones—the core promises—have or will be kept, and that the broken ones are not significant. [non-core promise, spin]

corporatism A system in which special interest groups have substantial influence over a nation’s political policies and decisions Historically the term was applied to Mussolini’s Italy of the 1920s and 1930s when an unelected corporation representing agrarian, economic, industrial and professional interests exerted great political influence. In Australia, an example (although limited to one area of policy) was the Prices and Income Accord negotiated by Prime Minister Hawke. More recently, the term has been applied (notably by writer and economist

Council of Australian Governments (COAG) meetings 45 J.K. Galbraith) to the political power exercised in many countries by the leaders of large corporations. [democracy, political theory]

Council of Australian Governments (COAG) meetings Meetings of the heads of Australian federal, state and territory governments, and the president of the Australian Local Government Association COAG meetings began in 1992 to discuss matters that need inter-­ government agreement and are held whenever necessary, on average, about three times per year. The meetings deal with a wide range of subjects, including economic matters. [Australian Loan Council]

Council on the Ageing (COTA) An organisation that promotes the wellbeing of older people Established in 1951, there are COTA organisations with large memberships in every state and the two territories, which gives them political significance. COTA receives assistance from governments and provides a wide range of services and opportunities for the elderly. [National Seniors Australia]

Councils for Civil Liberties Separate bodies formed in various states to support the retention and enhancement of civil liberties The concerns of these groups centre on personal freedoms such as freedom of speech, and the rights and liberties of individuals. A particular aim is the development of a legally binding Bill of Rights in Australia. [Bill of Rights, civil liberties]

count, the The process of counting the votes in an election This includes the counting of first preference votes and, if necessary, the distribution of second and other preferences. Scrutineers are entitled to watch the counting process and to challenge the validity of voting papers they believe may be informal or incorrectly sorted. [informal vote, preferential voting, scrutineers]

Country-Liberal Party The principal conservative party in the Northern Territory The party operates only in the Northern Territory, where it was formed in 1974 by the merging of the Country Party and the Liberal Party. [Northern Territory parliament]

46 Country Party Country Party The former name of the National Party The Country Party, whose full name was the Australian Country Party, adopted the name in 1920 and it remained unchanged until 1975. It then became the National Country Party and the name was altered again in 1982 to the National Party. [Country-Liberal Party, Liberal National Party, National Party]

Country Women’s Association (CWA) An organisation that aims to improve the lives of women and children living in rural and regional Australia Founded in 1922, the CWA has approximately 25 000 members in 1500 branches throughout Australia. With premises in many country towns, it provides a wide range of services. It is officially non-sectarian and nonpolitical but makes submissions to governments, and its attitudes on social matters have been conservative.

CPI See consumer price index

credit crunch A sudden reduction in the availability of credit Banks and other lenders tighten their conditions for obtaining loans and the economy slows down. This may be appropriate under the circumstances, or it can cause a slump in activity and high unemployment. [economy (of a nation)]

credit rating The credit worthiness of an individual, business or country The credit rating is based on the estimated ability of the person or entity to repay a loan. Credit ratings of nations are assessed by agencies such as Standard & Poor’s and Moody’s.

Crikey An independent and influential electronic news magazine Founded by shareholder-activist Stephen Mayne, crikey.com.au provides news coverage of business and politics which can be more candid than that from the traditional mass media. Through its website and email to sub­scribers Crikey breaks stories and sometimes causes political embarrassment.

cross benches The seats in a parliamentary chamber used by independents and MPs belonging to minor parties

cross the floor 47 Government members occupy the seats to the right of the presiding officer, known as the treasury benches, and opposition MPs occupy those to the left. Independents or minor parties use the seats in between those used by the government and the opposition. They are said to occupy the ‘cross benches’.

cross the floor A popular term employed when a member of parliament votes against their own party When a vote is taken in the form of a division, supporters of the motion move to one side of the chamber and opponents to the other. Hence a dissident party member must cross the floor to join members on the other side. [division (voting)]

Culture Wars Conflicts between progressive and conservative political and social views Derived from the USA, the term implies that differing cultural values are at the root of some political disagreements. Active participants are known as ‘cultural warriors’. Commentators have used the term in Australia, and the issues involved include multiculturalism, the teaching of history, the treatment of refugees and Aboriginal reconciliation. [History Wars]

customs duty Tax on imports or exports In accordance with the Australian Constitution, only the Commonwealth can collect customs duty. The rates of duty on imports have varied over time and according to the type of goods, with the main aim of protecting Australian industry. An international movement towards free trade, which gained strength in the latter part of the twentieth century, has resulted in a gradual reduction in customs duty in Australia and other countries. [excise, free trade, protection]

cynicism (political) The attitude that politics and politicians are contemptible and should be ignored Cynics, by definition, believe the worst. They laugh at jokes lampooning politics and suggest that it should be disregarded. Politics is imperfect and needs improvement, but cynicism is destructive rather than helpful. [apathy, donkey vote, scepticism (political)]

D deadlock (between two houses) Conflict between the upper and lower houses of parliament that impedes the passage of legislation This can happen when no party has a majority in both houses as the upper house can refuse to pass money bills that authorise government expenditure. Traditionally, upper houses do not use this tactic, but this convention has occasionally been broken. In the Federal parliament, a deadlock may result in a double dissolution followed by elections for both the Senate and the House of Representatives. [appropriation bills, double dissolution, joint sitting]

deadlock (lack of a majority) The situation when no party (or coalition) has a majority in the lower house, sometimes called a hung parliament This occurs when numbers in the main opposing parties are nearly equal and there are enough independent or minor party MPs to affect the result of a vote in parliament. The deadlock may be resolved by the government party making an arrangement with a minor party or with one or more individual MPs to vote with it in parliament. If no other solution is found, a new election will be necessary. [party system]

death duties A form of taxation paid on the value of estates of deceased persons Levied for many years by federal and state governments, death duties were discontinued in the 1970s. Many other countries continue to levy death duties.

debate Speeches by MPs in parliament, especially when presenting views for or against a motion

decentralisation 49 The term refers to formal discussion of a motion, and is sometimes used to mean any speeches or statements made in parliament.

decentralisation The development of new centres for industry and housing at a distance from large cities Several difficulties arise from continued growth of cities, but there are advantages for industries, and also for people seeking work. Governments sometimes adopt positive plans for encouraging decentralised development. It is costly in the early stages but can be financially beneficial in the long run, as well as providing a good living environment. [environmentalism, quality of life]

declaration of the poll The formal statement of the result of a parliamentary or municipal election This is an official public event. The returning officer reads the voting figures and announces the successful candidate. It is traditional for winning and losing candidates, with friends and supporters, to attend the declar­ ation and make short speeches. [poll, returning officer]

defence Protection of a country from military invasion The Australian Constitution gives the responsibility for defence to the Commonwealth. The most obvious form of defence is the maintenance of military forces and equipment together with the capacity to quickly strengthen these forces. Possible danger needs to be monitored and agencies such as the Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS) seek to discover possible threats. Small countries such as Australia try to make alliances with strong and friendly nations, and maintain good relations with countries that might otherwise become potential enemies. [American alliance, ANZUS Treaty, Australian Secret Intelligence Service, forward defence]

delegate A person chosen to represent an organisation or group Delegates are appointed to take part in meetings or conferences at which it would be inconvenient or impractical for a large number of members to attend. A national conference of a political party is an example.

delegated legislation Law made by an executive authority, such as government ministers, without detailed legislation

50 democracy Also called secondary legislation, this has been criticised because it does not have the approval of parliament. Nevertheless, it would be impractical for every detailed regulation to be individually approved by parliament. [regulations]

democracy Government by the people themselves; in practice, government by elected representatives Democracy is founded on a belief in social equality that every person should have an equal say in choosing the government of a community or country. When safeguards to protect human rights, including those of minorities, are built into the political system, it may be called a ‘liberal democracy’. Democracy is founded on the assumption that the people have the will to govern themselves, that they will be interested and well informed, and that they will cherish their rights and freedom. [apathy, liberal democracy, representative democracy, respon­ sible government]

democracy (Australian) The Australian political system, although subject to some criticisms, is widely regarded as a true democracy It evolved from the autocratic rule of colonial governors, through gradual extension of voting rights and increasing independence, to universal franchise and self-government. Australia now meets most of the criteria for a democracy, such as civil liberties and voting rights. Criticisms are made of the Australian system, particularly in respect to the principle of representative government. One is that the Constitution does not give the elected parliament final power, as its decisions can be over-ridden by the monarch or the governor-general. Another criticism relates to the voting system and power of the Senate. Although there are universal voting rights, democracy is flawed because senators represent widely different numbers of electors and the Senate can veto decisions of the more democratically elected House of Representatives. Another concern contrasts the principle of freedom of speech with the difficulty or cost of gaining access to the modern forms of mass communication. [Constitution of Australia, one vote–one value]

democracy (differing forms) Many nations with widely differing political systems claim, justly or otherwise, to be democracies These differing forms of government include those that are widely acknowledged as true democracies, such as those of the United Kingdom, countries of Western Europe, the United States, Australia and New Zealand. There are also nations in which the citizens vote for their parliamentary representatives but have little or no chance of changing the government. The

Democratic Labor Party (DLP) 51 term ‘guided democracy’ is sometimes applied to these political systems and, in some cases, they are defended on the grounds of being essential in countries with recently acquired self-government. Other nations may claim the title ‘democratic’, although in practice they are firmly controlled by strong individual rulers or small groups. The criteria to assess the validity of claims of democracy include: voting rights; freedom of assembly; freedom of speech, including access to the mass media; the right to form political parties and contest elections; and a legitimate democracy should also espouse a political system that gives an opportunity to change the structure of government when that is the will of the people. [civil liberties, democracy, political theory]

Democratic Labor Party (DLP) A minor party that significantly influenced Australian politics from the 1950s to the 1970s Formed after the Labor ‘Split’ of 1955, the DLP had a close relationship with the Movement, a secretive organisation founded and led by B.A. Santamaria and later called the National Civic Council. The party was strongly anti-communist and drew the bulk of its support from the Catholic community. The DLP diverted what had been a predominantly Labor vote to the Liberal and Country parties by the allocation of its preference votes from 1955 to 1972. After the election of the Whitlam Labor government in 1972, the DLP declined rapidly and was disbanded in 1978. The name was revived later but the new party received little support. [Labor ‘Split’]

democratic socialist An international term applied to some but not all left-leaning political parties and their supporters It has a range of meanings and is seldom used in Australia. In overseas countries it usually means a party with strong socialist aims, coupled with a belief in a democratic political system. [social democracy, socialism]

demographic change Change in the characteristics of the population in a particular area There is a range of causes for demographic change. One is the spread of a city causing farmland on its outskirts to become suburban residential areas. Others include development or closure of industries, or changes in socio-economic status of residents, such as happens when a slum suburb, close to a city’s centre, becomes an area of expensive flats or town houses. [socio-economic status]

52 demography demography The statistical study of the distribution and characteristics of the human population Demography is concerned with the numbers of people in defined areas and changes to those numbers. It also deals with a range of social characteristics, such as age, health, education, occupation, income and housing. Demography is useful for planning for future needs such as schools and other services. The information is also useful in predicting and analysing voting trends. [decentralisation, socio-economic status]

demonstrations Organised public displays to draw attention to the opinions of those taking part—often on political topics These often take the form of a march in a city street ending in a gathering to hear speeches. Demonstrations have been legally permitted in Australia, with some exceptions, and it is usual for police and the demonstration organisers to cooperate to avoid trouble and minimise inconvenience to the general public. Nevertheless, some demonstrations result in damage and injury. [civil liberties, freedom of assembly]

department An administrative structure within the Public Service The term applies to both federal and state governments. Each department is responsible to a minister who may be in charge of one large department or a number of smaller ones. A senior public servant manages each department and works closely with the minister. [ministry (minister’s responsibility), Public Service]

deposit In politics, a sum of money lodged with the returning officer by a candidate in an election Deposits are returned to all candidates who receive more than a specified percentage, typically about 4 per cent, of the total vote. The risk of losing the deposit is likely to discourage frivolous nominations. [nomination for election]

depression (economic) Period of economic stagnation with severe unemployment The characteristics of a depression, in addition to high unemployment, are moribund industries, closed factories and low share prices. The causes of depressions, remedies and avoidance are subject to wide differences of opinion. The depression of the 1930s was the worst that occurred in the

deputation 53 twentieth century and is sometimes referred to as the Great Depression. A milder form of the same problem is called a recession. [economy (of a nation), recession]

deputation A group of people organised to put a point of view to a minister or to a member of parliament These usually consist of a small group, representing a much larger number of people. The aim of deputations is to explain their opinions or needs, or to exert pressure to obtain a favourable result. [civic participation, lobby, pressure group]

deregulation Removal of government regulation or controls on certain sections of the economy The term applies particularly to economic matters. In the later decades of the twentieth century governments in Australia and elsewhere implemented substantial deregulation but the worldwide economic upheaval beginning in 2008 resulted in governments in many countries resuming a greater economic role. [economics, market system, political economy]

détente The diplomatic relationship between two nations, when a difficulty has been eased but not completely overcome It has been described as ‘co-existence’, and can result in positive diplomatic communication and agreements (such as a reduction in armaments), although the nations involved may still be suspicious of the other’s intentions. [diplomacy, foreign policy]

detention centres Institutions in which aliens who are suspected of being in Australia unlawfully are confined until a decision is made on whether they may stay or be deported The centres are often in remote areas and have been denounced for allegedly breaching human rights. Their use has been defended as necessary under Australian migration laws. Some asylum seekers have been detained for years in harsh environments and later been found to be genuine refugees. Children have also been confined in the centres but this practice was discontinued in 2008. [boat people]

developing world The industrially underdeveloped countries of the world

54 d’Hondt voting system This is an imprecise term that is applied to countries—many of them former colonies of European nations—that have very poor living standards. It has gradually superseded the expression Third World, although the meaning of that term differed in some respects from that of developing world.

d’Hondt voting system One of a number of voting systems designed to achieve proportional representation in a parliament The d’Hondt system has been used in many European countries and elsewhere around the world. In a modified form, it was used in the Australian Capital Territory elections of 1989 and 1992, with the whole of the ACT as a single electorate. It was not popular and was replaced by a Hare-Clark system. [Australian Capital Territory electoral system, Hare-Clark system]

dictatorship See autocracy

diplomacy Personal and group conduct that will foster political agreement, and minimise ill feeling when agreement is not achieved This type of diplomacy is rare in parliamentary and public political debate in Australia because of the confrontational or adversarial tradition in the political and legal systems that were the models for Australia. [confrontation, consensus]

diplomacy (international) The practical management of relations between countries Diplomats, such as ambassadors and consuls, do not create the foreign policy of their countries but attempt to present and explain it so that good relations between their own and other nations will be maintained. [foreign policy]

direct action In the political sense, public demonstrations or even disorder, as contrasted with conventional discussion and lobbying Direct action may be used in an attempt to achieve a prompt settlement of a dispute, or to gain publicity for a point of view, especially when more restrained efforts seem to have been ignored. [demonstrations, pressure group]

direct democracy Political activity in which citizens personally make decisions

dirt file 55 Direct democracy contrasts with representative democracy, in which elected representatives make decisions for citizens. Forms of direct democracy include referendums and town meetings. [representative democracy]

dirt file Potentially damaging information about political opponents collected and filed away for the purpose of discrediting them The term has been used widely in the past decade as such tactics have been increasingly employed to gain competitive advantage. Those who use dirt files run the risk of damaging their own reputations, as stooping to such conduct is likely to be judged as unsavoury by fair-minded voters.

dirt unit Staff allegedly employed by some politicians with the main aim of seeking out information to discredit political opponents The term came into prominence during the 2004 federal election when the Howard government was accused of running a dirt unit to discredit opposition leader Mark Latham, an accusation that was vigorously denied. [dirt file]

dirty tricks campaign Unfair or untrue allegations or innuendoes used to discredit political opponents The term can be an accurate comment, but can also be used in an attempt to deflect warranted criticism by blandly asserting that the criticism is no more than a dirty tricks campaign. [dirt file, political football]

disallowance Refusal of the governor-general or a state governor to give assent to a bill; or annulment of legislation by the monarch The governor-general has the power, under Section 58 of the Constitution, to refuse to assent to a bill or to suggest amendments. However, it is traditional that the governor-general accepts the advice of ministers. Under Section 59 of the Constitution the monarch may disallow any legislation within one year from the governor-general’s assent. [reserve powers, royal assent]

disarmament Reduction in the military strength of a nation The term covers small or large reductions or rejection of possible use of certain types of armaments, for example, nuclear weapons. Disarmament

56 discretionary powers can be agreed upon by two nations that are potential enemies or may be adopted by a nation on its own for a number of reasons, such as the belief that risk of warfare has diminished. [defence, diplomacy]

discretionary powers See reserve powers

discrimination (within a community) Unfair treatment of people for various reasons, including race, religion, gender, age and disability Unfairness can occur in many contexts: in employment and promotion opportunities, in pay rates, in education and in voting rights. Discrimi­ nation was increasingly condemned in Australia in the second half of the twentieth century and anti-discrimination laws were passed in federal and state parliaments. Various official bodies such as the Human Rights Commission were established to promote human rights and to investigate complaints of discrimination. [civil liberties, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

dissolution The formal ending of a term of a house of parliament, to be followed by an election The governor-general has the responsibility of dissolving Federal parliament and governors dissolve state parliaments. Traditionally the governor-general, or the governor, dissolves parliament on the advice of the government leader (the prime minister or premier), which means that the government can choose the timing of the election that follows. This tradition has not always been followed, a dramatic example being the do­uble dissolution of the Federal parliament in 1975. [double dissolution, term (of parliament)]

distributism A political philosophy advocating widely distributed ownership. The founding and operation of cooperatives is a practical example Dormant for many years, distributism has had some continuing influence. Its principles were actively promoted in the early years of the twentieth century, mostly by Catholic laymen in England, notably Hilaire Belloc and G. K. Chesterton. They condemned the harsh effects of capitalism but feared socialism, which they regarded as the enemy of religion.

division (electoral) An official term for a House of Representatives electorate The word is seldom used in this sense in ordinary conversation, but is printed in official documents and on electoral maps.

division (voting) 57 division (voting) A vote in parliament when the votes for and against a motion are precisely counted and recorded When a division is required, bells or buzzers are sounded throughout Parliament House to warn MPs that a vote is about to be taken. Inside the chamber, the members divide into two separate groups to indicate their votes. The names of those voting for and against the motion are recorded and published in Hansard. [Hansard, on the voices, Ring the bells!]

division of powers The allocation of powers to the Commonwealth and state governments In Australia, the Constitution (in Section 52) identifies matters over which the Commonwealth has exclusive powers. It also lists (mainly in S­ection  51) matters over which both the Commonwealth and the states have power to legislate. If there is a conflict, the Commonwealth law will take precedence. The states continue to have sole powers over any matters not mentioned in the Constitution and these are known as residual powers. The division of powers has been a subject of continuing controversy. In most cases conservative parties have favoured greater powers for the states while the Australian Labor Party has advocated greater federal powers. [exclusive powers, residual powers, states’ rights]

DLP See Democratic Labor Party

Doctors Reform Society (DRS) An association advocating quality healthcare for all without regard to their social or economic position Formed in 1973, its members are medical practitioners and medical students. In 1974 it supported the original national health scheme Medibank (later renamed Medicare), which was opposed by the AMA. The DRS emphasises the importance of prevention and primary care to improve health outcomes. The society publishes The New Doctor. [Australian Medical Association, Medicare, Private Doctors of Australia]

doctors’ wives A neologism for upper middle-class women who hold small-l liberal views or criticise Liberal policies The term is used to disparage those who belong to a social group that might be expected to be politically conservative but express views that are contrary to some Liberal policies. [blue-rinse set, chardonnay socialists]

58 dog-eat-dog individualism dog-eat-dog individualism Excessive self-interest of some politicians and over-antagonistic tactics Such excesses can bring politics into disrepute. An example is the criticism of one another by rivals within the same party competing for a particular office. At a party-political level, a ‘dog-eat-dog’ attitude can inhibit useful cooperation between rival parties.

dog-whistle politics Political statements that appear innocuous to most people but have special meanings for the targeted groups Analogous to dog whistles, which are pitched so that humans cannot hear them but dogs can, the term applies to phrases cunningly chosen to appeal to particular groups without antagonising mainstream listeners. Examples include ‘un-Australian behaviour’, ‘not one of us’, ‘nanny state’ and ‘the black armband view of history’. [motherhood statement, spin]

domino theory The fear expressed in the 1950s and 1960s that communism could conquer Asian countries one after the other The term originated in the USA and was used in Australia, particularly in the 1960s, to support participation in the Vietnam War. Pro-war posters suggested that a communist victory in Vietnam would result in the fall of neighbouring countries to communism, one by one, like dominoes, and eventually threaten Australia. History has disproved the theory. [anti-communism]

donations, political Money given by individuals, businesses or organisations to support the activities of political parties Political donations are controversial because of concerns that donors receive unfair advantage from the political parties they support. Alle­ gations of improper assistance to property developers in New South Wales and the Howard government’s relaxation of the laws requiring dis­ closure of political donations have led to increased criticism. Proposals for improvement include reducing the minimum figure at which donations must be made public and the banning of overseas donations. [slush fund]

donkey vote 59 donkey vote Extra votes received by a candidate simply through being the first on the ballot paper A small percentage of voters fill in their ballot papers from top to bottom without regard to the merit or political stance of the candidates. This gives a slight advantage to the candidate whose name is at the top. [cynicism (political), Robson rotation, scepticism (political)]

doorknocking Electioneering by door-to-door canvassing This is a jargon term for an old-fashioned but still practised form of political campaigning. MPs sometimes participate and this helps them keep in touch with the ‘grass roots’. Doorknocking is not only regarded as a means of winning votes but also helps in assessing public attitudes and identifying party supporters who may be encouraged to become party members. [campaign, grass roots]

doorstop conference A doorstop interview when more than one member of parliament or minister is present to speak to reporters These are also known as ‘joint doorstop interviews’ as they deal with topics that concern more than one ministry.

doorstop interview Media briefings at entrances to Parliament House or other buildings by ministers, shadow ministers and sometimes by backbenchers The ministers and others gather nearby and ‘arrive’ in turn to speak to the reporters. The interviews are designed to appear ‘off the cuff ’, but are usually carefully arranged and may be timed to suit the news broadcasts on radio and television.

Dorothy Dixer A prearranged question put to a minister during Question Time These questions give ministers the opportunity to announce good news or make statements. The name comes from that of a United States news­ paper columnist who published answers to questions that were presented as coming from readers, but were actually written by the journalist herself. [Question Time]

60 double dissolution

Reproduced courtesy of Peter Nicholson of the Australian www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au

double dissolution The simultaneous dissolution of both houses of Federal parliament A double dissolution is followed by elections for all seats of the Senate and the House of Representatives. In other elections only half of the Senate seats become vacant. A double dissolution can occur if the Senate twice fails to pass proposed government legislation and other conditions specified in Section 57 of the Constitution are met. The governor-general has the formal power to dissolve parliament, but traditionally does so only on the advice of the prime minister. A dramatic exception was the double dissolution of 1975. [dissolution, Senate elections]

doves People and groups who favour negotiation and conciliation for the settlement of disputes, especially in foreign affairs ‘Doves’ take a very different stance from ‘hawks’, who favour the threat or use of force to resolve disputes. These terms became popular at the time of the Vietnam War, but they have since been applied to views on a wide range of political and social questions.

Dries (faction) 61 Dries (faction) Right-wing factional members of the Liberal Party in Australia and adopted from its use in the Conservative Party in the United Kingdom British Prime Minister Thatcher contemptuously called her factional opponents ‘Wets’ and consequently her faction became ‘Dries’. In Australia, the Dries of the Liberal Party have favoured the free market and cutbacks in social services. [faction, factions—conservative parties]

Droop quota The number of votes needed for a candidate’s election under certain forms of proportional representation The Hare-Clark system which incorporates the Droop quota is an example. It has been adopted for Senate elections and elections in Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory. To calculate the quota, divide the total number of votes by one more than the number of seats, then add one vote. For example, with three seats to be filled and a total of 160 votes, the quota would be 41. [Hare-Clark system, proportional representation, quota]

dual citizenship Retention of citizenship of an immigrant’s former country after becoming a naturalised Australian citizen A possible political consequence is that dual citizenship may legally debar a person from becoming a member of the Federal parliament. [citizenship]

duchess, to A disparaging figure of speech applied to tactics allegedly used to encourage defections from the Labor Party The expression is used by Labor Party supporters to suggest that highly placed or wealthy conservatives attempt to play on the vanity or ambition of some Labor politicians to encourage them to change their political allegiance. For example, critics of Prime Minister Billy Hughes asserted that he and his family were lavishly praised and feted during two long stays in England in 1916 and 1918 and cite him as an early victim of ‘duchessing’. He left the Labor Party and continued for many years as a prominent conservative member of parliament. [Nationalist Party, rat]

due process Standard procedures that should be followed by government bodies when reaching decisions

62 Dying with Dignity The term is important in government dealings with private companies or persons, as decisions need to be free from favouritism and impropriety. A drawback is that it may cause delays and hinder effective action. [red tape, rule of law]

Dying with Dignity Australian organisations that favour the legal right to choose euthanasia are usually identified by names that include the phrase ‘Dying with Dignity’ Separate groups identify their location in their name, such as Dying with Dignity, New South Wales. Members believe that terminally ill people suffering extreme pain and distress should have the legal right to choose the manner and timing of their own death. These organisations also counsel people with end-of-life issues. Politically, Dying with Dignity organis­ ations promote legal reform to give greater freedom of choice but they have faced strong, organised resistance. [conscience vote, Endeavour Forum, euthanasia, Lyons Forum]

E economics The theory and practice of analysing and dealing with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services, with emphasis on financial management and planning Economics embraces large-scale activities (macroeconomics) and smallscale ones (microeconomics). It is sometimes described as a science, although some distinguished economists disagree with this definition and assert that political philosophy plays a large part in practice. Economic theories differ widely and change with time and circumstances. This is demonstrated by the fluctuating popularities of Keynesianism and the ‘market system’ during the twentieth century. [Keynesianism, macroeconomics, market system, microeconomics, quality of life]

economic system The operation of a combination of laws and accepted economic beliefs and their effect on commerce and industry, working conditions and pay, and the distribution of wealth and services The economic system in any one country is usually the outcome of longestablished customs and power structures, modified by changing local and international factors, and economic theories. The degree to which the government should be involved in regulating the economy is a major matter of contention between competing economic and political theories. [commerce, depression (economic), economics, recession, Reserve Bank of Australia, trickle-down effect]

economic welfare Aspects of social welfare that are directly related to money Economic welfare is an important factor in maintaining the quality of life of certain citizens. It is concerned with all aspects of income and expenditure, including security of employment, rates of pay, taxation, prices,

64 economy (of a nation) security in times of illness, superannuation and pensions. Economic welfare is also concerned with the availability and the cost of services such as health and education. [political economy, quality of life, security (social), welfare state]

economy (of a nation) The production and consumption of goods and services within a country together with overseas trade The economy and its various components are usually measured and judged in terms directly or indirectly related to finance. The economy is usually regarded as the major factor in measuring the standard of a nation, although it is only one of several factors that contribute to the welfare or the difficulties of a community. [economics]

economy of scale Reduction in the cost of production and services as a result of large-scale activities in industry, including primary industry The mass production of motor vehicles and large-scale wheat growing and harvesting are typical examples. There can be negative consequences, such as sudden, large-scale unemployment, the loss of a range of trade skills and the boredom of repetitive unskilled work. [microeconomic reform]

egalitarianism The doctrine of equality of all people Egalitarianism implies equal political, social and economic rights, but there are wide differences of opinion about its practical objectives and possible consequences. A substantial degree of egalitarianism, including the right to work and to education, is included in the United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights. [classes, democracy, meritocracy, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

election Choosing one or more of a number of candidates by voting In the case of the Federal parliament, there are elections for a single member in each seat in the House of Representatives. Elections for the Senate are multi-member elections, and various concepts such as proportional representation have been tried with the aim of fairly giving effect to voters’ wishes. [electoral systems, multi-member electorate, preferential voting, proportional representation, voting systems]

election day 65 election day The day on which voting takes place in an election for public office The governor-general (or governor) has the formal responsibility of determining the date of most parliamentary elections although, in practice, the government or its leader usually makes the decision. [election, public office]

election policy Party policy prepared and announced for a particular election The party leader usually presents the election policy, at least in general terms, in a speech early in the campaign. It might be different from a party’s long-term policy, at least in emphasis and priorities. The election policy will tend to focus on matters of topical interest and, perhaps, be modified according to what is perceived to be the mood of the electors. [platform, policy, pragmatism]

elector A person entitled to vote at a particular election Australians possess universal franchise. In other words, all citizens above a specified age have the right to vote, provided their names are listed on the electoral roll. Laws affecting the eligibility of immigrants to vote are complicated and vary according to the type of election. [right to vote, adult franchise]

electoral office The government premises where staff of the Electoral Commission compile electoral rolls and organise elections There is usually one electoral office in each federal electorate and these offices are open throughout the year to deal with new enrolments or enrolment changes. An electoral office is quite different from an electorate office, although many people confuse the two as the names are so similar. [Australian Electoral Commission, electorate office]

electoral roll An official list of persons entitled to vote These lists show the name and address of each elector. They are used at elections to check the claim of each person seeking a vote. As part of the compulsory voting system, every eligible person is required to enrol and to notify the electoral authorities of any change of address. [compulsory voting, enrolment]

electoral systems In politics, these systems provide the means for the democratic choice of members of parliament; elections within a political party can also be important

66 electorate An election system includes the defining of boundaries of electorates; the enrolment of voters; arrangements for voting; the storage and counting of the votes; and, finally, the declaration of each winning candidate. In Australia the preferential voting method is used. [count, informal vote, postal vote, preferential voting, pre-poll voting, voting systems]

electorate A voting district represented by one or more members of parliament These are called single-member electorates if represented by one MP, and multi-member electorates if represented by more than one. The Senate provides the best known example of multi-member electorates, each state being an electorate represented by twelve senators. The ACT and the Northern Territory are each represented by two. Except in Tasmania, state lower house electorates are single-member electorates, as are those in the Northern Territory. MPs in the Tasmanian House of Assembly are elected by proportional representation from multimember electorates, as are those in the Australian Capital Territory. Boundaries of electorates are altered from time to time, as a result of shifts in population or changes in electoral laws. [Australian Electoral Commission, gerrymander, malapportionment, multi-member electorate]

electorate office The office used by members of parliament in their respective seats In addition to being a useful facility for the member of parliament, an electorate office is also intended for the benefit of local residents. It can be considered as a convenient extension of parliament where people can personally raise problems and express opinions. An electorate office is quite different from an electoral office, although there is understandable con­ fusion between the two. [electoral office, electorate]

elites A vague term but usually applied to groups possessing one or more of sp­ecial attributes such as power, professional position or wealth Elites have characteristics similar to those of superior castes or classes. They are sometimes criticised for trying to maintain their position by making entry into their group difficult. [classes, Establishment, old boy network]

embargo A ban on trade, or a temporary restraint on publication of an official statement

embassy 67 An embargo on trade may be used to put pressure on a country to change its policy or conduct, or it may be a ban on export of particular items, for example, Australian native birds. An embargo on a government statement is sometimes modified so the document, such as the Budget statement, can be studied in advance. This arrangement gives journalists more time to prepare a report, while the author of the statement retains the right to make the first public announcement. [lock-up, sanctions]

embassy The most senior diplomatic mission to a foreign country, and also its of­ficial premises The diplomat in charge of an embassy is called an ambassador and a high commission has the same diplomatic rank. The term ‘high commissioner’ applies when both nations involved are members of the Commonwealth (formerly the Commonwealth of Nations). [ambassador, Commonwealth, high commission]

