A Bibliographic Guide to Resources in Scientific Computing, 1945-1975

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A BIBLIOGRAPHIC GUIDE TO RESOURCES IN SCIENTIFIC COMPUTING,

1945-1975

Recent Titles in Bibliographies and Indexes in Library and Information Science Library and Information Science in China: An Annotated Bibliography Karen T. Wei, compiler Children's Services in the American Public Library: A Selected Bibliography Fannette H. Thomas, compiler Research Guide to Libraries and Archives in the Low Countries Martha L. Brogan, compiler Catalog of Dictionaries, Word Books, and Philological Texts, 1440-1900: Inventory of the Cordell Collection, Indiana State University David E. Vancil, compiler Guides to Archives and Manuscript Collections in the United States: An Annotated Bibliography Donald L. DeWitt, compiler The Academic Library of the 90s: An Annotated Bibliography Rashelle S. Karp The Internet and Library Information Services: Issues, Trends, and Annotated Bibliography, 1994-1995 Lewis-Guodo Liu Articles Describing Archives and Manuscript Collections in the United States: An Annotated Bibliography Donald L. DeWitt, compiler Libraries and Information in the Arab World: An Annotated Bibliography Lokman I. Me ho and Mona A. Nsouli, compilers Twentieth-Century Bibliography and Textual Criticism: An Annotated Bibliography William Baker and Kenneth Womack, compilers The Theory and Criticism of Virtual Texts: An Annotated Bibliography, 1988-1999 Lory Hawkes, Christina Murphy, and Joe Law

A BIBLIOGRAPHIC GUIDE TO RESOURCES IN SCIENTIFIC COMPUTING,

1945-1975

Jeffrey R. Yost

Bibliographies and Indexes in Library and Information Science, Number 15

GREENWOOD PRESS Westport, Connecticut • London

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Yost, Jeffrey R. A bibliographic guide to resources in scientific computing, 1945-1975 / Jeffrey R. Yost, p. cm.—(Bibliographies and indexes in library and information science, ISSN 0742-6879 ; no. 15) Includes indexes. ISBN 0-313-31681-3 (alk. paper) 1. Science—Data processing—Bibliography. I. Title. II. Series. Z7405.D37Y67 2002 [Q183.9] 016.502'85—dc21 2002069622 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright © 2002 by Jeffrey R. Yost All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2002069622 ISBN: 0-313-31681-3 ISSN: 0742-6879 First published in 2002 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.greenwood.com Printed in the United States of America

The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984). 10

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Contents A cknowledgem ents

vi i

Introduction: The History and Documentation of Scientific Computing, 1945-1975

1

1. Physical Sciences Bibliographies, Dictionaries, and Other Reference Sources, 11 Books/Reports, 12 Articles, 26 Serials, 54 Manuscript Collections, 54 Oral Histories, 65

11

2. Cognitive Science Bibliographies, Dictionaries, and Other Reference Sources, 71 Books/Reports, 72 Articles, 98 Serials, 140 Manuscript Collections, 141 Oral Histories, 146

71

3. Biological Sciences Books/Reports, 151 Articles, 156

151

4. Medical Sciences Bibliographies, Dictionaries, and Other Reference Sources, 171 Books/Reports, 172 Articles, 184 Serials, 239 Manuscript Collections, 241

171

Author Index

243

Subject Index

253

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Acknowledgements The research for this volume was conducted at the Charles Babbage Institute (CBI), University of Minnesota, as a component of a National Science Foundation-sponsored CBI research project to study the history of "The Computer as a Scientific Instrument." (NSF SBR 961981) My co-principal investigators, Robert Seidel, Stephen Johnson, and Joel Hagan, all assisted by suggesting some useful sources. My greatest thanks go to my colleagues at the Charles Babbage Institute, where I serve as the associate director. The Institute's director, Arthur L. Norberg, CBI archivist Elisabeth Kaplan, and post-doctoral fellow Philip Frana all provided helpful advice and encouragement as I worked on this project. Dr. Frana, who is conducting research on the history of medical computing, was particularly helpful as I made selections for this section of the book. I am also very grateful to James W. Cortada. He provided much early advice on the project and suggested I take it to Greenwood Press. Dr. Cortada serves as a model for historians working on such reference book projects in addition to engaging in traditional historical scholarship. He has compiled numerous highly useful annotated bibliographies on the history of computing (published by Greenwood Press), in addition to many insightful books on the history and management of information technology. I would also like to offer special thanks to Greenwood Press, and particularly, Senior Editor Cynthia Harris, who has been very helpful on this bibliographic book project. My research in serving as the principal investigator on another major CBI NSF-sponsored project, "Building a Future for Software History," helped informed my selection decisions and annotations in some areas of this book, particularly in the section on cognitive science. Dr. Norberg, Ms. Kaplan, Dr. Frana (project manager), and Dr. Seidel are colleagues on this project. I would also like to thank our excellent research assistants: Betty van Meer, Juliet Burba, and Karin Matchett. I spoke and corresponded with many historians and archivists as part of this project. These individuals assisted with identifying many sources. Although too numerous to mention here, I am deeply indebted to these people. They, and particularly the colleagues above, helped improve this book. I, alone, am responsible for any errors or deficiencies. Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for their encouragement and patience as I completed this publication.


Introduction: The History and Documentation of Scientific Computing, 1945-1975 The following introduction is divided into two parts. The first provides a brief overview of the changing practices and perspectives regarding scientific computing during the first three decades after the advent of the electronic digital computer. The second presents a summary of the methodologies used in selecting, structuring, and annotating the sources in this bibliography. Electronic digital computers have had a profound and accelerating impact on the sciences in the second half of the twentieth century. The setting for such developments ranges from national laboratories and industrial research centers to academic institutions and personal workstations. While some scholarship has addressed elements of scientific computing, few studies have focused on the important methods, contexts, and impacts of electronic digital computers as scientific tools, or the role of the sciences in helping to shape the development of computing technology. This situation persists despite the fact that computers are arguably the most important and broadly applicable scientific instrument of the past half-century. Many primary and secondary sources exist in the area of scientific computing, but locating citations and quickly determining their usefulness for a particular research project or question can be challenging. This volume is a selective annotated bibliography on fundamental primary and secondary sources documenting the first three decades of computer applications in the physical,

2

Introduction

through painstakingly slow work and the development of a strong background on the subject matter and its resources. The monumental volume of published and unpublished resources after 1975, and the greater intellectual control, accessibility of citations, and in some cases availability of abstracts or finding aids in digital form, led me to focus on the first three decades of post-World War II scientific computing. This critical period set the stage for and has structured many contemporary applications of computing hardware, software, and networking. The bibliography is designed not only to save historians, scientists, engineers, industrialists, students, and others considerable time in research, but in many cases to bring important sources of information to light that otherwise would not have been identified, and provide the grist for future historical analyses. Brief Overview of the Early History of Scientific Computing The electronic digital computer was born largely out of perceived national defense needs in particular areas of the physical sciences, engineering, mathematics, and what later came to fall under the emerging field of cognitive science. Electromechanical calculating machines using punched card inputoutput devices had been used throughout much of first half of the twentieth century for some mathematical and information processing tasks in the sciences, and more commonly, in business. Beginning in the 1930s, analog computational devices such as Vannevar Bush's differential analyzer came into play for certain scientific applications. These technologies, however, only led to modest opportunities and efficiency in monitoring, calculating, and analyzing experimental data and conducting theoretical work. On the other hand, digital computers designed and built at universities and firms such as Engineering Research Associates (ERA), International Business Machines (IBM), the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Company, and others, grew out of and soon revolutionized possibilities in many different areas of scientific research within the three decades following World War II. At times, analog equipment, often in conjunction with digital computers, was used in measuring and processing information in the post-World War II period. Early computer development projects such as the ENIAC (1943-1945) at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering and a subsequent project at Princeton University's Institute for Advanced Study received much of their support from government contracts. The almost immediate entrenchment of the United States in the Cold War following the end of World War II resulted in acceleration of funding from the Office of Naval Research (ONR), the United States Air Force, Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) of the Defense Department's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, later DARPA), and other government entities to sponsor the development of hardware,

Introduction programming/software (particularly networking (ARPANET).

artificial

intelligence

research),

3 and

Computers and the Physical Sciences While many different wartime electronics projects advanced computing technology and the training of electronics specialists, the need to calculate ballistics trajectories was the prime impetus for the Defense Department's contribution to funding the development of the ENIAC. Quickly calculating the physics of hundreds of trajectories simply was not feasible prior to the advent of digital computing. Shortly after World War II, digital computer applications in the physical sciences accelerated and helped facilitate the development of the hydrogen bomb, real-time simulations, and numerous other projects in highenergy physics, engineering, and chemistry at top universities and national laboratories. More historical scholarship touches upon computer applications in the physical sciences (physics, chemistry and geology) than other scientific areas or fields. Most of these works, however, only tangentially address computing in the physical sciences while focusing on other topics, such as the history of science policy and the federal funding of science and technology, the history of computing, the history of national laboratories, and biographies of scientists. Participant histories on computer applications are rare in the physical sciences compared to published works in cognitive science/artificial intelligence, medicine, and biology. This, perhaps, is the result of the relative absence of conflict and struggle in bringing computers into the physical sciences. Computers and Cognitive Science Research in a new field that was a precursor to cognitive science was also an early factor in the Department of Defense's funding of computer design and development during the latter part of World War II and into the Cold War. Shortly after the war a small group of scientists began to solidify their interest in control and communication systems of humans and machines. One of these researchers, Norbert Wiener of MIT coined the term "cybernetics" for this new science. A series of writings by Norbert Wiener, Claude Shannon, Warren S. McCulloch, Walter Pitts and others, who met for a number of professional meetings called the Macy Conferences, defined this new field. These individuals were particularly interested in theorizing and engineering systems integrating humans and computers. By the mid-1950s, as the Macy conferences were coming to a close, Herbert Simon and Allen Newell, began work on modeling human decision-making with computers. Interested in similar research, John McCarthy put together a conference at Dartmouth in the summer of 1956 to explore a new field he termed "artificial intelligence." Cybernetics had a significant impact on most artificial

4

Introduction

intelligence pioneers, but it shifted emphasis away from biological systems and toward symbolic systems. The field of artificial intelligence took off in the next two decades, with many of the early participants serving as spokespersons for the field, writing and discussing its history and future possibilities. AI researchers routinely inflated the projections for what could be achieved by artificial intelligence, opening themselves up to strong criticism from individuals outside the field, despite the fact that relative progress was being made in some areas of AI such as expert systems. This was done not only to promote their work in general, but also to utilize rhetoric to ensure the continued federal funding of projects. In addition to the retrospective writings of AI scientists, a number of resources exist documenting work in the field. Countless articles and conference proceedings provide information on a number of systems, while manuscript collections, reports, oral histories, and other documentation offer additional information and a broader perspective on many developments. Computers and Biology If it were not for taxonomy, it would be relatively easy to place nearly all the articles, books, and other resources addressing biological applications within the categories of either medicine or artificial intelligence. The science of taxonomy relied on extensive mapping of various traits. In the 1960s, as numerical taxonomy was becoming increasingly dominant in the field, a small number of biologists began to use computers to store and process the vast quantities of information gathered in taxonomic research. Computers met at most mild resistance and have had a continuing and profound impact on taxonomy ever since. Outside of taxonomy some basic research that had no direct and immediate biomedical applications was also occurring during the 1960s and 1970s. Genetics was emerging as an increasingly important field of science and computers were significant to the advancement of this area of biology. Sources in the history of computer applications in biology, or bioinformatics are relatively rare. Unlike medicine, there were no widespread and lasting controversies over the use of computers in scientific research and practice. Journals published some articles on biology and computing in the 1960s and 1970s, but the number of works in this area is small compared to medicine and artificial intelligence, and significant manuscript collections are nearly non-existent. Nevertheless, some documentation is available to begin to advance the grossly understudied area of biological computing. Computers and Medicine As with biology, computer applications in medicine lagged behind those in the physical sciences and cognitive science. A small group of computer

Introduction

5

specialists and physicians in the late 1950s began to study, experiment, and promote using computers to advance both clinical decision-making and computerized hospital information systems. These two applications for computers in medicine came to be jointly termed medical informatics in the 1970s. Computer applications were controversial in the medical profession as they began to come into widespread use by hospitals, clinics, and research laboratories during the 1960s. Computing in physics and chemistry in the early years was primarily concerned with carrying out the brute mechanics of complex mathematical equations. In medicine, computerized diagnostic systems were closely allied with artificial intelligence, as they utilized a knowledge database coupled with a program to draw inferences by comparing patterns of symptoms in a database with medical information in a patient's record. In most cases, resistance was overcome as computers came to be viewed as useful tools to aid physicians and researchers, rather than machines that would diminish their role or reduce the quality of health care. By the 1970s, outsourcing relationships with computer centers, usually at universities, were replaced with onsite mainframe and mini-computers at large medical facilities. Time-sharing networks came into frequent use within hospitals and research centers, and largescale distance network projects, such as SUMEX-AIM, came to link computers on an intrastate and interstate basis. The developments, context, and controversies of medical informatics are well documented in select medical journals, computer science journals, computer trade journals, and other publications. Manuscript materials also exist, but are rare, as many medical institutions do not maintain archives available to historians and other researchers. Different Paths to Ubiquity By 1975, the computer was deeply entrenched in the physical, biological, medical, and cognitive sciences. The paths, however, had been different in these broad scientific areas. In the physical sciences computers made an early entrance immediately following World War II and their role only escalated as these machines proved worthy for data reduction and other tasks in large-scale projects in high-energy physics, such as the bubble chamber work at Berkeley in the late-1950s and 1960s. Scientists in the physical sciences tended to embrace the computer and the technically trained computer professionals that were in short supply and great demand. This compensated for the common deficiencies of knowledge most scientists had in programming and utilizing these machines. Conversely, in cybernetics and artificial intelligence, and to a certain degree in cognitive science more generally, computers were more than just a tool; they were fundamental to the emergence of the science itself. Resistance was sometimes present (especially in the 1970s), but was typically from the outside.

6

Introduction

Some even feared that future machines would outthink humans, and perhaps one day even exhibit human-like emotional qualities. Artificial intelligence had grown up beside and had been a major impetus for the origin and growth of computer science, and for the most part, had a comfortable home in this larger field. By the 1970s, while "game playing" research continued, artificial intelligence increasingly shifted to practical applications and basic scientific research, as expert systems composed of databases and inference engines became tools for advancing research in organic chemistry (DENDRAL), medicine (MYCIN), and other scientific fields. Game playing research, and particularly work in expert systems, met with disdain from cognitive scientists who believed artificial intelligence should be focused more directly on modeling the mind to bring insights into the nature of human cognition. Fundamental elements of connectionist AI of the past two decades can be seen in some early work in the field that predated a logic-oriented AI that gave rise to expert systems and knowledge engineering. While the entrance of computing into taxonomy was a quiet revolution, and resistance to AI came from those outside of the research domain, the application of computers in medicine resulted in consternation from within the ranks. A significant number of physicians doubted the efficacy of computers as diagnostic tools, and some feared that their importance, if not their professional livelihood, was being threatened by machines. Although the technical, institutional, social, and cultural contexts of computer applications in different areas of science varied widely, the seeds were sown for the ubiquity of these digital computers throughout scientific work during the first three decades after World War II. The legacy of these events cannot be overestimated. Methods used for the Identification of Potential Sources Secondary Sources I identified secondary sources first by conducting extensive searches on the major online indexes (RLIN, OCLC, etc.), employing a great variety and combination of keywords and subjects. Most of the search terms used were intentionally broad and returned lists of hundreds and even thousands of sources. My careful evaluation of these typically yielded a handful of useful citations, including many that would have been missed with more narrow searches. Online specialty subject and citation indexes (such as INSPEC, PsycINFO, and the Science Citation Index) provided some potential materials, but none of these resources covered more than the last few years of the period of coverage in the following bibliography. Print indexes, such as Index Medicus, also yielded some secondary citations. All secondary sources that could not be clearly rejected (selection criteria is discussed in the following section) were carefully examined. The notes and bibliographies of sources were reviewed for additional

Introduction

7

primary and secondary materials. Discussions with other historians working in the history of computing and various areas of the history of science and technology also provided useful citations. In a small number of areas and periods covered, past bibliographical works proved useful. This was especially true of secondary sources on artificial intelligence and medical computing in the mid-1960s. For example, Ruth Allen's An Annotated Bibliography of Biomedical Computer Applications (National Library of Medicine, 1969) is a valuable reference tool, but has certain limitations. This bibliography covers only the years 1964-1967, and the concentration of the annotations on the technical aspects of computing often are at the expense of identifying themes related to the scientific and social context of these developments. In this work, the rich ongoing dialog between the sciences and emerging information processing technologies is sometimes lost. Primary Sources Searching in RLIN, OCLC, and other major indexes was also the point of departure for the research on primary sources, but the methodology differed thereafter. Through careful searches of print directories of national, regional, and subject area archives, web searches, and discussions with archivists and historians, a number of useful repositories holding resources on early scientific computing were identified. Whenever possible, the Web sites of these organizations were searched. Archivists were frequently contacted to gain additional information and better identify the content of collections. Other networking techniques were also used to advance the research for this bibliography. For instance, the project was described, and solicitations for assistance were made on the most widely used archives Listserv. This resulted in the identification of a number of useful collections. Criteria for Inclusion The selection of secondary historical works for the bibliography was highly inclusive. All identifiable English language books and articles providing significant historical analysis of issues and developments in the application of computers to the sciences between 1945 and 1975 were included. These sources range from a small number of works focused directly on scientific computing, to many more that include some information and analysis on the topic in the course of detailing related areas of the history of science, the history of technology and the history of information processing. A few works on computing that barely address scientific applications were included because of the important contextual information they provide. On the other hand, inclusion of scientific computing articles from engineering, scientific, and trade publications (contemporary to developments) was extremely selective. Thousands of articles related, at least tangentially, to

8

Introduction

scientific computing appeared in such publications every year after the mid1960s. Many of these sources overlapped in theme and content. Stringent selection criteria were applied to a tremendous number of sources, resulting in the rejection of most of them. Decisions were made on an article-by-article basis. To merit inclusion articles had to present original ideas, processes, or perspectives related to scientific computing. If they reported on a single contemporary development, this development had to have had a significant impact on the study or practice of an area of science, offer information serving as the basis for insights into the processes of the sciences, or indicate how a field of science helped shape an area of information processing technology. Content analysis, along with assessments of the impact of works (often assessed by the number of citations in subsequent scholarship), was used. Only the best overview articles, those that discussed a number of recent studies, events, and trends and offered new perspectives, were included. Many case studies detailing the design, implementation, and ongoing nature of long-term scientific computing projects offer unique insights into decisionmaking processes and relevant social, cultural, political, economic, scientific, technological and ethical factors. Articles that characterized changes brought about by computer technology in a particular scientific field over time, or the ways science and scientists influenced later developments in computing and software were included more often than those with a limited temporal frame. Articles in edited volumes were evaluated similarly to those in journals. If at least two articles of an edited volume were included (in the articles section), the volume was also cited and annotated (in the books/reports section). The inclusion of archival sources was also highly selective. The papers of numerous faculty members in the sciences or computer science are housed in the archives of colleges and universities throughout the country. Most scientists of the past three to four decades have made some use of computers for calculation, modeling, monitoring, communication, graphic representation or other applications. Likewise, many computer scientists have engaged in programming or analysis for which scientists were among the end-users. Few collections of faculty papers, however, provide significant documentation of meaningful developments in scientific computing. This is, in part, the result of the concentration of leading computing and software research at a small number of academic institutions and government laboratories engaged in major scientific and engineering projects (in defense work, artificial intelligence, networking, etc.). Failure of individuals to keep or donate relevant documents (i.e. those describing the design and implementation of computing systems into laboratories) is another factor in the modest quantity of historically significant archival material on scientific computing. Records that are closed to outside researchers are not included in the bibliography. Oral histories are evaluated by the same criteria as the papers of individuals, institutional records, and other archival material. Meaningful discussion of

Introduction

9

issues and events in scientific computing, as opposed to a passing reference, are required for inclusion in the bibliography. Categorization Categorization of the cited and annotated sources into one of the four scientific fields that make up the sections of this book was often quite difficult. Above I contrasted the way scientists in these different areas came to perceive computers and their uses, how their ideas evolved over time, their techniques for utilizing the machines, and the outcomes of the research. These highlight distinctions in order to make what I believe are some meaningful generalizations. The work of many scientists, however, bridged gaps between fields in these four categories. Even when a scientist's work fit well in one area, it was sometimes part of a larger interdisciplinary project. As a general rule, I categorized sources based on the practical application of the research in which computers were employed. For instance, computer applications in biology that were conducted largely to extend medical knowledge instead of basic biological research are included in the medicine section. The problem of identifying citations of sources that contribute some understanding in one category, but are listed in another, is easily overcome by using the index. In addition to providing a guide to many topics and themes, the index contains listings of citation numbers that fit in one category but contribute to another. In other words, "biology applications (outside of the biology section)" is an indexed topic giving citation numbers for sources with some meaningful information on computer applications in biology that are listed under the physical sciences, cognitive science, or medicine headings. Annotations Annotations were kept relatively short and formulated to give researchers a quick and easy-to-use tool for evaluating whether a particular source would be useful for their question or project. The focus was on briefly outlining the scope of the resource with emphasis on the impact of computing technology on various areas of science, along with the influence of science on the development of information processing technologies. Annotations for secondary materials were written from direct analyses of the sources. Occasionally, I had enough information to determine that a source was relevant for inclusion, but despite extensive efforts, was unable to secure a copy to examine and annotate. In these rare cases, I have included a secondary source without an annotation. Annotations for primary sources, including manuscript collections and oral histories, often were written using finding aids or registers, but frequently after consultation with archivists familiar with the particular resources.


Chapter One Physical Sciences Bibliographies, Dictionaries, and Other Reference Sources 1. Alsop, Joyce, et al., Bibliography on the Use of IBM Machines in Science, Statistics, and Education (New York: IBM, 1956). This is a significant bibliography listing hundreds of sources on the use of IBM electromechanical calculating machines and early computers in scientific, statistical, and educational applications. Some of the sources listed are reports that either no longer exist, or at very least are not cataloged on any of the major national systems (RLIN or OCLC). 2. Beach, Ann F., et al., Bibliography on the Use of IBM Machines in Science, Statistics, and Education (New York: IBM, 1954). Although many citations in this bibliography are about punched card machines used in statistics, education, and test scoring, there are a number of citations on applications of large-scale computing machines to the physical sciences. Contains Russian, French, and non-English language sources. 3. Bruemmer, Bruce. Resources for the History of Computing: A Guide to U.S. and Canadian Records. (Minneapolis, MN: Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, 1987). This is a useful source of information on a number of the major archival collections in the U.S. and Canada on the history of information processing. Provides brief annotations for most of these collections. Identifies a small

12

Bibliography of Scientific Computing

number of important manuscript resources in scientific computing that were accessioned prior to the mid-1980s. 4. Burk, C. F. Computer-based Storage and Retrieval of Geoscience Information: A Bibliography, 1970-1972 (Ottawa, Canada: Department of Energy, Mines, and Resources, 1973). The book is a continuation of Burk's earlier bibliography. [See 5] Provides citations on a few hundred international sources on data storage and processing applications to the geological sciences published between 1970 and 1972. 5. Burk C. F., and J. Hruska. Computer-based Storage and Retrieval of Geoscience Information: A Bibliography, 1946-1969 (Ottawa, Canada: Department of Energy, Mines, and Resources, 1971). Burk and Hruska provide an important volume of citations for several hundred international sources on data storage and processing applications to the geological sciences. Nearly all the citations are for secondary sources published between 1966 and 1969. 6. Cortada, James W. Second Bibliographic Guide to the History of Computing, Computers, and the Information Processing Industry (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996). This is an excellent general bibliography to the history of computing. Although the bibliography contains some sources that address scientific computing the index and short annotations are generally more focused on technology and business rather than scientific applications. (See Cortada's bibliography of applications, 678.) Books/Reports 7. Alt, Franz L., and Morris Rubinoff, eds. Advances in Computers (New York: Academic Press, 1964). A varied group of lengthy articles on computer applications ranging from use of these machines in election predictions, artificial intelligence, optics, X-ray crystallography, procedure-oriented languages, and nuclear reactor design. (See articles by Elizabeth Cuthill, 94; and Gordon Pask, 477.) 8. Aspray, William. John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990).

Physical Sciences

13

Aspray provides an important examination of the life and work of a leading mathematical physicist who became the most significant early figure in the design of computer architectures. Remains one of the best historical studies to date on scientific computing in the physical sciences. Chapter three, detailing the impact of scientific and engineering research on design, development and programming of early computers, and chapter seven, entitled, "The Computer as a Scientific Instrument," are particularly valuable. The latter details the applications of early computers to astrophysics, fluid dynamics, and atomic and nuclear physics, as well as the limitations of computers as scientific instruments. 9. Bashe, Charles J., et al. IBM's Early Computers (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986). This represents an early achievement in the history of computing that details technical developments of IBM in computing from early electromechanical calculating devices through the mainframe computers of the early 1960s. Exploring applications of these machines is not the focus, but there are brief examinations of scientific computing, particularly in the chapter on Project Stretch. 10. Bowden, Mary Ellen, et al., eds. Proceedings of the 1998 Conference on the History and Heritage of Science Information Systems (Medford, NJ: Information Today, Inc., 1999). The conference, sponsored by the Chemical Heritage Foundation, American Society of Information Science, the Eugene Garfield Foundation, and the National Science Foundation brought together scholars from the history of science and technology, library science, and information management to explore issues in the history of science information systems. Several of the more than twenty papers are particularly important contributions to the history of scientific computing. These papers address: federal funding of scientific computing research, dissemination of information in the physical sciences from government laboratories, and the impact of computing in redefining molecular biology. (See papers by Thomas P. Hughes, 119; Timothy Lenoir, 900; and Robert W. Seidel, 161.) 11. Ceruzzi, Paul. A History of Modern Computing (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998). Synthetic study of the history of digital computers, software, and the Internet that gives scant attention to scientific computing, but provides some important context of the people, institutions, and technology associated with scientific computing.

14


12. Cohen, I. Bernard. Revolution in Science (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985). This major achievement in the history of science chronicles and analyzes scientific revolutions and the changing understanding of these events from the Copernican Revolution through the twentieth century, a century that Cohen characterizes as an "Age of Revolutions." In addition to providing critical context to better understand scientific thought and the impact of instrumentation, the book argues that computers have altered the form of scientific theories by replacing "logically linked propositions and formal mathematical statements" with "complex computer models." 13. Commission on College Physics. The Computer in Physics Instruction (Princeton, NJ: D. van Nostrand, 1965). The most comprehensive early work examining applications of computers in undergraduate physics education. Includes the Commission's working group reports on: curricular-administrative problems, pedagogical techniques, and systems and equipment. The volume's extensive appendices explore linguistic mode computer and physics programs and provide an informative case study of the computer system and physics education applications at University of California, Santa Barbara. 14. Cortada, James W. The Computer in the United States: From Laboratory to Market, 1930 to 1960 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993). Before providing an insightful examination of the initial responses and early data processing applications of digital computers in business, this study analyzes the impact of scientific discoveries and perceived scientific requirements in the advent of the digital computer, as well as early scientific applications. 15. Croarken, Mary. Early Scientific Computing in Britain (Oxford and New York: Clarendon Oxford University Press, 1990). This work is one of the few historical treatments centered on scientific computing. The first half of this short study discusses computation at the National Almanac Office, the founding of the Scientific Computing Service, the applications of Manchester and Cambridge differential analyzers in the 1930s and other uses of computational devices in the physical sciences prior to the advent of digital computing. The second half concentrates on computer work during the war and applications of digital computing in the physical sciences and mathematics at the National Physical Laboratory and other institutions in Great Britain in the decade following the end of World War II.

Physical Sciences

15

16. Data Processing Management Association. IBM Introduction to Scientific Computing (Park Ridge, IL: IBM, 1965). Course text developed by Frank Beckman, an instructor at the IBM Systems Research Institute, and distributed by the Data Processing Manufacturers Association. Beckman's course was taken by IBM sales and system engineering staff to ensure that they understood the elements of mathematics that are significant in the organization or tasks most commonly performed by computing machines. The course covers such topics as: basic Boolean operations and computer arithmetic operations; algorithms, iterative procedures, and Monte Carlo techniques. 17. Eckert, Wallace J. Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation (New York: Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau, Columbia University, 1940). [Reprint: Cambridge, MA and Los Angeles, CA: MIT Press and Tomash Publishers, 1983.] Eckert, a Columbia University astronomer, details nearly a decade of his research on punched-card equipment in physics and astronomical calculations. This work examines some of the pre-history to Eckert's scientific computing work in physics at IBM following World War II. 18. Eckert, Wallace J., and Rebecca Jones. Faster, Faster, Simple Description of a Giant Electronic Computer and the Problems It Solves (New York: IBM, 1955). Eckert and Jones provide discussion of the type and range of applications of some early mainframe computers. These include applications in mathematics, physics, astronomy, and other fields. 19. Engineering Research Associates. High-Speed Computing Devices (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950). [Reprinted by Tomash Publishers/MIT Press, 1983]. Excellent source of information on the architecture and scientific and mathematical applications of early computers by the principals of Engineering Research Associates, a computer firm that was formed in St. Paul, Minnesota in 1946 by engineers who had worked in computer-related research for the military during World War II. Includes extensive discussion of punched card systems, large-scale digital computing systems and analog computing systems. Reprint includes introduction by Arnold Cohen. 20. Fernbach, Sidney, and A. Taub, eds. Computers and Their Role in the Physical Sciences (New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1970).

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A large volume that represents perhaps the most important single study on computing in the physical sciences undertaken by scientists and computer specialists. The early chapters deal with computing more broadly, while the latter two-thirds of the book is focused on applications in the physical sciences. The scope is very broad with articles on errors in computing in reactor design, plasma physics, continuum mechanics, statistical mechanics, chemistry, analysis of bubble chamber film, high-energy physics, geology, and astrophysics. (See articles by Charles K. Birdsall, 75; Bruce A. Bolt, 79; John M. Dawson, 75; Francis H. Harlow, 113; Malvin H. Kalos, 125; L. Kowarski, 129; Nicholas Metropolis, 145; John R. Pasta, 150; and James E. Snyder, 165.) 21. Fisher, Franklin M., et al. IBM and the U.S. Data Processing Industry: An Economic History (New York: Praeger Scientific, 1983). Narrative that the authors wrote as part of their testimony in U.S. versus IBM. As such, it is focused fundamentally on the market for computers in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s and competition within the industry. Gives perspective on the changing market for scientific computers and specifically discusses science and engineering applications at IBM, Remington Rand, Control Data Corporation, Burroughs, and RCA. 22. Flamm, Kenneth. Creating the Computer, Government, Industry, and High Technology (Washington, D. C : Brookings Institution, 1988). An important study in the history of computing that analyzes the role of government in computing developments and the computer within the context of federal science and technology policy. Provides some significant background on scientific computing with respect to IBM, Engineering Research Associates, and the U.S. Navy. 23. Fuchs, Walter R. Physics for the Modern Mind (New York: MacMillan and Company, 1967). Introductory physics text that concentrates heavily on the intellectual history of the field. Chapter four, "Do Physicists Speak 'Mathematically,'" contains some significant discussion on physics, mathematics, and computing. 24. Goldstine, Herman H. The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972). Strong account of the wartime computer development work at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania and postwar research and development in this area at Princeton University's Institute for Advanced Study by a principal participant. The focus is documenting technical developments

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within their institutional contexts rather than applications, but does contain brief discussion of the uses of the ENIAC and IAS machines in the physical sciences. 25. Hamming, Richard W. Calculus and the Computer Revolution (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1968). Many computer applications in the physical sciences have roots in calculus. This work describes past and current computer applications in calculus and allied fields, and speculates on possibilities for future applications. 26. Hamming, Richard W. Computers and Society (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972). This broad introduction to computers includes a useful chapter entitled, "The Computer as an Experimental Tool," that examines the ways a computer can be used in the physical and other sciences. It discusses the use of both analog and digital computers: in preparing experiments, conducting experiments, analyzing experiments, as models replacing experiments, and as sources for experiments. The final chapter presents a very concise introduction to major areas or concepts in artificial intelligence. 27. Harbaugh, John Warvelle, et al. Programs for Computer Simulations in Geology (Stanford, CA: Department of Geology, Stanford University, 1971). Technical report listing code of select programs used in the computer simulation of shallow water marine sedimentation processes project at Stanford University that was documented in Harbaugh and Bonham-Carter's (1970) Computer Simulation in Geology. (See 28.) 28. Harbaugh, John Warvelle, and Graeme Bonham-Carter. Computer Simulation in Geology (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1970). Documents Office of Naval Research-funded work from 1965 to 1969 in computer simulation models of shallow water marine sedimentation processes at Stanford University. Harbaugh and Bonham-Carter (Stanford professor and his doctoral student respectively) extend a philosophical argument in favor of simulation research in geology and provide detailed explanations of a variety of simulation tools. (See 27.) 29. Harbaugh, John Warvelle, and Daniel F. Merriam. Computer Applications in Stratigraphic Analysis (New York: Wiley, 1968). Two of the early leaders in computer applications in Geology give an important introductory text on the topic. They address and provide examples of computer

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applications to many different areas of geological research including mapping techniques, time-trend analysis, polynomial trend analysis, harmonic trend analysis, classification systems, and simulation. 30. Hass, John K., et al. Appraising the Records of Modern Science and Technology: A Guide (Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1985). Useful in its analysis of the process of collecting and appraising records in science and technology, including significant discussion of primary source material in the physical sciences. Contains discussion of discipline history centers in science and technology, some of which contain records in scientific computing. 31. Heilbron, John. L., and Robert W. Seidel. Lawrence and His Laboratory: A History of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Volume 1 (Berkeley, CA: Regents of the University of California, 1981). Much of this significant institutional history of Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory covers the two decades preceding the advent of electronic digital computing. The work, however, does contain brief discussion of computer applications and, more importantly, provides strong evidence that much of the inspiration to develop computing technology for analyzing accelerator-produced data extended from the work of the Lawrence Berkeley Radiation Laboratory using a modern linear accelerator, bubble chambers, and electron and proton sychrotrons. 32. Holl, Jack M. Argonne National Laboratory, 1946-96 (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1997). An impressive institutional history that, in addition to documenting scientific and technical achievements, provides significant analysis of the social and political contexts of work and developments of the past half century at Argonne National Laboratory. The book demonstrates how the story of U.S. national laboratories, and Argonne in particular, represent a "microcosm of the nation's evolving science policy." It includes discussion of various computer applications to the sciences, including use of the AVIDAC (a computer built at Argonne that was based on Princeton's Institute for Advance Study digital automatic computer) in the late 1940s to solve complex problems in mathematics, physics and chemistry. 33. International Business Machines. Proceedings of the IBM Scientific Computation Forum (New York: IBM, 1948). 34. International Business Machines. Proceedings of the IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Large-Scale Problems in Physics (White Plains, NY: Data Processing Division, 1965).

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Transcripts of important early conference on scientific computing in the physical sciences. The conference included sessions on mathematical computing, highenergy and reactor physics, and aerospace (See papers by Martin D. Kruskal, 131; and C.N.Yang, 180.) 35. International Business Machines. Proceedings of the IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Computer Aided Experimentation (Yorktown Heights, NY: IBM Data Processing Division, 1966). This symposium was initiated to bring together scientists in a range of disciplines to report on and discuss ideas and methods in scientific computing. Papers discuss a conversational-mode computer system for scientists and engineers, Project Entelechon and the automation of experimental research, computers in speech research, sensory mechanisms, computers in nuclear structure, computer construction and display of molecular models, and other topics. 36. International Business Machines. Proceedings of the IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Digital Simulation of Continuous Systems (White Plains, NY: IBM, 1967). Source contains the proceedings of a significant conference at IBM detailing work and opportunities in computer applications to the digital simulation of continuous systems in scientific research and engineering. Sessions address: programming and techniques, simulation and use, and new concepts in the field of computer applications to simulation. (See articles by T. Z. Fahidy, 100; C. L. Goodzeit, 108; Arthur C. Guyton, 844.) 37. International Business Machines. Proceedings of the IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Computers in Chemistry (New York: IBM, 1968). A collection of chemists and computer specialists joined at this conference to explore the past achievements, present work, and future possibilities of computer applications to a range of activities in the field of chemistry. Included sessions on on-line, off-line, and middle ground applications, and covered topics such as operating systems and applications programs, remote analysis of spectral data, and new research techniques for the life sciences. (See papers by Willard C. Blackney, Jr., 78; K. Bieman, 73; Willard C. Blackney, 78; A. D. McLean, 143; C. H. Sederholm, 157; and J. D. Swalen, 168.) 38. Kaufmann, William J., and Larry L. Smaar. Supercomputing and the Transformation of Science (New York: Scientific American Library, 1993).

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A highly accessible, elaborately illustrated text providing an overview on supercomputers and their impact on the sciences. Much of the book relates to high-energy physics and astronomy, but there is also limited discussion of developments in computing and genetics. Some of the computers designed and used primarily for scientific applications, such as the ILLIAC IV and Control Data 7600, are profiled. 39. Kevles, Daniel J. The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (New York: Knopf, 1978). This source is an important contribution to the history of physics and physicists in the United States from roughly the 1870s to the 1970s. Although there is only limited direct discussion of computing, the book provides important context on the individuals, university departments, and government entities (Los Alamos National Laboratory, National Bureau of Standards, Atomic Energy Commission, etc.) involved in research with computer applications to physics. 40. Koch, George S. Computer Programs for Geology (New York: Artronic Information Systems, Inc., 1972). Contains a very brief introduction and then lists the source code for approximately twenty software programs with geological applications. Source code for the programs is accompanied by a brief description of the applications. 41. Korn, Granino A. Minicomputers for Engineers and Scientists (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1973). Relatively inexpensive minicomputers from Digital Equipment Corporation, Data General, and others expanded opportunities for scientific research outside of expensive mainframe computer laboratories. This book serves as a guide for scientists and engineers to the principal features of minicomputers and a companion to understanding minicomputer manufacturers' literature. Topics include: instruction sets, addressing schemes, peripherals, systems software, macroassemblers, and trends in future minicomputer architectures. 42. Leslie, Stuart. The Cold War and American Science: The MilitaryIndustrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993). This is an important examination of the collaboration between universities, the military, and corporations to advance science and technology during the 1950s and 1960s. Discusses important projects and context of scientific computing during this time frame.

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43. Loudon, Victor T. Computer Analysis of Orientation Data in Structural Geology (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University, 1964). This is a manual for computer applications to earth and environmental sciences including: geology, geophysics, geochemistry, geography, and environmental engineering. Indicates that utilization of computers has advanced further in solid earth geophysics, atmospheric science, and oceanography than it has in more traditional geological and geographical fields. Evaluates present research in the aforementioned fields of geology and environmental science and addresses the programs and methods that can be useful. 44. Loudon, Victor T., and E. P. Adams. Gossip List of Some Geologists Who Use a Computer (Reading, UK: Department of Geology, 1969). Documents individuals, universities, laboratories, and organizations throughout the world that used computers in the geological sciences during the second half of the 1960s. 45. Melkanoff, Michel A., et al. A FORTRAN Program for Elastic Scattering Analyses with the Nuclear Optical Model (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1962). Short book that provides an good example of early programming in FORTRAN for high-energy physics applications during the late 1950s, in this case, particle scattering using the Nuclear Optical Model. It details the pioneering work of scientists and engineers at UCLA in this field using a FORTRAN program, SCAT 4 on the IBM 704, and IBM 709. 46. Mendelsohn, Everett, et al., eds. Science, Technology and the Military Sociology of the Sciences: A Yearbook, Volume 12 nos. 1 and 2 (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1988). Two part edited volume that broadly addresses the relationship between scientific and engineering research and the military in the United States and Europe from the late 19th century to the early 1980s. Discusses the U.S. military's support for information processing research during World War II and beyond in high-energy physics and other fields. Different articles address issues such as the cost of information processing research, computer development as a mandate of the Armed Forces, the Office of Naval Research and computing, and applications of computers to research on radar technology. (See articles by I. Bernard Cohen, 89; and Peter Galison, 107.) 47. Merriam, Daniel F. ed. Computer Applications in the Earth Sciences (New York: Plenum Press, 1969).