Emily’s List Australia An Australia-wide political network supporting Labor women candidates for parliament Founded in 1996 to help achieve a fairer proportion of women in parliament and in government ministries, this network’s policy includes issues relating to child care, equal pay and pro-choice. It takes its name from a similar organisation in the USA. [Women’s Electoral Lobby]

emissions trading See carbon trading

Endeavour Forum A women’s organisation critical of feminism and opposed to abortion and euthanasia Founded in the 1970s as Women Who Want to be Women, it was renamed Endeavour Forum in 1986. Its policies are consistent with conservative Catholic ethical attitudes and it is active as a political pressure group. [Lyons Forum, pressure group]

endorsement (of a candidate) The decision by a political party that a particular person will be its candidate in an election This is the final step of the preselection process of choosing a candidate. In some cases it is more than a formality as there may be a dispute over the preselection process or the suitability of a proposed candidate. In such cases official endorsement by the ruling body of the party will resolve any

68 enrolment uncertainty. Endorsement also indicates the official party candidate in an election when more than one claims to represent that party. [preselection]

enrolment The process of officially listing on an electoral roll those eligible to vote In Australia, not only is voting compulsory, but also those eligible to vote must take the action necessary to be enrolled and also to notify the electoral authorities of any change of address. These things can be done by filling in a simple form available at post offices and electoral offices. [electoral office, electoral roll]

enterprise bargaining A system of fixing pay and conditions of employment Enterprise bargaining was initiated by the Keating Labor government. It consists of direct negotiation between employers and employees, either individually or represented by trade unions. Enterprise Bargaining Agreements (EBAs) are registered with the Industrial Relations Commission. [industrial relations, Industrial Relations Commission]

environmental impact statement (EIS) A document reporting on the environmental consequences of a project Commonwealth and state legislation require these statements for some projects as evidence to help in the approval process.

environmentalism A movement promoting greater concern for the quality of the environment Environmentalism has become involved in politics in many countries and colloquially called ‘green’ parties have won parliamentary seats in Australia and in Europe. Environmentalists promote public interest in the subject and act as pressure groups. [conservation, greenies, Greens]

equal opportunity The absence of discrimination against particular individuals or categories of people in seeking employment and promotion With equal opportunity, factors that are not directly relevant to an applicant’s suitability for a position would be disregarded. These include gender, age, race, religion and ethnic origin. The ideal of equal opportunity in education implies that admission to educational institutions at all levels should be available according to the inherent ability of potential students. [affirmative action, women’s lib(eration)]

equal pay 69 equal pay Payment based on the duties performed by the worker The principle is usually associated with equal pay for men and women, as women have been traditionally paid less than men for performing the same work. It has only been since the 1970s that the principle of equal pay has been widely accepted in Australia.

essential services The services people depend upon for normal living in moderate comfort and security There are different interpretations but high on the list would be health services, education, national defence, police, communications and water supply. Many others would also be included in a country of Australian living standards. The term is sometimes used in connection with industrial disputes and it is widely considered that high-level essential services should be exempt from interruption. [industrial dispute]

Establishment, the A loosely connected group of people and organisations within a com­ munity possessing influence or wealth or both The term may also be applied to entrenched authoritative groups within government, commercial, military and religious organisations. In whatever area of activity, the Establishment is usually resistant to change and often politically conservative. [classes, old boy network]

estimates Statements to parliament of proposed government expenditure Estimates are given to parliament in broad terms when the yearly budget is presented. Later, they are reviewed and debated in more detail. Because of unforeseen circumstances, amended estimates are presented in between the yearly ones. [budget, budget debate]

ethics A code of moral behaviour of an individual or the prescribed code of a group, such as a professional body Ethics can have political consequences. Party colleagues and electors expect an MP to support party policy and decisions. But an MP’s personal or religious code of ethics may conflict with a party decision. These difficulties are sometimes reduced by the declaration by a political party of a ‘conscience vote’ and MPs are freed to vote as they personally prefer. [conscience vote]

70 ethnic affairs ethnic affairs Attitudes, policies and laws concerned with the rights and wellbeing of ethnic groups in Australia Federal and state governments have formed ministries with special responsibilities for ethnic affairs. Programs have been established to assist immigrants and to contend with prejudice and to encourage multiculturalism. [immigration, multiculturalism, racism]

Eureka flag A blue flag with a stylised Southern Cross, famous as the flag flown by rebel goldminers at the Eureka Stockade uprising in 1854 The miners were protesting against the high cost of mining licences. Their armed challenge to authority at Ballarat in Victoria was defeated by military force, with 22 miners and six soldiers killed. The flag has become famous and has been flown on various occasions by protesters against authority. Unionists have frequently flown the Eureka flag from crane cables on building sites. [Australian Settlement, fair go]

European Union (EU) An association of most European nations that aims at adopting common policies and a degree of common citizenship, while respecting the individual identities of its member states Established in 1957 as the European Economic Community (EEC), often called the ‘Common Market’, with a membership of six, it gradually increased to 27 members. Following the signing of the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 it became the European Union (EU), and a European parliament was created with a supporting administrative body. The EU’s range of concerns has gradually extended beyond economic matters. It provides a degree of common citizenship and aims at a common defence policy, as well as the abolition of internal frontiers.

euthanasia The deliberate but painless killing of a person who clearly desires to die because of intractable pain from an incurable disease Euthanasia is also termed mercy killing, but its opponents describe it as ‘murder’ under any circumstances. It is a divisive issue in the community and in politics, and causes differences of opinion within various political parties. Proposed legislation on euthanasia may sometimes be put to a ‘conscience vote’. [conscience vote, Dying with Dignity, Endeavour Forum]

Evatt Foundation 71 Evatt Foundation A Labor-inclined think tank named in honour of a former federal ALP leader, Dr H.V. Evatt Established in 1979 and based in Sydney, the foundation’s stated aims include the promotion of social justice and human rights. It engages in research, conducts forums and seminars, and publishes the Evatt Papers. It has influence through its publications, public statements and regular emails, but receives less media attention than rival think tanks. [political theory, think tank]

excise A tax on selected goods produced within a country for the home market Traditionally, excise has been levied on goods considered to be used for self-indulgent purposes. Tobacco products and alcoholic drinks are typical examples. It provides substantial revenue. Imported goods of the same type are also taxed but tax on imports is called ‘customs duty’. The Commonwealth government has the sole power to levy customs duty and excise under Section 86 of the Australian Constitution. [customs duty, taxation]

exclusive powers Powers that can be exercised only by the Commonwealth parliament The Australian Constitution lists matters on which the Commonwealth has exclusive power to legislate, such as the power to impose customs and excise duty. [division of powers]

executive (arm of government) The group of people who administer the law, and who constitute one of the three arms of government; the other arms are the legislature and the judiciary The term executive can have different meanings, depending on the context. A realistic interpretation of the federal executive is that it consists of the prime minister and the ministry, operating in an administrative role rather than a legislative one. Although the Constitution states that the executive power is ‘vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General’, in practice the governor-general seldom, if ever, makes executive government decisions. [arms of government, separation of powers]

Executive Council A body established by the Constitution to advise the governor-general; in practice, its duties are merely formal ones

72 exhaustive ballot The Executive Council is made up of the governor-general and the ministers. A quorum for a meeting requires the presence of the governor-general and two ministers. The Constitution states that the governor-general chooses members of the Executive Council, but in reality the ruling political party chooses them. New laws and regulations must be given royal assent by being signed by the governor-general-in-council but, in reality, the decisions have already been made by the parliament. [governor-general-in-council, royal assent]

exhaustive ballot A voting method that consists of a series of elimination ballots The system can be used whether a single position or more are vacant. In a series of ballots, candidates receiving the least number of votes are eliminated one by one until the number of candidates is reduced to the number of vacancies. The exhaustive ballot is based on the same principle as preferential voting, although the procedure is different. It avoids the possibility of the election of a candidate who is preferred by only a minority of the electors, as can happen in a first-past-the-post election. This form of election would be too cumbersome when there are a large number of voters but is useful when the number of voters is small. [first-past-the-post system, preferential voting]

exit poll Questioning of voters on the way they have voted as they leave the polling place and recording the results Exit polling is an unofficial procedure aimed at forecasting the election result before figures from the official count become available. Results of some exit polls may be made public before voting has been completed and this is sometimes criticised because the exit polls may induce later voters to change their voting intentions. [public opinion polls]

F Fabian Society A long-established left-of-centre think tank devoted to discussion and publication of ideas on political topics The Australian Fabian Society was established in 1947 and was modelled on the original Fabian Society, which was founded in England in 1884. George Bernard Shaw was an early member. The society is active in various states in Australia and focuses on research and discussion rather than political campaigning. It arranges meetings and forums and publishes booklets on political and social questions. [political theory, think tank]

faction An organised group within a larger organisation, especially within a political party Such groups have existed in major parties for many years but since the 1950s they have become more organised and better known to the general public. Factions can influence party policy and support their own members to become parliamentary candidates, ministers and party leaders. They have the harmful effects of causing dissension, branch stacking and reducing the influence and enthusiasm of genuine rank-and-file members. [branch stacking, rank and file]

factions—Australian Labor Party Factions have existed in the ALP for many years, although there has been a degree of secrecy about them Because of name changes and sub-factions the major ALP groups in the various states have been called simply the Right and the Left. Smaller factions have included the Independents and Centre Left but their influence has gradually weakened. Labor factions were once characterised by their ideological values, but policy has become less important and factional power within the party and personal ambitions have become more

74 factions—conservative parties significant. Historically, factions have caused major problems for the ALP, such as the long period of electoral failure after the Split of 1955 in which the secretive faction, the Movement, was heavily involved. [Labor ‘Split’]

factions—conservative parties Factions have been powerful within the Coalition or conservative parties since Federation, although given less publicity than those in the ALP With a range of ideologies, these groups have adopted policies ranging from traditional British-style liberalism through to the conservatism of the New Right. Personalities and leadership struggles have also been significant. Names applied to factions include Dries, Wets, New Right and small-l Liberals. The latter, who accepted economic Keynesianism, dominated for many years after World War II but lost control by the 1990s. Sub-groups and leadership struggles became more significant after the Coalition lost government in 2007. [Dries, Institute of Public Affairs, National Union (faction), small-l Liberals]

fair go A popular, informal Australian term for justice, with emphasis on concern for people or groups who are mistreated or receive less than they deserve The meaning of the term is so widely understood that it is frequently used in politics to draw attention to a perceived injustice and the need for change. In opinion polls Australians place a ‘fair go’ at the top of their list of values. A shout of ‘Fair go!’ is sometimes a reaction to a dangerous or offensive act of a companion. [social justice]

fair trade (social movement) A movement that adopts a market-based approach to give a better deal to producers in developing countries The movement advocates the payment of fair prices by developed countries for a variety of goods produced by developing countries, together with the promotion of sustainability and better pay for the workers. In Australia, the organisations advocating this concept and its acceptance in practice include Oxfam Australia and the Fair Trade Association of Australia and New Zealand (FTAANZ). [sweated labour]

family assistance payments Social security payments to eligible families with children Direct financial assistance to families with children began with the introduction of child endowment in the 1940s and it continued until superseded by the Family Allowance in 1976. This was replaced by the Family Tax Benefit (FTB) in 2000. The diversity of assistance has gradually increased and,

Family Court of Australia 75 together with several others, includes the baby bonus, child care payments, child care tax rebates and family tax benefits. [social services, welfare state]

Family Court of Australia A federal court that deals exclusively with marriage breakdowns and associated problems The Family Court was established as a result of the Family Law Act of 1975, which made major changes to divorce laws. The court’s powers include decisions on divorce, the custody of children and financial and property settlement. The Family Court also provides counselling for problems arising from separation and divorce. [Family Law Act]

Family First Party A minor political party, socially conservative and claiming to be mainly concerned about families Founded in South Australia before the 2002 state elections, the party’s first elected representative, Dr Andrew Evans, was a former Assemblies of God pastor, although the party has since played down its links to the Christian Right. Family First contested its first federal election in 2004 when Steve Fielding was elected to the Senate despite receiving only a very small percentage of first preference votes. The party’s policies are socially conservative and it opposes abortion, gay adoption and euthanasia, and favours increased censorship. [euthanasia, family values]

Family Law Act Legislation dealing with marriage breakdowns and divorce The Family Law Act was passed in 1975 and made a major change to divorce law. Marriage breakdown became the sole ground for divorce, in contrast to the previous law that focused mainly on so-called guilt by a marriage partner. The act created a special federal court called the Family Court to deal with divorce and to provide counselling. [Family Court of Australia]

family values A term used to support the attitude that the traditional nuclear family is the core unit of a society The political use of the vague term ‘family values’ is an example of dogwhistle politics. It exploits concerns over the social changes of the past fifty years, which have seen shifts in the interpretation of the word ‘family’, and increased acceptance of varied sexual preferences. [dog-whistle politics]

76 fascism fascism An extreme right-wing political ideology that favours authoritarian government led by a dictator; it rejects democratic principles and includes suppression of opposition by force Characteristics of fascism also include intense nationalism, antisemitism and racism. The term is derived from the Italian Fascist Party of the 1920s and 1930s led by the dictator Mussolini, but has been applied to similar political movements including those in Germany under Hitler and Spain under Franco. Fascism has received little support in Australia although small, extremist right-wing groups, such as the New Guard and the League of Rights, adopted some of its ideology. [League of Rights, New Guard]

feather duster A term derived from the saying ‘Rooster today, feather duster tomorrow’, which implies a rapid fall from importance to insignificance It came into prominence in mid-2003 when Labor’s federal leader, Mark Latham, dubbed some of his colleagues ‘the roosters’ for their support of Kim Beazley’s failed challenge for the Labor leadership in 2003.

federal A term indicating a Commonwealth governmental area of responsibility rather than one that is administered by the states The uniting of the colonies (now states) was termed Federation and the Commonwealth government is frequently referred to as the Federal government. The word is also used in some official names, such as the Federal Court of Australia. In some circumstances any one of Federal, Commonwealth or Australian may be used. [Commonwealth, Federation]

Federal Court of Australia A court established by the Commonwealth parliament in 1976, mainly to take over some of the work of the High Court The Federal Court operates in every state and territory. It has two div­ isions: the General Division deals with a variety of commercial cases and the Industrial Division deals with legal interpretations affecting industrial relations. The Federal Court also hears appeals against judgements in certain cases from other courts. [High Court]

federal intervention (ALP) See intervention (ALP)

federalism 77 federalism A central government sharing power with separate governments in regions of the country In Australia the central government is referred to as the Commonwealth or Federal government and the others as state and territory governments. The territories are the Australia Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. In a federal system the division of powers between the central and the other governments is of great importance and in Australia the powers of the Commonwealth are listed in the Constitution. The wording of the Constitution has not been sufficient to prevent argument, and the division of powers between the states and the Commonwealth has been the subject of argument and of litigation in the High Court. [division of powers]

Federation The establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia, with the agreement of the then colonies, which became the six states Federation resulted from many years of effort by its advocates including, among several others, Henry Parkes and Edmund Barton and, finally, from favourable referendums in the various colonies. The Commonwealth of Australia was established by an act of the British parliament of 9 July 1900, an act that included the Australian Constitution. It came into operation on 1 January 1901. [Constitution of Australia, federalism, state(s), states’ rights]

fellow traveller A term suggesting support of a movement or political party, although not as an official member Now of historic interest, the expression was mainly used about people alleged to be collaborating with or sympathetic towards communists, especially during the 1950s and 1960s. [anti-communism]

feminism Belief in the capability of women and their equal right with men to opportunities, justice and respect Feminism is an affirmation of women’s rights and a reaction to male chauvinism. It is a movement that stimulated the formation of feminist groups such as the Women’s Electoral Lobby. Early in the twentieth century, with similar ideals, the suffragettes successfully campaigned to obtain votes for women. [affirmative action, Women’s Lib(eration)]

78 Fightback Fightback The name of a periodical publication that advocates production of goods in Australia by Australian-owned companies Fightback began in 1999 and publishes eight issues a year. It has support from some Australian food companies and independent retailers and is opposed to the importation and sale of food products from overseas when similar ones are available from Australia growers and manufacturers. It is also critical of supermarket companies and their connection with petrol discount pricing. [oligopoly, restrictive trade practices]

filibuster A long speech in parliament made with the deliberate intention of wasting time and delaying legislation If the government has a majority in a house of parliament a filibuster can be countered by applying the ‘gag’ (closure), which results in an immediate vote, or by setting a time limit on the debate. The latter is called the ‘guillotine’. [closure, guillotine]

first-past-the-post system A simple voting system in which the candidate who receives the highest number of votes is elected Under this system a candidate may win despite receiving fewer than half the total votes. The number of votes received by the winning candidate under the first-past-the-post system is sometimes called a ‘plurality’. It contrasts with the preferential system used in Australian parliamentary elections. [electoral systems]

first reading The first formal parliamentary procedure in dealing with a bill The bill is introduced into the house by the minister and its full title is read by the clerk (of parliament). Copies are made available to members before it is debated at the second reading stage. [bill, clerk (of parliament), second reading]

first speech The first speech made in parliament by a newly elected member; also called an inaugural speech, previously referred to as a maiden speech In these speeches most MPs concentrate on their own special interests and on places and people within their electorates. Other MPs refrain from interjecting and, in the same spirit, the new member does not make provocative statements. [interjection]

fiscal 79 fiscal An economic term, indicating government financial matters Fiscal policies and activities deal with taxation and other forms of government income, and with government expenditure. [budget]

fixed term A defined maximum length of time for a parliament In the Australian parliament maximum lengths are fixed for the House of Representatives (three years) and also for the lower houses in the states, but no minimum terms are set. [term (of parliament)]

focus groups Moderated discussions between groups of voters conducted by political researchers to gauge voter opinions The focus group technique is a form of qualitative research and is used to complement quantitative opinion polling. Developed in the USA to test the impact of propaganda during World War II, focus groups are used by marketers to test new products and advertising. Increased media scrutiny has encouraged political parties to test the images of their candidates and policies in the same way prior to elections. Supporters of the technique argue that interactive research provides deeper insight into responses than other forms of research. Critics counter that voters tend to ‘perform’ in such groups and that the necessarily small number of participants cannot represent the range of views of the entire population. [public opinion polls]

foreign aid Assistance, mostly financial, by more wealthy countries to poorer ones The soundness of the principle of foreign aid has been widely accepted since World War II and has been supported by the United Nations, which has set a target of 0.7 per cent of GNP from developed nations. Although less than the UN’s target, Australia’s contribution is substantial and most of it is received by Papua New Guinea. Almost all of the member states of the UN, including Australia, have pledged to work towards the Millennium Development Goals. [Millennium Development Goals, United Nations]

foreign investment Investment in Australia from overseas countries Foreign investment is usually welcomed in Australia as it is considered helpful in increasing economic growth and employment. It can have

80 foreign policy bad effects, however, especially on employment, if the takeover company transfers its activities overseas.

foreign policy The underlying principles that influence decisions of a government in its relationship with other nations Foreign policy includes defence, trade, economics, science, immigration, culture and travel. Historically, national security and military matters have been considered the most important in foreign policy, but more recently there has been a growing emphasis on economic matters and trade. [diplomacy (international)]

forgotten people A term applied by politicians to various groups of people in the hope of attracting their attention or support An historic example was a public speech by Robert Menzies in 1942 when he referred to the middle class as the ‘forgotten people’ and defined them as ‘salary earners, shopkeepers, skilled artisans, professional men and women, farmers, and so on’. The underlying tactic is similar to the more recent use of terms such as ‘Howard’s battlers’ and ‘aspirationals’. [aspirationals, battlers, dog-whistle politics]

forum An opportunity for discussion and possible agreement on matters of common interest These can vary widely from parliaments and corporation conferences to local tennis clubs or kindergarten meetings. A forum need not be a faceto-face meeting at all but simply an opportunity for discussion, such as the letters columns of newspapers or talk-back radio or the use of the Internet.

forward defence The strategy of preventing invasion by some form of defence located at a distance from the home country Some powerful nations station troops and equipment in friendly countries nearer to a potential enemy. Powerful military bases can also be established on strategically placed islands or areas of land that have been acquired or leased. Alliances and diplomatic agreements can also be forms of forward defence. [defence, diplomacy (international), foreign policy]

fourth estate A semi-jocular metaphor, emphasising the power of the mass media

franchise 81 The wording of the term suggests that the media ranks with the three arms of government, namely, the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. The term ‘fourth estate’ was originally derived from the English expression ‘estates of the realm’, namely, the lords temporal (members of the House of Lords, except the bishops), the lords spiritual (bishops) and the House of Commons. These three were considered to be the most important and powerful groups in the country. [arms of government, mass media]

franchise In politics, franchise refers to the right to vote [adult franchise (or suffrage)]

freedom of assembly The right of people to meet together in groups This freedom is recognised as one of the basic civil liberties in a free society. People choose to meet for all sorts of reasons, such as political, religious, recreational and cultural purposes. In Australia there is no constitutional guarantee of this freedom, although it is widely believed to exist as a traditional right. [civil liberties, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

freedom of information The legal right to peruse government documents Legislation granting this right is a comparatively recent development in Australia, beginning in the 1970s. Not all documents can be inspected, and among the exceptions are cabinet documents and others classified as affecting national security. [cabinet, open government]

freedom of speech The freedom to express thoughts and opinions is a basic civil right in a free society Australia and many other countries claim to allow freedom of speech. However, in most countries including Australia there are some legal limitations. These include the laws against defamation, blasphemy and obscenity, contempt of court and sedition. Although these laws are not always rigorously enforced, in the matter of defamation the possibility of costly legal consequences is a powerful restraint on those without substantial financial resources. [civil liberties, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

free enterprise A form of capitalism involving minimum government control of private business and industry

82 free trade The term is sometimes used in a political sense to identify an attitude that may be loosely equated to the free market ideology. [capitalism]

free trade The absence of any government restriction or financial deterrents on trade with other countries Completely free trade would mean the absence of tariffs or restrictions and no government subsidies or assistance for exports. Since overseas settlement in Australia began there has been debate between the advocates of free trade and of protection, and in the years soon after Federation trade policy was the chief subject of contention between the major political parties. [Fusion Party, level playing field, protection, tariffs]

Free Traders (political party) A major Australian party that was significant in the development of Australian politics This was a conservative party with free trade as a major policy. In 1909 it merged with its political opponent (also conservative), the Protectionist Party, to form the Fusion Party. The merger was a reaction to the growing strength of the Australian Labor Party. [Fusion Party, Protectionists]

Friends of the ABC (FABC) A community organisation that supports the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Formed in 1976, Friends of the ABC has branches in all states and territories. It supports the Australian Broadcasting Corporation as an independent source of news, information and entertainment and an alternative to commercial broadcasting. The FABC campaigns for a politically impartial ABC board and adequate funding, without advertising. [Australian Broadcasting Corporation, mass media]

fringe benefits tax A tax on the value of special benefits provided by employers to selected employees Fringe benefits have included provision of cars, payment of school fees, entertainment, low-cost loans and other benefits. They were equivalent to an addition to the employee’s salary but were untaxed before fringe benefits tax was introduced in 1986. Payment of untaxed fringe benefits in lieu of higher salaries had previously resulted in a distortion of the tax system and reduced government revenue. [tax avoidance]

front bench 83 front bench A term for the government ministers as a group and, similarly, the oppo­ sition shadow ministers The expression comes from the seating arrangements in the parliamentary chamber where ministers and shadow ministers sit in the front seats facing one another across a large table. [ministry (as a group), shadow ministry]

full employment The opportunity for those able to work to get a job The definition of full employment has been modified to recognise the reality that a small percentage of workers will be temporarily unemployed while looking for appropriate work, plus those who are unsuited to the available employment despite no overall shortage of jobs. Unemployment rates between 1 per cent and 3 per cent have been suggested as consistent with the term ‘full employment’. [depression (economic), recession]

Fusion Party The major conservative party from 1909 to 1917; also called the Commonwealth Liberal Party The Fusion Party was formed through the amalgamation of two con­ servative parties worried over the growing strength of the Australian Labor Party. They were the Protectionists, led by Alfred Deakin, and George Reid’s Free Traders. They had previously been bitter opponents. Deakin later became prime minister in a Fusion Party government. The Fusion (or Liberal) Party continued until 1917 when it was incorporated into the Nationalist Party led by Prime Minister W.M. Hughes. [Free Traders (political party), Protectionists]

G G-7/G-8 countries An international body with a membership of economically advanced nations The G-7 includes the USA, Japan, Germany, the UK, France, Italy and Canada. When Russia takes part in meetings the group is known as the G-8. It prepares reports and makes public comments on subjects beyond economics, such as social and educational matters. Founded in 1975, the G-7 played a leading role for more than 30 years in matters related to trade and economics until superseded by the G-20 group. [G-20 countries, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development]

G-20 countries An international group focusing on economics with similar concerns to those of the G-7/G-8 groups but with a larger membership All the G-8 countries belong to the G-20 together with large developing nations, including China and India, and several smaller ones in various stages of development. Australia is a member. The G-20 has become acknowledged as the foremost international body in the field of economic discussion, research and advice, taking over the leading role from the G-7/G8. [G-7/G-8 countries]

gag See closure

GATT/WTO A continuing forum, of which Australia is a member, for improving international trade GATT began with about twenty nations in 1947 as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GATT) and became the World Trade Organisation

GDP 85 (WTO) in 1995. By 2008 the number of members had reached 153. GATT aims to minimise trade restrictions and has achieved significant results. But nations have not always honoured the spirit of GATT/WTO and this has caused problems for Australia, especially in selling agricultural products overseas. [forum, free trade, level playing field]

GDP See gross domestic product

Generation X The generation born in the 1960s and 1970s Generation X has been characterised as selfish and cynical while calmly accepting change and working hard to gain advancement. [baby boomers, Generation Y]

Generation Y Those born in the 1980s and 1990s Regarded as confident and ambitious, Generation Y is reputed to be willing to change jobs repeatedly and borrow substantially for purchases and investment, apparently without fear of difficulties that may result from changed economic circumstances. [baby boomers, Generation X]

general election An election in which all the seats in a house of parliament are declared vacant A general election provides an opportunity for the voters to re-elect the government or to change to the opposition party. A change of government can occur between general elections but this seldom happens. In the Federal parliament, Senate and lower house elections are often held simultaneously but, on most occasions, only half the Senate seats come up for election. Exceptions occur after a double dissolution, when all Senate seats become vacant. [by-election, double dissolution, half-Senate election, simul­ taneous elections]

gerrymander The deliberate manipulation of electoral boundaries to favour a particular party Careful shaping of an electorate can exclude some districts and include others for the benefit of a particular party. Over a larger area, boun­daries may be devised so that the favoured party will win many seats by small margins while the other party will win seats by very large margins, thus ‘wasting’ many votes. Gerrymandering should not be confused with

86 global financial crisis malapportionment—a different type of unfair electoral manipulation. Australia is fortunate in having an independent Electoral Commission, which is a safeguard against unfair manipulation of electoral boundaries. [malapportionment, one vote–one value]

global financial crisis The financial upheaval of 2009 beginning in the United States and leading to a major worldwide recession Opinions about the causes and remedies vary, but most blame has been directed at injudicious borrowing and lending aimed at making quick profits from financial manipulation. The remedy adopted by most countries has been to provide government financial support to large enterprises facing disaster. This action was aimed at avoiding catastrophic levels of unemployment and company collapses. [economics, Keynesianism, market system]

globalisation Substantial reduction in restrictions on trading and the movement of capital between countries, together with exchanges of ideas, expertise and culture Countries have traded with each other since ancient times, but from the sixteenth century the concept and practice of shared ownership enabled the construction of larger sea-going vessels and this greatly increased the volume and extent of trading. At about the same time, the growth of mechanised printing disseminated information and ideas. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, wars and colonisation by the technically advanced nations of Europe also spread ideas and technology to less-developed countries. Over the last century, globalisation grew rapidly as a result of great increase in the speed and efficiency of communications. [World Economic Forum, World Trade Organisation]

global warming The increase in the average temperature of the air and oceans, especially since the beginning of the twentieth century This increase is roughly three-quarters of one Celsius degree. Most, but not all, scientific bodies interested in the subject believe this climate change has been caused by anthropogenic greenhouse gases produced by activity, including industries burning coal and oil and some types of agriculture, particularly cattle grazing. [climate change, greenhouse effect]

GNP See gross national income

goods and services tax (GST) 87 goods and services tax (GST) A tax levied as a percentage of the retail price and fully paid by the final purchaser The tax applies to most goods and the provision of services. It was introduced in 2000 by the Howard government and retained by the Rudd Labor government. It is levied at each step or process from raw materials to final sale. Intermediate sellers add the tax to their selling price, but can reclaim the tax that they have paid. Thus the consumer (the last buyer) pays the total tax, although processors or intermediate sellers have been part of the procedure of tax collection. [taxation]

government In a democracy it is the exercise of authority over a nation or community by representatives of the people In Australia there are three tiers of government. The first is the Commonwealth government, whose powers are defined by the Constitution. The second consists of the various state and territory governments, and the third is local, or municipal, government. The governments of the ACT and the Northern Territory have powers defined by Commonwealth acts of parliament. The political party in power is called the government, and the term is also applied to the ministry and sometimes to all the members of parliament on the government side. [local government, territories]

governor The representative of the monarch in each state of Australia A governor’s duties are mainly formal or ceremonial and they have traditionally, but not always, accepted the advice of the government. An exception was the dismissal of the NSW premier Jack Lang in 1932.

governor-general As the representative of the monarch, the governor-general acts as Australia’s head of state In accordance with the Constitution, the governor-general is formally appointed by the Queen but, in practice, is chosen by the Federal government. In addition to ceremonial duties, the governor-general has power to dissolve parliament and to grant double dissolutions, although these actions are normally taken only on the advice of the prime minister. The double dissolution of the Whitlam government in 1975 was a famous (or infamous) exception. [head of government, head of state]

governor-general-in-council The governor-general, acting as president of the Executive Council

88 governor-in-council The approval of the governor-general-in-council is required before a bill, already passed by parliament, can become law. In practice, this is a formality and the governor-general usually meets with no more than two ministers to give formal assent to bills. [Executive Council]

governor-in-council A state governor acting as president of a State Executive Council

Grants Commission See Commonwealth Grants Commission

grass roots A political metaphor for ordinary people and their attitudes To return to its grass roots is a suggestion that a political party should reestablish contact and understanding with ordinary people. [doorknocking, electorate office]

Great Depression The international economic depression of the 1930s, which affected Australia severely The rural sector had been in difficulties throughout the 1920s, but the Depression in Australia is historically recognised as beginning in 1930, some months after the Wall Street crash of October 1929. Official A­ustralian unemployment rates rose to about 30 per cent but this statistical figure was an understatement of the real rate. Unemployment gradually lessened but was still about 10 per cent when World War II began in 1939. [depression, recession]

greenhouse effect The effect on the earth’s climate of the emission of gases from large-scale combustion These emissions come from the burning of fuel for transport, power generation and from primary and secondary industry. They cause a slight change in the composition of the atmosphere. This reduces the heat discharged from the earth as infrared radiation but the heat received from the sun is unchanged so average temperatures rise slightly. Most countries, including Australia, accept the need to reduce greenhouse gases. [climate change, global warming]

greenies Colloquial term for enthusiastic conservationists, sometimes used disparagingly

Greens, The 89 The term is applied particularly to those conservationists who are concerned over forests and wilderness areas. Some people reserve the term for those they consider to be unduly intense in their support of conservation. [conservation, environmentalism, tree huggers]

Greens, The An Australian political party focusing mainly on conservation The Greens party has taken part in federal elections since 1993, emphasising conservation but also presenting policies on other important topics. It has won parliamentary seats in the Senate, in state parliaments and in the ACT and influences the major parties because of the importance of its preference votes. Proportional representation has helped The Greens as it gives smaller parties a better chance of success. [conservation, proportional representation]

grey power A term for the influence of the retired and elderly Grey power strength is increasing as the proportion of older people in the population rises—a fact that is likely to be noted by political parties and influence their policies.

grievance debate A period in a parliamentary session during which members speak on topics of their own choosing Grievance debates are scheduled for late afternoon on Mondays in the Federal parliament. They are also part of state parliamentary procedure. As many MPs wish to participate speeches are restricted in length, usually to ten minutes. Members use the opportunity to deal with matters for which they have special enthusiasm, or to engage in parish pumping. [adjournment debate, parish pumping]

gross domestic product (GDP) The value, in money terms, of the goods and services produced in a country; it is given in both current prices and ‘real’ terms, which allows for changes in money values The GDP does not allow for depreciation and this is the reason for the inclusion of the word ‘gross’. The calculation of the GDP covers activity over a fixed period (usually one year) and is done for economic purposes, including the assessment of economic growth. Several factors make the calculation difficult and inaccurate, one being the existence of undisclosed trade which is not recorded in official statistics. Although useful in assessing a country’s economic performance, the GDP is not a comprehensive indicator of living standards as it does not identify the types of goods and services included, nor their distribution among the people. Furthermore,

90 gross national income (GNI) the GDP fails to take into account unpaid but valuable activity that adds to the quality of life but is not measured in money terms. [economy (of a nation), quality of life]

gross national income (GNI) A statistical calculation of a country’s total income over a defined period, previously called the gross national product The GNI consists of the gross domestic product together with the net effect of income entering and leaving the country. It is a factor in the assessment of a country’s overall economic performance. [gross domestic product]

group As a political term group is used as an alternative or euphemistic word for faction [faction]

GST See goods and services tax

guillotine A limitation on the time made available for debate in parliament on a particular subject This occurs when parliament declares a bill urgent. A time limit is set, and each speaker is restricted to a fixed length of speaking time. ‘Guillotine’ should not be confused with ‘closure’ (colloquially called ‘the gag’), which brings debate to an immediate end. [closure]

H half-Senate election In most general elections, only half the Senate seats are vacant House of Representatives elections and Senate elections are usually held simultaneously. Senators from the states are elected for a term of six years, so only half of the senators from each state are elected at any one time. Senators for the mainland territories (the ACT and the Northern Territory) are elected for three-year terms. An election following a double dissolution is an exception as all Senate positions become vacant. Only 8.3 per cent of the votes are needed for a candidate to be elected—and this gives smaller parties a better chance of winning a Senate seat. [double dissolution, Senate elections]

Hansard The printed record of parliamentary debates and proceedings The title comes from the name of the English publishers, the Hansard family, who produced reports of House of Commons debates in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The name has been retained and printed records are now almost word-for-word accounts of parliamentary speeches. Hansard is also available on the Internet.

Hansonism See Pauline Hanson’s One Nation Party

Hare-Clark system A combination of preferential voting with proportional representation from multi-member electorates Also known as the ‘single transferable vote system’, it was first used in the Tasmanian House of Assembly elections in 1909 and has been adopted in other Australian elections, including the Senate. A voter marks only one ballot paper but indicates an order of preference for all the candidates. This is the ‘single transferable vote’. As counting proceeds the candidates

92 Harvester judgement are elected when they reach a ‘quota’ of votes. This is known as the Droop quota and takes into account the number of places to be filled and the number of votes that have been cast. [Australian Capital Territory electoral system, Droop quota, single transferable vote system, Tasmanian electoral system]

Harvester judgement An historic decision of the Arbitration Court that laid the foundation for orderly wage fixing in Australia The Harvester judgement of 1907 was given that name because the employer involved, H.V. Mackay, manufactured a famous agricultural machine, the Sunshine Harvester. The president of the Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration, Justice Henry Bourne Higgins, set a minimum wage for male unskilled labourers based on the cost of living ‘in reasonable and frugal comfort’ for an average family. The judgement did not cover female workers as, at that time, it was assumed that a father or husband would support them. [arbitration]

head of government The leader of the executive government In Australia, the prime minister is the nation’s head of government. Prem­ iers are the heads of government in the states, and chief ministers are the heads of government in the mainland territories. This position contrasts with the head of state, which is a ceremonial post in some countries, although the two positions are combined in others. [chief minister]

head of state The formal leader of a nation Depending on the political structure of a country, the head of state may possess real power as well as being the ceremonial leader. In Australia the head of state is the monarch, represented by the governor-general. [constitutional monarchy, head of government]

hegemony Domination or strong influence over others In politics, the term is applied to a strong nation that has power or influence over neighbouring countries. [imperialism]

HELP (Higher Education Loan Program) See Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS)

high commission 93 high commission A diplomatic mission from one member country of the Commonwealth to a country that is also a Commonwealth member A high commission has a similar diplomatic status to that of an embassy. This terminology has been continued from the time when members of the Commonwealth were part of the British Empire. [Commonwealth, embassy]

high commissioner The diplomat in charge of a high commission A high commissioner has the same diplomatic rank as an ambassador. [ambassador]

High Court The most senior court in Australia and established in accordance with the Constitution The Constitution sets out the procedure for the appointment of judges and defines the matters that are to be the concern of the court. These include constitutional cases and those that affect Australia’s relationships with other countries. The High Court also has power to deal with appeals against the judgements of lower courts. [Federal Court of Australia]

Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS) A scheme requiring some students to make a contribution towards the cost of their university education HECS students are required to pay back a percentage of the cost, by instalments, after their income reaches a specified threshold. HECS began under the Hawke government in 1989, following free university education introduced by the Whitlam government in 1974. Modifications were made by the Howard government in 2004, including a name change to the Higher Education Loan Program (HELP). The basic requirement for students to make delayed payments was retained. The scheme has caused some resentment as it was introduced by a generation who benefited from the free education introduced by the Whitlam government.

History Wars Controversies over the interpretation of Australian history, often influenced by party politics. The term is linked to ‘Culture Wars’ The term History Wars comes from the USA, where it is applied to arguments over the nuclear bombing of Japanese cities and is the title of a book on the subject. In Australia, it is mainly applied to opinions about the treatment of the Indigenous people. Historians who have contended that the Indigenous people were seriously mistreated have been criticised

94 hoi polloi and accused of left-wing bias by others who argue that there is no cause for shame or regret. Those who express the latter view tend to be politically conservative; famous among them is the former prime minister, John Howard, who termed the more sympathetic view towards the Indigenous people as ‘black armband’ history. [Culture Wars]

hoi polloi A term for the ordinary people or the lower classes, sometimes used in a derogatory or condescending manner The expression comes from the Ancient Greek language meaning ‘the many’, and is sometimes used, mistakenly, to indicate superior or important people. [classes]

honeymoon A metaphor used mainly by journalists to describe the first few weeks or months after the election of a new government or party leader Media commentators imply that a new leader or government is given a period of exemption from harsh criticism during this early stage of responsibility.

Honourable A title for some categories of politicians Ministers in federal and state governments are given the title ‘Honourable’ before their names, and so are members of state upper houses whether ministers or not. It is customary for members of parliament, when making speeches in the house, to refer to their colleagues as ‘honourable members’. [modes of address for members of parliament, titles of members of parliament]

house (of parliament) An assembly of members of parliament; each house of parliament is part of the law-making process Members of a house meet to discuss and vote on proposed legislation and to monitor the activities of ministers and the government. The lower house of parliament determines which party will become the government. The continued functioning of a government depends on it retaining the support of the lower house of parliament and traditionally it resigns if support of the lower house is lost. There are two houses in the Federal parliament and in all state parliaments except Queensland, where the upper house was abolished in 1922. There is only one house in the ACT parliament and one in the Northern Territory. [lower house, upper house]

House of Assembly 95 House of Assembly The name of the lower house in the parliaments of South Australia and Tasmania Both of these states also have an upper house, called the Legislative Council. [house (of parliament), lower house]

House of Representatives The lower house of the Federal parliament It is the more important of the two houses as it decides which party will form the government, and the prime minister has always been a member of the House of Representatives. It is referred to as the ‘people’s house’ as each member represents nearly the same number of electors, in contrast to the Senate, and it is regarded as representing the opinion of Australian electors more accurately. The style of debate in the House of Representatives is more lively and forthright than in the more staid and dignified Senate. [lower house, people’s house]

house of review An upper house of parliament, such as the Senate, is sometimes described as a house of review The reputed role of an upper house has been to review bills and to propose amendments. There is still some basis for this reputation but it is diminishing as upper house members usually speak and vote on party lines. Furthermore, bills are frequently introduced in upper houses. [bicameral system, upper house]

how-to-vote cards Printed cards or leaflets that show how to fill in ballot papers in accordance with the recommendations of a party or candidate These cards are offered to voters as they approach polling places. They are similar in layout to ballot papers but have numbers marked alongside the candidates’ names. They are intended to influence undecided voters, and to indicate to party supporters the recommended sequence of preferences. They also help voters fill in complicated ballot papers without making mistakes. The handing out of how-to-vote cards is a traditional and sometimes boisterous feature of Australian elections because of the close proximity of enthusiastic supporters of opposing political parties. [informal vote, preferential voting]

H.R. Nicholls Society See Nicholls Society

96 human rights human rights See civil liberties, Universal Declaration of Human Rights

hung parliament See deadlock (lack of a majority)

I identity politics Political activities organised on behalf of particular social groups Members of these groups often had been victims of intolerance, discrimination or persecution because of their gender, race, sexual orientation or ethnicity. Identity politics emerged from the human rights revolution of the late 1960s and 1970s, although similar movements developed much earlier such as the suffragettes, active in the early years of the twentieth century in various countries, including Australia. [suffragettes, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

ideology The ideals and beliefs on which political policy is based The publicised policies of any political party may not fully reflect its ideol­ogy as doing so could be considered to be inappropriate because of circumstances at the time, or be unacceptable to the majority of voters. [policy, political theory]

ILO See International Labour Organisation

immigration The entry of people into a country with the intention of becoming residents In Australia, all residents except Aborigines are immigrants or the descendants of immigrants. Immigration has continued ever since European settlement began, although its rate has been irregular. It has been very substantial since World War II and the census of 2006 showed that 24 per cent of the Australian population was born outside the country. Policy on immigration has at times been the subject of political argument, with the question of possible restrictions on the basis of race

98 imperialism a contentious issue. The optimal size of the population has also been questioned. [boat people, census, multiculturalism, racism, White Australia policy]

imperialism The policy of acquiring dependent territories and asserting authority over them The countries taken over, often by military force, are termed colonies. The dominating country, together with the colonies, becomes an empire. Examples include the Roman Empire and the British Empire. [colony, hegemony, political theory]

inaugural speech See first speech

income distribution The share of total national income received by different segments of the population In Australia, the Bureau of Statistics periodically determines the pattern of income distribution, and this gives a better understanding of incomes actually received than the simplistic ‘average income’ figure. [basic wage, total wage]

income tax Compulsory payment to the government of a proportion of personal income The amount to be paid is subject to complicated rules that are framed to take account of the different circumstances and responsibilities of tax­ payers. In Australia, taxation is partly in the form of income tax and partly indirect tax, such as the goods and services tax. There is continuing argument over the merits and best mixture of different forms of taxation. [progressive tax, regressive tax, revenue, sales tax, taxation]

incumbency dominance The thesis that it is easier for the party that is currently in government to be re-elected than for the opposition The theory was quoted as a partial explanation of the longevity of the Howard government. Its defeat in 2007 prompted the revival of another theory, namely that voters become bored with a long-time incumbent. [pork-barrelling]

independent member of parliament A member who belongs to no political party

Independents (faction) 99

Reproduced courtesy of Jon Kudelka

Some MPs are elected as independent candidates. Others, who have been elected as party candidates, resign from the party or are expelled. There are usually few, if any, independent members in Australian federal and state parliaments but they sometimes have a disproportionate significance in a closely contested parliamentary vote. [deadlock (lack of a majority)]

Independents (faction) An historically significant group within the Australian Labor Party, later known as the Non-Aligned Group At first called the Participants, this group developed in Victoria in the 1960s because of dissatisfaction with the structure and factional control of the state branch of the ALP at that time. The group was partly responsible for the federal intervention in Victoria in 1970 that assisted the election of the Whitlam government in 1972. [intervention (ALP), Non-Aligned Group, Participants]

indexation Adjustment of pay rates in accordance with changes in the cost of living Indexation is the term for automatic adjustment of wages, superannuation and pensions in accordance with changes in prices, usually based on the consumer price index. [consumer price index]

100 Indigenous Australians Indigenous Australians An increasingly accepted name for those whose forebears inhabited Australia and the Torres Strait Islands before colonisation The term includes the peoples of both areas. The initial letter is usually capitalised when referring to peoples of both regions as a single group. [Aborigines]

individualism A social philosophy that puts greater emphasis on the freedom of the individual than on the benefits of group organisation and action This philosophy considers the individual as being of primary importance and society as a collection of individuals, rather than being an entity with an independent existence. In politics and economics, individualism favours the market system with minimal government regulation. This policy became widespread in the latter part of the twentieth century and was followed by the economic upheaval of the early years of the twenty-first century. [collectivism]

industrial dispute A disagreement between employers and employees, usually over wages and conditions or alleged unfair dismissal Disputes can lead to stoppages, strikes, black bans and lockouts. If serious enough arbitration might be required, but disputes are often settled by negotiation between employers and employees. Trade unions and employers’ organisations might become involved and serious disputes have often been referred to the Industrial Relations Commission. [black ban, industrial relations, lockout, strike]

Industrial Groups A powerful faction within trade unions and the Labor Party active during the 1940s and 1950s, and closely related to the organisation now referred to as ‘the Movement’ The formal name was the ALP Industrial Groups and it had Labor Party endorsement in most states for several years when the involvement of the Movement in the Industrial Groups was not widely understood. The Groups exerted a strong influence within some trade unions and the ALP from the mid-1940s until 1955, especially in Victoria. The connection with the ALP was severed at the Hobart ALP conference in 1955. The Industrial Groups then supported the Democratic Labor Party. Members were called groupers. [anti-communism, Labor ‘Split’, Movement, the]

industrial relations 101 industrial relations The relationship between employers and employees over wages and conditions In Australia, industrial relations have been handled by trade unions and employers’ organisations, with industrial tribunals and other bodies established by government such as the Industrial Relations Commission that have authority to make binding decisions. Other factors, including the Accord of 1983 and ‘enterprise bargaining’ introduced by the Howard government, have also played roles in determining employees’ pay and conditions. [Accord (the Prices and Income Accord), arbitration, Australian Fair Pay Commission, Australian Industrial Relations Commission]

Industrial Relations Commission (IRC) See Australian Industrial Relations Commission

Industrial Revolution The great changes in industry and social conditions that have occurred since the eighteenth century The Industrial Revolution was the outcome of discoveries and inventions such as the steam engine, and the development of large factories and industrial cities. It resulted in the emergence of wealthy industrial leaders and upheaval for workers and their families, who endured bad working conditions, low pay and slum housing. These conditions persisted for many years and led to the development of trade unions and worker-oriented political parties. [classes, political party, trade union]

industrial tribunals Semi-judicial bodies that deal with industrial relations matters, including wages and conditions of employment Tribunals are independent bodies established by state and federal governments, with different names in different states. [industrial relations]

inflation Significant increase in general prices and the reduction in the purchasing value of currency In Australia the consumer price index (CPI) is a measure of price changes, usually quoted as a percentage over twelve months. Modest inflation does not cause great concern, but high inflation has led to economic chaos in some countries. Economists differ widely on the causes of inflation and how to deal with it. [consumer price index, economics, political economy]

102 informal vote informal vote A ballot paper that has not been filled in correctly and is excluded from the count There are detailed rules that define the requirements of a formal (effective) vote and these rules vary slightly in different elections. The main principle is that the voter’s intention must be clear. [ballot paper, count, preferential voting]

infrastructure Basic services needed in residential, commercial and industrial areas Infrastructure includes water, sewerage, transport, electricity and several other services. These must be provided in new areas and existing services may need upgrading to cope with the extra load. [decentralisation, planning, public private partnerships]

Institute of Public Affairs (IPA) A politically conservative think tank The IPA was established in the 1940s and played a direct role in the establishment of the Liberal Party. In later years its main activities have been research and the presentation of reports and right-wing opinions on public affairs. It publishes sceptical views about climate change. [political theory, think tank]

integration A less insular attitude or negative attitude by Australian society towards immigrants that replaced assimilation in the 1960s as the desired aim Unlike assimilation, a policy of integration encouraged immigrants to retain their original languages and customs. It was superseded by the policy of multiculturalism in 1973. [assimilation, multiculturalism]

intelligence Information, including secret information, that might be important for a country’s security The term is sometimes used to mean the process of gathering such information, including spying. Most countries, including Australia, have one or more intelligence organisations and much of their work is secret. [Australian Secret Intelligence Service, Australian Security Intelligence Organisation]

interjection A statement, usually short and shouted, by a member of parliament while another member is making a speech

International Confederation of Free Trade Unions 103 Although not officially permitted, interjections are traditionally part of parliamentary behaviour and can add vitality and interest to a debate. Presiding officers are usually tolerant of interjections, unless they become too disruptive. An interjection is not recorded in Hansard unless the MP making the speech responds to it, in which case both the interjection and the reply will be recorded. [Hansard, presiding officer]

International Confederation of Free Trade Unions An organisation that has national union bodies such as the ACTU as its members The confederation provides opportunities for communication between trade union bodies from different countries, but does not become involved in industrial action. [International Labour Organisation]

International Labour Organisation (ILO) An agency of the United Nations that aims to improve working conditions and living standards The ILO was established in 1919 by the League of Nations. Delegations from each nation include representatives of the government, employers and employees. The codes and standards set by the International Labour Organisation cannot be enforced but are regarded as goals and have international influence. [League of Nations, United Nations]

International Monetary Fund (IMF) An organisation that oversees worldwide economic circumstances and events; it aims to increase economic wellbeing and assist cooperation between nations, together with reducing poverty and unemployment The IMF is closely related to the United Nations. It was founded after World War II to help restore economic stability to countries that had been shattered by the war. Its concerns are worldwide and most members of the United Nations also belong to the IMF. Its activities include monitoring economic conditions, lending to countries in financial difficulties and providing technical advice. It also engages in research and compilation of statistics. [United Nations]

intervention (ALP) The action of the Federal Executive of the ALP when dealing with a major problem in the affairs of a state branch of the Labor Party A shortened version of ‘Federal intervention’, interventions occurred in Victoria in 1954 and again in 1970. They are recognised as historic events in Australian politics and had important consequences. [Labor ‘Split’, Labor Unity (faction), Movement, the, Socialist Left (faction)]

104 intervention (Northern Territory) intervention (Northern Territory) Action taken in response to the ‘Little Children are Sacred’ report of 2007 The Inquiry into Protection of Aboriginal Children reported widespread child abuse in some Indigenous townships in the Northern Territory. The Howard government responded by sending in the Australian Army and social workers to identify those responsible. It also introduced a scheme to control the payment of welfare benefits with the aim of ensuring that the money would be spent on food for the children. The Rudd Labor government continued the scheme.

IRC See Industrial Relations Commission

isolationism The foreign policy of a nation that chooses to remain detached from international matters, especially military alliances The term became well known as the policy of the United States between the two world wars. Although President Wilson proposed the creation of the League of Nations (the predecessor of the United Nations) after World War I, the USA did not become a member. However, it did join the United Nations after World War II. Australia has not adopted isolationism but tries to maintain good diplomatic relations with other countries and is a member of the United Nations. [American alliance, ANZUS Treaty]

issue of writs The formal action that begins the process for holding an election or a referendum As required by the Australian Constitution, the governor-general issues the writs for House of Representatives elections, except by-elections, and also for referendums. State governors issue writs for Senate elections and state elections. The writs (and consequently the timing of elections) are almost always issued on the advice of the government. [election day, writs]

issues Matters of political difference of opinion and debate The media apply the term particularly to policies that become matters of contention during election campaigns. [policy, political theory]

J J-curve A diagram to illustrate a theory, concerning the consequences of the d­epreciation of a nation’s currency on its balance of trade The theory is that a nation’s trading position becomes worse for a time after depreciation and then makes a substantial improvement to a state better than the original. The short downward part of the J represents the bad period, curving up to improvement. [economy (of a nation)]

jobs for the boys Appointing friends or colleagues to positions of employment The expression implies that the appointment is made for personal or political reasons rather than on account of the ability of the appointee. In politics, ministers are often criticised for making such appointments. Sometimes these controversial appointments are appropriate because the people chosen have the same attitudes and priorities as the government. [nepotism]

joint committee A parliamentary committee with members from both houses of parliament These committees may have responsibilities of a continuing nature, or may be established to undertake a particular task and be disbanded when it is completed. They report to both houses of parliament. [committee system]

Joint Committee of Public Accounts See public accounts committee

joint sitting An official meeting of all members of both houses of the Federal parliament

106 judicature The Constitution provides for a joint sitting of the Senate and the House of Representatives to resolve deadlocks between the houses. A deadlock can occur when the House of Representatives passes a bill but the Senate rejects or fails to pass it. Conditions defined in the Constitution, including the occurrence of a double dissolution, must be fulfilled before a joint sitting can be held. [deadlock (between two houses)]

judicature The structure and operation of the system of justice in a country The Constitution defines the Australian ‘Judicature’ in considerable detail. It specifies the method of appointment of High Court judges, the powers of the High Court and the extent of the powers of the Federal parliament to make laws relating to the judicature. Each state has its own separate judicial system, in which the Supreme Court is the most senior court. [Family Court of Australia, Federal Court of Australia, High Court, Supreme Court]

judiciary This term describes judges as a group The term applies to judges in their official capacity. The judiciary is also regarded as one of the three arms of government along with the executive and the legislative. [arms of government, judicature]

junior minister An MP who is in charge of a less important ministry ‘Junior minister’ is not an official title in Australia but the term is applied to ministers not included in the cabinet. [cabinet, minister]

junta Rule by a small group, usually composed of military officers A non-democratic form of government, a junta is set up and maintained by force or threat of force. The government of Fiji established in 2006 is an example.

K Keynesianism An important economic theory that focuses on maintaining economic st­ability and a high level of employment The English economist John Maynard Keynes proposed the theory in the 1930s and it had international acceptance for many years, especially from the end of World War II until the 1960s. Keynes proposed the use of government fiscal and monetary policy to regulate demand and to stimulate the economy when necessary to avoid high unemployment. He also emphasised the distinction between macroeconomics and micro­ economics. A greater emphasis on the market system in the latter part of the twentieth century partly replaced Keynesianism. [depression (economic), economics, market system, recession]

kickbacks Financial payments made by business interests in return for preferential treatment The Cole Inquiry exposed a gross example in 2006. It found that the Australian Wheat Board (AWB) made illicit payments to Saddam Hussein’s regime in Iraq to ensure a monopoly in that country. The inquiry found that, although AWB executives had behaved illegally and should be prosecuted, the kickbacks did not constitute bribes. [oil-for-food]

kitchen cabinet A small group that supplants the bona fide ministry or cabinet in making important decisions A typical kitchen cabinet would consist of selected colleagues of the government leader together with a small number of people from outside parliament. The power of such a group would be undemocratic and dan-

108 kite flying gerous to good government. The term is sometimes applied to less sinister groups that simply give advice to political leaders. [cabinet, ministry (as a group)]

kite flying An attempt to discover public reaction to a political idea before making a firm decision The term comes from the figurative expression ‘finding out which way the wind is blowing’. It may be achieved by ‘leaking’ a report about the proposal or by a minister or politician informally discussing the idea so that the media will give it publicity without the commitment of the government or political party.

Kooris A term that gained temporary popularity in the 1980s as a supposedly traditional name for Indigenous Australians ‘Kooris’ was a traditional name only in some parts of the south-east of the continent and, therefore, is not appropriate when referring to all In­digenous Australians. [Aborigines, Indigenous Australians]

Kyoto Protocol An international agreement that sets binding targets for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions for industrialised countries Adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997, the Kyoto Protocol is closely connected to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Each participating country received a specified target, although this could be modified by emissions trading. The USA and Australia were the only countries not to ratify the agreement promptly. Australia failed to sign for several years but the Rudd government did so soon after the 2007 election. [climate change]

L Labor Party See Australian Labor Party

Labor rat See rat

Labor ‘Split’ The colloquial term for the division of Labor support that followed federal ALP intervention in Victoria in1954 The Federal Executive of the ALP investigated the affairs of the Victorian branch, paying particular attention to the role of the Movement, led by B.A. Santamaria (later the National Civic Council). As a result, the ALP in Victoria was restructured amid great controversy, which finally led to the formation of the Democratic Labor Party. The ‘Split’ affected the ALP in all states but its effects were most severe in Victoria. [intervention (ALP), Movement, the, National Civic Council]

Labor Unity (faction) A strong Labor Party faction in Victoria It came into prominence at the time of the federal Labor intervention in Victoria in 1970. In federal politics it is part of the Right group, although its members sometimes protest about being labelled as right wing, claiming that they have widely differing views. As in other factions, concern over policy has diminished with increased focus on gaining strength and pos­ itions within the ALP. [factions—Australian Labor Party, intervention (ALP)]

labourism The idea that the interests of workers can be safeguarded in a capitalist country by a combination of a strong trade union movement and a parliamentary Labor Party

110 labour movement Features of Australian labourism in the first half of the twentieth century included a policy for government ownership of essential services, protective tariffs, the White Australia policy and the industrial arbitration system. These policies were greatly modified or eliminated in the later years of the century. More extreme left-wingers asserted that gradual improvements in workers’ conditions were delaying the change to full socialism, which could be achieved only by revolution.

labour movement In Australia, the informal alliance between the trade unions and the Australian Labor Party This traditional and frequently used term does not have a precise meaning. It is used to refer to a shared attitude but not a structured organisation. The conventional spelling is ‘labour’ when the word is part of the term ‘labour movement’ but ‘Labor’ in the political party.

ladder of opportunity A metaphor for social mobility The term came into prominence in Australia during the 2004 federal election campaign when the ALP leader, Mark Latham, used it repeatedly to describe policies that were intended to help disadvantaged Australians improve their position. [social mobility]

laissez faire The doctrine of non-interference In politics, laissez faire is the policy of minimal government regulation or involvement in economics, commerce or industry. In varying degrees, it is one of the policies of conservative political parties. [conservatism, economics, planning]

land rights The movement for the return of land to Indigenous Australians From the early 1960s the question of Aboriginal land rights became a controversial public issue. It gained increased public interest as a result of the Mabo decision in 1992, which rejected the legal concept of terra nullius—that the land belonged to no one. State and Commonwealth le­gislation followed amid controversy between Aboriginal rights groups and mining and farming interests. The Wik decision of the High Court in 1996 caused renewed controversy and pressure from farming interests for new legislation. [Mabo case, Native Title Act, Wik decision]

landslide 111 landslide An election which results in a large majority for one party, often associated with a substantial swing in voting patterns Sometimes a small swing can result in several seats changing hands. This can occur when many seats were previously held by very narrow majorities. [marginal electorate]

law The rules by which a community or country is governed There are two separate types of law: statute law and common law. The processes of parliament produce statute law. Common law is built up by custom and tradition and the decisions of courts. [common law, statute law]

law and order There are two interpretations: laws for the peace of a community; and a slogan employed by embattled governments when confronted by public protests The two uses of the term focus attention on the need for a balance between order and justice. Over-emphasis on order may result in unsuitable laws and evils continuing indefinitely. But if people resorted to violence over every imagined injustice, communities would live in fear and disorder. [civil liberties, rule of law]

Law Reform commissions Commissions established to investigate state and federal legal systems and to make suggestions for their improvement The Federal government established the Australian Law Reform Commission in 1975. Law Reform commissions have been established in every state and the two territories, although not all have survived. They do not have the power to make changes but can make recommendations to parliament. [law, statute law]

Leader of the Government in the Senate The senior minister in the Senate and the manager of government business in that chamber The position has responsibilities similar to those of the Leader of the House in the House of Representatives.

Leader of the House The minister appointed by the prime minister to organise proceedings in the lower house of parliament The main aim of the Leader of the House is to ensure that government business, especially the passage of bills, is conducted without too much

112 Leader of the Opposition delay. This requires consultation with the opposition and the presiding officer of the house. In the Senate the position is called the Leader of the Government.

Leader of the Opposition The leader in parliament of the largest non-government party The opposition leader, like the prime minister or a premier, is always from the lower house. She or he is the opposition aspirant for the position of prime minister or premier and is the chief debating opponent of the government leader. The position of Leader of the Opposition is officially recognised, and the holder of the position receives higher pay and better facilities than backbenchers. Opposition leaders are often in danger of being replaced after failing to win an election, or even between elections, as there may be ambitious rivals waiting to take the position. [backbencher, opposition]

League of Nations An international organisation established soon after World War I with the chief aim of maintaining peace The League of Nations did not prevent the rise of fascism and Nazism, or World War II. The USA did not join the League of Nations and Germany, Italy and Japan left it before 1939. The United Nations is regarded as the successor to the League of Nations and has received greater international support. [United Nations]

League of Rights An extremist right-wing political organisation Founded by Eric Butler in the 1940s, the League of Rights became an Australia-­wide organisation in 1960. It supported apartheid in South Africa, opposed communism and socialism and was antisemitic. The league has attracted limited support from some conservative politicians. [lunar right, racism]

leakage (of preference votes) Votes for an eliminated candidate that do not follow that candidate’s recommended preferences In forecasting the winner of an election before the count has been completed the distribution of eliminated candidates’ preferences are important. These will mostly follow the candidates’ recommendations as shown on their how-to-vote-cards. The votes that do not follow the card are referred to as the ‘leakage’ of preferences. [preferential voting]

leaks 113 leaks Unauthorised disclosure of confidential information, particularly from government or political sources Leaks can provide confidential information to politicians to use with the aim of embarrassing their political opponents. Confidential infor­mation from party sources, such as caucus meetings, may also be disclosed, either deliberately for tactical, personal or factional reasons or innocently through unguarded comments. [caucus]

leftie A term for a person who takes a left-wing political position or is alleged to do so It is often used as a criticism, not always accurately.

left-wing A vague term indicating a position in the political spectrum The meaning depends on the context. When applied to a political party it indicates a leaning towards socialism. But when applied to a faction or an individual within a party its meaning depends on the general stance of that party. For example, the left-wing members of a conservative party would be very different from the left-wing members of the Labor Party. [political spectrum]

legal aid Provision of legal services to people who cannot afford the full cost of representation in court The theoretical principle is that no one should be disadvantaged in legal matters because of lack of funds. Although this ideal is not fully achieved, financial assistance for legal services is provided in some cases to those who cannot afford legal representation. [civil rights and responsibilities]

legalism Interpretation of the Constitution or legislation in accordance with very strict legal concepts Those who believe that greater importance should be placed on the intentions of legislation and of the Constitution and that current attitudes should be taken into account usually employ the term as a criticism. A contrary view is that the courts could make interpretations that would depend too greatly on the personal beliefs of the judges. Similar arguments apply to literalism. [literalism]

114 legislation legislation Laws made by parliament The laws made by Australian parliaments—federal, state and territory— make up statute law. The process is the parliamentary procedure of introducing bills, debating them and voting for their approval or defeat. If approved, they require formal assent by the governor or governor-general. [common law, statute, statute law]

Legislative Assembly The name of the lower house of parliament in most Australian states and in the two mainland territories It is the name of the lower house in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia. It is also the name of the only house of parliament in Queensland, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. In South Australia and Tasmania the lower house is called the House of Assembly. [bicameral system, unicameral system]

Legislative Council The name of the upper house in all Australian state parliaments, except Queensland, which has only one house

legislative councillor A member of parliament who is a member of the Legislative Council in one of the state parliaments Members of a Legislative Council have similar rights and duties to those of members of a lower house. They may become ministers but not premiers, who always come from a lower house. All legislative councillors have the title ‘Honourable’.

legislature An assembly of people empowered to make laws The legislature is one of the three ‘arms of government’, the other two being the executive and the judiciary. In democracies such as Australia the parliaments have this power based on the principle of responsible government, which requires that those who make the laws are responsible to the people. Section 1 of the Constitution sets out the legislative powers of the Australian parliament. [arms of government, responsible government]

lemon socialism Government financial assistance to private companies that might otherwise collapse during a period of economic recession The 2009 worldwide economic crisis provided many examples when national governments gave massive amounts of financial help to major

letterboxing 115 businesses such as banks and vehicle manufacturers. The term ‘lemon’ comes from its figurative application to second-hand cars with grave faults. [economics, global financial crisis]

letterboxing Delivery of political material to household letterboxes A popular term used by political activists for hand-delivery of leaflets, either by paid distributors or, more often, by party supporters. Opinions differ on whether political material should be placed in letterboxes labelled ‘No junk mail’. Those in favour of delivery suggest that to call political information ‘junk’ is to misunderstand the value of democracy and the responsibility of citizens.

level playing field A metaphor for international trade without tariffs or subsidies; sometimes used to indicate fair competition in general In particular, it is used to indicate the absence of tariffs and subsidies, implying that fair competition would be the result. But other factors affect international trade, such as great differences in rates of pay from country to country. [protection, subsidy, tariffs]

liberal democracy A form of government based on the principle of fundamental human rights for all, including those who hold and express unpopular beliefs These rights include freedom of speech and assembly, protection of minorities and freedom of religion. The possibility that a strong feeling of a majority may endanger such liberal principles, even temporarily, is an argument in favour of a formal Bill of Rights. An opposing argument is that tradition is a more effective guarantee of these freedoms and there is no need for a formal, codified document. [Bill of Rights, liberalism, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

liberalism A political ideology emphasising social reform, tolerance and freedom of the individual The philosopher and economist John Stuart Mill was an important influence on liberal thought in England in the mid nineteenth century and increasing support for liberalism resulted in the growth of the long-­ established Liberal Party, which became a major force in England in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Its main opponent was the Conservative Party. ‘Liberal’ is used differently in different countries. In the USA the term ‘liberal’ is used by conservatives to criticise those who are alleged to have ‘leftist’ views. In Australia the Liberal Party is closer to the

116 Liberal Movement British Conservative Party and became more so after the decline in influence of the ‘small-l Liberals’. [bleeding heart liberal, conservatism, liberal democracy, small-l Liberals]

Liberal Movement A breakaway group from the Liberal Party in South Australia that developed into a short-lived political party Founded in 1972 by Steele Hall, a Liberal member of parliament, it had some success in parliamentary elections. Most of its members returned to the Liberal Party in 1976 but some of them joined the Australian Democrats. [Australian Democrats]

Liberal National Party (LNP) A combination of the Liberal Party and the National Party in Queensland It was formed just before the 2009 Queensland state election to avoid Liberal candidates and National Party candidates opposing one another in some electorates—as had happened in earlier Queensland state elections.