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This book is the most important secondary source on the history of early applications of computers to the geological sciences. Merriam, a geologist and a pioneer and promoter of computer applications in the geological sciences, organized this International Symposium to bring other leading scholars, industrialists, and computer professionals together to discuss the state-of-art of geological computer applications. Papers address computer applications to a broad range of geological specializations, including: geochemistry, geophysics, hydrology, mining geology, paleontology, paleocology, petroleum engineering, petroleum geology, sendimentology, stratigraphy, and structural geology. (See papers by Milton B. Dobrin, 95; George S. Koch, 128; W. C. Krumbein, 130; E. W. Peikert, 151; David M. Raup, 152; and E. H. T. Whitten, 177.) 48. Metropolis, Nicholas, et al., eds. A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century: A Collection of Papers (New York: Academic Press, 1980). An excellent source of information on early scientific computing at a number of the most prominent university research centers, government laboratories, and computer firms, including Harvard University, Princeton University's Institute for Advanced Study, MIT, Argonne National Laboratory, Los Alamos National Laboratory, the National Physical Laboratory, IBM, and ERA, among others. The papers were originally presented at a conference at Los Alamos National Laboratory in June 1976. They range from the anecdotal to highly analytical. Metropolis and Gian-Carlo Rota, one of his co-editors, were scientists at Los Alamos National Laboratory. (See articles by: Julian Bigelow, 74; Arthur Burks, 82; Jeffrey C. Chu, 87; Robert Everett, 99; A. S. Householder, 116; Cuthbert Hurd, 120; Nicholas Metropolis, 146; and Erwin Tomash, 171.) 49. Nash, Stephen G., ed. A History of Scientific Computing (New York: ACM Press, 1990). This volume grew out of the conference on the History of Scientific and Numeric Computation at Princeton University in 1987. While there is something of value in all of the contributions, only some of them directly address scientific applications of computers. The book is divided into sections on people, problems, methods, journals, meetings, and places. Nearly all the articles in the volume are written by scientific and technical actors in the history they are writing. (See articles by Garrett Birkoff, 77; Martin H. Gutknecht, 112; Nicholas Metropolis, 147; John Todd, 170; and David J. Wheeler, 175.) 50. Oettinger, Anthony G., with the collaboration of Sema Marks. Run, Computer, Run: The Mythology of Educational Innovation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969).

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Attacks dominant notions of the relationship between technology and society, specifically focusing upon how such notions distort in the area of computers in education. He argues that computers are neither a savior in education, nor are they an evil displacing human educators. Particularly important is his "Prologue II," a 21-page section entitled, "The Uses of Computers in Science." Here, Oettinger argues that the computer has been cast in two separate but complementary roles: actor and instrument. The latter is more established, but Oettinger believes it is in the former, participating in theory formulation, that computers will have greater profundity in science. This discussion includes computers and X-ray crystallography, the role of computers in acting out the implications of theory in protein structures, and artificial intelligence. 51. Pall, Gabriel A. Introduction to Scientific Computing (New York: Meredith Corporation, 1971). Gabriel Pall of IBM provides an undergraduate text to introduce science and engineering students to concepts and methods of scientific computing. The book includes instruction on scientific computing functions, mathematical statistics, numerical analysis, other scientific computing applications, real-time processing techniques, and a dozen useful case studies. 52. Perone, Sam P., and David O. Jones. Digital Computers in Scientific Instrumentation (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973). This is an important work documenting and instructing on applications of digital computers in chemistry. Perone, a chemist at Purdue University, and Jones, an industrial designer, begin by discussing the dilemma of the technology gap that many chemists and other scientists face, and the difficulty scientists often have in communicating with experts in computer science, as well as computer manufacturers. The text was designed to help overcome this technology gap by introducing analytical chemistry students to digital computer applications. Specifically, it discusses: computer hardware, programming languages for chemical data handling, time-sharing, high-level programming languages for lab experiments, and surveys on computer applications in chemistry. 53. Pugh, Emerson W. Memories that Shaped an Industry: Decisions Leading to IBM System/360 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984). A useful overview of the history of computing from the early postwar period into the 1960s that structures the narrative and analysis around a small number of engineers. Contains some discussion of early developments at Engineering Research Associates, the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Company, von Neumann's Institute for Advanced Study computer, Project Whirlwind, and an important chapter on Project Stretch and the path to building the IBM System/360.

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54. Pugh, Emerson W. Building IBM (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995). A very strong technical and managerial history of IBM that remains the best broad based analysis of the firm's history to date. Discusses the design of early IBM computers to serve the market for scientific researchers, including Stretch and other major government-sponsored projects to develop computers for research in the physical and other sciences. 55. Pugh, Emerson W., Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer. IBM's 360 and Early 370 Systems (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991). Thoroughly researched technical history of the IBM 360 and early 370 systems. Although the focus is not on applications, the analysis addresses the decisionmaking process to produce a general-purpose computer that could meet the needs of a range of scientific and business users. The chapter "High-End Computers" contains the most direct discussion of scientific computing, including the use of Stretch and other IBM computers in the 1960s at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. 56. Redmond, Kent C, and Thomas M. Smith. Project Whirlwind (Bedford, MA: Digital Press, 1980). This provides an early study on the history of computing focusing on the development of Whirlwind at MIT. Documents funding issues and other institutional contexts of the machine's development and provides some discussion of the uses of Whirlwind in physics, mathematics, and engineering. 57. Sammet, Jean E. Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969). Provides basic institutional history on many of the major programming languages of the late 1950s and 1960s, including some, like FORTRAN, that were primarily used in scientific computing. 58. Smith, Frederick G. Geological Data Processing Using Fortran IV (New York: Harper & Row, 1966). Canadian geochemist Frederick Smith's early and important textbook on use of FORTRAN IV in data processing for geology. The depth of analysis lends understanding to the use of FORTRAN IV throughout the sciences. Topics cover the use of computers in: symbolic logic, Boolean algebra, arithmetic, vectors and matrices, calculus of discrete and continuous functions, probability, statistics, and flow diagrams.

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59. Stern, Nancy. From EN1AC to UNIVAC: An Appraisal of the EckertMauchly Computers (Bedford, MA: Digital Press, 1981). A path breaking study in the early history of computing, representing one of the first in-depth historical examinations of American electronic digital computers. It highlights the research and development work of J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly on the ENIAC, EDVAC, BINAC, and UNIVAC computers, and the broader institutional contexts of the design of these machines. An appendix includes John von Neumann's highly influential A First Report on the EDVAC, a paper that established the architecture of future electronic digital computers. Stern's focus is on computer developments and related contexts rather than applications; however, there is brief discussion of the uses of these early four computers. 60. Svoboda, Antonin. Computing Mechanisms and Linkages (New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1948). An excellent source of information on evolving computing technology at government sponsored laboratories during and immediately following World War II. The book provides an account of a number of early applications of computational equipment in physics, mathematics, and engineering at the MIT Radiation Laboratory, and a number of additional military, university, and industrial laboratories in the United States, England, Canada, and other countries. Includes extensive discussion of applications of bar-linkage computers, bar-linkage multipliers, harmonic transformers, and bar-linkage function generators. 61. Wilkes, Maurice V. Memoirs of a Computer Pioneer (Cambridge, MA: MIT

Press, 1985). Autobiography by the Director of Computer Laboratory at the University of Cambridge that describes the development, programming and applications of the EDSAC and EDSAC 2. 62. Wilkes, Maurice V., David J. Wheeler, and S. Gill. The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer (Cambridge, MA: AddisonWesley Press, 1951). [Reprint: Cambridge, MA and Los Angeles, CA: MIT Press and Tomash Publishers, 1982.] The first textbook on programming, describing programming for the EDSAC. This book became an important source for individuals involved with early scientific computing.

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63. Worthy, James C. William C. Norris: Portrait of a Maverick (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1987). Biography of one of the founders of Engineering Research Associates, and later, the Control Data Corporation. Both firms focused on the scientific computing field, and the book provides important perspectives and context of marketing and serving the scientific computing market.

Articles 64. Ahearne, John F. "Introductory Physics Experiments Using a Digital Computer." American Journal of Physics 34 (1966): 309-333. This article cites the increasing interest in using computers in physics education in the United States and details the program at the United States Air Force Academy. Describes the computing facility of the F. J. Seiler Research Laboratory, which contains a Burroughs B-5500 system with two processors, 24,000 words of core memory, 64,000 words of drum memory, 4 magnetic tape units, a card reader, card-punch, line printer, and a Calcomp plotter system. 65. Amouyal, Albert. "The Beginnings of Computing Activities at the Atomic Energy Authority, 1952-1957." Annals of the History of Computing 12:4 (1990): 219-225. This article details computer applications to nuclear research at Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique (CEA-the French Atomic Energy Authority) from the preparatory (1952-1957) and take-off (1957-1959) to growth (1959-1972) periods. Discussion includes the changing hardware at the commission, the training of scientists in programming techniques, and some of the projects undertaken. 66. Aspray, William. "The Mathematical Reception of the Modern Computer: John von Neumann and the Institute for Advanced Study Computer." MAA Studies in Mathematics 26. In Esther R. Phillips, ed. The Mathematical Association of America (1987) 166-194. This leading study of the early history of computers in mathematics presents the reception of Princeton University's Institute for Advanced Study computer as a case study. Much of the mathematics discussed is related to applications in the physical sciences. 67. Aspray, William. "Was Early Entry a Competitive Advantage?" IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 22:3 (July-September 2000): 42-87.

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Major contribution to the understanding of scientific computing activities at five pioneering U.S. universities in computer development: MIT, Princeton, Harvard, Columbia and Pennsylvania. Aspray breaks new ground in presenting developments at these schools in the 1960s and 1970s to determine whether they benefited from first-mover advantages. He relates how certain competitive disadvantages and other factors outweighed any advantages, keeping these schools from building upon, and even maintaining, their early leads. While it addresses computing in many areas of science (including cognitive science and medicine), given the time frame, discussion is focused on the physical sciences. 68. Aspray, William, and Donald Beaver. "Marketing the Monster: Advertising Computer Technology." Annals of the History of Computing 8:2 (April 1986): 127-143. Based on extensive analysis of advertisements, this study presents how perceptions of the meaning of computers changed between 1950 and 1980. 69. Aspray, William, and Bernard O. Williams. "Arming American Scientists: NSF and the Provision of Scientific Computing Facilities for Universities, 19501973." IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 16:4 (1994): 60-74. This is an important article providing information on the institutional history of the National Science Foundation and its role in supporting the development of computer laboratories at U.S. colleges and universities between 1950 and 1973. The NSF established these computer facilities with the goal of furthering scientific research and education. By the 1970s the NSF had refocused its attention and funding toward the newly emerging field of theoretical computer science. Indicates that IBM, rather than institutes of higher education or the government, was the single strongest force at introducing computers to college and university campuses in the middle 1950s. Charts show the breakdown of NSF funding in the following categories: research, education, information systems, and facilities. 70. Backus, John. "The History of FORTRAN I, II, III." Annals of the History of Computing 1:1 (July 1979): 21-37. Backus, the leader of the IBM team that developed FORTRAN, provides a history of the development of this language that became the most common programming language used in the sciences. Although the focus is the development project, applications in the physical sciences are briefly discussed. 71. Bashe, Charles J. "The SSEC in Historical Perspective." Annals of the History of Computing 4:4 (October 1982): 296-312.

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Provides a brief history of some applications of punched card technology in mathematics, astronomy, and nautical calculations, and relates early applications of the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC). 72. Beninger, James R. "Information Society and Global Science." In Charles E. M. Dunlop, and Rob Kling, eds. Computerization and Controversy: Value Conflicts and Social Choices (Boston, MA: Academic Press, 1991): 383-397. Beninger examines "information society" and "global science" as they relate to the theme of "control." He includes a section on scientific computing, discussing the role of the MARK I, ENIAC, and later computers. 73. Bieman, K. "The Utilization of the Computer in High Resolution Mass Spectrometry." In International Business Machines. Proceedings: IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Computers in Chemistry (New York: IBM, 1968): 177-196. Illustrates the present functioning and future potential of computer applications to high-resolution mass spectra at MIT. 74. Bigelow, Julian. "Computer Development at the Institute for Advanced Study." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980): 291-310. Edited version of paper given at International Research Conference on the History of Computing, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, June 10-15, 1976. Participant details Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) computer development work from the mid 1940s to the early 1950s. Indicates that the IAS group was not influenced by concomitant work at MIT, the Moore School, etc. 75. Birdsall, Charles K., and John M. Dawson. "Plasma Physics." In S. Fernbach, and A. Taub, eds. Computers and Their Role in the Physical Sciences (New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1970): 247-310. This study consists of three parts: an introduction to plasma physics, contributions of simulation to plasma theory utilizing one-dimensional models, and results of selected experimentation utilizing two-dimensional models. The article indicates the various computer applications involved in this modeling. 76. Birkenstock, James W. "Planning." Annals of the History of Computing 5:2 (April 1983): 112-114. Condensation of oral history held at the Charles Babbage Institute where Erwin Tomash and Roger Steuwer interview Birkenstock. Discusses the early ideas

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about the market and scientific applications of computers at the time of the planning of the IBM 701. 77. Birkoff, Garrett. "Fluid Dynamics, Reactor Computations, and Surface Representation." In Stephen G. Nash. A History of Scientific Computing (New York: ACM Press, 1990): 63-87. Discusses the application of digital computers to calculate problems in the fields of fluid dynamics, reactor computations, and surface representation. Relates the "liberation" of computing technology from wartime needs at the end of 1945, and the shift to enlist these machines in various areas of scientific research. 78. Blackney, Willard C , Jr. "The Remote Analysis of Spectral Data." In International Business Machines. Proceedings: IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Computers in Chemistry (New York: IBM, 1968): 121-138. Reports on the remote spectral data analysis system (first using the IBM 1300 and later the 1800) in place at the Dow Chemical Company. 79. Bolt, Bruce A. "The Use of Computers in Studies of the Earth." In S. Fernbach and A. Taub., eds. Computers and Their Role in the Physical Sciences (New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1970): 543-570. Bolt chronicles the important benefits computers have brought to the science of geology. The primary gains, as he outlines in four examples, are in freeing geologists from time-consuming calculations. He does, however, note that computers have at times pushed individuals to collect enormous amounts of data, without a focus on significant issues or without being grounded in the fundamentals of geophysics. 80. Bright, Herbert S. "Early FORTRAN User Experience." Annals of the History of Computing 6:1 (January 1984): 28-30. Short account of nuclear physics computing applications utilizing programs in FORTRAN at Westinghouse-Bettis Laboratory. 81. Bunker, Don L. "Computer Experiments in Chemistry." Scientific American 211 (July 1964): 100-108. Bunker describes the installation of IBM's Stretch at Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the impact that this electronic digital computer has had on studying chemical reactions. Stretch enabled researchers at the lab to examine many hypothetical chemical reactions that would not have been possible to study previously. In addition to detailing several of the experiments on the motion of atoms and molecules during particular chemical reactions, the article also

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provides a brief overview of computer applications in chemistry that have brought the properties of molecules and dynamic processes within the domain of mathematical investigation by chemists, and researchers in physics. 82. Burks, Arthur W. "From ENIAC to the Stored-Program Computer: Two Revolutions in Computers." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980): 311344. Burks provides an edited version of paper he gave at the International Research Conference on the History of Computing, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, June 10-15, 1976. He indicates the influences on the development of the ENIAC and its impact on subsequent computers. Includes discussion of early scientific and engineering applications of the ENIAC in ballistic trajectories and other areas. 83. Burks, Arthur W., and Alice R. Burks. "The ENIAC: First General-Purpose Electronic Computer." Annals of the History of Computing 3:4 (October 1981): 310-399. This article provides a lengthy treatment of the ENIAC by Arthur Burks, one of the principal individuals working with J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly on the development of the machine. The ENIAC was used for a variety of purposes during the half decade following World War II, including a number of calculations in the physical sciences. 84. Cameron, Joseph M., and Joseph Hilsenrath. "Use of General-Purpose Coding Systems for Statistical Calculations." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of IBM Scientific Computing on Statistics (White Plains, NY: IBM Data Processing Division, 1965): 281-301. Cameron and Hilsenrath, of the National Bureau of Standards, begin with a discussion of the diminishing cost of computer time with the rapidly advancing speed of these machines. The greatest shortage is no longer computer time, but qualified programmers, especially individuals that can program for research being conducted in physics, chemistry, and engineering. The authors then briefly discuss a number of programs useful to statistical analysis in the physical sciences and engineering, including: AARDVARK, DAM, and OMNITAB. 85. Campbell-Kelly, Martin. "Programming the EDSAC: Early Programming Activity at the University of Cambridge." Annals of the History of Computing 2:1 (October-December 1998): 7-36. This article is fundamentally concerned with detailing the development of the programming system for the EDSAC in the late 1940s, but also briefly discusses

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applications in the sciences. Mentions that the EDSAC performed calculations in geophysics, wave mechanics, and electron optics during its first full year of operation (1950). 86. Carr, John W., and Alan J. Perlis. "Small-Scale Computers as Scientific Calculators." Control Engineering 3 (March 1956): 99-104. The applications of large-scale mainframe computers during the first decade following World War II were fundamental to some areas of scientific computing, and largely seemed to define these machines, at least in part, as scientific instruments. By the mid-1950s, however, many small-scale computers were also on the market and being applied to scientific research. This article details many of these small-scale machines. Burroughs Corporation's E-101, IBM's 650, Electrodata's Datatron, and other small-scale computers are discussed and evaluated on the basis of their storage and displays, speed, error prevention and failure detection, automatic coding procedures, and input-output. 87. Chu, Jeffrey Chuan. "Computer Development at Argonne National Laboratory." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980): 345-346. Edited version of paper given at International Research Conference on the History of Computing, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, June 10-15, 1976. Briefly discusses the Argonne's version of the Institute's (for Advanced Study) Digital Automatic Computer (AVIDAC), Oak Ridge Automatic Computer (ORACLE), and the people involved. 88. Clark, Wesley A. "The LINC Was Early and Small." In Proceedings ofACM Conference on History of Medical Informatics (Bethesda, MD: Association for Computing Machinery, 1987): 51-73. The development of the LINC, a computer designed by scientists at MIT's Biophysics Laboratory interested in the quantification of neuro-electric activity and engineers from the school's Lincoln Laboratory, is discussed at length. Clark indicates how the computer paved the way for mini-computers from DEC. More than a thousand LINC or variants were installed during the 1960s for a variety of scientific research programs. While the focus of the paper is on the development of the LINC, some applications are briefly discussed. 89. Cohen, I. Bernard. "The Computer: A Case Study of the Support by Government, Especially the Military, of a New Science and Technology." In Everett Mendelsohn, et al., eds. Science, Technology and the Military Sociology of the Sciences: A Yearbook, V. 12:1 (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1988): 119-154.

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This is an important study of government support of computing research in the United States and Europe prior to, during, and immediately following World War II. Includes meaningful discussion and analysis of computer development projects and applications of computing technology to research in the physical sciences and engineering. At least briefly discusses the following topics and machines: the military radar work, MOSAIC, the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC), ENIAC, Harvard Mark I, the computers of Konrad Zuse, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC, LEO, Stretch, NAREC, and the IAS computer. 90. Comrie, L. C. "The Application of Commercial Calculating Machines to Scientific Computing." Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation 2:16(1946): 149-159. Rather than focusing on the emergence of large-scale computing projects that developed during and immediately following World War II, Comrie takes the perspective that existing, inexpensive, commercially available calculating machines can often assist scientists with many of their computational needs. Believes that physicists and engineers too quickly ask what new device can be created to solve a particular equation. Concludes by stating that he is convinced the day of the desk machine is not over, or even threatened by the large-scale computers that were developed during the war, and the usefulness of the commercial calculating machine to the sciences is far from over. 91. Croarken, Mary. "The Beginnings of the Manchester Computer Phenomenon: People and Influences." IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 15:3 (1993): 9-16. Examines the "prehistory" of computers along with early scientific computation at Manchester University following the end of World War II. Max Herman, Alexander Newman and F. C. Williams are profiled. Briefly discusses Manchester University's tradition of forming collaborations between science and industry with implications for how this applied to computing developments and applications at the school. 92. Curtis, John H. "The National Applied Mathematics Laboratories of the National Bureau of Standards: A Progress Report Covering the First Five Years of Its Existence." Annals of the History of Computing 11:2 (1989): 69-98. Report dated April 1, 1953 provides overview of the first five years of the National Applied Mathematics Laboratories (NAML) since their initiation in July 1947. The Statistics Engineering Laboratory, part of the NAML, had the short-term objective of improving research efficiency for scientists and engineers and the long-term goal of contributing to mathematical knowledge in a way that would be the basis for future discoveries in various scientific fields.

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93. Curtis, K. K, et al. "John R. Pasta, 1918-1981: An Unusual Path Toward Computer Science." Annals of the History of Computing 5:3 (July 1983): 224238. This contains remembrances written by colleagues of Pasta. Pasta was a physicist who contributed greatly to computing research applied to scientific research in national laboratories, especially in his roles as the organizer of the Mathematics and Computer Branch of the Atomic Energy Commission and as the NSF's Division Director of Mathematical and Computer Science. 94. Cuthill, Elizabeth. "Digital Computers in Nuclear Reactor Design." In Franz L. Alt, and Morris Rubinoff, eds. Advances in Computers (New York: Academic Press, 1964): 289-349. Cuthill addresses computer applications to the development and classification of nuclear reactor codes, neutron transport equations, and the solution of the "neutron transport problem." 95. Dobrin, Milton B. "Computer Processing of Seismic Reflections in Petroleum Exploration." In Daniel F. Merriam, ed. Computer Applications in the Earth Sciences (New York: Plenum Press, 1969): 41-60. Dobrin, of United Geophysical Corporation, begins by outlining why seismic reflection data of digital recordings creates significant demands on computer storage capacity and speed of operation. He addresses how challenges can be met and argues that the digital computer has revolutionized seismic processing. 96. "Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer Praises Scientific Uses of the 701." IBM Record 36:2 (April 1953), reprinted in Annals of the History of Computing 5:2 (April 1983): 157- 158. Reports on talk that Oppenheimer gave to leading scientists, educators, and individuals from business and government on the IBM 701. Oppenheimer remarked that the high-speed computer can be a surrogate for experiment and render new connections and scientific research possible. He spoke on scientific applications in four areas: weather and weather forecasting, astrophysics, atomic research, and statistical problems of genetics and population studies. 97. Eckert, J. Presper, Jr. "The ENIAC." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980): 525-540. Edited version of paper given at International Research Conference on the History of Computing, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, June 10-15, 1976.

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Co-leader in developing the ENIAC discusses the paths taken, influential factors, and applications. Development of other machines is briefly discussed, including: BINAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, and LARC. Includes comments from others related to priority issues. 98. Elzen, Boelie, and Donald MacKenzie. "The Social Limits of Speed." Annals of the History of Computing 16 (1994): 46-61. Provides history of the development and applications of supercomputers within the sciences and outside of them. Examines the socio-technical network of manufacturers, users, software venders, and specific software and hardware architectures and outlines how goals other than the original one of speed, such as software development, reliability, and user support, have grown to a position of prominence. 99. Everett, Robert R. "Whirlwind." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980): 365-384. Edited version of paper given at International Research Conference on the History of Computing, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, June 10-15, 1976. Provides a strong concise history of this important computer built by the Digital Computer Laboratory at MIT between 1945 and 1952. Whirlwind was designed for real time control and it significantly impacted a number of subsequent real time projects including SAGE. 100. Fahidy, T. Z. "Digital Simulation in Chemical Process Analysis and Design." In Proceedings, IBM Scientific Computing Symposium Digital Simulation of Continuous Systems (White Plains, NY: IBM, 1967): 101-114. Provides a summary and review of the digital simulation systems that have been applied to chemical process analysis over the past ten years. Discusses MIDAS, MIMIC, EASL, PACTOLUS, and other programs used on machines such as the IBM 1130. Concludes that in changing from interpreter to compiler versions, simulation programs will have greater versatility and help digital simulation become an increasingly significant computer technique in chemical process analysis. 101. Fernbach, Sidney. "Scientific Uses of Computers." In Michael Dertouzos, and Joel Moses, eds. The Computer Age: A Twenty-Year View (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1979): 146-170. An all too brief, but important overview of scientific computing's past, present, and future. This source is especially strong in documenting the number and types

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of computers at the Atomic Energy Commission and Energy Research and Development Administration. 102. Fimple, M. D. "FORTRAN vs COBOL." Datamation 10:8 (August 1964) 39-40. Fimple compares and contrasts the applications of FORTRAN and COBOL. While the former is generally considered more appropriate for scientific and the latter for business applications, Fimple argues that the choice of programming language often depends more on the computer hardware being used, as opposed to the type of problem or research application. 103. Fortun, M., and S. S. Schweber. "Scientists and the Legacy of World War II: The Case of Operations Research." Social Studies of Science 23 (1993): 595642. Discusses the contributions of physicists to operations research and systems engineering during and in the years immediately following World War II. Examines the relationship between operations research and systems engineering, two areas developing alongside and aided by digital computer applications. 104. Frazer, J. W. "Future Design of Computerized Instruments." International Business Machines. Proceedings: IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Computers in Chemistry (New York: Yorktown Heights, 1968): 265-284. Analytical chemist at the Lawrence Livermore Radiation Laboratory discusses the work of the lab to help develop analytical instruments to aid research in projects requiring a large number of determinations. The laboratory uses a digital computer in conjunction with different instrumentation to automate routine analytical procedures, as an analytical tool to increase capabilities, to develop closed-loop experimentation, and to increase analytical accuracies. 105. Fritz, W. Barkley. "ENIAC—A Problem Solver." Annals of the History of Computing 16:1 (1994): 25-41. Programmer provides a participant's perspective of the history of the ENIAC's applications in mathematics, the physical sciences, and engineering during its first decade (1946-1956). An appendix contains a list detailing the scope of problems the ENIAC tackled over these ten years. 106. Galison, Peter. "Bubble Chambers and the Experimental Workplace." In Peter Achinstein, and Owen Hannaway, eds. Observation, Experiment and Hypothesis in Modern Physical Science (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985): 309-373.

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In this lengthy article, leading historian of science Peter Galison provides one of the most significant examinations of computing in the physical sciences. He outlines how bubble chambers, developed in the late 1950s, fundamentally changed the structure, equipment, and personnel of research projects in highenergy physics; projects transformed from the work of small groups to major enterprises, and from equipment costing in the thousands of dollars to equipment costing millions of dollars. He details how specialists in hardware and software became fundamental to large-scale research projects such as bubble chamber experiments to facilitate data reduction. 107. Galison, Peter. "Physics Between War and Peace." In Everett Mendelsohn, et al., eds. Science, Technology and the Military, Sociology of the Sciences: A Yearbook, 12:1 (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1988): 47-86. Galison provides an excellent study of the physics community and the military in the U.S. during World War II. Discusses work being conducted in high-energy physics at government laboratories and leading academic institutions. 108. Goodzeit, C. L. "Simulation Techniques Applied to the Design of the 80Inch Liquid Hydrogen Bubble Chamber Expansion System." In Proceedings, IBM Scientific Computing Symposium Digital Simulation of Continuous Systems (White Plains, NY: IBM, 1967): 181-192. Goodzeit, a scientist at Brookhaven National Laboratory, describes computer applications to a study on a non-linear dynamic system that was associated with the design of the laboratory's Liquid Hydrogen Bubble Chamber. 109. Greenstadt, John. "Recollections of the Technical Computing Bureau." Annals of the History of Computing 5:2 (April 1983) 149-153. Greenstadt provides personal recollections of his work at IBM's Technical Computing Bureau shortly after its formation in the early 1950s. He concentrates primarily on mathematical applications of the 701. 110. Grier, David A. "The Math Tables Project of the Work Projects Administration: The Reluctant Start of the Computing Era." IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 20:3 (1998): 33-50. Provides history of the Mathematical Tables Project, a human computing project that began under the WPA in 1938. Presents project as a transitional institution in the history of computing, one that promoted scientific computation and developing methods that would later be incorporated on electronic digital computers.

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111. Gurer, Denise W. "Women's Contributions to Early Computing at the National Bureau of Standards." IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 18:3 (1996): 29-35. Discusses the role of the National Bureau of Standards (and particularly the women at NBS) in developing the field of numerical analysis. Also addresses the NBS's contribution to helping to define the early applications of electronic computers in the sciences. 112. Gutknecht, Martin H. "The Pioneer Days of Scientific Computing in Switzerland." In Stephen G. Nash. A History of Scientific Computing (New York: ACM Press, 1990): 301-313. Describes the founding of the Institute for Applied Mathematics at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich in 1948, and how this was the starting point of the history of scientific computing in Switzerland. Discusses how the principal participants and supporters of the Institute and of scientific computing learned a great deal on trips to the United States in the second half of the 1940s. Outlines the plans for and building of ERMETH, which came online in 1956, and prior to this, the use of a Zuse Z4 computer. 113. Harlow, Francis. "Computer Solutions in Continuum Mechanics." In S. Fernbach, and A. Taub, eds. Computers and Their Role in the Physical Sciences (New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1970): 311-336. Indicates how experimental and theoretical physicists apply computers to continuum mechanics. Evaluates the cost-effectiveness of such applications, and concludes that the resulting avoidance of engineering and design errors make computers well worth the investment. 114. Hartman, Roger D. "Use of Computers in an Undergraduate Light and Optics Laboratory." American Journal of Physics 34 (September 1966): 793798. With recognition of the past and growing importance of computers in the physical sciences, the Department of Physics at Tulsa University implemented the use of computer applications into optics and light experiments conducted by undergraduates in upper division physics courses. 115. Householder, A. S. "The Effect of Computers on the Training of Applied Mathematicians and Scientists." In Arvid W. Jacobson. Conference on Training Personnel for the Computing Machine Field. Proceedings. (Detroit, MI: Wayne University Press, 1955): 51-55.

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116. Householder, A. S. "Reminiscences of Oak Ridge." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980): 385-389. Edited version of paper given at International Research Conference on the History of Computing, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, June 10-15, 1976. Short reminiscence relates interesting perspective of how some scientists at Oak Ridge, including both Householder and Lab Director Alvin Weinberg, initially showed skepticism of the potential applications and benefits of computers at the lab, but eventually they and others were supportive of the use of the new technology. 117. Howlett, Jack. "The Atlas Computer Laboratory." IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 21:1 (January-March 1999): 17-23. Discusses the history of the formation of the idea, proposal, realization, and work of the ATLAS Computer Laboratory in Great Britain by its first director, Jack Howlett. The laboratory supported the application of computing to many projects in the physical and other sciences. Some of the areas of research included: crystallography, test analysis, statistical analysis, space studies, and weather forcasting. 118. Hughes, Robert A. "Early FORTRAN at Livermore." Annals of the History of Computing 6:1 (January 1964): 30-31. This brief account cites Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory as a leader in the applications of computing technology, including FORTRAN programs, to large-scale problems in physics and biomedicine. From 1957 forward, an extended modification of the language, LRLTRAN, became the most commonly used programming language at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. 119. Hughes, Thomas P. "Funding a Revolution." In Mary Ellen Bowden, Trudi Bellardo Hahn, and Robert V. Williams, eds. Proceedings of the 1998 Conference on the History and Heritage of Science Information Systems (Medford, NJ: Information Today, Inc., 1999): 8-13. Analyzes the U.S. Government's role in funding computing research through projects like the Semiautomatic Ground Environment (SAGE) in the 1950s, as well as the continued role of federal funding in research in relational databases, networking, theoretical computer science, virtual reality, artificial intelligence, and very large scale integrated circuits.

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120. Hurd, Cuthbert C. "Computer Development at IBM." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980): 389-418. Edited version of paper given at International Research Conference on the History of Computing, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, June 10-15, 1976. Prior to discussion of early IBM computers, which often includes message of customers and applications in physics, chemistry, and other sciences, Hurd relates some of the contributions of Los Alamos scientists to computing and software (such as SHACO). The discussion of the IBM 700 series is a focus of the article, including the environment leading to these machines, their relatives and descendants, and customer requirements. 121. Hurd, Cuthbert C. "Early IBM Computers: Edited Testimony." Annals of the History of Computing 3:2 (April 1981): 163-182. Consists of the edited testimony of Cuthbert C. Hurd of IBM (edited by Rosamond W. Dana) in the U.S. Federal Court, Southern New York District 1979 anti-trust trial of the U.S. Department of Justice versus IBM. Discusses the circumstances of IBM entering the computing field, and then the development of the 700 series and Stretch computers. Lists the first nineteen IBM 701 customers (spanning 1952 to early 1955), primarily government laboratories and corporations engaged in defense industry. Also provides some information and context on the installations and applications of a number of subsequent IBM computers in the 1950s and early 1960s. 122. Hurd, Cuthbert C. "A Note on Early Monte Carlo Computations and Scientific Meetings." Annals of the History of Computing 7:2 (April 1985): 141155. Discusses the development and use of Monte Carlo, a computational method developed shortly after the end of World War II by Stanislaw Ulam, Nicholas Metropolis and others that utilized computer-generated random numbers. The method was used for a number of different scientific computing applications at Los Alamos National Laboratory and elsewhere. The article briefly reports on the first and second symposia on Monte Carlo held in 1948 and 1954 respectively. 123. Huskey, Harold D. "The National Bureau of Standards Western Automatic Computer (SWAC)." Annals of the History of Computing 2:2 (April 1980): 111121. Huskey, a leader in the National Bureau of Standards SWAC project at the Institute for Numerical Analysis at UCLA, describes the early development of

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this computer, along with others, including: ENIAC, the Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC), UNIVAC, EDVAC, Whirlwind, etc. A chart summarizing information on computer development projects to 1950 is included, as is a diagram of the instruction set for SWAC. These machines were used for a number of scientific applications. 124. Huskey, Harold D. "The SWAC Design Features and Operating Experience." IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 19:2 (April-June 1997): 46-50. Presents description of the general specifications of the National Bureau of Standards Western Automatic Computer (SWAC) and relates mathematical and scientific applications the computer was applied to in 1953-including Fourier synthesis of x-ray diffraction patterns at the Chemistry Department at UCLA. 125. Kalos, Malvin H. "Monte Carlo Methods." In S. Fernbach, and A. Taub, eds. Computers and Their Role in the Physical Sciences (New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1970): 227-236. Monte Carlo refers to a set of techniques for setting up games of chance and establishing odds for outcomes. High-speed computing was fundamental to advancing the use and success of such methods that had many applications in the physical and other sciences. Kalos provides a brief history of Monte Carlo methods and discusses specific examples in high-energy physics. 126. Kidwell, Peggy Aldrich. "American Scientists and Calculating MachinesNovelty to Commonplace." Annals of the History of Computing 12:1 (1990): 3140. Provides a pre-history of scientific computing, analyzing the adoption of earlier calculating devices by American scientists. 127. Kistermann, Friedrich W. "Leo Wenzel Pollak (1888-1964): Czechoslovakian Pioneer in Scientific Data Processing." IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 21:4 (1999): 62-68. Documents elements of the prehistory of scientific computing in Czechoslovakia by detailing the work of Physicist Leo Wenzel Pollack in applying punched card technology to cosmic physics. 128. Koch, George S. "Computer Applications in Mining Geology." In Daniel F. Merriam, ed. Computer Applications in the Earth Sciences (New York: Plenum Press, 1969): 121-141.

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U. S. Bureau of Mines geologist George S. Koch provides a review article on computer uses in mining geology. He describes how mining geologists use computers beyond the more typical geological applications of estimating means, determining variance, calculating confidence intervals, and hypothesis tests. Concludes by stating how mining geologists have extended the examination of ore-deposit data, verified ideas only speculated in the past, and established techniques useful to geologists outside of mining. 129. Kowarski, L. "Recognition of Visual Data in High-Energy Physics." In S. Fernbach, and A. Taub, eds. Computers and Their Role in the Physical Sciences (New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1970): 479-502. Examines the recognition of elementary particles before automation and after. Describes bubble chamber research and computer applications, including mechanized measurement systems. Evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of automation, the retreat from full automation, and future trends. 130. Krumbein, W. C. "The Computer in Geological Perspective." In Daniel F. Merriam, ed. Computer Applications in the Earth Sciences (New York: Plenum Press, 1969): 251-276. This article serves as a conclusion to the book. It provides a brief general survey of past use of digital computers in geology and also comments upon and categorizes a number of the papers presented at this International Symposium. 131. Kruskal, Martin D. "Asymptotology in Numerical Computation: Progress and Plans on the Fermi-Pasta-Ulam Problem." Proceedings of the IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Large Scale Problems in Physics." in International Business Machines. Proceedings of the IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Large-Scale Problems in Physics (New York: IBM Data Processing Division, 1965): 43-64. Addresses computer applications to solving differential equations, and in particular, problems defined by Fermi, Pasta, and Ulam at Los Alamos National Laboratory in the mid-1950s. 132. Ladd, D. W., and John W. Sheldon. "The Numerical Solution of a Partial Differential Equation on the IBM Type 701 Electronic Data Processing Machine." Annals of the History of Computing 5:2 (April 1983): 142-145. Reprinted from the Proceedings of the Association for Computing Machinery, ACM Annual Meeting, Toronto, (September 8-10, 1952) 115-117. Indicates that in addition to testing components by IBM's Engineering Department, the firm's Applied Science Department ran tests to decide on the likelihood for acceptance of the machine by various customers.

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133. Lenoir, Timothy. "Practice, Reason, Context: The Dialogue Between Theory and Experiment." Science in Context 2:1 (1988). Tim Lenoir, Timothy. "Practice, Reason, Context." In Instituting Science: The Cultural Production of Scientific Disciplines (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997)22-44. Discusses the predominance of theory as opposed to analysis of experiment, instrumentation, and procedures of measurement in the existing literature of the history of science. He, however, identifies a recent trend to challenge this practice of writing the history of science only as the history of theory. Analysis of work on experiment and instrumentation informs understanding of the use of a computer as a scientific instrument. 134. Lowan, Arnold N. "The Computation Laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards." Scripta Mathematica 15 (1949): 33-63. Outlines the history of the Mathematical Tables Project (MTP), a project of the National Bureau of Standards formulated in 1938. Describes how much of the work was completed before the advent of electronic digital computers, prior to briefly analyzing the changes brought about to calculation with the advent of the Mark I, Mark II, and the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC). Lowan predicts that the chief emphasis in the future will not be on table construction, but instead, on the solution of highly complex physical problems that would be unsolvable prior to electronic digital computing. 135. Lowell, Sherman. "A Program for Computer Facilities in an Academic Environment." in Arvid W. Jacobson, ed. Conference on Training Personnel for the Computing Machine Field. Proceedings. (Detroit, MI: Wayne University Press, 1955). 136. Lynch, Michael F. "Storage and Retrieval of Information on Chemical Structures by Computer." Endeavour 27:101 (May 1968): 68-73. Describes the process of digitally storing topological data of chemical molecules on a computer. Argues the value of this practice to furthering chemical research. Lynch evaluates the practices being employed as well as the more complex problem of indexing chemical reactions. Sees great possibilities for future work of computers in chemical research and suggests that the variety of computer applications may only be limited by our understanding of intuitive mental processes correlating various activities and the structure of compounds.