Liberal Party (1909–1917) See Fusion Party

Liberal Party (of Australia) The major conservative party in Australia The Liberal Party was founded in 1944, mainly through the efforts of R.G. (later Sir Robert) Menzies. It has had substantial electoral success since 1949, particularly in federal politics, in coalition with the National (formerly Country) Party. The immediate predecessor of the Liberal Party was the United Australia Party and, from 1917 to 1931, the Nationalist Party. But there had been an earlier party called the Liberal Party (alternatively called the Fusion Party) which existed from 1909 to 1917. The Liberal Party’s record in government has been consistent with a conservative ideology, modified by the provision of social services such as family benefits and pensions. The party’s membership and support ranges from small-l liberals to right-wing conservatives. The latter group won power from the small-l Liberals in the 1980s and its domination continued into the twenty-first century. [conservatism, factions—conservative parties, Fusion Party, Nationalist Party, United Australia Party]

literalism Interpretation of the Constitution or legislation based on narrow defi­ nitions of the words

Loan Council 117 Literalism is criticised as being too narrow a basis for interpretation; on the other hand, there are fears that personal attitudes of the judges could play too great a part if insufficient attention is paid to the actual words of legislation and the Constitution. Similar arguments apply to legalism. [High Court, legalism]

Loan Council See Australian Loan Council

lobby To attempt to influence attitudes or decisions of politicians, ministers and governments The term is derived from the custom of greeting and engaging politicians in conversation in the lobbies or corridors of a parliament house. Lobbying may be carried out directly by the people interested in the matter, or by professional lobbyists who are paid for their services. The average person does not need to employ a lobbyist or go to a parliament house. Members of parliament have electorate offices in various suburbs and country towns, where people can go and express their views or explain their problems. [electorate office, lobbyist]

lobbyist A person or company whose income-earning business aims to influence political or ministerial decisions Professional lobbying has become accepted as a normal and respectable business and many companies and individuals are engaged in it. Never­ theless, lobbying is sometimes associated with donations to parties or politicians in anticipation of favours. Some lobbyists spend a good deal of time in and around the various parliament houses or other places frequented by politicians, to whom they are often well known. [slush fund]

local government The third level of government in Australia, within every state and the Northern Territory Local government is also known as municipal government and the elected assemblies are called municipal councils or, simply, councils. The powers and responsibilities of local government are specified in Acts of the state and territory parliaments. Funding mainly comes from rates and charges levied in its own area by each council and from government grants. In the early years of local government its main concern was the provision of roads and drainage, but its responsibilities gradually widened and councils now make substantial contributions to community welfare, with concern for people from childhood to old age. In conjunction with other

118 lockout levels of government, councils also take an active part in planning and development. [mayor, tiers of government]

lockout Direct action by an employer to prevent employees from working during an industrial dispute This may be in the form of mass dismissals, or by barring or locking the entrances to the place of work. It is a tactic sometimes used by employers to persuade or coerce workers to agree to conditions desired by the employer. [industrial dispute, strike]

lock-up The political meaning is a temporarily isolated place where journalists can study official documents before they are made public The arrangement provides journalists with a few hours to read and analyse documents such as government budgets before they are made available to the general public. This enables the news media to give summaries of long and complicated documents immediately following their official release, together with interpretations and comments by specialist writers. [embargo]

logging The felling of trees from forests for commercial purposes Political controversy surrounds the logging industry as many environmentalists want logging areas to be more restricted than those engaged in the timber industry would like. Selective logging is the removal of some trees and the leaving of others. Clear felling is the removal of all trees in a particular area.

lower house One of the two houses of parliament in a bicameral system The party that controls the lower house forms the government, no matter which party has the numbers in the upper house, and the prime minister and the premiers always come from the lower house. Lower houses have been given the title the ‘people’s house’. For many years they were elected on a broader franchise than the upper houses. In the Commonwealth parliament, the House of Representatives is elected on the principle of ‘one vote–one value’, but the Senate is not. The number of senators is the same in each state despite the great disparity in their populations. In Australia, all parliaments have an upper and lower house except Queensland, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. Each of these has a unicameral system. [one vote–one value, people’s house, unicameral system, adult franchise]

lunar right 119 lunar right Vernacular term applied to extreme right-wing and neo-Nazi groups The term is comparable to the ‘loony left’, which identifies the more extreme leftists in Australian politics. Organisations belonging to the ‘lunar right’ include Eric Campbell’s New Guard, P.R. ‘Inky’ Stephensen’s Australia First Movement, National Action, the National Front and Eric Butler’s League of Rights. Such groups sometimes try to infiltrate branches of the major conservative parties. [League of Rights, National Front, New Guard, racism]

Lyons Forum A socially conservative group or faction formed by some conservative members of Federal parliament in 1992 It condemned euthanasia and abortion, and supported heavy censorship of television programs. The secretive Lyons Forum received publicity at the time of the 1996 controversy over the Northern Territory’s euthanasia legislation, which it opposed. The group was named for a UAP prime minister of the 1930s, J.A. Lyons. [Endeavour Forum]

M Mabo case In 1992 the High Court ruled that, under some circumstances, Indigenous Australians and Torres Strait Islanders have a continuing right to land Eddie Mabo, a Torres Strait Islander, took the case to the High Court in 1982. The court decided that the native right to land is a common law one, but exists only where the native people have maintained their connection with the land and where an Act of Parliament has not discontinued their rights. The court’s decision was based on its rejection of the doctrine of terra nullius, which is the legal term for the notion that Australia was a land that belonged to no one before colonisation. The Mabo decision set a legal precedent and resulted in renewed public interest over Aboriginal land rights. New Commonwealth and state legislation was passed, including the Commonwealth Native Title Act. The Act did not resolve the question of whether native title continued over pastoral lease land and this was the subject of the Wik case in the High Court in 1996. [common law, land rights, Native Title Act, terra nullius, Wik decision]

machine politics Control of a political party or a section of it by a tightly organised group or by a powerful leader Machine politics has the danger that those in control may focus on benefiting associates and friends rather than formulating sound policy. It can result in the promotion of unsuitable people and poor legislation. In practice, a modified form of machine politics often applies with the ruling group acting partly in its own interests while retaining a substantial degree of interest in political ideals. [faction, kitchen cabinet]

macroeconomics Economics relating to the whole economy of a nation

maiden speech 121 Macroeconomics deals with national income, balance of trade, general wage rates, unemployment, interest rates, prices and inflation. Government policy and action at a macroeconomic level depend on the economic theories in favour with a government, the condition of the national economy, and on powerful international economic influences that affect investment and trade. [microeconomics]

maiden speech See first speech

main committee A parliamentary committee that considers bills referred to it by agreement between the government and non-government MPs Established in 1994 to help speed up parliamentary proceedings, the main committee meets concurrently with a sitting of the house. Bills referred to the committee are ones which are considered unlikely to be contentious and it attempts to reach decisions by agreement. The results of the main committee’s work are reported to the house, which makes the final decisions. [committee system]

Main Street A figurative term used in political and economic discussion which refers to local business activity The term comes from the United States but is frequently seen in Aus­tralian publications. It is used in conjunction with a similar metonym, ‘Wall Street’, to comment on top-level economic decisions and the consequences on suburban or small-town business activity. [big end of town, Wall Street]

majority More than half of the valid votes in an election, or more supporters than opponents The term can also mean the excess of votes received by the winning candidate (before or after distribution of preferences) over other votes polled. It can mean more than half of the first preference votes, or more than half the votes after preferences have been distributed. [first-past-the-post system, plurality, preferential voting]

malapportionment The division of a nation or state into electorates so that the number of electors is much smaller in some electorates than in others Malapportionment can result in a party winning a majority of members of parliament with a total vote well below 50 per cent. For example, in

122 managerialism Queensland in the time of the Bjelke-Petersen government, his party won more than 60 per cent of the seats with 40 per cent of the vote. Oppo­sition to malapportionment led to the adoption of the slogan ‘one vote–one value’. Malapportionment should not be confused with gerrymander, which is a different type of system but also unfair. [gerrymander, one vote–one value]

managerialism The acceptance of management as a profession in its own right whatever the nature of the activity being managed With the increased complexity of organisations it is widely believed that the same principles of good management apply whatever the technical area of operation may be, and they apply to commercial companies, government entities and not-for-profit charitable organisations.

mandate The right to govern or legislate on particular matters, based on the approval of the electors The term has no firm definition and there is sometimes controversy over political parties’ claims to possess a mandate. One interpretation is that a party (or coalition) that has won a majority in the lower house has obtained a mandate from the people. This is the basis on which a governor-­general or a state governor asks a party leader to form a government. The meaning of the term is often extended to mean approval to legislate in accordance with the winning party’s policy. A contrary argument is that the mandate does not extend beyond the policy expressed before the election, and does not necessarily apply to all of it.

manhood suffrage The legal entitlement of all male adults to vote The term has no more than historical interest in Australia because of the adoption of universal suffrage for federal elections in 1902. The term ‘manhood suffrage’ came from an earlier time when voting was mostly restricted to property owners. [franchise, adult franchise]

manifesto The stated policies of a political party or candidate The term applies particularly to published policies during election campaigns. [election policy]

marginal electorate One in which support for the main candidates is almost equal, after distribution of preferences

market system 123 The results in marginal electorates are of great interest as the outcome in a few of them can mean success or defeat for the contending parties. These electorates are given special attention during election campaigns by the parties and the news media. Because of this interest, marginal electorates often attract many candidates who hope to gain publicity for their parties or themselves. [two-party-preferred vote]

market system An economic policy or model favouring minimal government involvement or regulation Sometimes called ‘the market’, the policy is contentious and debate is centred on the degree of government regulation. Some political conservatives argue for little or no government intervention and place emphasis on the importance of the freedom to trade in a variety of markets. Left-of-centre opinion favours significant government involvement to maintain stability and low rates of unemployment, in keeping with Keynesian theories. For some three decades after World War II this policy was widely adopted in most countries, but from the 1960s it was gradually replaced by the market system. Major economic difficulties erupted in 2008 and the attitude of governments changed again; they chose to intervene substantially in an effort to reduce the damage. [economics, Keynesianism, recession]

Marxism A political theory, or theories, based on the work of Karl Marx and a term often used as a synonym for communism Karl Marx was a nineteenth-century German philosopher and, together with Friedrich Engels, he provided the theories on which communism has been based. There is doubt and controversy over the interpretation of Marx’s ideas and whether communist governments have followed Marxist principles. [communism, political theory]

mass media The means of communication with very large numbers of people, particularly through newspapers, radio and television The mass media include electronic and print media. The first group includes radio and television and, perhaps, telephones, and the Internet. The second includes newspapers, magazines, books and printed advertising. Newspapers, radio and television are regarded as very important in influencing public opinion on political matters. [fourth estate, oligopoly]

124 mateship mateship A core value of Australian national identity, consistent with the belief that Australian men, especially manual workers, look after each other Mateship was accepted as a significant element in working-class ethos and radical nationalism, which emerged in Australia in the late nineteenth century. It is characterised by confidence that Australian men demonstrate unusual levels of care towards their workmates and comrades in times of danger or adversity. The ideal of the digger in World War I, especially from the defeat at Gallipoli in 1915, is consistent with the concept of mateship. The term is inserted, sometimes inappropriately, into political rhetoric. The term has been criticised because it seems to exclude women and also because of the implication that lively concern for others is uniquely Australian. [mores]

mayor One of various titles denoting the presiding officer of a municipal council Different titles are used in different states and for different classifications of municipalities. The title ‘lord mayor’ is used in capital city councils and ‘shire president’ in rural district councils. Other titles are ‘chairman’ and ‘warden’. [local government]

means testing Assessment of a person’s income and possessions to determine whether conditions are met for government financial assistance Means testing can be a controversial political issue. Complications arise in relation to medical benefits and to the careful manipulation of assets in order to comply with the regulations that apply to the particular form of government benefit. [pensions, social services]

media conference A prearranged meeting between members of the news media and a public figure, such as a minister An older term is press conference, but radio and television are often present in addition to newspaper reporters. These conferences may be held regularly or called to deal with an event or situation that has suddenly arisen. [mass media, propaganda]

Medibank The original universal health scheme in Australia established by the Whitlam government in 1974 and which was the forerunner of Medicare

Medicare 125

Reproduced courtesy of Ron Tandberg

Medibank was opposed by the Australian Medical Association, the Liberal Party, the Country Party and the Democratic Labor Party. Despite this opposition, the necessary legislation was passed and the scheme began operating in 1975. It was gradually modified by the Fraser government and virtually abolished in 1979, although a remnant, Medibank Private, continued as a private health insurance provider. The principle of the original Medibank was revived in 1983 under the name of Medicare. [Medicare, social services]

Medicare A national health scheme that aims to make medical attention and hospital accommodation available to all Australian residents In 1983 the Hawke Labor government introduced Medicare to provide free public hospital treatment and refunds of a substantial portion of the cost of medical consultations. It has been financed partly by a levy on income and partly by government. Private health insurance may be purchased to supplement the benefits provided by Medicare. The major political parties have traditionally held opposed or divergent views on public health services although the Howard government allowed Medicare to continue. [Medibank, social services]

member A shortened form of member of parliament The use of the term is usually restricted to contexts that make it clear that a member of parliament is the intended meaning.

member of parliament An elected member of any of the houses of parliament in Australia: federal, state or territory

126 Menzies Research Centre Members of parliament have the responsibility of representing their constituents and the opportunity of contributing to the law-making process. Although members of parliament are frequently criticised or ridiculed, there is great competition to become an MP and many of them are highly qualified, able and experienced. [constituent, legislature, representative democracy]

Menzies Research Centre A conservative think tank Established in Canberra in 1994, this centre is named after Sir Robert Menzies, a former Liberal prime minister. It undertakes political research, arranging seminars and preparing publications. The centre describes itself as providing a ‘focal point for academics with a Liberal leaning’ and ‘a platform for the promotion of Liberal views’. [think tank]

meritocracy A social or political system in which power and position depend on ability rather than on class or wealth An essential characteristic of such a system would be the provision of an equal standard of education to all students, with the aim of each one being able to enter an occupation and achieve a position according to ability. Advocates of a meritocracy argue that countries that do not adopt such a system will fall behind in international competition. [classes, equal opportunity]

me-tooism The propensity for political parties to copy each other’s policies under some circumstances If a particular policy of one party has become popular it may be adopted by the other despite being contrary to its traditional attitudes. Also, media scrutiny has made politicians nervous of proposing untried policies. Metooism is one way to play it safe. [policy formation]

microeconomic reform Reforms intended to increase the efficiency of individual sectors of the economy The changes usually require government action or support and the broad aims are to improve a country’s living standards and international competitiveness by reducing costs. Targeted changes include increased competition, reform of restrictive work practices and reductions in tariffs. In Australia, microeconomic reforms have sometimes met with strong opposition. [productivity, restrictive trade practices, tariffs]

microeconomics 127 microeconomics Economics that deal with various segments of a nation’s economy, such as specific industries and companies Microeconomics can apply to a wide range of activities from small businesses to nationwide industries, and applies to individual people as workers and as consumers. It deals with the priorities and effective use of resources and the aims of people affected, such as profit and incomes. The boundary between macroeconomics and microeconomics is unclear. [economics, macroeconomics]

middle class A position on the social or occupational ladder of status The middle class traditionally (in Great Britain) consisted of professional people and managers but in Australia there are no clear definitions of classes such as ‘upper’, ‘middle’, ‘working’ and ‘lower’ classes. A wide range of Australians regard themselves as ‘middle class’ and this has some consequences in adopting political policy. [battler, classes, dog-whistle politics]

middle class welfare Government assistance, usually in the form of direct or indirect financial benefits, for people who are in moderately secure circumstances Political matters that are affected include health, education and rates of tax for different levels of income. The middle class is reputed to include many voters who are not consistently allied, or ‘rusted on’, to any particular party. For this reason some political commentators suggest that election policies are influenced by the aim of political parties to win support from the swinging voters of the middle class.

Millennium Development Goals A United Nations initiative that set targets for living standards for people throughout the world The goals, to be achieved by the year 2015, were agreed upon in 2000—the beginning of the new millennium—and include eradication of extreme poverty and hunger, universal primary education, better health, adequate shelter, fairer trade and international debt relief, gender equality and en­vironmental sustainability. [climate change, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

minister A member of parliament appointed to the executive and usually responsible for a significant segment of public administration such as a department In the words of the Constitution, ministers are chosen by the governorgeneral and become members of the Federal Executive Council but, in

128 ministerial adviser practice, the political party (or coalition) that is in government chooses ministers. Several factors in addition to their personal abilities affect the selection of ministers. [accountability of ministers, executive (arm of government), ministry (minister’s responsibility]

ministerial adviser A senior member of a minister’s personal staff Advisers can be expected to have attitudes and aims similar to those of the minister. As their title implies, they give advice to the minister after investigating problems and policy matters. They provide a link with senior public servants in the minister’s department. Advisers also deal with numerous less important or routine matters that do not warrant the minister’s personal attention.

ministerial brief A concise explanation to assist a minister in decision-making and in publicly explaining a course of action, or one under consideration Such a brief may contain the essential background facts: what the proposal aims to achieve, the arguments that may be raised against it, possibly some spin, and recommendations on a course of action. [spin]

ministerial code of conduct A code to ensure confidence in ministerial honesty and accountability, and to eliminate conflicts of interests The code was established by the then prime minister, John Howard, and published in 1998. Such a code does not have the authority of parliament and can be changed by the prime minister. In December 2007 the ministerial code was modified by the incoming prime minister, Kevin Rudd. It includes a range of measures to ensure greater scrutiny of federal ministers. It requires lobbyists to be listed on a public register before accessing ministers; bans electoral fundraising at the Lodge and Kirribilli House; and requires ministers to divest themselves of shareholdings. It also includes restrictions on their business dealings after they have left office. There is no formal code of conduct for federal backbenchers, although codes do apply to all MPs in some states. [conflict of interests]

ministerial responsibility The convention that a minister takes responsibility for the actions of her or his department Ministers are answerable to parliament and, if there is a major blunder or impropriety, the minister is expected to resign, even though she or he was not directly responsible. There is an uncertain line between matters

ministerial statement 129 that require resignation and less important mistakes by departmental officials that could be expected to happen from time to time in any large organisation.

ministerial statement A speech in parliament by a minister on a matter of topical importance Such a statement is distinct from a minister’s speech in a debate on a bill. Ministers also use other opportunities to share views and information with parliament, such as answers during Question Time. [Dorothy Dixer]

ministry (as a group) The prime minister (or premier) together with the other ministers After an election a ministry is formed and given the name of the government leader, for example ‘the Deakin ministry’. The name remains until the next election or until a new prime minister is appointed. Another meaning of the term ‘ministry’ is the area of responsibility of an individual minister. [cabinet, executive]

ministry (minister’s responsibility) The area of responsibility, such as a department, a minister is commissioned to administer Sometimes a minister may be given charge of more than one department, or may be allotted none. In the latter case, the title applied is ‘minister without portfolio’. The term ‘ministry’ has a separate meaning, namely, all the ministers as a group. [department, ministry (as a group)]

minority government A government formed by a party without a majority of members in the lower house This type of government must rely upon the voting support in parliament of a sufficient number of independents or members of another party or parties. The likelihood of a minority government is greater when the electoral system—such as proportional representation—increases the chance of candidates from small parties winning seats. [deadlock (lack of a majority), proportional representation]

moderate Between conservative and radical, but the meaning of the term depends on the context In politics, the term is used in describing policies and people active in political parties or associated bodies. For example, when used to describe

130 moderates people in left-wing organisations, the term is sometimes used to indicate that a member is more conservative than most members of the group. [political spectrum]

moderates Conservative politicians with small-l liberal attitudes The term is used as an alternative to the cumbersome ‘small-l liberal’ expression. It is sometimes applied to individuals to indicate their principles, apart from any possible connection to any faction. [factions—conservative parties, small-l Liberals (faction)]

modes of address for members of parliament There are various official titles for different categories of members of parliament These titles are used in formal documents and usually in correspondence. Ministers in state and federal parliaments have the title ‘honourable’, as do all members of state upper houses. Members of the Senate have the title ‘Senator’, except those who are also ministers; their title is ‘Senator the Honourable’. Members of the House of Representatives and the lower houses of state parliaments retain their normal titles of Mr, Ms etc. In parliamentary debate, members of lower houses refer to their colleagues as ‘honourable members’. Ex-ministers retain the title of ‘honourable’ as, in theory, they remain members of the Executive Council, although they do not attend its meetings. [protocol (ceremonial)]

monarchy A form of government having a monarch as either its effective or cer­ emonial head A monarch usually acquires the position by hereditary right and can be a king, queen, emperor or empress or be called by some other title of similar meaning. Australia is described as a constitutional monarchy. Its form of government is defined in the Constitution and includes the monarch, or the monarch’s representative, in the Federal parliament. The governorgeneral is the monarch’s representative in the Federal parliament, and the governors hold similar positions in each of the state parliaments. [Constitution of Australia, constitutional monarchy, head of state]

monetarism An economic theory that gained popularity in the 1970s and largely displaced Keynesianism Monetarism is closely identified with the United States economist Milton Friedman and emphasises the importance of control over the money supply. Supporters of monetarism maintain that tight control over the money supply is a powerful and desirable method of influencing the economy

monetary 131 of a country and restricting inflation. They are critical of action by governments to influence the economy by fiscal means, such as government expenditure to ease unemployment. Monetarism and associated economic theories were widely accepted until the economic upheaval that began in 2008 caused a revision of economic beliefs. [Keynesianism, market system]

monetary An economic term applying to the supply of money and credit

money bills Bills introduced in parliament to authorise government expenditure or for taxation changes [appropriation bills]

monopoly A monopoly exists when only one person or organisation is able to provide a particular service or product The seller may be able to fix prices and have too little regard for quality. The same problems can occur when a small group of organisations (an oligopoly) control the supply of a product. Competition can encourage low prices and good quality, but can lead to the failure of some companies and the emergence of a monopoly. The ‘anti-trust’ legislation of the United States is an example of legislation aimed at curtailing the problem. [oligopoly, restrictive trade practices]

moratorium A postponement of an activity or obligation In politics it can apply to a temporary relaxation of penalties on an unlawful activity, such as the possession of illegal weapons, which may be surrendered without penalty during the period of the amnesty. Another example would be the postponement of debt repayments during a time of severe economic difficulties.

mores The values and principles and resulting customs and conventions of a society The mores of a society are the result of a wide range of interacting influences, including customs and traditions, peer group pressure, religion, ethnicity, politics and education. The term ‘mores’ comes from Latin and did not come into popular use as an English word until the twentieth century [ideology, peer group pressure, society]

132 motherhood statement motherhood statement An attempt to gain acceptance of an assertion by comparing it with universally liked values or beliefs In politics, the term is used to criticise a speaker or writer who uses this tactic instead of clearly explaining what is proposed. [propaganda, spin]

motion A formal proposal for consideration by parliament (or by any meeting) that a specified course of action be undertaken There are several types of motions put forward in parliament. Some are procedural and non-controversial, such as formal motions to allow items of business to proceed. Others are contentious and may be debated at length. At small meetings, such as those of a local club, proposals are put forward in the form of a ‘motion’. If approved by the meeting the motion becomes a ‘resolution’. [resolution]

movement In a political or social sense, like-minded people acting together to bring about a change, or to forestall it A movement is different from a political party as it does not aim at forming a government. The dividing line between a movement and a pressure group is less clear but movements have broader aims and can attract supporters from several sectors of society. Examples include conservation, euthanasia and feminism. [ideology, pressure group]

Movement, the A secretive political organisation founded in 1942 and led by B.A. Santamaria, which in 1957 became the National Civic Council and was closely allied to the Democratic Labor Party The Movement began as an active opponent of communists in the trade unions. Its interests and activities soon extended beyond simple anticommunism and it became a powerful force within the ALP, especially in Victoria. It was centrally involved in the Labor ‘Split’ of 1955 that led to the formation of the Democratic Labor Party. The Movement relied heavily on the support of Catholic clergy and laymen, although its relationship to the Catholic Church was a matter of uncertainty and controversy within the church. The existence and operations of the Movement were kept as secret as possible. Codenames such as ‘the organisation’ or ‘the show’ were used by members who were instructed to deny its existence in its early years. Eventually the unofficial term ‘the Movement’ became widely used by historians and authors. The Movement was, at different times, officially named the Catholic Social

muck-raking 133 Studies Movement and the Catholic Social Movement. Finally it became the National Civic Council. [Labor ‘Split’, National Civic Council]

muck-raking See dirt file

mud-slinging Allegations, often false, against the character or conduct of a political opponent Even true criticisms may be properly described as ‘mud-slinging’ when they are used simply to distract attention from a topic of debate that could be damaging. Claims that critics are ‘mud-slinging’ are sometimes used in an attempt to belittle or deflect well-justified criticism. [dirty tricks campaign]

multiculturalism In Australia, the belief and policy that all residents should be able to live in harmony, whatever their cultural, religious or ethnic backgrounds Multiculturalism also includes acceptance and encouragement of immigrants retaining much of their traditional cultures. A consequence of multiculturalism is the need for long-term residents and recent immigrants to accept expressions of a wide variety of cultures within the Australian community. [assimilation, integration, racism]

multi-member electorate An electorate that is represented by more than one member in a particular house of parliament The Senate has multi-member electorates in each state and territory and so do the parliaments of Tasmania, the ACT and the Northern Territory. The Victorian upper house also has multi-member electorates. [electorate, proportional representation]

multinational corporation An organisation with substantial business interests in a number of different countries Also called ‘transnational’, these are often huge business organisations that may take over or displace local companies. Their beneficial aspects include their research and development capability and economies of scale. Their disadvantages include those typical of monopolies and oligopolies, in­cluding the closure of long-established local enterprises. [monopoly, oligopoly]

municipal councils See local government

N naming a member A disciplinary action taken in response to unacceptable behaviour in parliament by an MP The formal naming of a member by the presiding officer is usually followed by a motion for the suspension of the offending member from parliament. This practice is intended to assist the presiding officer in maintaining reasonable standards of debate and conduct. [presiding officer, suspension]

nation An independent country with its own government States that have joined together in federations, such as Australia or the United States, have their separate state governments but these states are not completely independent and are not ‘nations’. [federalism, polity]

national anthem The official song or musical expression of a nation Australia’s national anthem is ‘Advance Australia Fair’, which may be sung or the music played without words. It replaced ‘God Save the Queen’ (or ‘King’) in 1974. ‘God Save the Queen’ was reinstated for some ceremonies in 1976, and again replaced by ‘Advance Australia Fair’ in 1984.

National Civic Council (NCC) A politically influential organisation closely connected to the Democratic Labor Party for many years The National Civic Council had that name from 1957 but, in practice, it was the same organisation as the Movement. It had the same leader, B.A. Santamaria. It retained the support of those Catholic clergy and laymen, particularly in Victoria, who had supported the Movement. It continued the publication of the newspaper News Weekly. The NCC also had a close

national colours 135 and supportive relationship with the Democratic Labor Party until that party faded in the 1970s. From that time, the National Civic Council moved away from active politics and focused on ethical and moral questions. [Democratic Labor Party, Movement, the]

national colours Green and gold are Australia’s official national colours The governor-general made the declaration of the national colours in 1984. The colours were precisely specified as ‘Pantone Matching System numbers 116C and 348C, as used for printing on paper’.

national debt The money owed by all levels of government to creditors inside and outside the country The national debt is sometimes called the ‘public debt’ as it is indirectly owed by all the people of a nation. In Australia the national debt is the total of Commonwealth, state, territory and local government debt.

National Estate Assets of special national importance They can be natural or man-made and include unspoilt natural areas and some historic buildings.