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137. Mackenzie, Donald. "The Influence of the Los Alamos and Livermore National Laboratories on the Development of Supercomputing." Annals of the History of Computing 13 (1991): 179-201. This is a historical examination of the evolution of computer architecture and high-performance scientific computing at national laboratories. The study examines how Los Alamos and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories were important sponsors and consumers of supercomputers. These labs played an important role in establishing the speed of floating-point arithmetic. The impact of national laboratories on supercomputing development, however, has been limited by the unique nature of some of the tasks the computers have been used for as well as the classified nature of much of this research. 138. Mackenzie, Donald. "Negotiating Arithmetic, Constructing Proof: The Sociology of Mathematics and Information Technology." Social Studies of Science 23 (1993): 37-66. Examines the history and sociology of floating-point arithmetic performed by computers, indicating that many different computer arithmetics have been proposed and the standard (defined by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) was negotiated rather than deduced from existing human arithmetic. The article then shifts to the issue of the mathematical proof of the correctness of hardware designs and software programs, arguing that the extension of the domain of the application of a proof involves negotiation of what a proof is. 139. Mathews, M. V. "Choosing a Scientific Computer for Service." Science 161 (July 5, 1968): 23-27. Discusses the declining cost of increasingly powerful computing systems that are at once the source of great opportunities as well as difficulties. The latter is the result of the growing complexity of writing systems programs that will make computers useful in solving problems in scientific research and other areas. Because of the problems associated with integrating new machines to do tasks, Mathews advocates the idea of "permanent computers," or machines acquired for a particular purpose that are retained until they wear out or the purpose changes. 140. Mauchly, John W. "The ENIAC." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980): 541-550. Edited version of paper given at International Research Conference on the History of Computing, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, June 10-15, 1976. In addition to discussion of priority issues of the ENIAC and Atanasoff-Berry

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Computer, relates how perceived applications in academic physics research was a driving force of Mauchly's leadership role in computer development. 141. McClelland, William F. "Activities of the Applied Science Mathematical Committee on the 701." Annals of the History of Computing 5:2 (April, 1983): 125-127. This is an informative short article relating the early history of the Applied Scientific Mathematical Committee on the 701. The committee, formed as part of IBM's Applied Science Department in 1951, continued work through the fall of 1952. The starting point of the committee's activities was to work with Nathaniel Rochester's planning group in Poughkeepsie to develop machine specifications for large-scale computing that closely paralleled the Institute for Advanced Study computer. The second phase was to write a manual on programming techniques; finally the group began giving lectures to prospective 701 customers on the characteristics of the 701 and the programming techniques developed thus far. 142. McClelland, William F., and D. W. Pendry. "701 Installation in the West." Annals of the History of Computing 5:2 (April 1983): 167-170. Provides treatment of the movement of IBM into the scientific computing field, along with a more extensive analysis that looks at the demand side in this area and how IBM responded to meet the growing need for computers used for scientific applications. Briefly describes several key events: in 1948, Northrop Aircraft's request to IBM to build a special connection between a card punch and tabulator (Card Programmed Calculator or CPC), the mass production of the 602A and 604 calculating punches, and in 1949, IBM's decision to initiate an Applied Science Department to be run by Cuthbert Hurd. The article also addresses early software development, and the marketing and installation of early 701 computers. 143. McLean, A. D. "Large Scale Computation in Chemistry." In International Business Machines. Proceedings: IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Computers in Chemistry (New York: Yorktown Heights, 1968): 51-64. Reports on the use of an IBM 360/65 in determining the electronic structure of molecules at the IBM San Jose Research Laboratory's Department of Large Scale Scientific Computations-a laboratory focused on research in theoretical chemistry, theoretic physics, and fluid dynamics. 144. Medwick, Paul A. "Douglas Hartree and Early Computations in Quantum Mechanics." Annals of the History of Computing 10:2 (1988): 105-111.

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Details and analyzes the computer applications by Douglas Hartree of the National Physical Laboratory, University of Cambridge, in the study of quantum mechanics during the late 1940s. 145. Metropolis, Nicholas. "Errors in Computing." In S. Fernbach and A. Taub, eds. Computers and Their Role in the Physical Sciences (New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1970): 189-202. Metropolis details inherent errors in computing, and the propagation and monitoring of errors. Specifically, he discusses errors in models, analytic or approximation error, rounding or generated error, computer malfunctions, and stability and correlation. 146. Metropolis, Nicholas. "The MANIAC." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980): 457-464. Edited version of paper given at International Research Conference on the History of Computing, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, June 10-15, 1976. Provides significant discussion on the initial use of computing (ENIAC) and the subsequent initiation of a computer research effort at the lab (in 1948) to be headed by Metropolis, including the development of MANIAC based on the Institute for Advanced Study computer. Gives list of problems that were run on the lab's computers. Most of the projects were in mathematics and the physical sciences; however, there is description of some cognitive science applications, including chess playing programs. 147. Metropolis, Nicholas. "The Los Alamos Experience, 1943-1954." In Stephen G. Nash, ed. A History of Scientific Computing (New York: ACM Press, 1990): 237-250. Outlines the acquisition and scientific applications of computers at Los Alamos National Laboratory, including the ENIAC and MANIAC. Discusses the use of Monte Carlo techniques of the early post-war period. Some of the studies were related to Enrico Fermi's phase shift analysis, Mici Teller, and Arianna and Marshall Rosenbluth, Andrew Turkevich, and others' study of nuclear cascades. 148. Mitchell, Herbert F., Jr. "Inversion of a Matrix of Order 38." Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation 3 (July, 1948): 161-166. Mitchell writes of his success in solving 38 simultaneous linear equations using an Aiken Relay Calculator that was constructed for the Naval Proving Ground, Dahlgren, Virginia by staff of Harvard University's Computational Laboratory. Also discusses the work of von Neumann and Goldstine on numerical inverting of high order matrices, stating that the accelerating development of large-scale

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digital calculating machines should soon expand the understanding of the relation between the number of dominant coefficients and the loss of significant digits. 149. Norberg, Arthur L. "New Engineering Companies and the Evolution of the United States Computer Industry." Business and Economic History 22:1(1993): 181-193. This article details the formation and early development of Engineering Research Associates and the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Company, two firms formed shortly after the end of World War II that built early electronic digital computers that were used for scientific and engineering applications-particularly by the Department of Defense. 150. Pasta, John R. "The Role of the University in the Computer Age." In S. Fernbach and A. Taub., eds. Computers and Their Role in the Physical Sciences (New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1970): 203-218. Pasta begins with outlining how universities were the birthplace of many early computing systems, and then delves into the relationship between computing centers, computer science, and the applications of computers to various areas in the sciences. 151. Peikert, E. W. "Developments at the Man-Machine Interface." In Daniel F. Merriam, ed. Computer Applications in the Earth Sciences (New York: Plenum Press, 1969): 1-12. Peikert, of International Business Machines Corporation, discusses the early difficulties that machine language posed to geologists, a problem that was only partially reduced by the development of assembler languages such as ALGOL, FORTRAN, and PL/1. He writes of how interactive computer graphics (including the use of a light pen) helps to overcome this problem and let the geologist communicate within a graphical language. 152. Raup, David M. "Computer as a Research Tool in Paleontology." In Daniel F. Merriam, ed. Computer Applications in the Earth Sciences (New York: Plenum Press, 1969): 189-204. Discusses the time saving features of utilizing a computer in processing data of taxonomic paleontology. Indicates, however, that computer applications can go beyond greater efficiency to become important research instruments by utilizing them for modeling and simulation, optimization techniques, stochastic models, coordinate transformation, optical scanning, and image recognition.

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153. Rees, Mina. "The Computing Program of the Office of Naval Research, 1946-1953." Communications oftheACM30 (October 1987): 830-848. The Office of Naval Research was formed in 1946 to encourage scientific research and almost immediately became a strong supporter of applied mathematics, numerical analysis, and computer development. Provides a brief history of the early development and use of the von Neumann machine at Princeton University's Institute for Advanced Study, the Whirlwind Project at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and several other early computers that were used for a number of scientific applications in the late 1940s and 1950s. 154. Robertson, James E. "The ORDVAC and the ILLIAC." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980): 347-364. Edited version of paper given at International Research Conference on the History of Computing, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, June 10-15, 1976. Presents the retroperspective view of a graduate student on the development of the ORDVAC and ILLIAC at the University of Illinois, including the principal personnel, characteristics of the machines, provisions for reliability and installations and uses. 155. Sammet, Jean E. "Some Approaches to, and Illustrations of, Programming Language History." Annals of the History of Computing 13:1 (1991): 33-50. Rare historiographical article on the history of computing that examines methodology and the development of the historical study of programming languages. Provides insight into the reasons some languages tailored for scientific applications have been studied to the exclusion of others, as well as the primary questions that are addressed. 156. Secrest, Don. "On-line Use of Computers in Chemistry." In S. Fernbach, and A. Taub, eds. Computers and Their Role in the Physical Sciences (New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1970): 437-462. Concludes that impact of the digital computer on chemistry has been "phenomenal," and will likely be even more significant in the future. Secrest details both laboratory and industrial applications. He indicates the complexity involved in real-time computing and discusses the many software considerations, including examples from the Chemistry Department at the University of Illinois. 157. Sederholm, C. H. "Operating Systems and Application Programs for Laboratory Automation." In International Business Machines. Proceedings: IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Computers in Chemistry (New York: IBM, 1968): 35-50.

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This source begins with the discussion of the use of large versus intermediate (mini) computers for on-line data acquisition, control and real-time calculations in chemistry experiments. States that only high-energy physics tend to require the use of an entire mid-sized computer. Thus, the importance of a proper operating system to manage resources becomes paramount. The article discusses various operating systems and applications programs to carry out laboratory automation. 158. Seidel, Robert W. "Accelerating Science: The Postwar Transformation of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory." Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 13:2 (1983): 375-400. This provides a strong overview and historical analysis of the funding, instrumentation, and growing research programs in high-energy physics at U.S. national laboratories, with a focus on the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory. Discussion of the computer as a scientific instrument is minimal, but provides important context to understanding scientific computing in the physical sciences at Lawrence and other national laboratories. 159. Seidel, Robert W. "A Home for Big Science: The AEC and Its Laboratory System." In Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 16:1 (1986): 135-175. Although discussion of computing is largely absent, this important study provides critical background information to understanding major scientific research projects at Atomic Energy Commission Laboratories. Many computer applications figured prominently in these research projects. 160. Seidel, Robert W. "'Crunching Numbers' Computers and Physical Research in the AEC Laboratories." History and Technology 15 (1998): 31-68. Significant article that analyzes the application of computers to problems in the physical sciences at various Atomic Energy Commission laboratories during the first two decades of the Cold War. More broadly, it indicates how the study of computers as scientific instruments can yield new understanding of the social, epistemological and theoretical commitments of modern science. The article details research in high-energy physics on lasers and particle accelerator projects, and the role of computer. Among the computers and institutions he discusses are: Los Alamos National Laboratory, Rand Corporation, Argonne National Laboratory, AVIDAC, GEORGE, LARC, MANIAC, and Stretch. 161. Seidel, Robert W. "Secret Scientific Communities: Classification and Scientific Communication in the DOE and the DoD." In Mary Ellen Bowden, et

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al., eds. Proceedings of the 1998 Conference on the History and Heritage of Science Information Systems (Medford, NJ: Information Today, Inc., 1999): 4660. Seidel documents restricted information flow within secret scientific communities at the Department of Energy and Department of Defense and the frustrated efforts to share information. 162. Shapiro, Stuart. "Splitting the Difference: The Historical Necessity of Synthesis in Software Engineering." IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 19:1 (January-March 1997): 20-54. Utilizing the ongoing dialogue on "software engineering" in trade journals, Shapiro provides historical analysis of the trade-off between breadth and depth in writing software. The article describes how basic and poorly understood problem-solving processes, and the great complexity involved, indicate the need for more pluralistic approaches to software development, ones involving synthesis and trade-offs. In the process, he relates the allure of many software developers to present software as a science and link it to natural laws. 163. Sheldon, John W., and L. H. Thomas. "The Use of Large Scale Computing in Physics." Journal of Applied Physics 24 (1953): 235-242. Sheldon, of the Department of Applied Science at IBM, and Thomas, of Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory of Columbia University, write an excellent piece reporting on the accelerating use of digital computer technology in physics in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The focus is on computer applications to solving partial differential equations, which underlie mathematical description of physical phenomena. The authors go on to examine computer applications and requirements for calculating certain types of problems in physics including: problems with time as the sole independent variable, problems with one to four or more space-like dimensions, and solutions of the Fermi-Thomas-Dirac Equation. 164. Shirer, Donald L. "Computers and Physics Teaching. Part 1: Digital Computers." American Journal of Physics 33 (1965): 575-583. Argues that computers have drastically changed problem-solving by physicists in their research and makes plea for greater use of both analog and digital computers in physics education. Sets an agenda for how computers can be used to advance physics education through problem-solving, understanding calculus, laboratory demonstrations, and programming. States that some students have already learned elements of languages, such as FORTRAN, ALGOL, and MAD, that can be effectively utilized to write and run elementary programs.

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165. Snyder, James N. "The Role of Computers in the Analysis of Bubble Chamber Film." In S. Fernbach, and A. Taub, eds. Computers and Their Role in the Physical Sciences (New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1970): 463-478. Snyder provides a brief history of computer applications to bubble chamber analysis from the work of pioneering scientists at Berkeley's Lawrence Radiation Laboratory through work there and elsewhere in the 1960s. Details the uses of various hardware systems, including the CDC 6600, DEC PDP-9, and IBM 7094, and software programs, including PANG, KICK, and PEPR. 166. Spinrad, Robert J. "The Computer and You." Physics Today 18:12 (December 1965): 47-54. Important article indicating the use and attitudes of different types of scientists to computer applications in the mid 1960s. Spinrad, the head of the Computer Systems Group at Brookhaven National Laboratory and a researcher heavily involved with expanding computer applications in laboratories, surveyed more than 400 scientists at his laboratory on their response to the use of computers in the sciences. The results indicated that some computer users feared that computers have an adverse effect on scientific thought and the aesthetic appeal of the sciences. Overall, his survey showed that scientists are deeply divided on the question of whether computers have a positive or negative impact on the sciences, and that differences are based on discipline, age, and other factors. 167. Spinrad, Robert J. "Automation in the Laboratory." Science 158:3797 (1967): 55-60. Provides a clear concise overview of issues and possibilities with regard to use of online computers and conducting scientific experiments. Explains how computers evolved from just being calculating instruments used in experiments to becoming part of the experimental apparatus itself. Discusses the design of experiments to complete the cycle or automate the process, as well as "going online" to connect the experimental apparatus to the computer and enhance speed. 168. Swalen, J. D. "The Role of the Computer in the Laboratory." In International Business Machines. Proceedings: IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Computers in Chemistry (New York: IBM, 1968): 9-34. States that studies in chemistry using computers went up dramatically in the latter part of the 1960s and computers have risen to a "position of prominence among the sophisticated instruments introduced to chemistry." Providing a range of examples, Swalen indicates the many ways chemistry and physics experiments

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have been aided by computers. He sees this trend accelerating for using computers to control and analyze scientific experiments. 169. Thornton, James E. "The CDC 6600 Project." Annals of the History of Computing 2:4 (October 1980): 338-348. Outlines the development of the Control Data Corporation 6600 computer that was completed in 1964. Discusses the design process and the specifications of this machine that was built largely for advanced scientific computing applications. 170. Todd, John. "The Prehistory and Early History of Computation at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards." In Stephen G. Nash, ed. A History of Scientific Computing (New York: ACM Press, 1990): 251-268. The U.S. National Bureau of Standards conducted work to advance mathematics, science, computing, and scientific computing. Todd details the history of prewar work in mathematics, wartime research, and developments in the post-war era. In the latter, he describes work of the Applied Mathematical Division and the transition from punched-card equipment to automatic digital computers, including the SEAC and SWAC, around mid-century. 171. Tomash, Erwin. "The Start of ERA: Engineering Research Associates, Inc., 1946-1955." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980): 485-496. Edited version of paper given at International Research Conference on the History of Computing, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, June 10-15, 1976. Gives perspective on wartime computer related research, subsequent effort by engineers involved in such work to form ERA, and the early support of the U.S. Navy in this endeavor. Indicates that in the early years, ERA was not involved in programming activity and viewed applications as the responsibility of the user. 172. Tukey, John W. "The Inevitable Collision Between Computation and Data Analysis." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of IBM Scientific Computing on Statistics (White Plains, NY: IBM Data Processing Division, 1965): 141-154. Tukey highlights the two fundamental roles of computing in the sciences, computation and data analysis, that are coming together in widespread use and bringing about what he argues is positive change.

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173. Ulam, Stanislaw M. "Electronic Computers and Scientific Research." In Carl F. J. Overhage, and Lloyd V. Berkner. The Age of Electronics: Lincoln Laboratory Decennial Lectures (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962): 94-108. An important overview of the perception and role of computers in scientific research. Ulam argues that fears that computers will push mathematicians and scientists toward less imaginative, mechanical habits in research are groundless. He presents computers as an influential tool, but one that will not subvert the creative work of scientists. Briefly addresses computers and neural networks. 174. Watson, Thomas J., Jr. "IBM President Describes 701 Development." IBM Record 36:2 (April 1953), reprinted in Annals of the History of Computing 5:2 (April 1983): 159. After a brief introduction by Thomas J. Watson, Sr. this article provides the full text of Thomas J. Watson, Jr.'s speech at IBM World Headquarters in conjunction with the first public showing of the IBM 701, given to leading scientists, educators, and individuals from business and government. Watson immediately followed the remarks of J. Robert Oppenheimer at this event. Watson spoke briefly on science, but more extensively on engineering, and particularly defense applications of computers. 175. Wheeler, David J. "Programmed Computing at the Universities of Cambridge and Illinois in the Early Fifties." In Stephen G. Nash. A History of Scientific Computing (New York: ACM Press, 1990): 269-279. Wheeler addresses the topic of early programming efforts at Cambridge University and the University of Illinois to take advantage of the new possibilities for calculation brought by electronic digital computers. He describes work using the EDSAC at Cambridge and the ORDVAC, and subsequently, the ILLIAC at Illinois. He indicates that the early calculations done on these machines could have potentially been accomplished by experienced users of "hand calculators," but such individuals were in short supply and would have reduced the efficiency of scientific and other computational projects. 176. Wheeler, Joyce M. "Applications of the EDSAC." IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 14: 4 (1992): 27-33. This article relates the applications of the first practical stored program computer, EDSAC (first operational in May 1949). It briefly addresses the applications of both the EDSAC and the EDSAC II in differential equations and astronomical applications, calculation of atomic structures, economics, crystalography and the structure of myoglobin, and radio astronomy.

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177. Whitten, E. H. T. "Trends in Computer Applications in Structural Geology." In Daniel F. Merriam, ed. Computer Applications in the Earth Sciences (New York: Plenum Press, 1969): 223-250. Stresses that relatively few structural geologists are using computers and those who are, are using the machines primarily for description. Whitten argues that new programs offer opportunities beyond mere description and facilitate: identification of the multiplicity of geological factors of special variability and fold geometry, balanced interpretation of identified geological factors, and the design and use of process-response models. 178. Williams, Michael R. "The Origin, Uses, and Fate of the EDVAC." IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 15:1 (1993): 22-38. Details the early applications of the EDVAC and ORDVAC at the Ballistic Research Laboratories, Aberdeen. Includes discussion of projects to program test routines such as the "EDVAC Leapfrog Test." By 1961 reports indicated that the EDVAC was used regularly in research on solar and lunar trajectories, guidance control data for missiles, computations involving rocket propellants, and satellite calculations. 179. Womersley, J. R., "Scientific Computing in Great Britain." Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation 2:15 (1946): 110-117. This source covers the pre-history of electronic digital computing by discussing the application of various types of calculating machines to the sciences in Great Britain between the mid 1920s and mid 1940s. Describes the development and use of a small differential analyzer by Douglas R. Hartree (along with Porter) in Manchester. Emphasizes the value of examining past computational devices used in the sciences prior to developing new computers for use as scientific instruments. 180. Yang, C. N. "Computing Machines in High-Energy Physics." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Large-Scale Problems in Physics (New York: IBM Data Processing Division, 1965): 65-70. Describes three primary aspects of high-energy physics: development of particle accelerators, study of high-speed particles, and analysis that pushes boundaries of experimentation. Indicates how computers have been and can be applied to each of the three activities.

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Serials 181. Computer Contribution v. 1- (1966- ). Published by the Lawrence, State Geological Survey, University of Kansas, this is the leading serial publication on computing and geology. 182. Office of Naval Research, Mathematical Sciences Division. Digital Computer Newsletter 1 -20 (1949-1968). A useful reference source for developments in digital computing generally, this publication provides significant information on computers developed for and/or used in Office of Naval Research funded scientific and engineering projects at national laboratories and universities.

Manuscript Collections 183. Academic Computing Collection, ca.l950-ongoing. CBI 61. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [22 cubic feet] This collection contains records of computing centers and researchers at various colleges and universities, some of which relate to scientific projects in the physical and other sciences. 184. Argonne University Association Records, 1945-1982. University of Illinois Library, Urbana, IL. [70.4 linear feet feet]. Important collection that includes reports, correspondence, publications, photographs, and other materials broadly documenting the operation of the Argonne University Association (initiated in 1958 as Associated Midwest Universities -changing names in 1966) and Argonne National Laboratory. The Association, which included 30 universities, was the administrative arm of Argonne National Laboratory. Computers were fundamental scientific instruments to Argonne National Laboratory in research on high-energy physics, biomedicine, the experimental breeder reactor, Intensed Pulsed Neuron Source Facility, accelerators, electron microscopy, magnetohydrodynamics, solid state science, radiological physics, applied mathematics, reactor analysis and other scientific research areas. 185. Bright, Herbert S. Papers, 1924-1988. CBI 42. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [5.4 cubic feet].

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Bright began developing computer applications at electrical engineering department of the Antenna Laboratory at the University of California Berkeley. He went on to become the supervising scientist of the computational planning section at Westinghouse Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory. The collection includes company records of COMPLAN, Informatics Inc., Philco Corporation's Computer and Electronics Division, and most importantly with regard to scientific computing, Westinghouse-Bettis's Computation Planning Committee. 186. Burroughs Corporation Records, 1886-1980. CBI 90. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [520 cubic feet]. Very large collection of corporate records that consists of correspondence, engineering reports, product literature, product manuals, court documents, annual reports, press clippings, sales literature, company trade publications, financial records, sales records, papers of many of the firm's engineers, thousands of photographs, and many other types of documentation that detail nearly every aspect of this corporation. The Burroughs Corporation, from its entry into research, development, production, and sales of computers in the early to mid 1950s was a significant supplier of computers dedicated to scientific applications. There is extensive material on the design, marketing, and placement of machines such as the Datatron 205, the Datatron 220, the B5000, and many others. Like IBM, Burroughs was a major government contractor, providing computing technology for scientific applications in national laboratories and for major projects such as the SAGE Air Defense and the ATLAS Missile Guidance Systems. The breadth of the collection makes it valuable to study a wide range of aspects of the scientific computing industry, as well as specific scientific applications in the physical sciences, artificial intelligence, medicine, and many other fields. 187. Bush, Vannevar. Papers, 1893-1971. Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.[69.6 linear feet]. Bush, a physicist, engineer, and science administrator, ran a project to design and build the Differential Analyzer (an influential analog computational machine) at MIT, and led the effort to coordinate the scientific community for defense purposes during World War II and the early years of the Cold War. Some materials in the collection, that includes correspondence, reports, and other items, address scientific laboratories and computing. 188. Cambridge Electron Accelerator, 1952-1974. Harvard University Library, Pusey Library, Cambridge, MA. [approximately 40 cubic feet]. The Cambridge Electron Accelerator was developed and built by Harvard University in collaboration with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology under

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support from the Atomic Energy Commission. The records give detailed information of the work of this project and include material on the involvement of the computing center in the research and operation of the Cambridge Electron Accelerator. Records include: correspondence, memoranda, reports, manuals, logbooks, minutes of staff meetings, personnel records, drawings, blueprints, photographs, motion picture films, and cassettes. 189. Control Data Corporation Collection, 1957-1984. CBI 80. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [600 cubic feet]. This is a large corporate collection of a company that specialized in very powerful mainframe computers for scientific applications. The collection includes company publications, executive history project records, the firm's Technology Committee Records, newspaper clippings, Research and Development Project Reports, depositions from the Sperry Rand vs. Control Data Corporation Trial in 1960, and other materials providing information or context on this firm that helped expand the capabilities of computing in the sciences from the late 1950s through the 1960s with machines such as the CDC 1604 and 6600. 190. Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc. Mark I Perceptron Press Conference Records, 1960. CBI 48. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [0.1 cubic feet]. The Mark I Perceptron was a recognition instrument that could identify optical patterns that was developed at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory and sponsored by the Information Systems Branch of the Office of Naval Research and the Rome Air Development Center. The Mark I had an influential role in optical recognition artificial intelligence research during the 1960s. The records in this small collection relate to a press conference demonstrating the device and include prepared statements, list of attendees, press conference schedule, clippings on the event, a journal on the Mark I, and short reports on the device by Albert E. Murray, Frank Rosenblatt, and Marshall C. Yovitz. 191. Eckert, Wallace J. Papers, 1931-1975. CBI 9. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [1.5 cubic feet]. Eckert joined the faculty of the Astronomy Department at Columbia University in 1931, and shortly thereafter established the Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Laboratory. In the 1930s he encouraged IBM to design and produce a "scientific calculator." After a stint as the Director of the Nautical Almanac Office of the U.S. Naval Observatory, he returned in the mid-1940s to Columbia University and worked with IBM in the development of the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC), a machine often used for scientific calculations.

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The collection contains notes, publications, and other documents detailing many of the aforementioned activities in which Eckert was engaged. 192. Engineering Research Associates Records, 1946-1953. Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, Delaware. Corporate records of pioneering digital computer company that began after the end of World War II to continue electronic research conducted during the war. The ERA 1101 and subsequent computers were used for a number of applications in the physical sciences. 193. Engineering Research Associates and Remington Rand UNIVAC Records, 1947-1971. CBI 124. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [6.25 cubic feet]. A relatively small collection of corporate records of Engineering Research Associates (ERA) and the Eckert-Mauchly's Computer Company (EMCC) UNIVAC division. Both ERA and EMCC were acquired by Remington Rand in the early 1950s, a company that soon merged with Sperry and became the Sperry-Rand Corporation. This collection provides correspondence, engineering reports, and blueprints related to a number of early computers that were used for scientific applications, including: the ERA 1101, ERA 1103, UNIVAC's File Computer, XU-71 Computer, and the NIKE-X Computer. (See also the Sperry Rand Collection held at the Hagley Museum and Library as well as the Sperry Rand Corporation UNIVAC Division, Honeywell vs. Sperry Rand Litigation Records at the Charles Babbage Institute). 194. Feynman, Richard Phillips. Papers. California Institute of Technology, Institute Archives, Pasadena, CA. [39 cubic feet]. Documents the career of Nobel Prize-winning theoretical physicist at California Institute of Technology from 1951 to his death in 1988. Feynman, who joined the Manhattan Project in Los Alamos in 1942, later developed the quantum electrodynamics theory that described the behavior of particles and atoms in radiation fields. At Los Alamos he directed a team calculating complicated equations using primitive computing machines to advance atomic research. The collection contains extensive correspondence and other materials designated as "Individuals-Computer Related" and "Subjects-Computer Related." A small portion of this material is from the 1960s and 1970s, but the vast majority of it is from the 1980s. 195. Fox, Margaret R. Papers, 1935-1975. CBI 45. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN [8.25 cubic feet].

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Fox worked as an electrical engineer on Radar for the U.S. Navy during World War II. In 1951 she joined the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) and worked for the Electronic Computers Section to plan, design and fabricate digital computing equipment. The material contains information on NBS's Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) as well as the DYSEAC, one of the early full-scale transportable digital computers. From 1966 to 1975 Fox was Chief of the Office of Computer Information at the NBS Institute for Computer Science and Technology. The collection contains minutes of meetings, correspondence, NBS Activity Reports, research project proposals, and other records documenting computer development at the National Bureau of Standards and Fox's role in such activities. 196. Hammer, Carl. Papers, 1950-1990. CBI 3. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [17 cubic feet]. This collection contains documents on the operation of the UNIVAC European Computer Center, where Hammer served as Director from 1955-1957. Indicates there was a scientific computing market in European countries for the UNIVAC in the mid-1950s. There are also materials related to Hammer serving as manager of RCA's Scientific Computing Applications Department in the early 1960s. 197. Higinbotham, William A. Computer Memorandum and Correspondence, 1948-1949, 1955. CBI 131. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [0.1 cubic feet]. Contains memoranda from November 1948 on the status of the EDVAC project for the Atomic Energy Commission at Brookhaven National Laboratory. Collection also includes material on the construction of an ILLIAC-type machine at Brookhaven National Laboratory. Though small, the collection provides some useful information on the construction of computers at national laboratories to be used for advanced scientific and engineering research. 198. Hill, Albert Gordon. Papers, 1943-1981. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Institute Archives and Special Collections, Cambridge, MA. [57 manuscript boxes]. From the late 1930s through the late 1970s Hill served as a physics professor at MIT and concomitantly held numerous administrative posts, including director of the Research Laboratory for Electronics and Lincoln Laboratory. Hill was a member of the MIT Committee on Computers and the collection contains a number of items detailing the work of this committee in selection and implementation of computers at various laboratories at the school. This includes

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analysis of the cost and functionality of many different computing systems in the 1960s and 1970s to be used for scientific and engineering research. 199. Hurd, Cuthbert C. Papers, 1946-1962. CBI 95. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [2.75 cubic feet]. Hurd came to IBM in 1949 after serving as the technical research head at the Oak Ridge, Tennessee facility of the Atomic Energy Commission. He formed IBM's Applied Science Department and was an important figure pushing the firm's management toward fully entering the computing field. There is a small amount of material providing information on scientific activity and scientific calculation at Oakridge, but most of the records related to scientific computing detail the personnel and activities of IBM's Applied Science Department. The collection is an important source for gaining understanding of the context of IBM's work to serve the market for scientific computers in the 1950s. 200. International Computing Collection. 1950-1980. CBI 62. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [10 cubic feet]. This collection documents various hardware and software developments and installations outside of the United States. Material on scientific computing is relatively scarce, but the collection does have a number of significant records on scientific computing at Cambridge University, international cybernetics conference materials, surveys of computational linguistics in Europe, and records on the impact of foreign governments on their countries' computing activities. 201. Kowarski, Lew. Papers, 1907-1981. American Institute of Physics. Center for History of Physics, College Park, MD. [14 linear feet]. Lew Kowarski, a nuclear physicist and pioneer in building nuclear reactors in France and Canada and one of the key founders of the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), became the first Director of Scientific and Technical Services of the organization (1954), and held various teaching and research appointments in Europe, Canada, and the United States during his distinguished career. The collection is an excellent source for computer applications in nuclear physics, particularly in Europe. The collection (correspondence, reports, draft manuscripts etc. that are primarily in English and French) documents his role in developing CERN's computing facilities and his longtime directorship of the organization's Data Handling Division. It also provides resources on other developments of the technical, social, ethical, and managerial issues worldwide associated with computing and high-energy physics during the 1950s and 1960s.

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202. Mapother, Dillon Edward. Papers, 1960-1982. University of Illinois Library, Urbana, IL. [8.3 linear feet]. Mapother was professor of physics and director of Computing Services Office at the University of Illinois. This collection of correspondence, memoranda of phone conversations and meetings, and laboratory records document his and other University of Illinois scientists' research in solid state physics, cryogenics and superconductivity, including the associated computer applications of this research. 203. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Department of Electrical Engineering Records, 1969-1973. Institute Archives and Special Collections, MIT Libraries, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. [.5 cubic feet]. Small collection that includes information, memos and instructions for use of the Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-1. 204. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Digital Computer Laboratory, Records 1944-1959. Institute Archives and Special Collections, MIT Libraries, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. [16 cubic feet]. This laboratory was established in 1951. Some of the computation books, notes, memoranda and other laboratory records in this collection document the effort to transform Whirlwind into a computer with a broad range of defense applications, including some in scientific-related development. 205. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Research Laboratory of Electronics Records, 1944-2000. Institute Archives and Special Collections, MIT Libraries, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge MA. [6 cubic feet]. This laboratory engaged in projects in many areas of science, engineering, and other fields, including physics, chemistry, psychology, electrical engineering, and linguistics. The records, which include correspondence, reports, and other forms of documentation, contain some information on computer applications. 206. Morse, Phillip McCord, 1927-1980. Institute Archives and Special Collections, MIT Libraries, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge MA. [36 linear feet]. Collection spans Morse's nearly fifty year long association with MIT beginning in 1931. Much of this time he was a professor of physics at the school. Included is excellent documentation of the implementation of computing at MIT and applications to research and education in the physical and other sciences. In

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1952 Morse started a program and chaired the committee to introduce professors and students to the research uses of computers. (Committee on Machine Methods of Computation). Three years later he convinced IBM to install a rent-free computer at a facility that became the New England Regional Computing Program (NERComp). By 1957 the new Compton Laboratory was dedicated as MIT's Computation Center with Morse as director, a position he held until 1967. Series II of the collection contains extensive minutes of meetings, notes, reports, etc. that document MIT's advances in applying computers to operations research, physics and other sciences. Also included are materials related to the implementation of timesharing at MIT. 207. Nash, John Purcell. Papers, 1949-1957. CBI 14. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [0.1 cubic feet]. Nash was a physicist for the Kimberly-Clark Corporation before coming to the University of Illinois in 1950 where he became a faculty member of the University of Illinois Digital Computing Laboratory. At the lab he helped oversee the development of the ORDVAC and ILLIAC computers. The records, including reports, mimeographed lecture notes, correspondence, and articles, document this development project as well as Nash's role in supervising numerical analysis research for the Office of Naval Research (ONR). 208. Office of Naval Research Records. 1953. Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, DE. Provides a survey of large-scale computers and computing projects in 1953. 209. Oppenheimer, J. Robert. Papers, 1921-1980. Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. [117.4 cubic feet]. Oppenheimer was a physicist and the Director of Princeton University's Institute for Advanced Study from 1947-1962. Included in this large collection of correspondence, speeches, scientific notes, reports, and other materials are records related to computing at the Institute and computation in nuclear physics. 210. Project Manager Mission Papers, 1964-1984. University of Iowa Archives, Iowa City, Iowa. [225 cubic feet]. This collection contains the papers of James A. Van Allen during his long tenure (1951-1985) as a professor and chair of the department of physics and astronomy. Much of the materials relate to his research and management of many projects in the development and building of a number of early space science instruments. Van Allen was instrumental in bringing computing technology to the University to aid his research and that of others. Van Allen

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and E. F. Lindquist collaborated to bring in the university's first digital computer in the early 1960s. Subsequently, Van Allen was also a fundamental player in the planning and establishment of a campus wide computer center, and he oversaw the expansion of the computer facilities at the physics department. 211. Seitz, Frederick Papers, 1935-1965. University of Illinois, University Archives. Urbana, Illinois. [18.3 cubic feet]. Documents the career of Frederick Seitz at the University of Illinois at Urbana, the National Academy of Sciences, and Rockefeller University. Includes correspondence with many physicists and science administrators on solid state physics, reports, meeting minutes, various research projects in physics, and records related to national science policy. Substantial material addresses, directly or tangentially, issues related to computing and physics and engineering research at national laboratories and major research universities. Collection contains the records of the Coordinated Sciences Laboratory between 1951 and 1961. 212. SHARE, Inc., Records, 1955-1992. CBI 21. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [15.5 cubic feet]. SHARE was a softwareuser group established in 1955 that was focused on applications for IBM machines-at the time of its formation, primarily the IBM 704. The group was initiated to coordinate and cooperate in computer programming work and was represented by the Rand Corporation, North American Aviation, Lockheed Aircraft Corporation and IBM. The collection documents the group's activities through correspondence of its members, manuals, proceedings, and publications. 213. SLAC Computing Services, Computation Research Group Records, 19671999. Stanford University Library, Stanford CA. [2 cubic feet]. Small collection of computer programs, memoranda, presentations, publications, and reports provides documentation on computer laboratory applications in the physical sciences during the late 1960s forward. 214. Smith, Charles Albert Eugene, Papers, 1947-1961. CBI 17. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [0.2 cubic feet]. Contains correspondence, reports, bibliographies, articles, notes and other materials related to the Computing Surveys of the Office of Naval Research. These reports compare features and applications of a small number of early computers that were used for scientific purposes, including RCA's BIZMAC and the IBM 702.

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215. Sperry Rand Corporation. Remington Rand UNIVAC Division Records, 1935-1975. Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, Delaware. [614 cubic feet]. Company records of the Remington Rand Division of Sperry Rand. Remington Rand took over the two major digital computer companies that emerged at the end of World War II: Engineering Research Associations and Eckert-Mauchly. The collection gives context of a computer maker building numerous early machines that were utilized for scientific applications. Collection includes correspondence of J. Presper Eckert, John Mauchly, and others, as well as minutes of meetings and administrative records of Eckert-Mauchly, Remington Rand, and Sperry-Rand. 216. Sperry Rand Corporation UNIVAC Division, Honeywell vs. Sperry Rand Litigation Records, 1947-1972. CBI 72. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [0.75 cubic feet]. This suit developed from the ENIAC patent related to the design of digital computers, and Honeywell's unwillingness to pay royalties on this patent. The litigation records provide some information on the history of UNIVAC from 1950 to 1970, including the uses of their computers. 217. Triangle Universities Computation Center Records, 1965-1973. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Library, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. [1.5 cubic feet]. Triangle Universities Computation Center was initiated in 1965 by University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina State University, and Duke University to provide computational services for these three institutions, government, and industry. Documents project proposals to the National Science Foundation and other agencies, and other scientific projects that utilized the laboratory facilities. 218. Twenty-five Years of FORTRAN Exhibit, 1957-1982. Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Blacksburg, VA. [5 cubic feet]. Collection includes records, exhibit panels, and a videotape that document the history of FORTRAN and the development of the 25th anniversary historical exhibit. FORTRAN was the common programming language used in scientific applications throughout the 1960s and 1970s. Contains perspectives from John Backus, and many other members of the FORTRAN development team.

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219. United States Government Computing Collection, ca. 1945-1983. CBI 63. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [14 cubic feet]. This is a very significant scientific computing collection that includes government newsletters; technical reports; computer hardware, software, and systems manuals, as well as records of installations and projects. All the materials in the collection were produced by a U.S. Government agency and generally document work performed by government agencies and departments including: Advanced Research Projects Agency, Atomic Energy Commission, Defense Atomic Support Agency, National Bureau of Standards, National Science Foundation, etc. The bulk of the material on scientific computing is on applications in the physical sciences and engineering. 220. University of Chicago Department of Meteorology Numerical Weather Prediction Survey Records, 1955-1956. CBI 36. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [0.1 cubic feet]. Small collection containing materials related to George W. Platzman's (University of Chicago) survey on numerical weather prediction. The survey details data on the application of computers to numerical forecasting, and plans for universities and the government to engage in such weather prediction methods by the mid-1950s. 221. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Computer-Based Education Research Laboratory, PLATO Reports, PLATO Documents, and CERL Progress Reports, 1958-1993. CBI 133. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [6 cubic feet]. PLATO, an education computer system developed at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign had a number of applications to scientific education. This extensive collection of reports documents many of these applications. Examples of documents include: S. G. Smith, "The Use of Computers in the Teaching of Organic Chemistry;" and D. L. Bitzer, et al. "Computer-Based Science Education." 222. University of Michigan Computer Center Records, 1952-1987. University of Michigan Library, Ann Arbor, Michigan. [12.5 linear feet]. This collection contains administrative records, minutes of meetings, correspondence, financial documents, managerial reports and other materials related to the Computer Center's acquisition of early computers and development of MTS and other software and networks. The center provided

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facilities for faculty research and was utilized by a number of the school's scientists. 223. USE, Inc. Records, 1955-1986. CBI 20. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [2.4 cubic feet]. USE, or the UNIVAC Scientific Exchange, was established in 1955 by a number of users of UNIVAC large-scale scientific computers to share code and experiences. The collection represents a valuable set of materials documenting the collaborative efforts to address a range of challenges in early scientific computing. In 1966 the organization took "scientific" out of its name as a result of its mission that had evolved also to serve users of UNIVAC computers for business and other data processing applications. The collection consists of minutes of USE meetings from 1955 to 1962, technical papers throughout the late 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s and proceedings from 1961 and 1965.

Oral Histories 224. Argonne Laboratory Group Oral History conducted by Henry S. Tropp, June 21, 1972. (Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC). Significant group interview of a number of the principal individuals of the Applied Mathematics Laboratory at Argonne National Laboratories. Interviewees include: Margaret Butler, Jim Butler, Dave Jacobsohn, Charles Harrison, Claire Kilty, Burt Garbow, Stan Zawadzki, Bob Kroupa, Fraz Morehouse, and Wallace Givens. Touches upon the changing computing equipment (ENIAC, UNIVAC, AVIDAC, etc.) of Argonne Laboratory and range of projects and applications of these machines, including calculations for the design and use of nuclear reactors and the work of the physics computing group. 225. Ash, Eric, Oral History interview conducted by Frederik Nebeker, August 25, 1994 (IEEE History Center, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ). Ash, an electrical engineer, conducted research on applied physical electronics at Stanford University during the early 1950s, and later came to work for IBM, General Electric, and University College in London. He served as Chair of a Sub-committee to advise the government on expenditure for supercomputers. Various parts of the interview provide some information and context to computing in the physical sciences and engineering.