National Farmers’ Federation (NFF) A peak body having primary producers’ organisations as its members The NFF was formed in 1979 and incorporated existing organisations that represented farmers and graziers. It is a natural ally of the National Party but sometimes expresses views different from those of the Nationals. [primary producers’ organisations]

National Front An extreme right-wing racist group founded in Australia in 1978 This group has receded from view and is significant only in demonstrating the persistence of racist intolerance among a minority of Australians. [lunar right, racism]

national interest, the A nation’s survival and its economic, military, social and cultural objectives National interest can include independent survival and security, the health and wellbeing of it people, economic security and growth and preservation of its culture. [essential services, civil liberties, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, security (national), security (social)]

136 nationalisation nationalisation The establishment of government organisations for the provision of goods or services or the compulsory acquisition of private organisations by government Nationalisation can be in the form of a new enterprise or activity or the take-over of a private company. A nationalised undertaking may be a monopoly, or may operate in competition with private companies. There have been several such bodies in Australia, mostly in service industries, and some have been sold to private owners. The Commonwealth Bank, founded in 1911, was a successful and well-known example of a nationalised organisation until sold in the 1990s. [privatisation]

nationalism Feelings of loyalty and pride in one’s country, its people, its culture and traditions Nationalism ranges from an admirable loyalty to the country and community to excessive feelings that can lead to intolerance, racism and aggression. Nationalism in Australia is complex because of the diverse origins and attitudes of its people. Australians now include Aborigines, descendants from early settlers and more recent immigrants from all parts of the world including a wide range of races and cultures. Consequently nationalism in Australia is much different from that in countries with less eclectic communities. [imperialism, patriotism]

Nationalist Party The major conservative party from 1917 to 1931, when the United Australia Party replaced it The name ‘Nationalist Party’ was adopted when a group of dissident ALP members, including the Labor leader W.M. ‘Billy’ Hughes, combined with the Liberal (or Fusion) Party. The Nationalists, alone or in coalition with the Country Party, continued as the federal government from 1917 to 1929, when Labor won and James Scullin became prime minister. [Country Party, Fusion Party, United Australia Party]

national parks Areas that are legally reserved so that their natural or highly valued qualities will be safeguarded Some are large tracts of wilderness set aside to preserve the natural e­nvironment. Others are small but with special qualities, such as waterfalls, breeding areas for various species of wildlife or have other special or historic value. Australia has one of the largest national park systems in the world, covering over 24 million hectares of diverse landscape from lush rainforest to waterless desert. A number of Australia’s national parks

National Party 137 have been declared World Heritage Areas. Development is prohibited or is strictly limited in these areas and visitors have to follow specified rules of behaviour so that the nature of the parks will not be altered or damaged. [conservation]

National Party An important, rurally based conservative political party, formerly known as the Country Party The National Party supports private enterprise, although it advocates government involvement and assistance in rural matters. It adopted the name in 1982 but, as an organisation, has operated since the for­mation of the Australian Country Party in 1920. The name was changed to National Country Party in 1975 and changed again, in 1982, to National Party. The names of the rurally based parties are not the same in every state although, in practice, they are closely connected to the National Party. It has frequently joined the city-based conservative party to form coalition governments, particularly in federal politics. The National Party should not be confused with the Nationalist Party, the city-based conservative party from 1917 to 1931. [coalition, Country Party, United Australia Party]

National Seniors Australia An Australia-wide, community organisation for people over 50 years of age With branches in all states and mainland territories, this organisation’s membership includes people still at work, pensioners and self-funded retirees. It provides a range of services to its members and lobbies on their behalf.

national service Compulsory military service, including training during peacetime National service usually applies to young men and they are required to serve for a set period of time, typically three months. Alternative types of service are sometimes provided for those who object to military service. The term ‘conscription’ is used during wartime and has a similar meaning. There have been intermittent periods of national service in Australia, but none since the Vietnam War. [conscription]

National Trusts Voluntary organisations having the aim of preserving selected natural areas and entities of historic significance These organisations identify geographical areas, buildings and other items that are considered to be worthy of preservation and encourage governments and others to save them from destruction. In some cases, such as historic buildings, they arrange for restoration and preservation. [National Estate]

138 National Union (faction) National Union (faction) An unpublicised group based in Melbourne that exerted a dominating influence in the United Australia Party The National Union collected and controlled conservative party funds and had a major role in policy-making and the selection of candidates. A similar group, the Consultative Council, operated in Sydney. The nature of the National Union, the identity of its members and its substantial political power were unknown to most Australians at the time. In the early 1940s it was superseded by the Institute of Public Affairs. [factions—conservative parties, Institute of Public Affairs]

Native Title Act Commonwealth legislation dealing with Aboriginal land rights and related matters that followed the Mabo decision of 1992 The bill was introduced in 1993 after much preliminary publicity and controversy. There were sharp differences of opinion among interested groups, particularly between Aboriginal people and the mining and farming industries. The legislation was passed in December 1993 after many amendments and a difficult passage through the Senate. The Native Title Act did not resolve the question of the status of native title when land is subject to pastoral and mining leases and left that matter to be determined by the courts. The High Court Wik decision of December 1996 declared that native title and pastoral leases could co-exist. [land rights, Mabo case, Wik decision]

natural law Rules applying to human conduct, which some people assert are implied by nature and are immutable There are different opinions on whether or not there are natural laws of this kind and what they may be, and these differences are an additional factor in some political debates, especially on matters of a philosophic or moral nature, such as euthanasia. [common law, conscience vote, ethics, euthanasia, statute law]

NCC See National Civic Council

negative gearing A form of tax relief for property investors Negative gearing allows taxpayers to reduce their overall tax liabilities by making losses on investment properties. Critics argue that negative gearing is a form of unfair tax avoidance for the rich, and call for its abolition. [taxation, tax avoidance]

neoconservatism 139 neoconservatism A political philosophy that emerged in the USA in the 1980s that supported aggressive military policy, Christian fundamentalism and neoliberal economic beliefs Adherents of neoconservatism are referred to as ‘neocons’. They gained influence under the presidency of George W. Bush and are socially conservative, with links to evangelical Christianity. They are opposed to the provision of social services and favour minimal government expenditure, except for military purposes.

neoliberalism The economic philosophy of the ‘free market’ or ‘the market system’ The characteristics of neoliberalism include reliance on the unregulated market, reduced public expenditure, deregulation and privatisation. It displaced Keynesianism in popularity in the latter years of the twentieth century. [Keynesianism, Thatcherism]

nepotism The granting of favours or prized positions to friends or relatives by powerful people Nepotism can be practised by governments, private enterprise and various organisations. The word is derived from the Latin word nepos, meaning nephew or grandson. [jobs for the boys, meritocracy, old boy network]

neutrality The policy of a country that chooses not to become directly involved in a war A country close to a war zone does not necessarily have the choice of being neutral as one of the warring nations may invade. But those directly involved in a war sometimes find it advantageous to have a neutral country nearby for industrial and commercial reasons and to enable indirect contact to be made with enemy nations. [isolationism]

New Australian A name applied to immigrants, especially foreign language speakers, after World War II The term was promoted by the then immigration minister, Arthur Calwell, with the aim of overcoming racial prejudice or suspicion and to combat the use of derogatory expressions. [multiculturalism, racism]

140 New Guard New Guard An extremist right-wing organisation operating in Australia in the 1930s The New Guard claimed to have great loyalty to the British Empire but followed fascist ideology and methods, including the training of unauthorised paramilitary personnel. It was founded by Eric Campbell in 1931 and had some characteristics in common with a more recently organised group, the League of Rights. [League of Rights, lunar right]

New Left Left-wing movements in the 1960s and 1970s that focused on a wide range of political issues, including discrimination relating to gender, race and sexuality The New Left in the USA was associated with the hippy counter-culture and tertiary students and their critiques of traditional conservative values. In Australia the term New Left is applied to radical historiography that differs from the interpretation of the Old Left when dealing with the Cold War. [Old Left]

New Right A loose amalgamation of right-wing conservatives; also a group or faction within the Liberal Party The term came into prominence in the 1980s and the group has included well-known people from commerce, farming organisations and the academic world. Doctrines of the New Right include advocacy of monetarism, and opposition to public ownership, trade unions and extended social services. New Right attitudes have been broadly similar to those of the Dries and the H.R. Nicholls Society. As a faction within the Liberal Party it became powerful in the 1980s and took over control from the small-l Liberals. [Dries (faction), Nicholls Society, Thatcherism]

new states movement Organised activity to create new states The Australian Constitution makes provision for the creation of new states but only with the parliamentary approval of the state or states concerned. There have been several attempts to create new states since Federation, but none has been successful.

nexus (political) The relationship between the number of senators and the number of members of the House of Representatives

Nicholls, (H.R.) Society 141 The Constitution requires that the number of the lower house members be approximately twice the number of senators.

Nicholls, (H.R.) Society A far-right group opposed to trade unions and the arbitration system Founded in Melbourne in 1986, the organisation’s original steering committee included several members with New Right or Dries factional allegiance. H. R. Nicholls, whose name has been adopted by the society, was highly critical of Justice Higgins, the Arbitration Court’s president who established the basic wage in 1907. [basic wage, Dries (faction)]

nimby Acronym for ‘not in my back yard’ Nimby is used as a term of criticism to describe a person who wants the benefits of public services and infrastructure but is unwilling to accept any disadvantages.

no-confidence motion An attempt to demonstrate that a government or a minister lacks support in parliament If such a motion is carried in a lower house the government or the minister is expected to resign. A no-confidence motion is similar to a censure motion except that it does not apply to an individual member. [censure motion]

nomination for election The procedure required to be officially listed as an intending candidate A candidate must meet criteria similar to those that must be met by voters, although sometimes the criteria are stricter. The correctly completed nomination document, together with a deposit, must be lodged with the returning officer before the time officially set for the close of nominations. [candidate, deposit]

Non-Aligned Group A small group of Labor Party members who believe that the major factions exert too much power within the ALP This group opposes branch stacking and claims to be different from the major factions as it does not direct its members to vote for particular policies or candidates in internal ALP elections. Its earlier names were the Participants and the Independents. [branch stacking, Independents (faction), Participants]

142 non-alignment non-alignment The position chosen by some countries that prefer not to join military alliances Several countries that did not wish to be linked with either side in the Cold War became known as non-aligned, although many of them did take an active part in international affairs through the United Nations. [alliance, Cold War, United Nations]

non-core promise A promise made at election time but one that a government chooses not to fulfil The term became well known during John Howard’s time as prime minister when the expression was used as an explanation for disregarding election promises. Failing to keep promises may be reasonable in some cases, such as unforeseen changes in circumstances, but the term provokes scepticism or is regarded as an example of ‘spin’. [core promise, spin]

non-government organisation (NGO) An organisation, usually created by independent groups of people, free from government control Their status allows NGOs to act in situations where direct association with governments might make their work more difficult. Some NGOs are funded totally or partially by governments but retain their non-­ government st­atus. Leading NGOs include Save the Children, the World Wildlife Fund, Greenpeace and Amnesty International.

non-Labor parties A term used to distinguish other parties from the Australian Labor Party In response to the growing strength of the Labor Party, conservative political groups previously opposed to one another combined in the early years of the twentieth century to become the Fusion Party. Other non-Labor parties have included the Nationalists, the United Australia Party, the Country Party and the Liberal Party. Non-Labor parties usually direct preferences against the ALP, although an important exception is The Greens.

Northern Territory parliament It consists of a single house of parliament—the Legislative Assembly The Northern Territory has had a limited form of self-government since 1978, under a Commonwealth act of parliament, but the superior power of the Commonwealth was clearly demonstrated by the overriding of the Northern Territory’s enactment of euthanasia legislation in 1996. The Northern Territory has an administrator whose duties are somewhat

notice 143 si­milar to those of a state governor, and a chief minister who is the leader of the government. [Country-Liberal Party, territories, unicameral system]

notice One of the formal procedures used to assist the operation of parliament This is an indication in advance of the intention of a member of parliament or minister to take some formal action in the house, such as the presentation of a bill. [standing orders]

notice paper An official document identifying the outstanding business set for the attention of a house of parliament A new notice paper is issued on each sitting day, except the first day of a session. It comprises three sections, namely, the business section which includes notices of motion and orders of the day; questions on notice; and an information section. The notice paper is prepared by officials of the house in consultation with representatives of the government and the opposition. [orders of the day]

nuclear deterrence The threat by opposing powers (the USA and the Soviet Union) during the Cold War that a nuclear attack would immediately provoke a nuclear counter-attack An argument presented in defence of nuclear arms was that nations were deterred from engaging in a major war by the likelihood of the use of nuclear weapons, and the terrible worldwide consequences that would follow. Arguments against nuclear deterrence included the possibility of nuclear disaster following an accident or mistake, and that other nations would feel the need to become nuclear-armed. This fear was well founded and the danger of catastrophe has worsened. [Cold War]

Nuclear Disarmament Party A minor political party established in 1984 In its public statements this party concentrated almost exclusively on its anti-nuclear policy. It has had some success in Senate elections but also problems of dissension among its members. [single-issue group]

Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty An agreement involving many countries, including Australia, aimed at controlling the distribution of nuclear weapons

144 nuclear power The treaty was made in 1968 and important participants included the United States, the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom. France and China did not sign the treaty. The effectiveness of the agreement has been the subject of international argument. Its critics have suggested that it could not be effectively enforced and that it gave an unfair advantage to those countries already possessing nuclear weapons. Supporters of the treaty have maintained that the international monitoring of nuclear weapons that was a result of the treaty has reduced their spread. [nuclear deterrence]

nuclear power Electricity generated from a nuclear reaction Fission or splitting of atoms in the reactor core of a nuclear power station produces heat. This heat is used to produce steam and drive a turbine to generate electricity, which is the same as electricity generated by any other means. Nuclear power is contentious because of the risk of catastrophic accidents, together with the practical difficulty of disposing of radioactive nuclear waste. Its supporters argue that it is a low-emission alternative to fossil fuels and under some circumstances is less costly. [climate change]

O OECD See Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

office of profit Government employment (‘office of profit under the Crown’) renders a person ineligible to become a member of parliament The Constitution bars government employees, and some others who receive payments from the government, from being elected as members of parliament. In practice, candidates for parliament resign from any government employment and if not elected are usually reappointed to their former positions. [pecuniary interest]

oil-for-food An arrangement established by the United Nations to avoid famine in Iraq caused by international economic sanctions after the first Gulf War A temporary measure, the scheme allowed the Iraqis to sell limited amounts of oil for food and medicine. The scheme wound up in late 2003 because of the war in Iraq amidst corruption charges in which the Australian Wheat Board (AWB) was accused of paying kickbacks to Saddam Hussein’s regime. [kickbacks]

old boy network The continuing relationship, as adults, of former students of exclusive private schools, often to their mutual benefit The connection is often independent of any personal friendship, and is useful in business and professional life as a help to obtaining clients, introductions, positions and confidential advice. [classes, Establishment, nepotism]

146 Old Left Old Left Name given to old-style Western Leninists, Trotskyists and Stalinists by the so-called New Left, which emerged in the late 1960s and 1970s The Old Left emphasised party organisation and class-consciousness over a cultural agenda, and organised in the industrial sectors of society. It declined as a result of many factors, including anti-communist pressure in the USA and Khrushchev’s denunciation of Stalin in 1956. In Australia, the term Old Left is also used to refer to a group of left-wing intellectuals who were associated with the Communist Party. [Communist Party of Australia, New Left]

oligarchy Government by a small number of unelected persons The term applies to this type of government, and also to the group of pe­ople who possess this power. The name usually refers to the government of a nation but it can also apply to a smaller entity such as a club or a business. [authoritarianism, autocracy]

oligopoly Substantial power or domination by a small number of companies or organisations in an industry Oligopolies are potentially harmful. The design, the quality and the price of a product or service may be more open to manipulation under these circumstances than when there is a large number of producers or sup­pliers in true competition. Conversely, under some conditions an oligopoly may be a benefit to customers by giving lower prices and higher quality as a result of economies of scale, provided the individual companies remain competitive, without secret agreements. Oligopoly also involves the danger of takeovers—possibly leading to a monopoly. [economy of scale, monopoly, restrictive trade practices]

ombudsman A public official with the responsibility of investigating complaints from individuals against an institution, such as a government Ombudsmen have considerable independence and are free to criticise official decisions and actions. Their aim is fairness combined with an outcome reasonably acceptable to those involved. They have wide authority to obtain information but no power to force acceptance of decisions. Nevertheless, recommendations by ombudsmen are usually adopted. [Administrative Appeals Tribunal, consensus]

One Big Union (OBU) The idea that all employees should be represented by a single union rather than by a large number of separate ones

One Nation Party 147 Many trade unionists in the early twentieth century believed the formation of OBU would strengthen the union movement by avoiding dissension between rival unions. Such a body was established in Western Canada in 1919. In Australia, the International Workers of the World (Wobblies) attempted to organise on similar lines but the existing unions, based on trades, were too well established. More recently there have been amalgamations into bigger unions, although the unions who do so sometimes retain a degree of individuality.

One Nation Party See Pauline Hanson’s One Nation Party

one vote–one value A slogan used by those opposing malapportionment and gerrymanders, both of which distort the values of votes The catchphrase is based on the democratic principle that every person should have an equal say in elections. [gerrymander, malapportionment]

on the voices A vote in parliament decided by the presiding officer on the strength of the voices of those present This is often done to save time when there is no doubt about how the vote will be resolved. If two or more members ask for a division, the vote must be taken by this more time-consuming method. In some debates a div­ ision is demanded to ensure that the vote of each member is recorded in Hansard. [division (voting), Ring the bells!]

open government The principle that the affairs of government should be open to public scrutiny Openness of government has been extended by legislation. With some restrictions, members of the public have been given the right to examine government documents. [freedom of information]

opinion leader A person in a group who influences the ideas and opinions on various subjects, including politics Such a person can be valuable by directing attention to matters of public concern, or a danger by being too persuasive. Opinion leaders are present in various groups, such as workmates at lunch or executive groups whose decisions affect many people. In politics, the influence of opinion leaders is increased by widespread apathy towards public affairs. [apathy, peer group pressure]

148 opinion polls opinion polls See public opinion polls

opposition The members of parliament, as a group, belonging to the major party or coalition that is opposed to the government The role and rights of the opposition are not mentioned in the Consti­ tution but are recognised in the customs and procedures of parliament. They include additional pay and facilities for the Leader of the Opposition. The opposition is seen as the alternative government, with shadow ministers debating against government ministers and ready to take over if their party comes to power. Opposition speakers criticise almost everything the government does or proposes, in keeping with the confrontationist style of debate. [adversarial politics, confrontation, shadow minister]

opposition benches The seats in a parliament used by the opposition members These seats are on the left-hand side of the presiding officer and directly face the seats occupied by government members of parliament. [cross benches, treasury benches]

opposition leader See Leader of the Opposition

optional preferential voting A variation of preferential voting in which it is unnecessary to indicate preferences for all candidates The main advantage of this system is the reduction in accidental informal votes that are an unfortunate feature of other preferential systems, es­pecially when there are many candidates. A drawback is that some votes can be discarded during the counting process and have no effect on the result. Optional preferential voting could be disadvantageous to allied political parties that benefit from the flow of one another’s preferences. [preferential voting]

order The traditional term for a calm working atmosphere in parliament The command ‘Order!’ is used, sometimes shouted, by the presiding officer when calling for a reduction in noise or unruliness in the chamber. There are various means available to help in keeping order, including the power to ‘name’ a member of parliament, which can result in the member being temporarily excluded from parliament. [naming a member, presiding officer]

orders of the day 149 orders of the day A list of the bills and other matters to be dealt with in a house of parliament on a particular day The orders of the day are included as part of the notice paper and indicate the sequence in which items of business are to be considered. Theoretically the house itself makes the decisions on the business to be considered. However, in practice it is determined mainly by the government. [Leader of the House, notice paper]

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) An international organisation with the aims of growth in trade, improved living standards and economic stability Established in 1961 with twenty members, most of them European countries, nations that joined later include the United States, Japan, Canada and Australia. In addition to promoting economic growth and trade, the OECD undertakes extensive research and statistical work, some of which is widely publicised although at times there has been criticism of the re­liability of some of its published material.

P Pacific Islands Forum An annual meeting of the heads of government of Pacific Islands nations The founding members, in 1971, were Australia, the Cook Islands, Fiji, Nauru, New Zealand, Tonga and Western Samoa. By 2009 the number of member countries had grown to sixteen. The main concerns of the forum are regional trade and economics, together with matters related to good governance and security.

Pacific Solution, the The plan developed by the Howard government to deal with unauthorised immigrants arriving in Australia by boat In 2001 the government decided to detain such immigrants in offshore facilities on Nauru, Manus and Christmas Island with the aim of discouraging further arrivals. These facilities attracted criticism because they operated outside of Australian law and parliamentary scrutiny, and the people could be detained indefinitely and were not entitled to legal representation. The conditions have been criticised as psychologically damaging for detainees, and the facilities were extremely expensive to run. Soon after its election, the Rudd government closed the Nauru detention facility in December 2007 but the Christmas Island facility was maintained. [boat people, immigration]

pacifism The belief that violence, especially war, must be avoided and individuals should refuse to participate in war Support for pacifism increased and became more organised during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries as wars affected larger proportions of the population and conscription became widespread. Other factors encouraging pacifism include the horror of modern war, religious beliefs,

Page Centre 151 attitudes critical of the causes of war and the belief that international disagreements should be settled by diplomacy. [conscription, defence, diplomacy, ideology]

Page Centre A conservative think tank focusing particularly on rural matters The name honours the memory of Sir Earle Page, who was the leader of the Country Party in the 1920s and 1930s, and prime minister for a short period in 1939. The Centre’s affiliation with the National Party is publicly acknowledged as are its links with other right-leaning think tanks, including the Institute of Public Affairs and the Menzies Research Centre. [Country Party, National Party, think tank]

pair/pairing An arrangement to maintain the relative voting strengths of government and opposition when a member of parliament is justifiably absent When it is foreseen that an MP will have a good reason to be absent from a parliamentary sitting, it is customary for the opposing party to ‘grant a pair’. This means that one of its members will refrain from voting and thus compensate for the opponent’s inability to vote.

paradigm A model or pattern The word has become popular in political and business language, and derives from the Ancient Greek word meaning ‘to show side by side’.

parish pumping A traditional metaphor for an obvious attempt by members of parliament to enhance their popularity within their own electorates Adjournment debates and grievance debates provide opportunities for ‘parish pumping’ and are often used to mention events, people and matters of interest in the MP’s electorate.

parliament An assembly of elected or appointed persons, or some of each, with power to make laws and to govern In Australia there is a federal parliament and a parliament in each state and the mainland territories, namely, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. Federal parliament is made up of the governor-­general, representing the monarch, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state parliament has a governor and an upper and lower house, except Queensland, which has no upper house. The

152 parliament (period of time) parliaments of the ACT and the Northern Territory each have only one house. [house (of parliament), parliament (period of time), Westminster system]

parliament (period of time) The expression ‘a parliament’ is sometimes used to indicate a parliamentary term In this sense, a parliament is the period from the first sitting day after an election until parliament is dissolved prior to the next election. A number, such as ‘the 38th Parliament’, identifies each parliament. [term (of parliament)]

parliamentary democracy A political system with a democratically elected parliament and a government approved by the parliament and answerable to it The form of government operating in Australia is officially based on the Constitution with conventions derived from the Westminster system playing an important role. [democracy, responsible government, Westminster system]

parliamentary privilege Protection of members of parliament and parliament itself to encourage plain speaking and effectiveness The Australian Constitution provides that the rules of parliamentary privilege that applied to the House of Commons at the time of Federation would apply to the Federal parliament, although each house also has the power to make its own rules. Parliamentary privilege enables members of parliament to be frank and outspoken without fear of legal action. It also strengthens parliament by giving it power to summon witnesses to present evidence. Parliamentary privilege can be misused, but at the risk of serious loss of reputation by the offending member of parliament.

parliamentary system A system in which the parliament has ultimate power, in theory or reality In the Westminster system, on which the Australian form of parliamentary government is mainly based, the executive, or ministers, are answerable to the parliament. In Australia the parliamentary system is modified by the circumstance that the power of the parliament is limited by the Consti­ tution, as interpreted by the High Court. [High Court, parliament, Westminster system]

Parliament House The building that contains the parliamentary chambers and accommo­ dation for activities associated with the operation of parliament

Participants 153 Federal parliament and each state parliament have their own Parliament House, as do the parliaments of the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. Within each Parliament House there are special assembly rooms called chambers, in which formal parliamentary sittings take place. There are also meeting rooms and offices for MPs and parliamentary staff, a library and amenities such as dining rooms. [chamber]

Participants A group with historic significance in the ALP, and which was the forerunner of the Independents faction and the Non-Aligned Group A small number of ALP members formed the group in the 1960s because they were dissatisfied with the Victorian State Executive’s authoritarian management of the ALP. Among its early members were Richard McGarvie, who later became Governor of Victoria, and Barry Jones. The Participants grew in influence and played a significant role in the federal intervention in Victoria in 1970, which has been recognised as an important factor in Whitlam’s victory in the 1972 election. [Independents (faction), intervention, Non-Aligned Group]

party See party system, political party

party discipline Efforts by political parties to persuade members, especially prominent ones, to support party decisions The major Australian parties are umbrella parties and accept members of widely differing views. Therefore it is not unusual for individual members or groups to disagree with various party decisions on policy and tactics. Public disagreement is regarded as damaging, especially if MPs or prominent party members are involved. Restraint is therefore encouraged and a member who is considered to be seriously harming a party may be expelled. [umbrella organisation]

party system A system in which political parties are accepted as part of the structure of parliament and government Political parties were not mentioned in the original Australian Consti­ tution but an amendment in 1977 to Section 15 does refer to them in the procedure for filling Senate vacancies between general elections. In re­ality, parties play a major role in Australian politics. After an election, the leader of the winning party becomes prime minister, or premier, and ministers will be chosen from that party. The leader of the major losing party becomes opposition leader. The party system usually results in stable and

154 patriarchal predictable government, except when the numbers for the government and opposition are close to equal. [Constitution of Australia, deadlock (lack of a majority)]

patriarchal Used mainly by feminists, the term describes organisations or communities dominated by men Applied particularly to bodies that try to maintain control by men, this term also refers to the related mental attitude. The word is derived from ‘the patriarchy’, meaning control of a family by the father and a society that is an extension of that principle. [discrimination, feminism]

patriotism Loyalty, especially of an emotional kind, to one’s country Patriotism is similar to nationalism. Interpretations of the term range from it being a natural and proper feeling of loyalty and respect for one’s country and its traditions to an unreasoning acceptance of proclaimed attitudes and policies even when they are unacceptable by normal standards.

patronage Appointments or benefits granted to friends or associates Governments and ministers have the power to grant favours and, if in­equitable or unseemly, actions of this kind can be brought to the attention of the public by political opponents and, perhaps more effectively, by the mass media. [jobs for the boys, nepotism, old boy network]

Pauline Hanson’s One Nation Party A minor right-wing party that opposed immigration and multiculturalism, and was accused of racism; it had considerable success in the late 1990s but soon lost support Pauline Hanson was chosen as the Liberal candidate for Oxley in 1996 but her endorsement was withdrawn. She then won the seat as an independent and formed the One Nation Party with David Oldfield and David Ettridge. The party reached its peak of success in the 1998 Queensland election, winning eleven seats, but gradually declined and polled poorly in the federal election of 2007. [racism, White Australia policy]

peak organisation A senior organisation whose members are mostly organisations rather than individual people

pecuniary interest 155 Peak organisations are useful in discussions and negotiations as they reduce the number of participating bodies. The Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Australian Council of Trade Unions are examples of peak organisations. Member organisations are sometimes referred to as being ‘affiliated’. [umbrella organisation]

pecuniary interest Federal and state parliament rules that require members of parliament to disclose their financial interests The rules are complicated and different in various houses of parliament and a particular difficulty is the need, if any, for declarations about the financial interests of family members. Ministers are usually required to rid themselves of interests, such as shares or directorships in companies which could be affected by their ministries. One type of pecuniary interest is an ‘office of profit under the Crown’, a paid government position which would bar a person from becoming a member of parliament. The problem of pecuniary interest affects all three levels of government. [office of profit]

peer group pressure Political influence, deliberate or unintentional, exerted on an individual by friends or colleagues Secret voting is intended to reduce the danger of such influence but it can be powerful, especially if the voter is apathetic or uninformed about politics. [apathy, mores]

pensions Regular payments from the government to people who are deemed to need financial help for any one of a number of reasons Pensions are paid to those who meet carefully defined conditions among the aged, widows, war veterans and people with illness or disabilities. The unemployed and those injured at work usually receive regular payments similar to pensions but these benefits have other names. [social services, superannuation]

people’s house An unofficial term for the House of Representatives This term expresses the belief that the House of Representatives more fairly represents the will of the Australian people than does the Senate. Supporters of this majority view argue that the number of electors in each House of Representatives electorate is close to equal, contrasting with the widely divergent number of electors represented by various senators. Also,

156 permanent campaigning senators are elected for longer terms and the views of electors may have changed before senators’ terms expire. [House of Representatives, Senate]

permanent campaigning As soon as an election is over, political parties begin to prepare for the next election The term was coined in the US but the phenomenon is occurring in Australia too. The permanent campaign includes activities such as the close monitoring of leaders’ media images and intensive opinion polling. It is criticised because it can hinder policy development as governments may concentrate on keeping voters happy and winning the next election rather than creating policy. It can also reduce benefits from laws or government action that need and deserve cross-party support to be fully effective. [confrontation, dirt unit]

personal explanation A statement in parliament by a member in response to an alleged mis­ representation or in relation to a personal matter This right is a protection against unfair or untrue criticism in parliament, but can be misused by MPs who simply wish to re-enter a debate. The presiding officer has the task of quickly assessing the validity or otherwise of the purported personal explanation and taking appropriate action.

petition A formal document presented to parliament expressing an opinion or request Electors, often a large number of them, sign a petition. The local member of parliament usually makes the presentation if the petition has come from a particular area. Some petitions are organised on a nationwide basis. The purposes of a petition are to make known a viewpoint, to exert political pressure or to gain publicity. [pressure group]

pic fac A media term for an event held for no other reason than to generate pictures for news bulletins A term that originated in the USA but is now used widely by the Australian media. Pic facs are particularly common in election campaigns, as poli­ ticians vie for publicity.

planning In the political sense this can range from the zoning of a small area of land for housing to planning the economy of a nation

platform 157 All mainstream political parties believe in some degree of planning, but right-wing parties usually favour a ‘market system’ approach with minimal government intervention, while left-wing parties support greater government involvement. [infrastructure, market system]

platform The basic policies of a political party, sometimes written into a party’s constitution The term may be used to describe the policies proposed at the time of an election, although its more usual meaning is the generalised policy and ideals of a party. Platforms of parties change over the years as a result of changing attitudes of members of the party and of the community. The term is derived from the idea that a party ‘stands on its platform’ and this leads to describing particular policies as ‘planks’ of the platform. [election policy, policy]

plebiscite An election or referendum in which all voters are entitled to participate A plebiscite is a direct vote by all the people, in contrast to a vote by representatives. It is often the method of election in smaller bodies such as clubs, or in political party meetings in local areas. A federal referendum for a proposed alteration to the Constitution is also an example of a plebiscite. [referendum, representative democracy]

pluralism The theory that a community benefits from the existence of several distinct groups Pluralists advocate the retention and encouragement of separate groups so that political decisions will result from confrontation and compromise rather than from domination by any one class or group. [Movement, political theory]

plurality A candidate who receives more votes than any other is said to have a ‘plurality’. It can be less than half the total votes Under the first-past-the-post system, the candidate who receives the plurality is the winner. If there are more than two candidates, the winner can be elected with a plurality of substantially less than 50 per cent of the total votes. Preferential voting excludes this possibility. [first-past-the-post system, preferential voting]