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226. Booth, Donald Andrew, Oral History interview conducted by Christopher Riche Evans, 1976 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 5). Booth discusses use of calculating machines in his crystallography research at the University of Birmingham during the Second World War. 227. Burroughs B5000, Conference transcript, September 6, 1985 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 98). Burroughs B5000 Conference includes a group discussion of developers and users of the B5000 and B5500, both within and outside of the Burroughs Corporation. The motivations for designing and building this technically successful computer are explored, as are the reasons for designing it for ALGOL rather than FORTRAN. Although the direct discussion on scientific applications is limited, the context provides insights into the development and marketing of computers for science and for business. 228. Cooley, James W., Oral History interview conducted by Frederik Nebeker, March 11, 1997 (IEEE History Center, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ). Cooley, a mathematician, became a leader in signal processing in the 1960s and 1970s. The interview addresses computer applications to crystallography, acoustics, and signal processing research, as well as appropriate computers for various scientific and engineering applications. 229. Davise, Donald Watts, Oral History interview conducted by Christopher Riche Evans, 1975 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, OH 8). Davies discusses computer projects at the National Physical Laboratory in England, including the work of Alan Turing and the development of the ACE computers. 230. Eckert, J. Presper, Kay Mauchly, Jim McNulty and William Cleaver, Oral History group interview conducted by Nancy B. Stern, January 23, 1980 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 11). Among the topics discussed is the use of the ENIAC in calculations related to the testing of the atomic bomb. 231. Forsythe, Alexandra I., Oral History interview conducted by Pamela McCorduck, May 16, 1976 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, OH 17).

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Forsythe, a professor of meteorology at UCLA, discusses computer applications to this area of science. 232. Fox, Margaret R., Oral History interview conducted by James Baker Ross, April 13, 1983 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, OH 49). Discusses the negotiations between Eckert-Mauchly and the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) over the completion of the first UNIVAC, and the development and uses of the SEAC and SWAC at NBS. 233. Getting, Ivan, Oral History interview conducted by Frederik Nebeker, February 25, 1995 (IEEE History Center, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ). Getting, a Harvard Fellow in Physics and later a researcher at the MIT Radiation Laboratory, developed one of the first high-speed binary counters, a scientific instrument used in counting cosmic rays arriving in an apparently random distribution. He discussed how this counter, along with memory and software, were the basis of high-speed computers. His subsequent research focused on nuclear physics. 234. Goldstine, Herman Heine, Oral History interview conducted by George D. Green (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, OH 19). The first part of the interview focuses on the applications of the ENIAC, EDVAC, and other early computers to military, engineering, and scientific research. 235. Hammer, Carl, Oral History interview conducted by James Baker Ross, April 15, 1983 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 56). Hammer discusses working at the Columbia University Thomas J. Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory in the first half of the 1950s. In 1955 he left for the European UNIVAC Computing Center. He indicates the difference in the effect computers had on European institutions, addressing both scientific and business applications. 236. Hillier, James, Oral History interview conducted by Mark Heyer and Al Pinsky, July 16, 1975 (IEEE History Center, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ).

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In the 1950s Hillier became heavily involved with long-range projects for RCA, particularly the computing business. In 1957 he became general manager of the Princeton laboratories, directing a diversified program of research for RCA. 237. Hurd, Cuthbert Corwin, Oral History interview conducted by Christopher Riche Evans, ca. 1976 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 82). This includes a fairly extensive discussion of Hurd's involvement in scientific computing after World War II as an employee of the Oak Ridge Atomic Energy Project. He indicates the impact of the early machines on the work at the laboratory, including the IBM 604 in 1947. 238. Hurd, Cuthbert Corwin, Oral History interview conducted by Nancy B. Stern, January 20, 1981 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 76). Discusses IBM's commitment to and support of academic research on IBM computers, including the IBM 701, 704, and 705 machines. 239. Hurd, Cuthbert Corwin, Oral History interview conducted by Robert W. Seidel, November 18, 1994 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, OH 259). Hurd outlines his work at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and his role in obtaining the first IBM 604 for the laboratory. He addresses his move to IBM and his work in developing scientific computers for the company. 240. Metropolis, Nicholas, Oral History conducted by Henry S. Tropp, September 12, 1972 (Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC). Along with Nicholas Metropolis, his colleague at Los Alamos National Laboratory, Jack Worlton, participates in this interview. Metropolis discusses early applications of calculating equipment to his work, and that of other theoretical and experimental physicists at Los Alamos and other laboratories. Discusses applications of the MARK I, II, and III, BINAC, and other machines. 241. Miller, William F., Oral History interview conducted by Pamela McCorduck, May 22, 1979 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 29). Miller discusses his work on the Argonne National Laboratory Computer and his teaching at the University of Chicago Institute for Computer Research, prior to

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his move to Stanford University. In 1964 he joined Stanford's Linear Accelerator Center. Miller details the significant applications to science and engineering that were being achieved in the 1960s. 242. Traub, J. F., Oral History interview conducted by William Aspray, April 5, 1984 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 70). Discusses the work environment at the Thomas J. Watson Laboratory in the mid1950s and his own research on the IBM 650. 243. Ulam, Stanislaw M., Oral History interview conducted by Christopher Riche Evans, ca 1976 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 87). This important interview spans Ulam's work at Cambridge University in the 1930s through his work at Los Alamos National Laboratory in the 1950s. He relates how his work in computer programming began with Enrico Fermi and others on research for the Hydrogen Bomb in the late 1940s. He discusses the impact of computing on the field of science as well as the impact that Los Alamos and other scientific and engineering work had on the development of computers. He also speaks briefly on artificial intelligence. 244. UNIVAC Conference, Transcript of group meeting, May 17-18, 1990 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, OH 200). Transcript of meeting of twenty-five individuals fundamentally involved with the development and use of the UNIVAC. The aim of this conference was to concentrate on the applications of the UNIVAC between 1952 and 1956 and move research beyond the focus on the initial design, development and production of the computer. This is an important resource for understanding the early scientific and data processing uses of the machine. Participants include: Armand E. Adams, Dorothy P. Armstrong, Lancelot W. Armstrong, Jean Bartik, Lee S. Carter, M. Paul Chinitz, George Danehower, Eugene L. Delves, Donald B. Dixon, Carl Hammer, Frances Elizabeth Hoberton, Morgan W. Huff, Florence K. Koons, Donald W. Marquardt, H. W. Matter, Jean E. Sammet, Joseph E. Sberro, Cecil M. Schuler, John K. Swearingen, Albert Tonik, Louis D. Wilson, Frances B. Woltman, and Richard D. Woltman. Moderators include: Paul Cerruzi, Bernard A. Galler, Michael S. Mahoney, Arthur L. Norberg, Robert F. Rosin, and Henry S. Tropp. 245. Ware, Willis H., Oral History conducted by Nancy B. Stern, January 1981 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 37).

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Ware discusses the work on the Institute for Advanced Study computer project in the late 1940s. He contrasts scientific and commercial computers of this time and provides his perspective on the nature of the associations between the Institute for Advanced Study, IBM, RCA, and other companies. 246. Zuse, Konrad, Oral History interview conducted by conducted by Frederik Nebeker, August 28, 1994 (IEEE History Center, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ). Discusses early relay computers that Zuse designed and built and the early market for such machines. He details the placement of his machines at European universities and companies and the servicing of these computers.

Chapter Two Cognitive Science Bibliographies, Dictionaries, and Other Reference Sources 247. The Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies: Bibliographies on Artificial Intelligence Very few useful Web resources exist on the history of scientific computing. This coupled with the downside of the uncertainty of their continued existence led me to omit the few sources now on the Web. Bibliographies on Artificial Intelligence is the exception. This is an important reference tool with many dozens of digital artificial intelligence bibliographies on different topics within the field, some with over 10,000 citations. It contains no annotations, indication of the relative value, or information on particular sources, but is very useful in providing a large number of topical citations. (Last checked November 24, 2001). 248. Minsky, Marvin L. "A Selected Bibliography to Literature on Artificial Intelligence," IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics 2 (March 1961)39-55. A useful reference article that contains citations for hundreds of resources on various areas of artificial intelligence. The bibliography is especially concentrated on the late 1950s. Divides the citations into categories and contains cross references. Seeks to be very inclusive and many articles on events or research results that are published and addressed in a more significant

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or extensive manner elsewhere are included. Warns that some resources were not retrieved, and thus, there may be some errors in the citations that were taken from bibliographies of other sources. 249. Steinacker, Ingeborg, Robert Trappl, and Werner Horn. "An Artificial Intelligence Bibliography," in Robert Trappl. Impacts of Artificial Intelligence: Scientific, Technological, Military, Economic, Societal, Cultural, and Political (Amsterdam: North Holland, 1985) 140-251. Provides a thesaurus on common terms in the field and an extensive bibliography of secondary sources from the late 1970s into the 1980s. There are no annotations; however, a keyword index is included. Books/ Reports 250. Adam, Alison. Artificial Knowing: Gender and the Thinking Machine (London: Routledge, 1998). Philosophical and historical study of artificial intelligence focused on gender constructions. Adam argues that artificial intelligence programs have defined the masculine as the norm to the exclusion of "other knowers of knowledge," namely women. Although much of the book focuses on AI developments of the past two decades, chapter two, "AI in Context," examines early work at Carnegie Institute and other pioneering centers of AI research with regard to "gendered inscriptions" in artificial intelligence systems. 251. Amosov, Nikolai Mikhailovich. Modeling of Thinking of the Mind. Translated by Leo Finegold (New York: Spartan Books, 1967). Outlines benefits to hypothesizing in a "purely informational" mode on the brain as psychological construct rather than physiological entity. Offers algorithms for heuristic modeling. 252. Arbib, Michael A. The Metaphorical Brain: An Introduction to Cybernetics as Artificial Intelligence and Brain Theory (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1972). Important book that broadly examines the literature and research of many scholars in cybernetics, cognitive science, and artificial intelligence during the 1950s and 1960s. Unlike most works of this time, it asserts that cybernetics had not been superceded by artificial intelligence by the early 1970s. Arbib argues that the theoretical study of the brain and artificial intelligence are both fundamentally important research areas that greatly inform one another.

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253. Arbib, Michael A., and Allen R. Hanson, eds. Vision, Brain, and Cooperative Computation (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987). The purpose of this edited volume is to examine the current state of vision research, stressing the contributions from neurophysiology, psychophysics, and computer science. 254. Banerji, Ranan B. Theory of Problem Solving: An Approach to Artificial Intelligence (New York: American Elsevier Publishing Company, 1969). Provides perspective on the nature and methodologies of Case Western Reserve University's research program in artificial intelligence in the 1960s. Banerji explains how the program operates under the assumption that artificial intelligence can best be achieved through "mathematical precision," which he contrasts sharply with numerical precision. The book includes sections on games, patterns, and learning and generalization. 255. Banerji, Ranan B., and M. D. Mesarovic, eds. Theoretical Approaches to Non-Numerical Problem Solving (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1970). Symposium at Case Western Reserve University in November 1968. Papers discuss game playing programs, General Problem Solver, problem-solving theory, and other issues associated with artificial intelligence. Of particular note is the section on "New Applications," where several leaders in the field explore fundamental issues in AI. (See articles by Joshua Lederberg, 433; Allen Newell, 461; and B. Raphael, 482.) 256. Barlow, Horace B. "Sensory Mechanisms, the Reduction of Redundancy and Intelligence." In National Physical Laboratory. Mechanisation of Thought Processes //(London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1959) 535-560. Argues that the storage and utilization of incoming sensory audio and visual information could be more efficient if redundancy of information was achieved. In association with this idea, Barlow describes a machine that reduces correlated activity of a pair of binary channels. 257. Barr, Avron, and Edward A. Feigenbaum, eds. The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence, Volume I (Stanford, CA: HurisTech Press, 1981). This represents the first of an encyclopedic four-volume (originally threevolume) work that was the brainchild of Feigenbaum. He conceived of the project for his graduate students to document programs, concepts, techniques, etc. In the end, this, and the other volumes, utilized dozens of contributors (more than a hundred individuals), including graduate students in computer

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science at Stanford, AI scholars and students from other schools, and individuals from Rand, Xerox, Fairchild, IBM, and other corporations. This volume is broken down into search methods, knowledge representation, understanding natural language, and understanding spoken language. Among the AI programs discussed in some depth are: Logic Theorist, General Problem Solver, STRIPS, ABSTRIPS, Wilkes's Machine Translation System, LUNAR, SHRDLU, MARGIE, SAM and PAM, LIFER, HEARSAY, HARPY, and HWIM. 258. Barr, Avron, and Edward A. Feigenbaum, eds. The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence, Volume II (Stanford, CA: HeurisTech Press, 1982). The second of an encyclopedic work that was the brainchild of Feigenbaum and produced through the work of many dozens of contributors and reviewers from both academe and industry. This volume is composed of sections on AI programming languages, an overview of applications-oriented artificial intelligence programs, AI applications in medicine, AI applications in education, and automatic programming. Among the programs discussed in detail are: DENDRAL, CONGEN, Meta-DENDRAL, CRYSALIS, MACYMA, PROSPECTOR, MYCIN, CASNET, INTERNIST, IRIS, EXPERT, SCHOLAR, WHY, SOPHIE, WEST, WUMPUS, GUIDON, BUGGY, EXCHECK, PSI and CHI, SAFE, PECOS, DEDALUS, Protosystem I, NLPQ, and LIBRA. 259. Barr, Avron, and Edward A. Feigenbaum, eds. The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence, Volume III (Stanford, CA: HurisTech Press, 1982). The third, and originally, the final of an encyclopedic multi-volume work that was the brainchild of Feigenbaum and produced through the work of many dozens of contributors and reviewers from both academe and industry. This volume is composed of sections on: models of cognition, automatic deduction, vision, learning, inductive inference, and planning and problem-solving. Among the programs discussed in detail are: EPAM, Quillian's Semantic Memory System, HAM, ACT, MEMOD, The Boyer-Moore Theorem Prover, ACONYM, SAMUEL'S Checkers Player, Waterman's Poker Player, HACKER, LEX, STRIPS and ABSTRIPS, NOAH, and MOLGEN. 260. Barr, Avron, Paul R. Cohen, and Edward A. Feigenbaum, eds. The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence, Volume IV (Reading, MA: AddisonWesley Publishing Company, 1989). An additional volume added to the original three-volume encyclopedic work. Much of this volume addresses programs, issues, and developments after 1975. There, however, is discussion of some earlier programs, such as HEARSAY.

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261. Bellman, Richard E., and Charlene P. Smith. Simulation in Human Systems: Decision-Making in Psychotherapy (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1973). A thorough introduction to computer applications for psychotherapy that is directed toward an audience of scientists, engineers, and educators. The first six chapters provide a background to psychotherapeutic methods, while the final four engage in direct discussion of computer simulation and analysis of the psychotherapeutic interview. 262. Berkeley, Edmund C. Giant Brains or Machines That Think (New York: Wiley, 1949). One of the first "popular" books on computers, it conveys the powerful and resilient metaphor of computers as "Giant Brains." The subtitle, "Machines That Think," has remained the fundamental question in artificial intelligence and a topic of enduring interest to cognitive scientists, especially those focused on using computer modeling to better comprehend human and machine "thought." Unlike most early works related to the idea of machine intelligence, this book provides a brief history of a number of the earliest computers. 263. Bewley, William L. Cognitive Psychology: A Computer-Oriented Laboratory Manual-Instructors Manual (Hanover, NH: Project COMPUTE, Darthmouth College, 1974). A laboratory manual for college courses instructing psychology students on computer applications for examining human cognition. The text is divided into six sections of experiments, each examining input, output, problems, and questions. The experiment areas include: pattern recognition, short-term memory, long-term memory, concept learning, decision-making, and problemsolving. 264. Bloomfield, Brian, ed. The Question of Artificial Intelligence: Philosophical and Sociological Perspectives (London: Croom Helm, 1987). Volume includes some significant examinations of the sociology of artificial intelligence and a history of the discipline. (See articles by B. P. Bloomfield, J., 373; Fleck, 401; and P. Leith, 434.) 265. Bobrow, Daniel G. Artificial Intelligence in Perspective (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994). Republication of a special issue of the Artificial Intelligence Journal that was dedicated to the life and work of Allen Newell. Although a significant portion of

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the book addresses developments after 1975, there are several features of this valuable publication that lend understanding to the evolution of artificial intelligence research in the 1950s, 1960s, and the first half of the 1970s, and particularly, the work of Allen Newell. The first section, entitled "Foundations" includes brief reflections from a number of pioneers on earlier developments in the field. Of particular import are John McCarthy's "History of Circumscription," Allen Newell's "Reflections on the Knowledge Level," Nils J. Nilsson's "Probabilistic Logic Revisited," and Edward A. Feigenbaum and Bruce G. Buchanan's "DENDRAL and Meta-DENDRAL: Roots of Knowledge Systems and Expert Systems Applications." 266. Boden, Margaret A. Artificial Intelligence and Natural Man (New York: Basic Books, 1977). Significant work that analyzes the structure of artificial intelligence and provides an insightful discussion of the relation of research in this number of general issues in psychology, philosophy and ethics. discussed include scene-analysis, problem-solving, learning, and understanding programs.

programs field to a Programs language

267. Boden, Margaret A. Computer Models of Mind: Computational Approaches in Theoretical Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). Examines the theoretical diversity of work in computational psychology and the controversial underlying philosophical assumptions. The analysis often leads to philosophical discussions of early developments in artificial intelligence. 268. Boden, Margaret A. Artificial Intelligence in Psychology: Interdisciplinary Essays (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989). A series of essays that explores the significance of artificial intelligence research to the field of psychology. The essays focus on several fundamental areas of the relationship between psychology and artificial intelligence: abstract taskanalysis, analysis and testing of computer models, the relations between connectionist and formalist approaches of computational psychology, and the nature of computation and its relevance to representation and understanding. 269. Boden, Margaret A. The Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990). A useful volume that brings together a number of significant articles or papers related to the philosophy of mind and artificial intelligence. Several pathbreaking pieces (such as Alan Turing's "Computing Machinery and

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Intelligence") are included in the collection. Boden's introduction does an excellent job of providing brief context and relating some of the works. 270. Bolter, David A. Turing's Man: Western Culture in the Computer Age (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984). An impressive broad examination of computing and Western culture that concentrates heavily on Turing and the idea of artificial intelligence. Bolter sees great significance to Turing's claim that computers will one day imitate human thought. He argues that by promising to replace humans, computers are giving us a new definition, one of an information processor. 271. Borko, Harold, ed. Computer Applications in the Behavioral Sciences (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962). An important volume primarily contributing to computing and cognitive science, but also addressing medical computing and other scientific applications of information processing. Borko authors the first seven chapters, which are an outgrowth of a course he had taught at the University of Southern California entitled, "The Use of Electronic Computers in Psychological Research." The chapters making up the remaining three-quarters of the book are written by researchers from a number of different fields. (See articles/chapters by W. Ross Ashby, 365; Harold Borko, 376-377; Julian Feldman, 398; E. Lowell Kelly, 427; Robert S. Ledley, 887; Benjamin White, 541; and Charles Wrigley, 547.) 272. Burks, Arthur W., eds. Essays on Cellular Automata (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1970). This edited volume contains multiple essays by a small group of authors on the theory of cellular automata, or iterative circuit computers. (See essays from Arthur W. Burks, 381; and John Holland, 420.) 273. Chang, Chin-Liang. Symbolic Logic and Mechanical Theorem Proving (New York: Academic Press, 1973). One of the classic works on mechanical theorem proving, a central area in artificial intelligence that has been applied to program synthesis, program analysis, deductive question-answering systems, robots, and problem-solving systems. The book develops a pure model-theoretical methodology and stresses efficient computer implementations of proof techniques. 274. Chomsky, Noam. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1965).