158 point of order point of order A formal protest by an MP that proceedings in parliament are not in accordance with the rules When a point of order is raised, business is suspended until the presiding officer has made a decision to uphold or dismiss the objection. Spurious points of order are sometimes raised as a tactic to disrupt the speech of an opponent and are usually promptly dismissed. Rulings are made on the basis of formal rules, known as standing orders, but also depend on the interpretation and judgement of the presiding officer. [standing orders]

policy The publicly stated aims and ideals of a political party The term has a number of political meanings. The most important is that it represents the party’s fundamental political philosophy and long-term aims. In this sense, it is closely related to the party’s platform. Another meaning of the term is the party’s attitude to one or more topical issues and proposals for action in the near future. Not infrequently, policies may be presented in fine-sounding but vague terms. [ideology, platform]

policy formation The processes leading to adoption or changing of policies by parties and governments Much of the policy of the political parties has been accepted since their beginnings so that policy formation deals mainly with changes in emphasis. Special ‘election policy’ is adopted at each general election. Most parties have meetings or conferences that make and change policy but the real decision-making is often done behind the scenes. When a party is in government its members of parliament take on a greater significance, especially when new matters arise and are discussed at caucus meetings. [caucus, policy]

political advertising Ranges widely from advertisements in the mass media, including television, to public meetings, material distributed in letterboxes and door-to-door canvassing This includes explanation of policy, criticism of opposing parties and candidates, emphasis on party leaders and, in local media, promotion of the local candidate. The high cost of political advertising and the need to raise the necessary funds have become matters of concern. [mass media, propaganda, public funding (election campaigns)]

political agenda 159 political agenda Issues that are selected for promotion and action by political groups, es­pecially by the government A ‘political agenda’ usually requires encouragement of public interest that will lead to support for the proposals. In some cases support of the government members of parliament might be enough, or a long and substantial campaign with media cooperation might be necessary to win approval in advance of government action. [policy, propaganda]

political asylum See asylum seeker

political blog Political commentary written by individuals and displayed on the Internet Political blogs are popular because they are perceived as being frank and more open about the writer’s opinion (or bias) than more formal or of­ficial statements. They have been criticised for being unreliable but have the benefit of sometimes providing information not available elsewhere and encouraging thought and discussion. [freedom of information]

political economy Economics that takes social and political factors into account Critics of the conventional perception of economics (including some famous economists) maintain that social and environmental matters should be intrinsic factors in economic policies. [economics, environmentalism, social justice]

political football Exploitation of a matter of topical public interest as a political tactic, with little concern for the subject itself The matter may be of considerable or of minor importance, but is usually one that has been taken up and given prominence by the media. Criticism that a topical matter has become a ‘political football’ must be considered with caution as such an attack may be an attempt to avoid a real debate on the subject. [dirty tricks campaign, spin]

politically correct Choice of language to avoid giving offence, as well as attitudes towards sensitive topics People who write or speak in public usually try to choose their words so as not to give offence to sections of the community who may have strong

160 political mandarin feelings about particular matters and expressions used in discussing them. Examples include terms, particularly slang or derisive ones, that relate to religious or ethnic groups, gender and people with disabilities. The term is also used mockingly to denigrate reforms or changes of attitude or those who indulge in excessive euphemism. [black armband view of history, protocol (ceremonial), reform]

political mandarin Very senior government official or bureaucrat The term comes from the title of senior public officials in Imperial China. Its use implies the bureaucrat in question is inaccessible and extremely powerful. [bureaucracy]

political party An organisation with particular political beliefs and policies, and the aim of putting them into effect Parties provide the opportunity for people of similar attitudes and ideals to meet and develop these views and establish policies; they also enable party members to work together to gain support for their ideas. A party may nominate candidates for parliament and, if enough seats are gained, form the government. Parties also provide the most practical avenue for people aiming at a political career. [ideology, political theory, social movements]

political spectrum Applied in its figurative sense, meaning a wide range of parties and policies In keeping with this figure of speech, colours are used to indicate political views. Red is usually connected in Australian politics with Labor; blue with the Liberals; green with The Greens. [left-wing, right-wing]

political theory Principles and proposals for community, national and international organisations and government Throughout recorded history, thought and discussion have been devoted to devising forms of government and a great number of actual or theor­ etical types have been created. The better known ones include absolute monarchy, anarchy, autocracy, communism, conservatism, constitutional monarchy, democracy, dictatorship, fascism, Marxism, meritocracy, monarchy, representative government, republicanism and socialism. Some of these terms have overlapping meanings. In practice, there have been combinations and modified forms of many of these theoretical forms of government. [economics, ideology, politics]

politics 161 politics The theory, study and practice of making laws and governing The term is a wide-ranging one and is applied to international affairs and national, regional and municipal government. Politics includes the study and development of theories of government and related matters, such as the rights and responsibilities of members of the community, and the importance of the natural environment and the world’s resources. In practical terms it is the system of government that inevitably affects everyone in a community, including those who may be unaware of its significance or would prefer to ignore its existence. [apathy, civics, civil rights and responsibilities, government, ideology]

politics of envy An expression used to criticise those who argue that there should be less variation in the distribution of wealth and influence The term is also used to criticise those who support high rates of taxation on the very rich. In Australia, one example is the application of the term to those who disagree with the amount of government funding that is allocated to affluent private schools. [income distribution, old boy network, progressive tax, trickledown effect]

polity A nation or a community that has its own organised character or government The term can apply to the area or a community that has a unified system of government or to the system of government itself. [government, politics]

poll An election and, also, the organised procedure of voting In common usage there is little difference between ‘poll’ and ‘election’, but in more technical language the term ‘poll’ refers to the voting process as distinct from other elements of the election, including the campaigns by candidates and parties. [election, election day, public opinion polls]

poll clerk An official who assists at a polling place during an election Poll clerks are part of the organisation that has the duty of conducting the election fairly and efficiently. During the poll they issue ballot papers after ensuring that the prospective voters are eligible. After the close of voting they assist in counting the votes. Most poll clerks are employed in that

162 polling place capacity only for polling day, although they are supervised by full-time officers of the Australian Electoral Commission. [Australian Electoral Commission]

polling place An officially appointed venue for voting at an election Public buildings, such as schools or halls, are most often used. In towns and metropolitan areas they are usually spaced so as to be within walking distance of most residents. No election campaigning is permitted inside a polling place, nor within a legally specified distance from its entrance.

populism The theory that the perceived or imagined will of the people should guide political decisions Some interpretations and elements of the theory have beneficial consequences, such as consultation with community groups prior to government decisions. In other cases, a government may be frightened to make an unpopular decision even though it is necessary. [grass roots, public opinion polls]

pork-barrelling Excessive or inappropriate spending of government funds in particular electorates in an effort to win votes The expression is an old American political one, also used in Australia. It refers to government favours such as expenditure on new public facilities in particular electorates—usually in the months before an election. Although usually denied by governments, the existence of pork-barrelling has been confirmed in auditor-general reports and, on one occasion, by a minister who revealed the existence of a ‘white board’ on the ministerial office wall that was used in the complicated process of allocating projects to marginal electorates.

portfolio Frequently used as a synonym for ministry, or the responsibility of a minister A portfolio is not always the same as a ministry. A minister may have more than one area of responsibility and each is termed a portfolio. [ministry (minister’s responsibility)]

postal vote A vote made by an elector unable to attend at a polling place and posted to the electoral authorities Strict rules apply to rule out cheating. Those eligible to obtain a postal vote include the aged and the infirm, Australians travelling or resident

poverty 163 overseas or other electors otherwise prevented from attending a polling place. Applications for postal votes must be made on the appropriate form (available at post offices) several days before election day. [absentee vote, pre-poll voting]

poverty The lack of adequate food, shelter or other necessities; its definition varies according to local standards Poverty is recognised as a social evil not only to its direct victims but also to the whole community, and governments aim to eliminate poverty or to keep it to a minimum. Governments try to ease the effects of poverty by the provision of services and assistance such as pensions and unemployment benefits, health and education services. Various charitable organisations are also active in helping people who are suffering from poverty. [income distribution, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

poverty line The lowest income needed for any particular category of family to avoid being in poverty The term was used in the report of the Henderson Commission into Poverty (1975) and has become widely adopted by others interested in social conditions.

Poverty Lines: Australia A quarterly publication giving minimum income levels needed to prevent families suffering poverty Calculated and published by the Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research at the University of Melbourne, the income levels are based on the Henderson Poverty Line concept. The necessary incomes are calculated for categories of families, taking various factors into account, including housing circumstances.

PPPs See public private partnerships

pragmatism Actions to suit circumstances and what is practically achievable In politics this can sometimes mean breaking election promises or ig­noring traditional party policy. [core promise, non-core promise]

pre-emptive strike Military action taken against a potential enemy when fearing a possible attack

164 preferential voting The term gained publicity in 2003 when former prime minister John Howard provoked an angry response from other nations when he argued that Australia had the right to attack terrorist groups in South-East Asian countries if it had credible evidence that these groups planned to attack Australia or Australians. [security (national)]

preferential voting A system in which voters can indicate the order in which they prefer the various candidates In elections with more than two candidates, preference votes can sometimes decisively affect the outcome. If no candidate receives more than half, the one with the fewest votes is eliminated from the contest and the votes for that candidate are re-examined and allocated to one or other of the remaining candidates according to the second preference. This pro­ cess of elimination and distribution is continued until one candidate has received more than half the votes. [single transferable vote system, voting systems]

premier The leader of the government in an Australian state The premier is the most senior minister. Premiers usually choose to take particular ministerial responsibilities in addition to the leadership role but their most important task is to oversee and coordinate the work of the other ministers. (The chief minister is the government leader in the Australian Capital Territory and also in the Northern Territory.) In Labor governments, the premier usually allocates the ministries to ministers elected by the caucus. In Liberal or National Party governments the premier normally selects the ministers and allocates the ministries. In coalition governments the ministries are shared between the coalition parties. [caucus, chief minister, selection of ministers]

premiers’ conferences Meetings to discuss matters of mutual concern to federal, state and territory governments Although premiers’ conferences of some kind have been held since before Federation, regular conferences began in 1927 when the Australian Loan Council was established. They were usually held annually until 1999 and their main purpose was to determine the Commonwealth grants to each of the other governments. [Australian Loan Council, Council of Australian Governments meetings]

Premiers’ Plan 165 Premiers’ Plan The implementation in Australia of the economic measures demanded by the Bank of England during the Great Depression of the 1930s The bank’s representative, Sir Otto Niemeyer, visited Australia and, in compliance with the dominant economic beliefs of the time, insisted on wage and pension cuts and reduced industrial activity. This reduced purchasing power, the economic situation worsened, and unemployment plunged to tragic depths. A minority of economists, including J.M. Keynes, and some Australian politicians protested that the accepted economic policy was the reverse of what was needed. History has shown that the policy forced on Australia had disastrous consequences. [Great Depression, Keynesianism]

pre-poll voting Voting, in person, before election day People who will be unable to vote on election day for various reasons, such as absence from the country, have the opportunity of voting at an electoral office beforehand. The term ‘pre-poll voting’ also applies to the voting that is arranged at various larger institutions, such as hospitals, which are visited by teams of electoral officials during the week or two before election day. Voting can also be done by post. [absentee vote, electoral office, postal vote]

preselection The process of choosing a political party’s candidate to stand for election Different parties have different methods of selecting candidates and, even within one party, the procedures may not always be the same. There may be direct or indirect influence from local party members and from the central administration of the political party. Factions often play a major role, especially for winnable seats. The term ‘preselection’ has gradually replaced the older one ‘selection’, which had the same meaning. [branch stacking, faction]

President (of an upper house) The title of the presiding officer of the Senate and of each of the state L­egislative Councils Presidents’ powers and duties are similar to those of Speakers in lower houses of parliament.

presiding officer A general term for the chairperson in any house of parliament

166 press conference The presiding officer’s title depends on the nature of the house. Titles include Speaker, Deputy Speaker, President and Deputy President. The Speaker is the traditional title for the presiding officer in a lower house. [casting vote, President (of an upper house), Speaker]

press conference An open meeting between a political figure and newspaper reporters The term has been largely superseded by ‘media conference’, as representatives of radio or television stations are often present in addition to newspaper reporters. [media conference]

press gallery The group of media representatives who attend parliament, and the accommodation for them overlooking each chamber in Parliament House Members of the press gallery sometimes remain in their positions for several years and become expert in political matters and, in some cases, well known and influential. Office space and equipment are also made available to them.

pressure group An organised group endeavouring to influence political decisions Pressure groups seek to influence decisions at various stages in the political process. These include policy-making by parties, decisions by individual members of parliament, and action by the parties in parliament. Pressure groups tend to concentrate on particular issues with great intensity. The forms of attempted persuasion can range from the presentation of factual evidence and reasoned discussion to threats and promises, especially when the targeted person is a political candidate or an MP in a marginal electorate. [punishment politics, single-issue group]

price control Government control of the prices of goods and services In Australia, the Constitution does not give power over prices to the Commonwealth government except in times of national emergency such as war, as was done during World War II. State governments do have the power to control prices but it is rarely used. Referendums were held in 1948 and in 1974 to enable the Commonwealth to control prices but neither was successful. [Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, Choice, monopoly, oligopoly]

primary industry Industry that directly uses natural resources

primary producers’ organisations 167 The major primary industries include farming, fishing, forestry and mining. Australia is fortunate in having a wide range of natural resources and consequently primary industry is important to the national economy. The policies and activities of some primary industries have aroused concern over economic viability, conservation and climate change. Another problem is finding the right balance between exporting raw materials and adding value to primary products before their export. [secondary industry, tertiary industry]

primary producers’ organisations The term usually refers to bodies representing farmers and graziers. M­ining interests have their own associations Primary producers’ organisations work for their members by establishing policies, explaining them publicly and exerting their influence in politics. Some categories of farmers—for example, woolgrowers and dairy farmers—have their own separate organisations. [National Farmers’ Federation, primary industry]

primary vote The total number of first-preference votes for a particular candidate or party The term applies in elections based on preferential voting, in which the voters must indicate their preference for every candidate with a sequence of figures starting with ‘1’ for the one they most favour and continuing without any gaps. [electoral systems, preferential voting]

prime minister The leader of the Federal government The prime minister is the ‘head of government’ and represents Australia in that capacity when dealing with other nations. The governor-general is the ‘head of state’. The government party caucus elects its leader, who then becomes prime minister. The prime minister oversees and coordinates the work of other ministers and also has duties that come within the responsibilities of the Prime Minister’s Department. The prime minister may also become the minister in charge of another department, as some have done. [caucus, head of government, head of state]

Private Doctors of Australia (PDA) An association opposed to government or third-party involvement in the practice of medicine The PDA describes itself as a free-market organisation and emphasises the importance of the doctor–patient relationship. It opposes third-party or taxpayer funding of health services. [Australian Medical Association, Doctors Reform Society]

168 private enterprise private enterprise See private sector

private member A member of a lower house of parliament who is not a minister The term applies to a backbencher (and sometimes to a minister) acting as an individual rather than as a member of the government or the oppo­ sition. In this role, members of parliament may bring forward matters that are of particular concern in their local electorates. A senator acting in the same capacity is termed a ‘private senator’.

private members’ bills Proposed legislation introduced by members of parliament who are not ministers Ministers propose most bills on behalf of the government but individual MPs can also introduce bills, although little time is allowed for such bills and few are successful. [backbencher]

private sector Private, rather than government, ownership of elements of industry and commerce In the majority of the world’s nations, including Australia, there is a mixture of government and privately owned producers of goods and services. The term ‘private enterprise’ and others such as ‘the private sector’ and ‘free enterprise’ are applied to a range of businesses from very small ones, owned by individuals, to very large ones, usually owned by shareholders. The contentious political question is which businesses should be privately owned and operated and which should be the responsibility of government. [public sector]

privatisation The sale or transfer of a government business or service to private ownership or management Which activities should be undertaken directly by government and which by private companies or persons is one of the important decisions made by governments, and a subject of political argument. Responsibilities such as the administration of justice, policing and other essential services are usually retained as the direct responsibility of government, or made subject to rigid conditions if transferred to private companies. [private sector, public private partnerships]

Privy Council 169

Reproduced courtesy of Judy Horacek www.horacek.com.au

Privy Council A senior United Kingdom advisory and judicial body The Privy Council was the highest court of appeal for Australian legal cases for many years. (Strictly its name was the ‘Judicial Committee of the Privy Council’). Appeals to the Privy Council were severely restricted in 1975 and, since the Australia Act came into operation in 1986, such appeals have been abolished and the Australian High Court has been the final court of appeal. [Australia Act(s) 1986, High Court]

productivity The relationship between output and the consumption of the components needed for production The basic needs for producing goods and services are labour, materials and capital. Productivity is a measure of the efficiency with which these elements of production are used. [economics, industrial relations]

progressive politics A revised version of social democracy In Australia, progressive politics is similar to the Third Way espoused by former British Prime Minister Tony Blair. It advocates government that provides substantial social services without a planned economy, and

170 progressive tax has been posited as an alternative to the neoliberal ideology of small government. [social democracy, Third Way]

progressive tax Taxation that increases in rate as taxable income increases Progressive tax takes a higher rate of tax from higher income earners, in contrast to flat tax, which takes the same percentage from incomes of any size, and regressive tax, which takes a higher proportion of income from lower paid earners. [regressive tax, sales tax]

propaganda Information or persuasive argument to encourage acceptance of particular beliefs or ideas The word became widely used during World War II to refer cynically to news reports and statements that were suspected of distortion. The term is also applicable to some political advertisements and items published or broadcast by the mass media. [campaign, mass media]

property vote Voting rights once available only to property owners Upper houses in most states and also municipal councils were elected mainly or partly on the basis of a property vote well into the twentieth century. This form of restricted franchise for Legislative Council elections remained until 1951 in Victoria and until 1973 in South Australia.

proportional representation A voting system used in multi-member electorates Under proportional representation a political party can win one or more seats in proportion to the number of votes it receives. This system gives small parties a better chance. To be elected a candidate must obtain at least a ‘quota’, which is a number of votes calculated from the number of places to be filled and the total number of votes. Preference votes are taken into account in some variations of the proportional representation system, but not in others. For convenience, the quota is sometimes described as a percentage of the total vote. For example, if six senators are to be elected in a state the quota is approximately 14.3 per cent. Examples of proportional representation are elections for the Senate, the Tasmanian House of Assembly and the ACT parliament. [Droop quota, Hare-Clark system, multi-member electorate, quota]

prorogation 171 prorogation The formal closure of a session of parliament when another session will follow without an election being held The governor-general or governor proclaims the prorogation of parliament, and the parliament goes into recess. This is done on the advice of the prime minister or the premier. [recess, session (of parliament)]

protection Protection of a country’s industries by restricting imports by imposing taxes on imported goods or by assisting local industry Protection may be in the form of tariffs, which add to the cost of imported goods, or by import quotas, which limit the quantities of specified goods that can be imported. Subsidies may be paid to local industry. The Australian Constitution prohibits any tariffs or restrictions on trade between the states. The argument between those supporting free trade and those favouring protection has been a major factor in Australian political history. [free trade, level playing field, subsidy, tariffs]

Protectionists An important political party at the beginning of the twentieth century As the name implies, the main policy of this party was protection of local industry, and its main opponent for many years was the Free Traders Party. Both parties were fundamentally conservative but because of their concern over the growing strength of the Australian Labor Party they amalgamated in 1909 to form the Fusion Party, also known as the Liberal Party. [Free Traders (political party), Fusion Party]

protocol (ceremonial) The rules and customs applying to parliamentary and diplomatic cer­ emonies and procedures Protocol includes traditional rules of public etiquette, such as the ranking of persons holding various parliamentary and official positions. [diplomacy (international), modes of address for members of parliament]

protocol (treaty) A formal agreement between countries A protocol may be a preliminary agreement before a major treaty is signed or a portion of a treaty, possibly a secret one. [diplomacy, treaty]

province (electoral) The official term for a Victorian Legislative Council electorate

172 psephology Provinces are given individual names from a variety of sources, such as geographical regions within a state, or the names of famous people. [Legislative Council]

psephology The study of elections Psephology is best known for the attempts of its practitioners to predict the outcome of elections. Psephology involves statistical investigations and sociological studies, including the changes to socio-economic status, a­verage age and occupation in individual electorates. [demographic change, public opinion polls, socio-economic status]

public accounts committee A parliamentary committee that investigates and reports on the financial performance of government bodies In the Federal parliament its official title is ‘Joint Committee of Public Accounts’ and it is a statutory committee as an act of parliament established it. The committee has representatives from the House of Representatives and the Senate and includes government and opposition MPs. The committee has the responsibility of examining the accounts and auditor’s reports of government bodies and has legal power to interrogate persons the committee believes can assist its investigations. It is required to report its findings to both houses of parliament. State parliaments also have public accounts committees in one form or the other. [committee system, joint committee]

public funding (election campaigns) Provision of financial assistance from government funds for election campaign expenses The practice, which is increasingly popular in democratic countries, is intended to reduce the dependence of political parties on large donations from corporations suspected of being made to secure favoured treatment. Public funding was introduced in Australia in New South Wales in 1981 and was adopted for federal elections in 1984. [blind trust]

public gallery This is a place from which visitors may witness parliamentary proceedings Public galleries are provided for both chambers of bicameral parliaments. Visitors are made welcome but must behave quietly and with decorum. On most occasions visitors can gain admittance easily, although booking in advance may be necessary for larger groups such as school classes. [Parliament House]

public office 173 public office An elected position in an official public body The term is usually applied to elected positions in federal, state, territory and municipal assemblies. [tiers of government]

public opinion polls Assessment of public opinion, including voting intentions, based on interviewing a small or modest number of people The results can be reasonably accurate, providing good statistical methods are used. The subjects of such polls range widely but many deal with political questions. These polls give a continuing assessment of the popularity of the government and opposition in between elections, as well as during election campaigns. There is controversy over whether or not they influence voting. [psephology, push polling]

public private partnerships (PPPs) A PPP is a system for funding infrastructure projects for which the government is responsible, such as roads and bridges Part of the construction cost is borne by a private company in the expec­ tation of making a profit from the income from the project. In this way the government seeks to avoid criticism for incurring debt, although critics argue that PPPs actually increase the real costs to the public. [essential services, infrastructure]

public sector Activities that are directly undertaken by the government The activities of the three tiers of government as well as semi-government bodies and statutory authorities are included in the public sector. The term includes non-profit government services such as defence, law and order, education and health, and also trading activities such as transport, postal services and water supply, although the private sector may also be engaged in some of these. [private sector]

Public Service The various government departments and their employees, called ‘public servants’ The Public Service performs a wide range of duties, most of which have traditionally been direct responsibilities of government. Well-known ones include defence, foreign affairs, taxation, health, education, and law and order. The minister in charge of a department is answerable to parliament for its performance. The Public Service has the task of remaining politically neutral and administering the law and implementing the policy of

174 pump priming the government in power. This can require substantial adjustments when there is a change of government. [department]

pump priming Increased or special government expenditure to stimulate economic activity and increase employment This type of expenditure is applied to public works, such as road construction, which can be of lasting economic benefit. The economic stimulation of ‘pump priming’ during times of economic recession or depression is a tactic consistent with Keynesian economic theory, but economists who support the market system have traditionally opposed government economic intervention. [Keynesianism, market system]

punishment politics Threats made by pressure groups against MPs or political candidates This extreme technique is sometimes employed to put pressure on particular candidates who will not comply with the demands of various groups. Candidates in closely contested seats are usually the targets. Another tactic is to threaten to publish a list of candidates classified according to their compliance or resistance to the policy of a certain pressure group. [single-issue group]

push polling A disreputable tactic aimed at unjustly harming an opposing candidate’s reputation Push polling consists of what appears to be a public opinion poll. A question is so worded that it implies that the targeted candidate has a bad character or record. Push polling can be conducted over the telephone. A typical question would be, ‘Would you vote for John Smith if you knew he was a frequent drug user?’ [dirty tricks campaign]

Q quality of life The totality of factors that affect a person In politics emphasis is given to economics and indicators such as the gross domestic product but many other factors, some influenced by government, also affect human wellbeing. They include human rights, security, working conditions, aged care, health services, recreation and the environment. [civil liberties, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, security (social)]

quango An organisation that has been established or substantially funded by a government but is almost independent of government control The acronym derives from ‘quasi non-government organisation’. The term is an unofficial one and the characteristics of a quango are not precise. [statutory authority]

Queensland Labor Party A party that split away from the Australian Labor Party in 1957 and merged with the Democratic Labor Party in 1962 The Queensland Labor Party was a de facto branch of the Democratic Labor Party from 1957. It began as a consequence of the Labor ‘Split’ of 1955 in which Vincent Gair, then Premier of Queensland, sided with the supporters of the National Civic Council—formerly the Movement. [Labor ‘Split’]

Queensland parliament It has only one house and therefore is called ‘unicameral’ In 1922 the upper house was abolished and the Queensland parliament has consisted from that time of only one house: the Legislative Assembly. For many years the Queensland parliament was unrepresentative because

176 questions on notice; questions without notice of severe malapportionment. The average number of voters in metropolitan electorates was much greater than in country ones. [malapportionment, one vote–one value, unicameral system]

questions on notice; questions without notice See Question Time

Question Time The period during parliamentary proceedings when ministers are questioned by members of parliament The questions may be asked ‘without notice’, implying that an immediate answer should be forthcoming, or they may be asked ‘on notice’, acknowledging that the minister will need time to obtain detailed information. Many questions are asked with the aim of gaining party political advantage and are usually answered in the same spirit. Questions put by government members are sometimes prearranged with ministers, who will have already prepared answers. [Dorothy Dixer]

queue jumpers Pejorative term applied to some unauthorised immigrants The criticism may be justified in some cases but not when there is no safe and orderly process available in their country of origin. [asylum seeker, refugees]

quorum The minimum number of members of parliament formally required to be present during a meeting of a house of parliament In the Federal parliament this number is equivalent to one-third of the members. It is usual for many MPs to be absent from the chamber, although most of them remain within Parliament House. The presiding officer must halt proceedings if it is pointed out that the number of members present is fewer than the required quorum. Absent members are notified by the sounding of bells or buzzers and the flashing of lights throughout Parliament House. [Ring the bells!]

quota The number of votes needed by a candidate to be elected in a multi-­ member electorate under a proportional representation system The quota depends on the total number of votes and the number of places to be filled. Using the Droop quota method, the quota will be a precise number of votes but it is convenient to refer to it as a percentage. For example, if six senators are to be elected the quota is said to be 14.3 per cent. [Droop quota]

R racism Prejudice against people on the basis of their racial origin In Australia prejudice has, at times, been directed against racial, religious and ethnic groups, including the Aboriginal inhabitants. [assimilation, White Australia policy]

radical Used in politics to criticise alleged extremism at both ends of the political spectrum The term can be applied to people, political parties, factions and policies. Two examples show the wide range of the use of the term. For example, left-wing factions in the Labor Party and the Dries in the Liberal Party have both been called radical. [political spectrum]

radical nationalism Claims of a uniquely Australian ethos that tied imminent Australian nationhood to the radical politics of the late nineteenth century Its exponents celebrated anti-authoritarian heroes such as convicts and bushrangers, and claimed their characteristics to be truly Australian as opposed to those celebrated by conservatives who remained tied to Britain and Empire. Radical nationalism was espoused by a range of writers, from Henry Lawson in The Bulletin of the 1890s to historian Russel Ward in The Australian Legend (1958).

rank and file Political party members who are neither officers of the party nor members of parliament The term can also apply to members of trade unions or other organis­ ations. Its meaning is related to that of ‘grass roots’, meaning ordinary

178 rat people who make a contribution to their chosen organisation without being exceptional or ambitious. [grass roots]

rat A contemptuous term for a political turncoat and of special significance in the Labor Party There have been several historic defections from the ALP, including those of well-known leaders W.M. ‘Billy’ Hughes, William Holman, Joseph Lyons and Vince Gair. [duchess, scab]

realignment Politically, the term means a change of attitude towards policies or parties Realignment refers particularly to a change by most people in a group, such as members of a social class or a religion. Peer group influence is an important factor. The term can also refer to people in a district that undergoes a significant change, such as a slum district close to a city that becomes popular as a residential area for people with high incomes. [demography, psephology]

realpolitik Politics or diplomacy based on practical considerations rather than ideology The term comes from the German for ‘practical politics’. It is used to describe foreign policy that is based on power rather than ideals and is sometimes used to imply that, while a particular political action may be effective, it is nonetheless unprincipled. [pragmatism]

recess The period of time between two sessions of parliament Although the official interpretation of recess is the time between two sessions of parliament, the term is also frequently applied to each of the periods of several weeks between the autumn and spring sittings of parliament. [session (of parliament)]

recession An economic condition characterised by moderately high unemployment and industrial stagnation but less severe than a depression The term is not a precise one, although it is sometimes defined as a fall in the GDP in two successive three-monthly periods. [depression (economic), gross domestic product]

recognition 179 recognition Official acknowledgement that a particular leader, group or assembly is the real government of a foreign country Recognition does not necessarily indicate approval of the foreign government and there are two degrees of recognition that give some indication of the relationship. ‘De facto’ recognition accepts the fact of control by a ruling group; ‘de jure’ recognition includes a full diplomatic relationship.

reconciliation A movement supported by government legislation to encourage cooperation, fairness and harmony between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians Equal rights for all Australians was acknowledged by an amendment to the Constitution in 1967 and the reconciliation process was formally supported by the Commonwealth Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation Act 1991, which established the National Council for Aboriginal Reconcili­ation (NCAR). The process aimed at achieving better relationships between Indigenous and other Australians through a change of attitude, education and an appreciation of Indigenous cultures; also the need for social justice for Indigenous Australians. National Reconciliation Week is held each year in May to celebrate the rich culture and history of the first Australians.

Reconciliation Australia An independent, not-for-profit organisation that promotes reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians It is a peak national organisation established in 2000 by the former Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation and provides advice to various groups and to government. Its board of directors comprises Indigenous and nonIndigenous people who believe that reconciliation is in the best interests of Australia. [Indigenous Australians]

recount Rechecking the number and the validity of the votes in an election A returning officer may decide to recount the votes, especially if the result is a close one. In the course of a recount, ballot papers of doubtful validity are carefully rechecked and all votes are examined to ensure that they have been correctly credited to the intended candidates. [count, scrutiny]

redistribution Changes to the boundaries of electorates The size and shape of electorates need to be changed from time to time because of changes to the number of members of parliament or the

180 red tape distribution of population. In the past redistributions have provided an opportunity for gerrymandering or malapportionment, but since 1984 the independent Australian Electoral Commission has had responsibility for redistributions. [gerrymander, malapportionment]

red tape Over-complicated procedures, especially bureaucratic ones, resulting in delays The term comes from the old custom of tying up official documents with red tape. Standard procedures adopted in government departments and other large organisations may require several reviews and multiple checking. Simplifying or speeding up the procedures is referred to as ‘cutting red tape’. [bureaucracy, due process]

referendum A vote of the people to indicate their opinion on a particular matter In Australia since Federation the usual understanding of the term is a countrywide vote on proposed amendments to the Constitution. The detailed requirements for amendment of the Constitution are set out in the Constitution itself. The proposal must be supported by a majority of the total votes and also be approved in a majority of the states. [Constitution of Australia, plebiscite]

reform Widely used in politics in recent years instead of ‘change’ Dictionaries continue to define ‘reform’ as improvement, so the use of the word implies that each change is a desirable or valuable one. In some cases this judgement may be politically contentious.

refugees People who have left their own country and cannot return without the likelihood of persecution Refugees may be in danger because of their politics, race or religion, and many countries will allow refugees to stay even though they may have come illegally. Deciding whether those claiming to be refugees are genuine can be a difficult problem for the host nation. [asylum seeker, boat people]

regime A term used to identify a form of government or a particular government ‘Regime’ is often joined with a description of the type of system or the name of its leader, for example, ‘the Czarist regime’ or ‘the Roosevelt

regressive tax 181 regime’. The term is usually reserved for governments that continue for a considerable time or have a distinct character. [government, ideology]

regressive tax A tax that takes a greater percentage of income from lower incomes than from higher ones Indirect taxes and charges tend to be regressive, such as sales tax on necessities and licence fees. [progressive tax]

regulations Details of a law that have not been precisely defined in the original act— they may be described as ‘sub-laws’ Acts of parliament may give a delegated power to the minister to add detail to the original act in the form of regulations. Any regulations made must be tabled in parliament and may be over-ruled in either house. An example would be an adjustment of a fine for a minor offence, such as a vehicle parking infringement. [delegated legislation]

representative A single person representing a group or a number of people In parliamentary politics it is the role of members of parliament to represent the electorate that has elected them. In party politics, the term can refer to a delegate who has been elected to represent local party members at conferences or meetings, such as those for the selection of parliamentary candidates. [delegate]

representative democracy Government by elected representatives of the people Direct democracy would require all the people to meet frequently to make decisions, but this would be impractical in large communities. Decisionmaking by elected representatives overcomes the problem, but the voting system must be fair if democratic ideals are to be retained. It is also necessary that no potential candidates be unfairly prevented from standing for election or hindered from making their views known to the voters. In some countries the huge costs associated with election campaigns compromise the fairness of a system purporting to be democratic. [democracy, responsible government]

representative government Government by representatives of those entitled to vote

182 republic This form of government is not necessarily democratic as voting rights may be restricted, or the voting system may be unfair through gerrymander or malapportionment. [franchise]

republic A nation governed by the people through their elected representatives and having an elected or nominated head of state rather than an hereditary leader The right to vote in fair elections and the supreme power of parliament are the hallmarks of a genuine republic. The political structures of nations claiming to be republics differ widely and some are republican in name only, their real nature being authoritarian. Republics usually have an elected or appointed president whose role is a formal or ceremonial one, or a president who has real political power. [head of government, head of state]

republicanism In Australian politics, the policy of gaining complete constitutional independence Becoming a republic would mean that the British monarch would no longer be the Australian head of state nor part of the Australian Commonwealth parliament. The more general meaning of republicanism is advocacy of a form of government based on democratic principles and headed by an elected or appointed president rather than an hereditary monarch. [Australian Republican Movement, Australians for a Constitutional Monarchy]

research and development (R & D) Research is scientific investigation; development is making the results of research directly useful For economic and industrial wellbeing it is considered essential that a country provides sufficient resources for research and development. It can come from government or private sources. The CSIRO is the main government research organisation in Australia. [Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation]

Reserve Bank of Australia Australia’s central bank, largely responsible for the nation’s monetary policy Formed by the Reserve Bank Act of 1959, it took over economic responsibilities from the Commonwealth Bank. The RBA aims to achieve manageable inflation, high rates of employment and prosperous business conditions. It is not possible to completely insulate Australia from worldwide circumstances and in difficult times the RBA’s aim is to minimise the adverse effects. The RBA’s monthly decisions on interest rates are keenly

reserve powers 183 awaited as they affect business, employment, investments and payments on home loans. [economics, economic system]

reserve powers The power of the monarch and the monarch’s representatives to disallow proposed laws passed by parliament and to reject government advice The Australian Constitution, in Sections 58 and 59, gives the monarch and the governor-general, as the monarch’s representative, powers that are superior to those of parliament. They are strengthened by the ‘disallowance’ power of the monarch. Despite the convention that the governor-general and governors act on the advice of the government, they have the power to do otherwise and on rare occasions this has happened. [disallowance, governor-general]

residual powers Powers that have remained solely with the states since Federation The Australian Constitution, and amendments to it, have given the Federal parliament power to make laws in respect to specified matters. Powers over other matters remain with the states. [division of powers]

resolution A formal decision of a meeting Proposals are made as ‘motions’ at many kinds of meetings. When a proposal is voted on and approved it becomes a ‘resolution’—a decision that the officers or committee of the organisation are required to carry out. [motion]

resources Materials and other factors of potential benefit, especially to humans An economic interpretation is that resources have commercial value, such as land and material, together with capital and labour. A broader definition would include everything that might add to the quality of life, now and into the future, whether of monetary value or not. [quality of life]

responsible government A political system in which the government is responsible to the people In practice this means a democratically elected parliament. The Aus­ tralian political system largely conforms to this ideal, but not completely. The monarch and the governor-general have the constitutional power to ignore or overrule government advice and decisions. [democracy, reserve powers]

184 restricted franchise restricted franchise See property vote

restrictive trade practices Schemes to increase profits by secret arrangements between companies Secret agreements between rival companies to avoid price competition are a prominent example. Another is the practice of powerful companies applying pressure on smaller ones to fix prices. Takeovers and mergers are also ways of reducing competition within an industry. The Commonwealth Trade Practices Act defines those practices that are illegal under the Act. [monopoly, oligopoly]

restrictive work practices Rules relating to work practices that increase costs or cause delays These rules have been established over many years and have been incorporated into agreements and industrial awards. Combined efforts of government, employers and trade unions began in the mid-1980s to reduce the problem, lower costs and improve export prospects. [microeconomic reform, productivity]

retrospective legislation Laws that deal with activities that occurred before the legislation was passed Retrospective legislation is rare and is likely to be met with criticism, even when there are sound reasons for the proposed laws. Justification for such legislation could include coping with clever devices that are aimed at negating the obvious purpose of existing legislation. A cunning ma­noeuvre to avoid the intention of a fair taxation law is an example.

returning officer (RO) The appointed official in charge of an election in a particular electorate The returning officer’s duties include the planning and provision of facilities, staff and ballot papers and control of the conduct of voting on Election Day. After the completion of voting, the RO’s responsibilities include overseeing the counting of the votes and making the declaration of the poll. [declaration of the poll, Election Day]

revenue Government income from taxation and other sources Major sources of revenue include personal and company taxes, consumption tax, excise and customs duty, capital gains tax, licence fees, payroll tax, vehicle registration fees and fines for lawbreaking. [taxation]

rhetoric 185 rhetoric Use of the term in a political context usually implies pretentious or vague or deceptive speech It suggests that an opponent has been indulging in meaningless talk instead of making a frank and substantial statement. This may be fair criticism, but the accusation can also be used as a device to avoid serious debate.

right to vote The legal right to vote depends on meeting certain conditions such as age and citizenship The struggle for extensions to the right to vote has been a continuing feature of the growth of democracy. In Australia women gained the legal right to vote in state and federal elections at the start of the twentieth century. In Australia, voting has become not only a right and a civic duty, but also a legal obligation. [adult franchise (or suffrage), property vote, suffragettes]

right-wing A simple interpretation is ‘politically conservative’, but the term is a relative one and its meaning depends on the context In Australia, the Liberal Party and the National Party are regarded as rightwing or conservative parties. But care should be taken in interpreting the terms in other contexts, especially when they are applied to factions or individuals. For example, a faction regarded as right-wing in one party could be quite different from a right-wing group in another. [left-wing, political spectrum]

Ring the bells! The traditional order by the presiding officer to summon absent members of parliament to the chamber This call is made before a vote in the form of a division is held, and also when it has been confirmed that a quorum is not present. [division (voting), quorum]

Robson rotation A way of arranging names on ballot papers to avoid unfair advantage to any one candidate from the ‘donkey vote’ Named after its originator, a Tasmanian MP named Neil Robson, it is a system of changing the positions of names on batches of ballot papers so that the top position is shared equally between all candidates. Consequently the ‘donkey vote’ will not unfairly affect the result. The system has been introduced in Tasmania and the ACT. [donkey vote]

186 roll roll See electoral roll

rort In general, cheating or misuse of laws or systems for personal advantage This term also applies to political matters and an example is the gerrymandering of an electorate. [gerrymander, slush fund]

royal assent The final step in the passage of legislation This is the legal assent by the governor-general (or governor), who signs a copy of the bill as the representative of the monarch. Section 58 of the Constitution gives the governor-general the power to refuse, but giving assent is usually no more than a formality. The Constitution, in Section 59, also provides for disallowance by the monarch of any legislation within a year of its receiving the governor-general’s assent. [disallowance, reserve powers]

royal commission An inquiry appointed by parliament to investigate a matter of public importance Royal commissions have wide powers and can subpoena witnesses. They report back to parliament and parliament decides what action to take, if any, after considering a royal commission’s report. [commission, subpoena]

rule of law The principle that all people and governments have equal rights before the law The doctrine comes from English common law and requires that government action abides by the law and that the administration of the law must be impartial. It also requires that the judges be independent. [due process, judicature]

S safe seat A parliamentary seat which a particular party is expected to win with a comfortable majority at each election The party in power prefers to have its ministers in safe seats, as ministers are more vulnerable because they cannot spend as much time in their electorates as backbenchers and must sometimes make ministerial decisions that may be locally unpopular. [blue-ribbon seat]

sales tax A tax charged as a percentage of the selling price This can be imposed on all goods or on selected ones and at different rates depending on the class of goods. Some buyers may be exempted, such as charitable institutions. Sales tax can be levied at different stages in the chain of production and selling, such as at retail sale or at the wholesale stage, or at each point where some process occurs that adds value to the goods. [goods and services tax]

sanctions Actions to cause inconvenience or disadvantage to another nation to persuade it to change its policies Non-military sanctions can include restrictions of trade or investment, or of participation in international sporting events. Military sanctions, short of war, include refusal to sell arms to the country. Sanctions may sometimes be effective, but in many cases may harm the general population while failing to bring about a policy change.

scab A derogatory term used by trade unionists for workers who take the place of those on strike

188 scam The resentment against such workers, sometimes called ‘strike breakers’, stems from the principle of unity within trade unions. [industrial dispute, rat]

scam A ruse or confidence trick The usual meaning applies to schemes to defraud victims of money, although in a political context it is applied to a policy that may look attractive but in practice would help very few people.

scare campaign Political propaganda to induce fears, usually unwarranted ones Publicity is used to frighten people and gain support for a policy of a political party or a pressure group. Catchphrases, such as ‘yellow peril’ or ‘slippery slope’, are used in scare campaigns.

scepticism (political) Careful judgement of political matters based on the evidence, which should not be confused with cynicism This continuing responsibility may be tiresome, or painful when it involves criticism of one’s favoured party, but widespread interest is essential for good government. [apathy, cynicism (political)]

scrutineers People officially entitled to watch the election processes to guard against improper practices and mistakes Scrutineers are nominated by candidates, but candidates themselves are not permitted to act as scrutineers. There are two categories of scrutineers: those who observe the voting, and those who scrutinise the counting process. [count, scrutiny]

scrutiny Examination of the electoral process by representatives of the candidates The system of scrutiny helps to ensure that high standards and public confidence in the electoral process are maintained. Scrutineers are allowed to be present inside polling places while voting is in progress. They also watch over the counting of votes and may challenge the validity of ballot papers if they believe they may be informal. By watching carefully during the count, scrutineers can assess the effect of preference votes and make early forecasts of the final result of the election. [informal vote, preferential voting]

seat (in parliament) 189 seat (in parliament) An informal term for an electorate or a division in the case of the House of Representatives The use of the expression probably comes from the practice of allocating a particular seat in parliamentary chambers to each member of parliament.

secession The separating for self-government of a portion of the area controlled by an established government In Australia a serious attempt was made by Western Australia to secede from the Commonwealth in 1933 following overwhelming support in a referendum in that state. Secession required amendment of the British act of parliament that incorporated the Australian Constitution, but the British act was not amended and secession did not happen. [Federation]

secondary boycott An extension of industrial action beyond the employer initially involved A secondary boycott can take the form of action against other companies unless they cease cooperating with the employer at the centre of the dispute. This tactic is adopted when the company mainly concerned is impervious to normal strike action. This form of industrial action is a matter of political dispute and was made illegal by the Howard government. [solidarity]

secondary industry Industry that adds value to materials, especially manufacturing industry Employment in secondary industry in Australia, as a proportion of total employment, rose to a maximum percentage in the mid-1950s but then decreased, mainly as a result of the use of technologically advanced machinery and increased imports. [primary industry, tertiary industry]

second reading The second parliamentary stage in dealing with proposed legislation At this stage the minister explains the contents of the bill and speaks in its favour, usually at considerable length. The general principles of the proposed legislation are then debated and a vote is taken. If this is carried it indicates approval of the aims of the bill, but not necessarily to all its details. The second reading is followed by consideration of the bill clause by clause. [bill, consideration in detail stage (of a bill), first reading, third reading]

190 secret ballot secret ballot An election in which the procedure enables each voter’s choice to be kept secret Parliamentary elections in Australia are secret ballots and voters are given privacy when they mark their ballot papers. This reduces the possibility of unfair pressure being exerted on voters, although voters can make their choice known if they wish to do so.

sectarianism Antagonism between groups holding different religious faiths, sometimes with political consequences Australia suffered for many years from hostility between Protestants and Catholics. Mainly from Ireland, the Catholics were mostly manual workers and supported the newly formed Labor Party around the time of Federation. The ALP was then sometimes labelled ‘the Catholic party’. This form of sectarianism subsided during the twentieth century but, as a result of immigration from a range of countries and cultures, antagonism has emerged towards religions previously little known in Australia. An ad­ditional religious factor affecting politics has been the growth in Australia of American-style Christian fundamentalist churches that tend to support conservative political parties.

section (of an act of parliament) A distinct portion of an act, identified by a number Sections may be single short sentences, or run to much greater length and be divided into several sub-sections. Before the legislation is passed these separate parts of the bill are called clauses. [clause]

security (national) Protection against aggression from other countries and insurrection from within Most countries, including Australia, maintain military and police forces and secret security organisations to try to learn of potential dangers. Secret security agencies can be misused both in their country of origin and abroad as their activities cannot be so freely and thoroughly scrutinised as those of other government agencies. [Australian Secret Intelligence Service, Australian Security Intelligence Organisation, defence]

security (social) Confidence in the future, including freedom from fear of economic distress

sedition 191 In politics, it refers particularly to security of employment and availability of help at times of need such as illness, incapacity and old age. [depression, recession, social services]

sedition Encouraging revolt against the governing authorities through speech or writing Sedition differs from treason and is a less serious offence, as no violent action is involved. [treason]

select committee A parliamentary committee set up to undertake a particular task The members of a select committee may be chosen from either one or both houses of parliament. These committees can be expected to have a finite life, ending when the particular task has been completed. [committee system]

selection of ministers The party in government chooses its ministers but the methods have varied over time The Constitution states that the governor-general chooses the ministers but, in practice, the political party in government chooses them. Later, the governor-general formally appoints them. The Liberal Party’s leader usually selects the ministers, including some from the National Party when there is a coalition government. The caucus has usually elected Labor Party ministers but there have allegedly been exceptions to this tradition in recent years. Factions have influence in the selection of ministers in both parties. [caucus, minister]

Senate One of the two houses of the Federal Parliament Its membership is made up of twelve senators from each of the six states plus two from each of the two mainland territories. The proposal for an equal number of senators from each state was an inducement for the less populous states to accept Federation. It is not consistent with the principle of ‘one vote–one value’. Most senators vote on party lines and this reduces the effectiveness of the Senate in protecting smaller states and its value as a ‘house of review’. The style of debate in the Senate is usually more subdued and polite than in the House of Representatives. [house of review, senator, territories]

192 Senate elections Senate elections Senators are elected to represent the whole of a state (or territory) by a proportional representation system of voting Senate elections are usually held in conjunction with House of Representatives elections. At half-Senate elections, which are the usual type, senators from the states are elected for a full six-year term but only half of them are elected at any one time. Senators from the territories are elected for threeyear terms. After a double dissolution, all Senate seats become vacant. Half of those from the states are elected for a full term, but the others for a ‘short term’ of three years. Senate elections are conducted according to a modified Hare-Clark system, and each state and territory is a multi-­member electorate. [double dissolution, Hare-Clark system, half-Senate election, simultaneous elections, territories]

senator A member of parliament elected to the Senate, the upper house of the Federal Parliament A group of senators is elected from each state, and a group from each mainland territory. In parliament they usually team together on party lines, loyalties to political parties taking precedence over loyalties to states. Members of the Senate are usually addressed by the title ‘Senator’. [casual vacancy, Senate, Senate elections]

separation of powers The independence of the three ‘arms of government’: the legislature, the executive and the judiciary The principle of the separation of powers is to guard against tyranny and injustice such as can occur, for example, if the executive controls the system of justice. The Australian Constitution does not completely separate the three arms of government, as it follows the precedent of the Westminster system and makes the executive answerable to the parliament. [arms of government, Westminster system]

session (of parliament) A period from the opening of the parliament until it is prorogued or dissolved Parliament is said to be prorogued if the next session will be held without an election intervening. If there is to be an election, parliament is ‘dissolved’. Prorogation of the Commonwealth parliament has become rare and sessions often extend for the full term of the parliament. [prorogation, recess]

sexism 193 sexism The attitude that people are superior or inferior, and have particular abilities, inclinations and duties, according to their gender In principle, either sex could be regarded as the inferior one, but in practice girls and women are the people more often disadvantaged. [discrimination (within a community)]

shadow minister An opposition member of parliament chosen to concentrate on a particular area of ministerial responsibility The position does not have official status but is an established feature of parliamentary practice. The shadow minister is usually the first member to speak after the minister in a debate on a new bill. Appointment as a shadow minister is regarded as promotion for a backbencher, and a step towards becoming a minister if the opposition becomes the government.

shadow ministry The group of senior opposition members of parliament chosen to concentrate on the various ministerial areas of responsibility It is sometimes called the opposition front bench, and its members are the opposition’s foremost spokespersons in parliament and to the mass media. The shadow ministry is numerically equal, or nearly equal, to the government ministry. [front bench]

silent majority A term used to suggest that most people silently disagree with changes promoted by public argument and demonstrations In some cases the suggestion may be justified, as strong campaigns can be waged by pressure groups despite little general support. On the other hand, the assertion that a ‘silent majority’ disagrees can be used as an excuse for the absence of noticeable support for a person’s own viewpoint. [populism, pressure group]

simultaneous elections Elections of an upper house and a lower house of parliament that are held on the same day Although it is convenient and less costly to have simultaneous elections, Commonwealth and state constitutions permit them to be held separately and this has happened on some occasions in both federal and state elections. Referendums for amendment of the Australian Constitution that would ensure that Senate and House of Representatives elections would be held simultaneously have been defeated on two occasions.

194 single-issue group single-issue group A pressure group that is concerned and active about only one element of political policy These groups usually adopt the tactics of putting pressure on political parties or candidates rather than becoming directly involved in parliamentary elections as parties, although there have been some exceptions. Disproportionate attention is sometimes given to these groups by the media and politicians, deflecting attention from other matters of public concern. But single-issue groups can increase awareness of issues that might otherwise be ignored. [pressure group, punishment politics]

single-member electorate An area represented by one member of parliament House of Representatives electorates and state lower house electorates (except in Tasmania) are examples of single-member electorates. [multi-member electorate]

Single Tax League An Australian political movement advocating the land tax policy of Henry George Henry George was a nineteenth-century American economist who proposed a single tax based on land values. The idea achieved some popularity in Australia in the early years of the twentieth century, as it did in the USA and Canada. The Single Tax League continues in Australia into the twentyfirst century with a tiny membership but it owns significant financial assets, mainly from legacies.

single transferable vote system A form of preferential voting In this system, each voter has only one vote but it can be transferred to another candidate under some circumstances. If only one position is being contested, as in a House of Representatives election, this system would be popularly called ‘preferential voting’. [preferential voting]

sitting A meeting of a house of parliament, usually extending over no more than a day; it ends when it is adjourned A sitting is suspended (or interrupted) when the presiding member leaves the chair, usually for a meal break. The term ‘sitting’ has a different meaning from ‘sittings’ (the autumn sittings and the spring sittings), which refers to periods of some months when there are many sitting days. [sittings (of parliament)]

sitting day 195 sitting day A day on which a house of parliament assembles to deal with formal business Sitting days are mostly set weeks beforehand. This helps all those likely to be involved to make plans in advance. The schedule of sitting days may be changed to cope with the pressure of business, particularly towards the end of a session, when there may be an accumulation of bills needing attention. [session (of parliament), sittings (of parliament)]

sittings (of parliament) Two periods each year of about four months when Commonwealth parliament sits most weeks, although interspersed with non-sitting weeks; also called a ‘sitting period’. These are called the autumn sittings (between February and June) and the spring sittings (between August and December). Each state parliament chooses its own sitting days, which are planned and published in advance, but sometimes changed to suit unexpected circumstances. [recess, session (of parliament)]

slush fund Money received by political parties or politicians from donors who expect favours in return The term is used in a derogatory way, which is well justified when donations, often secret, are made with improper motives although, in some cases, it may be difficult to distinguish between legitimate donations and ‘slush fund’ money. The high cost of election campaigns and the potential conflicts of interest that such contributions may entail are used as an argument for public funding of political advertising. [blind trust (political party funding), public funding (election campaigns)]

small-l Liberals (faction) An historically significant faction that dominated the Liberal Party for many years Members of the group have been called the ‘moderates’ or ‘Wets’, in contrast with the ‘Dries’ or ‘conservatives’. The small-l Liberals have been closer to the attitudes of the Liberal Party of earlier years under Menzies than their factional opponents. [factions—conservative parties]

social capital A term with a range of interpretations, it deals with the consequences of the relationship of individuals and groups within communities

196 social cohesion Definitions vary widely, one being that social capital is the sum of networks, institutions and mutual assistance that contribute positively to the quality of life of members of a community. Another interpretation— espoused by the French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu—identifies the term with the possession of advantage, or disadvantage, according to a person’s position in the class structure. [classes, community, socio-economic status]

social cohesion A characteristic of a community whose members cooperate with one another and live in harmony as a result of similarity of customs and values or tolerance and goodwill Such cohesion can be endangered by any of several factors, such as differences in religion, race, class or affluence whether such differences within a population are the result of immigration or long-term circumstances. [classes, racism, society]

social democracy A form of government that includes democratic principles and a mixed economy of capitalism and socialism In Australia the term is used to describe the ideology of the Australian Labor Party, whose platform includes social services and a mixed economy. [democratic socialist, ideology, political theory]

social environment The circumstances in which people find themselves as a result of legis­ lation, economics and accepted standards of behaviour Political beliefs on matters such as the distribution of wealth, social mobility and education are important in changing or maintaining the social environment. Other factors include customs and traditions, peer group pressure, class structure, ethnicity and religion. [civics, mores, peer group pressure, society, socio-economic status]

socialism A political philosophy that gives high priority to social needs and favours substantial government responsibility Interpretations of ‘socialism’ range widely. In Australia, the term is usually taken to mean a mixture of government and private ownership, with extensive social services. [democratic socialist, ideology, social democracy]

Socialist Left (faction) 197 Socialist Left (faction) A major faction within the Labor Party in Victoria and influential in federal politics The faction developed from an earlier one, the Trade Union Defence Committee, which was powerful in the 1950s and 1960s. The Socialist Left has been regarded as being well to the left, but the emphasis on ideology has gradually diminished and internal dissension has caused the growth of sub-groups. In federal politics, Socialist Left members usually side with members of similar groups from other states to make up ‘the Left’. [factions—Australian Labor Party]

Socialist Party of Australia (1971–1996) One of the parties in Australia that resulted from the splitting of the original Communist Party This party adopted a more pro-Soviet stance than the other ex-­Communist Party groups, whose members were more critical of the Soviet Union. It renamed itself the Communist Party of Australia in 1996. [communism, Communist Party of Australia]

social justice In colloquial Australian, the term means a ‘fair go’. Its fundamental belief is the recognition of the basic rights of everyone to a reasonable share of the benefits and the responsibilities of society These rights include a share of the earth’s resources and equal opportunities. Also access to social wellbeing, justice and employment in decent conditions; and all of these without discrimination on account of gender, race or religion. [fair go]

social mobility The possibility of people moving up or down the social or economic structure of a society There are famous examples of people from humble backgrounds achieving success, but the playing field is not level. Family circumstances and schools attended make a substantial difference to the opportunities available to young people in practice rather than theory. [ladder of opportunity]

198 social movements

Reproduced courtesy of Fiona Katauskas

social movements Groups of people who are either intent on political change or are opposed to change Social movements include an organised nucleus of enthusiasts and a larger number of people ranging from active to silent supporters. Although the issues often involve politics, the movements are usually independent of parties and supporters cross party boundaries. Well-known examples include the alignments of public figures and politicians on republicanism and euthanasia. Social movements positively bring attention to serious matters that have been neglected, but there is also the danger of enthusiasts becoming single-­issue lobbyists. In Australia social movements have been active over a long period, including the Eight-Hour Day movement of the 1850s, the suffragettes at the time of Federation and the conservationists, who were active well before the danger of climate change was widely recognised.

social services Publicly funded services or provision of financial assistance to those in need Social services include health services and education, housing, pensions and other forms of financial assistance. Most economically developed

society 199 countries have welfare services, although the appropriate range and level of services is a matter of continuing political debate. Left-of-centre parties usually favour more social services than conservative parties. [pensions, welfare state]

society An interacting community of people, especially a group that has developed a structure with customs and conventions The term has a number of other meanings but society, considered as the whole community, depends on its institutions, laws and customs and on the spirit of cooperation and the mutual concern of its members. In politics, right-wing conservatives tend to dismiss the importance of so­ciety. For example, the former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher asserted ‘there is no such thing as society. There are individual men and women, and there are families.’ [community]

socio-economic status A term used in classifying groups of people; it is closely related to the older term ‘class’ This depends on several factors, including education, occupation and financial circumstances. Information about socio-economic status in defined districts is of political interest, especially to psephologists. [classes, psephology]

solidarity Mutual support among trade unions Help given to a union in a weak bargaining position by a stronger union typifies solidarity. The term also applies to international cooperation such as the support by the Australian Council of Trade Unions in 2008 for the Korean Confederation of Trade Unions, whose officials had been jailed. [secondary boycott]

sovereignty Power over a nation by a person or by a group such as a parliament Although the term comes from the word ‘sovereign’, meaning a monarch, it is now applied to any form of government—whether a democratically elected parliament, a small group or junta, a monarch or a dictator.

Speaker The title of the senior presiding officer of the lower house of parliament The Speaker acts as the presiding officer during sittings of parliament, and shares this duty with a Deputy Speaker. Their responsibilities include maintaining orderly conduct and debate. The house chooses the Speaker

200 speechwriter from among its own members and, in practice, the party or coalition that has a majority in the house makes the choice. [President (of an upper house)]

speechwriter People employed by politicians to write some of their speeches The speechwriter has the task of researching the subject, of expressing the policy of the politician (especially ministers and party leaders) without gaffes or weaknesses that can be attacked by opponents, and of doing this in a manner that will be engaging and catch the attention of the media. [spin]

spill The creation of vacancies for some or all of the positions in a political group such as a ministry The term can apply to any political party but is more frequently used in reference to the ALP, as the Labor caucus has traditionally chosen the ministers. A ‘spill’ can be caused by the resignation or dismissal of one or more of the office-holders or by dissatisfaction with them. A caucus election is held to fill the vacancies, usually followed by a reallocation of positions. [caucus]

spin Careful choice of words to interpret a matter in a selective, misleading, vague or even a dishonest way in an attempt to manipulate public opinion The term came from the public relations industry to politics, especially in Britain, where Tony Blair’s New Labour government lost public confidence because of its alleged addiction to spin.

spin doctor A media adviser who helps political speechmakers concoct spin Tony Blair’s media adviser, Alastair Campbell, was the pre-eminent example of a spin doctor but Australian politicians also employ media advisers to help them create clever or deceptive speeches to influence public opinion.

‘Split’, the See Labor ‘Split’

squattocracy Long-established owners or occupiers of large country properties who came to regard themselves as a superior class The term ‘squatter’ came from the practice of some early settlers occupying large tracts of Crown land without permission. Later, many obtained leases

Standards Australia Limited 201 or became landowners. They were mostly graziers who became wealthy and were treated with deference in their local areas.

Standards Australia Limited The peak Australian body that sets standards for products, services and working practices Safety is one of its major concerns. The name was adopted in 1988. It was previously called the Standards Association of Australia, a body that was established in the 1920s with the main function of setting engineering standards.

standing committee A parliamentary committee with a continuing responsibility Standing committees deal with important areas of government responsibility. They continue for the life of the parliament and are likely to be re-established in the following one. The Finance and Administration Committee, the Migration Committee and the Education and Training Committee are examples. [committee system]

standing orders The rules that apply to the proceedings of a house of parliament Standing orders are the written rules adopted by parliament to make proceedings orderly, fair and efficient. The Speaker, or the presiding officer, has the responsibility of keeping order and expediting the work of parliament with the help of the standing orders. [order, suspension of standing orders]

state constitutions Legislation that defines the powers and rules of state parliaments Each of the Australian colonies (later to become states) adopted consti­ tutions during the nineteenth century, but the British parliament continued to possess substantial power over the colonies until Federation. The states continued to be partly subject to British laws, at least in theory, until the British parliament and the Australian Commonwealth parliament passed the Australia Act(s) in 1986. With the establishment of the Commonwealth in 1901 many responsibilities were transferred from the states to the Commonwealth government, but powers that were not listed in the Constitution of Australia remained with the states. State constitutions can be amended by state parliaments, in contrast to the Commonwealth Constitution, which cannot be changed without a referendum. [Australia Act(s) 1986, Statute of Westminster]

202 state(s) state(s) In Australia, the six separately governed regions that were called ‘colonies’ until Federation Since Federation the states continued to be self-governing, but with reduced powers. Each has its own parliament with power over all matters that have not been allocated to the Commonwealth by the Constitution. There are also two mainland territories—the ACT and the Northern Territory—each with its own parliament. [Federation, residual powers, territories]

statesmanship Political conduct of a responsible and dignified kind The term can apply to politics within a country or to international dip­ lomacy. For example, the conduct of a national leader or diplomat who confers with a representative of another nation in a way that maximises the chance of a useful outcome is often referred to as ‘statesmanship’. [diplomacy]

states’ rights Powers retained by the states at the time of Federation and not transferred later to the Commonwealth The term has become identified with opposition to the transfer of powers from the states. The Commonwealth parliament has sometimes legislated on matters not listed in the Constitution, but has done so with the consent of the states. The division of powers between the Commonwealth and the states has been controversial, with those on the conservative side of politics tending to oppose transfers to the Commonwealth. [centralism, Federation, residual powers]

statute An act of parliament; a formally defined and recorded law In Australia, both state and federal parliaments produce statutes by the formal process of debate and voting, although the government usually decides the substance of new legislation in advance.

statute law The sum of all the acts of parliament—federal, state and territory Statute law is the written law, contrasting with common law, which is based on precedent. The two together make up the law of the country. [common law, statute]

Statute of Westminster An act passed by the British parliament in 1931 that formally recognised the independence of Australia

statutory authority 203 The statute acknowledged the autonomy of several countries that had once been part of the British Empire. It was the result of uncertainty regarding the possibility of the United Kingdom intervening in the government of these countries. In Australia, the British legislation of 1931 did not become effective until the passing of the Commonwealth ‘Statute of Westminster Adoption Act’ in 1942. The passage of the Australia Act of 1986, which removed or reduced various powers of the United Kingdom over Australia and over the states, clarified the constitutional position of the Australian states. [Australia Act(s) 1986]

statutory authority An organisation established by parliament with defined powers and duties and a large degree of independence Each statutory authority has its own minister, who decides matters of broad policy, but it is the authority itself that is responsible to parliament. The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission is an example.

statutory committee A parliamentary committee established by an act of parliament Parliamentary committees can be established by act of parliament or under the standing orders of a house of parliament. The public accounts committee is an example. [committee system]

stolen generations Aboriginal children taken away from their parents over many years in the twentieth century Children were taken from their families legally, and often forcibly, from 1909 to 1969 under the Aborigines Protection Act. Governments, churches and welfare groups did this under the impression that it would be in the best interests of the children and some were helped but, in addition to the sadness of being permanently separated from their families, they were often subjected to inhumane treatment and permanently harmed. The 1997 ‘Bringing them home’ report of the National Inquiry into this policy confirmed the damage and misery that it caused and recommended a government apology and compensation. The prime minister at the time, John Howard, decided not to make an official apology but Prime Minister Kevin Rudd did so in 2008.

strike The organised refusal to work by a group of employees because of a dispute with their employer

204 sub judice Strikes are usually, but not always, concerned with wages and conditions of employment and are settled either by agreement or by arbitration or sometimes end without any positive settlement. [industrial dispute]

sub judice A legal term meaning that a particular matter is the subject of court proceedings Public comment on such cases is forbidden for fear of influencing juries or otherwise prejudicing a fair trial. Although law does not restrict comment in parliament, it has become customary for MPs to abstain from comment or to restrict it in accordance with traditional rules adopted by parliament. [parliamentary privilege]

sub-laws See regulations

subpoena A legal demand that a person appear before a court or official inquiry A royal commission has the same power as a court to order witnesses to attend and give information. [royal commission]

subsidy Government financial assistance Subsidies may be paid to industries to assist them against overseas competition; to public services, such as transport, in order to keep charges down; and to cultural and voluntary welfare organisations.

suffrage See adult franchise (or suffrage)

suffragettes An historically famous English organisation that campaigned for women’s voting rights in the early years of the twentieth century Ridiculed at first, the suffragettes were partly responsible for achieving limited voting rights for women in 1918, and full voting rights in 1928. Emmeline Pankhurst founded the forerunner to the suffrage movement, the Women’s Franchise League, in England in 1889. Similar organisations operated in other countries, including Australia. [adult franchise (or suffrage)]

sunset clause A time limit on the operation of an act of parliament

superannuation 205 Some acts include a date on which the law ceases to apply. An extension of time is possible but would require the assent of parliament.

superannuation The provision of pensions or other financial benefits to workers after retirement Superannuation usually requires contributions by the employees during their working lives, plus contributions from employers. The benefits may be regular payments or a lump sum, or a combination of both. The government contributes to superannuation funds indirectly by allowing tax concessions. Superannuation differs from age pensions, as the latter do not require direct contributions from employees or others during their working life. [pensions]

supply bills See money bills

supply-side economics The theory that factors affecting production have the most important influence on the economics of a country Supply-side economics concentrates on wage rates, taxation and the allocation of capital. It contrasts sharply with Keynesian principles, which emphasise the importance of demand, especially to prevent unemployment. [Keynesianism, total demand]

Supreme Court The most senior court in the judicial system of each state and territory The work of Supreme Courts can extend over almost all legal matters except those reserved for the High Court. Under some circumstances appeals against the decisions of Supreme Courts can be made to the High Court. [High Court, judicature]

suspension The temporary exclusion of a member from the proceedings of a house of parliament because of disorderly conduct Suspension is a part of the rules and procedures aimed at maintaining order and decorum in a house of parliament. Although the presiding officer of the house begins the process of suspension, the formal decision to suspend a member is made by a vote of the parliament. [naming a member, order]

suspension of standing orders The decision of a house of parliament to operate, temporarily, in a manner not in accordance with standing orders

206 sustainable development This is for special reasons, such as dealing with urgent business. Standing orders can be suspended only with the approval of an absolute majority of the house. [standing orders]

sustainable development Economic and industrial development designed so that the environment will not be irreversibly damaged The United Nations 1992 Earth Summit conference in Rio de Janeiro dealt with the future of those countries in which most of the people live in poverty. The conference emphasised the need for economic development in those countries without drastically degrading the natural ecosystems. The term ‘sustainable development’ is used as a simplified explanation. [climate change]

sweated labour Excessive demand for output with low rates of pay This term applied particularly to women workers a century ago, before they belonged to unions. Another factor, especially in the clothing trade, was ‘piecework’—paying a stated amount per item for work done at home. Similarly, in the twenty-first century, some goods purchased in richer countries are very cheap because of low rates of pay in the countries where they are made. [fair trade (social movement), women’s lib(eration), women’s movement]

swing A change in the percentage of votes received by the political parties that can apply to one electorate or to all of them Media commentators use the term when discussing an approaching election. They relate swings to the number of seats that would change hands and the swing necessary for a change of government. [psephology]

swinging voter A voter without a continuing party allegiance whose vote might change at any election Swinging voters can belong to a range of categories. Some are well informed and vote carefully. Others may be influenced by minor factors. The existence of the ‘donkey vote’ indicates that some voters pay little attention to politics and vote haphazardly. The percentage of swinging voters is rising, possibly because of the diminishing class-identification of Australians and the less prevalent lifelong adherence to a particular political party. [apathy, donkey vote]

Sydney Institute 207 Sydney Institute A long-established political think tank A privately funded, not-for-profit organisation engaged in political research and publicity. The institute describes itself as ‘bringing a unique focus to Sydney’s intellectual and business life’ and it conducts forums and invites speakers from a wide range of backgrounds. It publishes the Sydney Institute Quarterly. [think tank]

T tacking The attachment of proposed legislation of some other category on to money bills This has sometimes been done in the hope that an upper house will pass the total bill because of the convention that it should not reject money bills. The Australian Constitution (Sections 54 and 55) forbids tacking in the Commonwealth Parliament. [appropriation bills, money bills]

tariffs Taxes on imports, intended to protect local industry, especially manufacturing Tariffs provide revenue as well as protection for local industry, but they increase the price paid by the purchaser. The matter of tariffs has been a controversial one for many years, with a gradual move towards free trade. [free trade, protection]

Tasmanian electoral system Members of the House of Assembly are elected from multi-member electorates by proportional representation The method for the lower house is popularly known as the Hare-Clark system. It combines proportional representation and preferential voting, and makes use of the ‘Droop quota’ in counting the votes. In 1998 the government adopted an electoral system that provided for the election of five MPs from each of five electorates to try to avoid ‘hung’ parliaments. The Legislative Council uses a preferential voting system for each of its fifteen single-member electorates. [Droop quota, Hare-Clark system, deadlock (lack of a majority), Robson rotation]

taxation 209 taxation Funds collected by the government to provide for public expenditure Direct taxation is levied on income and, under some circumstances, on capital gains. Taxation can also be in the form of death duties or inheritance tax. There are also indirect taxes, the most important of which is sales tax, which may be in any of several different forms. Taxation policy is a major topic of political debate. [goods and services tax, income tax, progressive tax, regressive tax, revenue, sales tax]

tax avoidance Arrangement of financial matters with the main objective of legally re­ducing taxation Tax avoidance is legal despite sometimes involving the contortion of financial arrangements and using legal ‘loopholes’. Fringe benefits tax was introduced to reduce some of the opportunities to elude the intention of tax laws. Schemes for tax avoidance are criticised on moral grounds and they tend to favour the more affluent at the expense of lower income earners. [fringe benefits tax, taxation, tax evasion]

tax evasion Illegal action to reduce taxation Common ways of evading tax include falsifying tax returns and accepting payments for work in cash without documentary records. [taxation, tax avoidance]

tellers Members of parliament appointed to count the votes when a parliamentary vote is in the form of a division The presiding officer appoints two tellers to count the affirmative votes and two to count the negative votes. [division (voting)]

term The period for which a member of parliament is elected Lower house MPs are normally elected for a maximum of three or four years, depending on the particular house of parliament. For example, the term is three years in the House of Representatives but four years for the Victorian Legislative Assembly. Senators from the states are normally elected for a full term of six years or, under some circumstances, for a short term of three years. Senators from the mainland territories are elected for three years. [Senate elections]

210 term (of office) term (of office) The period during which a particular prime minister, premier or party continues in power in parliament The expression refers to an uninterrupted period. For example, if a prime minister is defeated but regains office at a later election, the new period as a prime minister would be called a ‘second term’.

term (of parliament) The time from the opening of a new parliament to its dissolution prior to the next election The maximum term is legally fixed, although it varies for different parliaments. Parliament may be dissolved long before the maximum time has elapsed if the governor-general, or the state governor, authorises the dissolution. This is almost always done in accordance with advice from the government. A term of parliament is sometimes referred to as ‘a parliament’. [dissolution, parliament (period of time), term, term (of office)]

terra nullius The legal term for the concept that Australia was legally uninhabited and owned by no one until colonisation began in 1788 The High Court rejected this concept in 1992 in the Mabo case by de­claring the existence of native title to land. This ruling was extended by the judgement in the Wik case of 1996. [land rights, Mabo case, Native Title Act, Wik case]

territories Areas, other than states, over which Australia has jurisdiction There are two mainland territories: the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. The external territories include the Australian Antarctic Territory, Christmas Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, the Coral Sea Islands, the Heard and McDonald Islands, the Ashmore Reef and Cartier Islands and Norfolk Island. [Australian Capital Territory parliament, Northern Territory parliament]

terrorism A term for organised violence or intimidation to achieve a political or i­deological goal The causes of terrorism range from honest belief in victimisation and injustice to self-righteousness, intolerance and blatant ambition for power. The intense feelings that are part of terrorism are often associated with political, religious or racial loyalties. Individual cases can be controversial: some relativists claim that ‘one man’s freedom fighter is another man’s terrorist’. [ideology, security (national), theocracy]

tertiary industry 211 tertiary industry Service industries, such as retailing and transport, and professional ser­ vices such as law and medicine Tertiary industry has been growing since the 1950s and has become the largest of the three tiers of industry. An important element has been leisure-­related industry such as entertainment, hospitality and the holiday trade. [primary industry, secondary industry]

Thatcherism The neoliberal economic policies and anti-trade unionism espoused by the former British prime minister From her election in 1979, Margaret Thatcher worked to reverse Britain’s post-World War II acceptance of Keynesian economic principles and to reduce the influence of trade unions. During the 1980s Ronald Reagan, president of the USA, supported similar polices. Consequently Thatcherism and Reaganism are frequently mentioned together as examples of neoliberalism.

theocracy A government dominated by clergy or religious power Theocracies tend to be authoritarian as the leaders assert, and probably believe, that they are acting according to divine law and therefore have the right to discourage or forbid criticism or opposition. [ideology]

think tank A social and/or political research organisation, often also engaging in political propaganda Some candidly acknowledge their political sympathies, although they may occasionally disagree publicly with certain policies of their favoured parties. Others adopt names that suggest the dignity and detachment of academic or professional institutions and give their employees titles such as ‘fellow’ or ‘senior fellow’. Well-known think tanks regarded as sympathetic to the Liberal Party include the Institute of Public Affairs, the Tasman Institute, the Menzies Research Centre and the Centre for Independent Studies. Those sympathetic towards the Labor Party include the Evatt Foundation, the Fabian Society and the Australia Institute. [Evatt Foundation, Fabian Society, Institute of Public Affairs, Menzies Research Centre, National Civic Council, Sydney Institute]

third reading The final parliamentary stage of dealing with a bill and the last at which it can be debated

212 Third Way This stage provides an opportunity for further debate—although it seldom occurs—and then the vote is taken. [bill, second reading]

Third Way A political philosophy with the aim of a modified, socially compassionate form of capitalism As prime minister, the UK’s Tony Blair promoted the idea through the 1990s with support from US president Bill Clinton. After the demise of the Soviet Union and the change from Keynesianism to neoliberal economics in the USA and the UK, the Third Way emerged as a compromise between extreme free market capitalism and social democracy. In Australia former ALP leader Mark Latham espoused a similar idea but failed to win widespread support. [communitarianism, progressive politics, social democracy]

Third World See developing world

ticker Colloquial term for the heart and, hence, for courage, which in politics implies the strength and confidence to make difficult decisions Politicians suggest that opponents lack the courage to act fearlessly by asserting ‘You don’t have the ticker!’ The Coalition accused former ALP leader Kim Beazley of lacking the toughness (or ‘ticker’) to be a leader.

tiers of government In Australia there are three levels of government—federal, state and local The federal level of government deals with those matters allocated to it by the Constitution. The state governments have the power to deal with the rest and they delegate certain responsibilities to local government, also called municipal government. Government in Australia is further complicated by the existence of the two mainland territories: the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory.

titles of members of parliament See modes of address for members of parliament

Tory A colloquial term, derived from Gaelic, for a conservative politician or a conservative voter The term is widely used in the United Kingdom, but occasionally it is applied to politically conservative people in Australia, usually by their opponents and with a derogatory intent.

total demand 213 total demand An economic term for the spending by all purchasers over a given period of time Also called ‘aggregate demand’, this is significant in economic theory, particularly in Keynesianism, in which deliberate adjustments to demand are advocated to maintain a stable economy and unemployment. [economics, Keynesianism]

totalitarianism See autocracy

total wage A term adopted in wage fixing by the Australian Conciliation and Arbitration Commission—a forerunner of the Industrial Relations Commission The term has significance as the commission officially accepted the concept that a wage rate should be a minimum wage plus a margin for skill. [arbitration, Australian Conciliation and Arbitration Commission, Industrial Relations Commission]

trade union An organisation of employees with the aim of achieving good rates of pay and working conditions In Australia, trade unions and their peak organisations, such as the Aus­ tralian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU), negotiate with employers, present cases before the Industrial Relations Commission and sometimes go on strike. Trade unions have been a continuing influence within the Australian Labor Party, while conservative political parties have been opposed to the unbridled power of the trade unions. [arbitration, enterprise bargaining, industrial relations, Industrial Relations Commission, strike]

Trade Union Defence Committee (TUDC) A former faction within the Labor Party in Victoria with historical significance The TUDC was a dominant force within the ALP in Victoria from 1955 to 1970 and the forerunner of the Socialist Left faction. [factions—Australian Labor Party]

treason Extreme forms of disloyalty to one’s own country Examples traditionally identified as treason would include assassination of the country’s leader, assistance to an enemy in time of war, and civil war against the established government. Not all such actions have been judged

214 treasurer acts of treason, as some have been in revolt against tyranny and thus have been regarded as legitimate actions in a struggle for freedom. [sedition]

treasurer The title of the minister in charge of the government’s economic policy and its revenue and expenditure The term applies in federal and state governments. It is one of the most important ministries, affecting the economy and other ministries by controlling their spending. The treasurer presents the budget to parliament and, together with the debate that follows, this is one of the most important parliamentary events in each year. [budget, economy (of a nation), Treasury]

Treasury The department responsible for the implementation of a country’s economic policy and the management of government revenue and expenditure The Treasury is reputed to be the most important department, not only because a country’s welfare is closely tied to its economic condition but also because the Treasury has a big influence on the other departments by its control of finance. [budget, economy (of a nation)]

treasury benches The seats in a parliament occupied by the government members The expression ‘occupying the treasury benches’ means being in government. The opposition benches are directly opposite. [cross benches, opposition benches]

treaty A formal agreement between two or more nations Treaties can deal with defence, non-aggression and limitation of armaments, trade and other economic matters. They can be made on the basis of friendship, or made between potential enemies aiming at continued peace. Some are imposed without agreement upon a nation defeated in war. [foreign policy, protocol (treaty)]

tree huggers A derisory term for conservationists, especially those concerned about forests

tribunals See industrial tribunals

trickle-down effect 215 trickle-down effect The assertion or belief that wide disparities in wealth do not disadvantage those on low incomes Those supporting the trickle-down effect argue that spending by the rich creates work and income for those lower down the ladder. President Reagan famously asserted this in 1981 when he drastically reduced the taxation rate on the top income bracket. Critics of the theory contend that, apart from questions of fairness, the very rich spend only a part of their income while the less affluent people quickly spend most of theirs and so create more business activity and jobs. [economics, economic welfare, taxation]

triple bottom line An expression that implies businesses should bear responsibility for the environmental and social impacts of their activities, as well as aiming for profit The principle that these three factors should be valued and taken into account concurrently has developed as a result of greater public concern over climate change and human wellbeing. This is in strong contrast with the assertion that financial profit is the sole criterion to be considered. [civil rights and responsibilities, commerce, environmentalism, ethics]

two-party-preferred vote The votes allocated to the two major parties after preference votes have been distributed In a close election, the preference votes are distributed to determine the result. The number of votes for each candidate after the distribution of all the preferences is the ‘two-party-preferred vote’. If it is not necessary to distribute preference votes to decide the result, the scrutineers can assess the preferences with reasonable accuracy by closely watching the ballot papers as they are counted. [preferential voting, scrutineers]

two-party system A system in which there are two major parties and one of them will be able to govern without bargaining with smaller parties The system in Australia is close to a two-party one: the Labor Party on one side and, usually, an alliance between the Liberal and National parties on the other. The stable nature of Australian government is sometimes compromised or complicated when a balance of power is held by a smaller party, or a group of independents, or a combination of both. This is more likely to happen in the Senate and in other houses with members elected by a proportional representation system of voting. [balance of power, proportional representation]

U UAP See United Australia Party

umbrella organisation One form has separate bodies as members and is sometimes called a peak organisation; the other form has a wide range of individual members The major political parties are examples of the second type. They tolerate much diversity of opinion among their members to avoid fragmentation, and the members usually tolerate policies not always to their liking out of loyalty to the party. [party discipline, peak organisation]

unconstitutional Beyond the powers granted to the Commonwealth parliament by the Australian Constitution The powers of the Commonwealth parliament are defined very briefly in the Constitution and consequently it can be difficult to decide whether a proposed law is within the parliament’s power to legislate. A bill that has gone through the parliamentary process and has been approved by both houses of parliament can then be challenged before the High Court. It may be rejected on the grounds of being outside the powers granted to the Commonwealth parliament by the Constitution. In other words, it is judged to be unconstitutional. [Constitution of Australia, High Court]

unemployment payments Regular payments from the government to people who remain unemployed for a substantial period Applicants must meet strict conditions before payments commence and eligibility must be confirmed at intervals. Regular financial assistance to

unicameral system 217 the unemployed has had a number of official names and unofficially is sometimes disparagingly called the ‘dole’. [social services, welfare state]

unicameral system A system of government with a single house of parliament The system has the advantage of simplicity and the opportunity of passing laws without delay. It has the disadvantage that legislation can be rushed through parliament with little opportunity for public expression of opinion, although this also applies to a bicameral system when one party has a majority in both houses. The state of Queensland and the mainland territories of the ACT and the Northern Territory have unicameral systems. [bicameral system, upper house]

uniform taxation The taxes paid in Australia, including income tax and sales tax, and collected by the Commonwealth government at uniform rates throughout the country Uniform taxation began during World War II with the Commonwealth taking over tax collection from the states and making grants to them to compensate for their loss of direct tax revenue. The system has continued ever since, despite some uncertainty over its constitutional validity. [sales tax, taxation]

Union of Australian Women A long-established organisation working for women’s rights Formed in 1950, it is involved in issues such as rates of pay, conditions of employment, pensions, health, child care and housing. It is also interested in cooperating with women in other countries and in world peace. [affirmative action, feminism]

unitary system The political system in a country that has a central government and no other New Zealand has just one parliament and is an example of a country with a unitary system. Australia has a Commonwealth government and several state governments and is an example of a federated system of government. [centralism, Federation]

United Australia Party (UAP) The major conservative party from 1931 to 1944 This was the successor to the Nationalist Party, which was defeated in the 1929 election. The first leader of the UAP was J.A. Lyons, who had been a minister in the Scullin Labor government from 1929 to 1931. The

218 United Nations (UN) UAP became the government in 1932 with Lyons as prime minister and it remained in power, either alone or in coalition with the Country Party, until 1941, when the Labor Party became the government with John Curtin as prime minister. The Liberal Party of Australia was formed from elements of the United Australia Party in 1944. [Liberal Party (of Australia), Nationalist Party]

United Nations (UN) An international organisation whose chief aim is to maintain world peace Originally the ‘United Nations Organisation’, its name has become the ‘United Nations’ and is often referred to by its initials. It is regarded as the successor to the League of Nations, which existed between the two world wars, but it has a much wider membership. It has more than 160 members, including the world’s most powerful nations. Australia has been a member of the UN since it was founded and an Australian, Dr H.V. Evatt, was the president of the UN General Assembly in 1948–49. Its headquarters are in New York. In addition to its work for world peace the United Nations maintains several specialised agencies, such as the World Health Organis­ ation (WHO) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). [diplomacy (international), League of Nations, veto]

Universal Declaration of Human Rights A formal United Nations document declaring that certain rights are ‘un­alienable and inviolable rights of all members of the human family’ A resolution of the United Nations General Assembly of December 1948, the declaration includes 30 separate articles proclaiming freedoms and rights such as life and liberty, a fair trial, freedom of movement, social se­curity, and the right to work and to education. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is not enforceable by international law but has considerable influence, having been accepted by many nations. It was reaffirmed at the Second World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993. [civil liberties, civic rights and responsibilities]

universal franchise See adult franchise (or suffrage)

unparliamentary language Words or phrases judged to be unacceptable in parliamentary debate There is no precise set of rules governing acceptable language and the presiding officer has the responsibility of deciding what is acceptable. If judged as unacceptable the offending words must be ‘withdrawn’, and they will not be printed in Hansard. Precedent is a guide to unparliamentary language and if words have once been condemned they are unlikely to be allowed on later occasions. [order, presiding officer]

upper house 219

Reproduced courtesy of Ron Tandberg

upper house One of the two houses in a bicameral parliamentary system, sometimes described as a ‘house of review’ Parliaments in Australia, except those in Queensland and in the mainland territories, have two houses. The federal upper house is the Senate; the state upper houses are called legislative councils. Upper houses can serve a useful purpose by re-examining proposed legislation that has passed through the lower houses and by proposing amendments. Alternatively, they can retard or obstruct legislation for party-political tactical reasons. Upper houses in Australia are now elected on adult franchise, although the ideal of ‘one vote–one value’ does not apply in all of them, the Senate being an outstanding example. [bicameral system, one vote–one value, property vote]

V value judgement An important element in political and other forms of decision-making which deals with factors that cannot be measured objectively Value judgements often depend on the decision-maker’s personal background and priorities, including social, political, religious and philosophical values, perhaps modified by pragmatism. [ideology, pragmatism]

veto Rejection of a proposal by a body or person having the power to do so The British monarch and the governor-general and state governors in Australia have this constitutional power in Australia. The five permanent members of the Security Council of the United Nations each has the right of veto over proposed action by the council. They are China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States. [disallowance, reserve powers, United Nations]

vice-regal An indication that the person so described is a monarch’s representative In Australia, the term is used in connection with the formal activities of the governor-general and state governors. [Constitution of Australia, monarchy]

visitors gallery See public gallery

voluntary association A not-for-profit organisation formed by a group of people for a specific purpose Local sports clubs and senior citizens associations are examples. Governments legally regulate such bodies, and rules governing them vary from

Voluntary Euthanasia Society 221 state to state in Australia. Many become legally incorporated to safeguard members against financial loss that might arise, for example, from a serious accident on club premises. Some theorists argue that the decline of voluntary associations in recent decades has led to reduced social capital and to lower levels of individual and institutional trust. [social capital]

Voluntary Euthanasia Society See Dying with Dignity

voluntary student unionism (VSU) The colloquial term for legislation debarring the charging of compulsory fees to be paid by students for non-academic facilities, amenities or services Students and universities have criticised VSU, contending that it reduces the services for students available on campuses. Some also see its intro­ duction as an ideologically motivated decision based on a misapprehension that student unions are analogous with trade unions.

voting systems There are two main types: ‘preferential voting’ and ‘first-past-the-post’. Electorates are either ‘single member’ or ‘multi-member’ Preferential voting gives a better indication of the wishes of voters. It is also less open to manipulation than the first-past-the-post system but is more complicated for the voters and for the electoral authorities. Multi-member electorates have been adopted for some elections in Australia, such as for the Senate, and give a better chance for smaller parties to have a candidates elected. [electoral systems, first-past-the-post system, multi-member electorates, preferential voting]

W wage indexation Adjustment of rates of pay in accordance with changes in the purchasing power of money Wage indexation has operated in Australia intermittently, the first period beginning in 1921. In 1987 a different basis for official wage fixing was introduced by agreement between the government and trade unions. [Accord, arbitration, industrial relations]

Wall Street A metonym that stands for top-level economic activity in the United States that is likely to have worldwide influence The term is frequently seen in Australian publications and is sometimes used in conjunction with ‘Main Street’, a term that represents small businesses and their customers. [big end of town, macroeconomics, Main Street, microeconomics]

Washminster system A term sometimes used to describe the Australian form of government and to emphasise its hybrid nature The neologism ‘Washminster’ is an abbreviated mixture of ‘Washington’ and ‘Westminster’. It is intended to indicate that the Australian Constitution and system of government are based partly on both British and American political traditions. [democracy (Australian), democracy (differing forms), Westminster system]

wealth In traditional economic terms, wealth consists of goods and services that have monetary value, sometimes defined as ‘marketable wealth’ Other factors are also important to the quality of life and are part of the broader definition of ‘wealth’, even though they cannot be quantified in money terms.

weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) 223

Reproduced coursey of Jon Kudelka

These matters, such as civil rights, working conditions, the quality of the environment, security and confidence in the future may also be considered as a form of wealth when economic decisions are being made or debated. [economics, fair go, politics of envy, quality of life, triple bottom line]

weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) Chemical warfare agents once believed to have been hidden by Saddam Hussein’s regime in Iraq Combined military forces led by the USA and including Britain and Australia attacked Iraq in 2003 because it was (mistakenly) believed that Saddam’s regime possessed WMDs.

wedge politics A tactic to exploit differences of opinion among supporters of an opposing party Although most large political parties have a diverse membership they try to present a united front to the electorate. But members or supporters of the same party may have different opinions on some contentious issues—for example, those relating to national security, race or religious ideology—and these can be manipulated and exploited to cause dissension. In Australia, those engaging in wedge politics often use ‘dog-whistle’ tactics, with messages that seem innocuous but are recognised by those with strong opinions on the matters mentioned. [dirty tricks campaign, dog-whistle politics, push polling]

224 WEL WEL See Women’s Electoral Lobby

welfare state A nation with an extensive system of welfare services The services include pensions, unemployment benefits, public housing, health care and other forms of assistance. The term ‘welfare state’ is sometimes applied to countries with some government-funded services, even though they may be far from comprehensive.

Westminster system The traditional British system of government in which the elected parliament has the supreme power In this system the parliament makes the laws and the ministers are selected from parliament and are answerable to it. The judicial system is independent from politics. The Australian system of government is largely based on the Westminster system but the Commonwealth parliament is not supreme, as the monarch and the governor-general can disallow legislation. [arms of government, responsible government, Washminster system]

Wets (faction) A less well known name for one of the groups within the Liberal Party, also called ‘small-l Liberals’ or ‘moderates’ The term originated in the United Kingdom, where Margaret Thatcher used it as an expression of scorn for her factional opponents within the Conservative Party. They held more liberal views than her own faction, which became known as the ‘Dries’. The term ‘Wets’ is seldom used in Australia but is an alternative name for the small-l Liberals. [Dries, small-l Liberals]

whip A member of Parliament who organises party colleagues to take part in debates and other parliamentary duties There is a government whip and an opposition whip. They ensure that party members attend the chamber whenever it is important, and that they act as a team in parliamentary tactics and debate.

White Australia policy A former policy of restricting immigration on racial grounds, which persisted until the 1960s The ‘White Australia policy’ was the commonly used term, although not an official one. The policy was the result of a combination of racism and the defence of wage rates and working conditions. It developed in the middle

whiteboard 225 of the nineteenth century as a consequence of racial friction on the goldfields, where there were large numbers of Chinese immigrants, and gained force when Pacific Islanders, spoken of as ‘Kanakas’, were brought into Australia to work for low wages in the Queensland sugarcane fields. The term was already in use in the 1880s and was emphasised by W.M. Hughes, who in 1901 named the Labor Party’s immigration policy ‘White Australia’. Popular support for the White Australia policy gradually fell away and this was reflected in immigration policy. [immigration, multiculturalism, racism]

whiteboard See pork-barrelling

white-collar union A trade union whose members are engaged in a professional or clerical occupation rather than a manual one The term has become common since the adoption of unionism among workers such as bank employees, clerks, engineers, journalists and teachers. [blue-collar union, chardonnay socialist, trade union]

Wik decision The High Court decision that native title and a pastoral lease could co-exist The decision was the outcome of a case brought before the High Court by the Wik peoples from the Cape York Peninsula in which they claimed that native title existed on certain pastoral leases. In 1996 the High Court found that native title and pastoral leases could co-exist but that a pastoral lease would take precedence in the case of a conflict between the two interests. [land rights, Mabo case, Native Title Act]

Wobblies See One Big Union

Women’s Electoral Lobby (WEL) A group formed in 1972 to campaign for women’s rights It has similar aims to those of other women’s rights movements, and is characterised by its use of modern techniques and carefully aimed political pressure.

women’s lib(eration) Action to achieve equal opportunity and freedom from discrimination The term overlaps ‘women’s movement’ but ‘women’s lib’ applies particularly to the establishment and activity of organisations pressing for women’s rights since World War II. Substantial improvements have been the result, including recognition of women’s competence in trades and

226 women’s movement professions, exemplified in greatly increased participation at the highest levels of government. [affirmative action, equal opportunity, Union of Australian Women]

women’s movement A movement promoting the recognition of the equality of women and freedom from discrimination, together with action to achieve these aims It is closely related to ‘women’s lib’ but has a longer history. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the women’s suffrage movement campaigned for the right to vote. In the 1960s and 1970s women’s campaigns focused on women’s inequality before the law and in the workplace. The women’s movement has continued with concern for improvement in women’s lives through cultural change, education, expanded job opportunities, equal pay for equal work, paid maternity leave and access to affordable child care. [adult franchise (or suffrage), feminism, suffragettes, sweated labour]

Work Choices The name given to industrial legislation introduced by the Howard government in 2003 The laws embodied substantial changes and reduced some established employee benefits such as the extent of unfair dismissal laws. Most commentators considered that the new legislation contributed to the defeat of the Howard government in 2007, as the ALP promised to revoke the unpopular features of the legislation if it won the election. [industrial relations]

working families A phrase without a clear definition, but repeatedly used by Labor poli­ ticians to appeal to middle Australia The term has been overworked during election campaigns, when both sides of politics claimed to understand the problems of working families and to have the policies to solve them. Broadly cognate with terms such as ‘battler’, this term excludes singles, a growing section of Australian society. [battlers, forgotten people, motherhood statement]

work–life balance A problem that has grown in importance because of the competing demands on parents’ time at work and at home There has been continuing debate in Australia about the increasing time spent by many at work and the needs of children and family life. Effective handling of the problem involves the cost and availability of child care, rates of pay and the provision of paid maternity and paternity leave. [battlers, working families]

World Economic Forum (WEF) 227

Reproduced courtesy of Cathy Wilcox

World Economic Forum (WEF) An independent, not-for-profit, international organisation committed to improving the state of the world Supervised by the Swiss Federal Government, the World Economic Forum meets annually in Davos, Switzerland. It brings together industry and business leaders, academics and politicians from around the world to develop solutions to global problems.

World Trade Organisation (WTO) The direct successor to GATT with the aim of assisting international trade The WTO was established in January 1995 to administer the trade agreements established at the end of the ‘Uruguay Round’, the name given to a long series of trade negotiations. The WTO claims to be more global than GATT and has a wider scope, including trade in services and intellectual property. By 2008 it had more than 150 members. [free trade, GATT/WTO, protection]

Worm, the A graphic device used to indicate to TV viewers the reaction of the studio audience to speakers and their policies in pre-election televised debates Uncommitted voters in the studio audience use individual electronic devices to immediately respond positively or negatively to the content

228 writs and performance of the speakers as the debate continues. The Worm first appeared in 1993 in Australia during a Paul Keating–John Hewson televised debate. Some politicians have been reluctant to debate with the Worm in operation, especially since it clearly registered the audience’s disapproval of the GST tax in the debate of 2001. In the 2007 election the then prime minister, John Howard, famously refused to allow the debate to go ahead if the Worm was used. The network used it anyway and its live coverage of the debate was cut twice amidst great controversy.

writs Written official commands—in relation to politics, the documents that formally require elections to be held Important requirements and information given in the writs include the date by which nominations of candidates must be made and the date on which the election is to be held. [issue of writs]

X xenophobia An unhealthy or extreme fear of strangers or foreigners, or a hatred of them Xenophobia can cause personal and social difficulties and hostility. It is an element in racist movements and in the attitudes of some extremist political parties. [ethnic affairs, lunar right, multiculturalism, racism]

Z zero tolerance A term used by political leaders and others to assert that strong action will be taken against particular types of criminal or anti-social behaviour The implementation of such a policy is likely to be the allocation of more police or other resources to the particular problem and strict application of the relevant laws and regulations.