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Classic study by leading linguistic scholar that was highly influential to advancing the understanding of elements of cognitive science and artificial intelligence in the decade succeeding its publication and beyond. The work focuses on various problems emerging from research on transformational grammar. While he asserts that linguists may be approaching the time when fringe marginal cases existent in the complex system of natural language may prevent systematization, he argues that it is too early to conclude this, and regardless, the task of identifying "subregularities" remains. 275. Colburn, Timothy R. Philosophy and Computer Science (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2000). Colburn's book focuses heavily on the philosophical implications of artificial intelligence. He writes that even though artificial intelligence has only been a field of study for a short time, the questions it raises have been explored by philosophers and others for centuries. He re-examines a number of ideas of Western philosophy within the context of the major developments in artificial intelligence research of the past half century. 276. Collins, Harry M. Artificial Experts: Social Knowledge and Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1990). A history of artificial intelligence that focuses on the social nature of knowledge and tools, including computers and software. Argues that machines can only mimic humans in the cases where humans choose to do things in machine-like ways. 277. Cote, Alfred J., Jr. The Search for the Robots (New York: Basic Books, 1967). This is a popular examination of the work of scientists and engineers attempting to build or promote the possibility of robots exceeding various human capabilities, including intelligence. Argues that the spokespeople for artificial intelligence have produced a great deal of hype, but little else. Sees the threat to humans not in intelligent robots, but in connected networks of machines that individually are "harmless." He believes that within these networks of machines, behavior patterns are very difficult to comprehend. 278. Crevier, Daniel. AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993). Like McCorduck's Machines Who Think, utilizes interviews with many of the principal early AI researchers to drive the narrative and analysis in a broad based history of artificial intelligence. Contains much of the same information on the

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early years of AI as McCorduck's book, but includes developments in the 1980s and more thoroughly documents resources than McCorduck's study. Examines developments within the context of a number of important scientific questions. 279. Culbertson, James T. The Minds of Robots: Sense, Data, Memory, Images, and Behavior in Conscious Automata (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1963). Presents what the author describes as a "physical theory of mental experience." He argues that consciousness can be artificially developed in robots. He first outlines behavior in "unconscious" robots," then moves on to discuss how to build machines which will have personal experience. The final section addresses conscious automata with "consciously directed behavior." 280. Diebold, John. Automation: The Advent of the Automated Factory (New York: VanNostrand, 1952). Diebold, a leading spokesperson, theoretician, and analyst of automation discusses a variety of ideas and policies related to self-regulating systems. This is the most important study of automation contemporaneous to its early development. It provides a useful history of early automation efforts and speculates on future developments in automation technology and its implementation within factories. 281. Diebold, John. Beyond Automation: Managerial Problems of an Exploding Technology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964). The chapters in this book are revised versions of talks on automation that Diebold gave over the past decade. With proper understanding of the new technology in corporations and public policy, he believes automation can be of great benefit to society. 282. Dreyfus, Hubert L. What Computers Can't Do: A Critique of Artificial Reason (New York: Harper & Row, 1972). One of the popular and substantive critiques of artificial intelligence. Dreyfus, a philosopher, begins by outlining work in the first decade (1957-1967) of artificial intelligence research, characterizing the first half of this period as the phase of "cognitive simulation," and the latter half as the phase of "semantic information processing." He presents the biological, psychological, empirical, and ontological assumptions of the work in AI. In the following section he shows alternatives that challenge many of these underlying assumptions by examining the role of the human body and needs unique to humans. The final part analyzes the limits of artificial intelligence.

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283. Dupuy, Jean-Pierre. The Mechanization of the Mind: On the Origins of Cognitive Science (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000). A major contribution to the history and philosophy of cognitive science. The study concentrates on the Macy Conferences, the birth of cybernetics, and the philosophical contexts of this new field and its obsession with the avante garde of science. In turn, it relates how contemporary cognitive science demonstrates a similar self-proclaimed break with the past. Dupuy indicates that cognitive science, like its precursor, could likely benefit from some "mindfulness of tradition." 284. Dyson, George B. Darwin Among the Machines: The Evolution of Global Intelligence (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1997). Dyson delivers a broad historical work examining the evolution of human and machine intelligence internationally. He chooses not to get hung up on getting to the bottom of controversies, but instead, focuses on their cultural and symbolic meanings. There is extensive analysis of the meaning of the work and ideas of Alan Turing and John von Neumann. 285. Ernest, Lester, ed. Final Report: The First Ten Years of Artificial Intelligence Research at Stanford (Stanford, CA: Stanford University, Department of Computer Science, 1973). This report gives an overview of the facilities, work, and accomplishments of one of the three leading artificial intelligence research laboratories in the United States. The Report outlines the first decade of both the Artificial Intelligence Project and Heuristic Programming Project of Stanford's Artificial Intelligence Research Program. It details the program's research in computer vision and control of manipulators, speech recognition, heuristic programming, representational theory, mathematical theory of computation and modeling of organic chemical processes. Programming languages developed at Stanford, including LISP, FAIL, and SAIL, are discussed. 286. Feigenbaum, Edward. A. An Information Processing Theory of Verbal Learning (Santa Monica, CA: The Rand Corporation, 1959). This provides an early examination of EPAM, an IPL-V program containing a theory of elementary forms of human symbolic learning, including association, discrimination, memorization, and attention direction. The report explores implications of the theory in rote learning situations and draws comparisons between the behavior of EPAM and human behavior.

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287. Feigenbaum, Edward A., and Julian A. Feldman, eds. Computers and Thought (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963). This is a collection of some of the most important early articles on artificial intelligence. The book was designed to be a basic college textbook of important early work in the field and soon became a classic. Addresses game playing machines, mathematical theorem proving programs, question-answering machines, pattern recognition, and the simulation of cognitive processes. The editors give useful introductions to articles. Some of the articles appearing in this volume (including Alan M. Turing's seminal article in 1950 published in Mind) were annotated from their original source, and thus, not listed here. (See articles by Edward A. Feigenbaum, 395; Allen Newell, 466, 469; J. C. Shaw, 466; and Herbert A. Simon, 466, 469.) 288. Fogel, Lawrence J. Artificial Intelligence Through Simulated Evolution (New York: Wiley, 1966). The authors present an overview of work using "evolutionary programming" to create artificial intelligence. The book outlines evolutionary programming, which stated crudely, views intelligence as a composite to predict the environment and respond most appropriately. 289. Gardner, Howard. The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985). An excellent and broad ranging history of cognitive science that benefits from a thorough analysis of the literature and extensive oral interviews with leading figures conducting research in or related to the field from a range of disciplines. Gardner indicates how the field was rooted in classical philosophical problems, and subsequently was influenced by researchers from a number of different disciplines, including: psychology, medicine, linguistics, computer science, and anthropology. While he indicates cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence will likely merge as the core of cognitive science, he believes that philosophy remains an important tool and source of questions. 290. George, Frank H. Automation, Cybernetics and Society (Philadelphia, PA: Philosophical Society, 1959). One of the leading British scholars of cybernetics provides an introduction to the state of this new science and its current and future role in society. The study addresses research and impacts in both Great Britain and the United States. 291. George, Frank H. The Brain as Computer (New York: Pergamon Press, 1961).

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Outlines principles of cybernetics and relates this new science to behavior from the perspective of both neurophysiology and experimental psychology. George examines the brain as if it were a computer system, and argues that this methodology yields insights into the understanding of human behavior. 292. Gordon, Howard. The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985). An excellent broad based history of cognitive science that addresses the origins of the discipline and the ongoing relationship between constituent fields of computer science, psychology, and philosophy. 293. Gregg, Lee W. ed. Cognition in Learning and Memory (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1972). Papers from a learning and memory cognitive science symposia at Carnegie Mellon University held April 3-4, 1969. Most of the articles focus on computer modeling in cognitive science. (See articles by Allan M. Collins, 388; Lee W. Gregg, 414; M. Ross Quillian, 480; Herbert A. Simon, 518.) 294. Gruenberger, Fred J. Benchmarks in Artificial Intelligence (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 1962). 295. Gunderson, Keith. Mentality and Machines (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1971). Influential work in philosophy that examines the impact of artificial intelligence research and writing on the philosophy of mind, as well as the understanding that philosophical discourse brings to the historical constructions of and contemporary developments in AI. He critiques the "false assumptions" and conclusions of many writings that have taken the questions and model (the imitation game) Turing presented in "Can Machines Think?" as their point of departure. 296. Hartree, Douglas R. Calculating Machines and Calculating Instruments and Machines (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1947). [Republished: Cambridge, MA and Los Angeles, CA: MIT Press and Tomash Publishers, 1984]. This book contains two lectures from Cambridge University Professor Douglas Hartree on applications of the Differential Analyzer and the ENIAC.

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297. Heims, Stephen J. John von Neumann and Norbert Weiner: From Mathematics to the Technologies of Life and Death (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1980). This well-researched comparative biography concentrates extensively on the political and social context of the development of these two scientists' work and viewpoints. In the process, it provides a solid history of Weiner's ideas on human-machine systems and von Neumann's views of natural and artificial automata. 298. Heims, Stephen J. The Cybernetics Group (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991). This is the best and most thorough examination of the Macy Conferences between 1946 and 1953 that gave birth to and structured the early development of the science of cybernetics. Focuses on the dialogue between the interdisciplinary pioneers of cybernetics, both within, and outside of these conferences. 299. Hodges, Andrew. Schuster, 1983).

Alan Turing: The Enigma (New York: Simon and

This superlative study remains the leading biography of Alan Turing, covering a broad range of his intellectual and personal life. Details his formulation of a test where subjects are put in the position of discerning between humans and machines (Imitation Game). This test was and continues to be influential to many researchers of artificial intelligence and cognitive science as a criterion for whether or not machine activity constitutes "thought." 300. Hofstadter, Douglas. Godel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1979). Hofstadter provides an important contribution to cognitive science that gives an elegant and engaging introduction to the field. The book relates some history of developments in logic-based artificial intelligence, but primarily concentrates on a number of themes that would become even more prevalent in Hofstadter's later works, themes relating to utilizing computers to model creativity and analogical thought. 301. Holland, John H., and J. W. Crichton. A New Method of Simulating the Central Nervous System Using an Automatic Digital Computer (Ypsilanti, MI: University of Michigan, 1959).

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Outlines techniques for simulating nerve nets that are structurally similar to parts of the human brain using IBM 704 computer with 2000 words of storage in addition to memory dedicated for a program and constants. 302. Hook, Sidney. Dimensions of Mind (New York: New York University Press, 1960). This book consists of the proceedings of the third annual New York University Institute of Philosophy conference held at Washington Square, New York, May 15-16, 1959. Part two of this three-part volume is designated "The Brain and the Machine." The papers are very short reflections on a variety of issues related to artificial intelligence, robots, machine consciousness, etc. 303. Hunt, Earl B. Artificial Intelligence (New York: Academic Press, 1975). Artificial intelligence text written to counteract the focus on the latest fad in the field and provide a solid introduction to: fundamental principles, major unsolved conceptual problems, and approaches to machine perception and comprehension. The final chapter addresses philosophical questions related to artificial intelligence. 304. Information Processing: Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Processing, UNESCO (Paris: UNESCO, 1959). Proceedings of an important early international conference on computing and programming, with a primary focus on issues related to artificial intelligence research. Provides a strong sense of how leading AI researchers from many parts of the world perceived the field of AI, less than a half decade after its formal beginning at the 1956 Dartmouth Conference. Clusters of papers address the following major topics: symbolic languages, automatic translation programs, pattern recognition, and machine learning. (See papers by V. E. Giuliano, 408; Allen Newell, 465; Anthony G. Oettinger, 408; J. C. Shaw, 465; and Herbert A. Simon, 465.) 305. Jackson, Philip C , Jr. Introduction to Artificial Intelligence (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1974). Well-organized introduction to artificial intelligence designed particularly for college courses on AI. Provides considerable discussion of the history of work related to artificial intelligence to explain and provide context for the field in the early 1970s. 306. Jeffress, Lloyd A., ed. Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior: The Hixon Symposium (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1951).

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The six papers of this 1948 symposium and the transcribed discussion represent an important early source on emerging computing technology and cognition. In addition to the speakers, the following individuals contributed to the subsequent discussion: Ralph W. Gerard, H. S. Lindell, Donald B. Lindsley, R. Lorente De No, J. M. Nielsen, and Paul Weiss. (See papers by Ward C. Halstead, 417; Wolfgang Kohler, 429; K. S. Lashley, 431; Warren S. McCulloch, 447; and John von Neumann, 533.) 307. Johnson, George. Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Times Books, 1986). Johnson gives an informative journalistic account of the history of artificial intelligence that benefits from interviews with many of the principal individuals in the field. In general provides a balanced account of different strands of AI research, making extensive use of quotations to give the perspectives of enthusiastic participants as well as critics. 308. Kahn, Kenneth M. Mechanization of Temporal Knowledge MAC-TR-155 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Project MAC, 1975). This is Kahn's dissertation revision. He describes the development of a group of computer programs that focus on time-called time specialist. He discusses how the programs can be applied in the service of broader problem-solving programs through two case studies: one on medical diagnosis and the other a time-travel story. 309. Kurzweil, Raymond. The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence (New York: Viking, Penguin, 1999). Provides a brief history of artificial intelligence research before engaging in futuristic exploration of the capabilities of computers in the coming decades. 310. Lindsay, Robert K., et al. Applications of Artificial Intelligence for Organic Chemistry: The DENDRAL Project (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980). Lindsay, an outsider (from the University of Michigan) of the DENDRAL project, took a sabbatical leave at Stanford University in 1975 and collaborated with the DENDRAL principals, Edward Feigenbaum, Bruce Buchanon, and Joshua Lederberg, to produce this volume documenting the project. This important study does an excellent job of both outlining the problems of organic chemistry that DENDRAL was developed to address, the components and structure of the DENDRAL programs, and the heuristic testing and results of DENDRAL and Meta-DENDRAL in advancing "knowledge engineering."

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311. Mandler, J. M., and G. Mandler, eds. Thinking: From Association to Gestalt (New York: John Wiley, 1964). This intellectual history psychology features recent articles by psychologists on issues in cognitive science. 312. Maron, M. E. Artificial Intelligence and Brain Mechanisms (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 1963). Study of the mechanisms and processes of making inferences that the author believes lie at heart of "intelligent behavior." The study is part of Rand's larger project to further the understanding of intelligence and produce machines that are capable of "human-like control and problem-solving abilities." 313. McCorduck, Pamela. Machines Who Think (San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1979). Informative and broad history of artificial intelligence that benefits from the author's interviews with Herbert Simon, Allen Newell, Marvin Minsky, Claude Shannon, Edward Feigenbaum, and other principal early AI researchers. Written to be accessible to non-specialists, the book explores a number of philosophical questions in addition to scientific and technical elements of work in artificial intelligence. 314. Millican, Peter, and Andy Clark, eds. The Legacy of Alan Turing (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996). This is an important study of Turing's ideas and their place in artificial intelligence and intellectual history. It includes work of scholars from a broad range of fields, including computer science, philosophy, psychology, and physics, and revisits common topics such as the Turing Test, from different perspectives. Herbert Simon's contribution is a particularly well-formulated, broadly accessible statement arguing that computers can often think like people. 315. Minsky, Marvin L. Computation: Finite and Infinite Machines (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967). Minsky's textbook seeks to engage the concept of effective procedure in its multitude of contexts and also address the theme of effective computability. He introduces, analyzes, and explores relationship among many of the early cyberneticians and artificial intelligence researchers. 316. Minsky, Marvin L. Semantic Information Processing (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1968).

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This is an edited volume in which Minsky authors one-third of the chapters. Minsky provides a useful discussion of artificial intelligence from its "Cybernetic Background," through the early 1960s, an evaluation of descriptive languages and problem-solving programs and an examination of knowledge and models. With regard to the latter, he argues that research on making computer programs "behave intelligently" is producing new technical and conceptual tools for understanding the relation between mind and brain. (See article by M. Ross Quillian, 480.) 317. Minsky, Marvin L., and Seymour Papert. Perceptrons (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1968). Minsky and Papert's study seeks to advance knowledge of mathematical structure to extend the theory of parallel computers. 318. National Institutes of Health. The Seeds of Artificial Intelligence (Washington, D. C : National Institutes of Health, 1979). Stanford University Medical Experimental Computer for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine (SUMEX-AIM) is a nationally networked computing resource that is devoted to sharing information and advancing artificial intelligence applications to the biomedical sciences. This resource provides a brief general history of computing and artificial intelligence, before presenting a more detailed history of the first six years of SUMEX-AIM and its service to the biomedical research community. Also outlines potential future applications in a section on the "Future of AI." 319. National Physical Laboratory. Mechanisation of Thought Processes I (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1959). This contains the proceedings from an important computer conference held at the National Physical Laboratory in Teddington, England from November 24-27, 1958. The sessions and paper topics are wide-ranging, but many focus on cybernetics, computing and cognitive science, and issues related to artificial intelligence. Transcript of discussion follows the papers (See papers by A. M. Andrew, 364; John McCarthy, 441; Marvin L. Minsky, 455; and Oliver G. Selfridge, 504.) 320. National Physical Laboratory. Mechanisation of Thought Processes II (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1959). Second volume of proceedings from an important computer conference held at the National Physical Laboratory in Teddington, England from November 24-27, 1958. The papers all come under "Implications for Biology," and most address

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issues of artificial intelligence. Discussion section follows each of the papers (See papers by Warren S. McCulloch, 449; and Francois Paycha, 940.) 321. Newell, Allen. The Simulation of Human Thought (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 1959). Influential report outlines a method of examining human problem-solving, provides an example of an application, and indicates the emergent theory. The method involves developing central processes in the form of a "general problemsolving computer program" and testing the theory against human thought. This program is capable of solving problems in logic and other domains. It does so by selecting exploratory paths based on the functions to be performed and actions relevant to these functions. Newell argues that the program reflects "insightfulness" and "directedness," elements that commonly are recognized as salient characteristics of human problem-solving. 322. Newell, Allen. Learning, Generality and Problem-solving (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 1963). Provides overview on Newell's thoughts on artificial intelligence, including the problem of generality, or designing a machine capable of transcending the "vision of its designers" through learning. Then moves into a discussion of early work done at Rand on a learning scheme for the General Problem Solver (GPS), a game playing and theorem proving program developed by the author in conjunction with J. C. Shaw and Herbert A. Simon. 323. Newell, Allen. Speech Understanding Systems (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1973). This is the final report of a study group of nine leading artificial intelligence researchers from academe and industry that formed in the spring of 1970 to examine the feasibility of a speech recognition system. The report concludes that three years is insufficient time to develop such a system and that five years is more realistic. Outlines the major technological developments and collaborations that reasonably must occur to be able to reach the goal. 324. Newell, Allen, J. C. Shaw, and Herbert A. Simon. The Processes of Creative Thinking (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 1958). Symposium on Creative Thinking held at the University of Colorado, Boulder, May 16, 1958, by the principal developers of the General Problem Solver. Begins by arguing that it is not necessary to have a theory of creative thinking different from a theory of problem-solving. As long as problems to be solved are "relatively new and difficult," the act of solving them is invariably creative.

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The authors summarize what has been learned about problem-solving programming simulations of human problem-solving on electronic digital computers. 325. Newell, Allen, and Herbert A. Simon. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1972).

Human Problem Solving

Newell and Simon make a fundamental contribution to cognitive science that brings human problem-solving to the core of the discipline. They present theories of problem space, search trees and other theoretical concepts to engage in protocol analysis, or the examination and study of problem-solving steps. They identify the fluidity of the idea of solutions within different contexts and make an important distinction between solution objects, solution paths, and solution actions. As with their other works, they demonstrate that computers are significant tools to model and study cognition. 326. Nilsson, Nils J. Learning Machines: Foundations of Trainable PatternClassifying Machines (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965). This is an important early examination of and apology for the shift of artificial intelligence away from broad domains of "thinking," and toward narrowly defined domains allowing the programming of expert knowledge and the development of practical applications. Nilsson argues that artificial intelligence is, or soon will be, an engineering field. Despite the need to abandon the search for central theories, he sees a great imperative to understand various theoretical subjects associated with this new knowledge-based engineering approach to artificial intelligence. Nilsson's primary objective is to provide a text explaining the underlying theoretical ideas of heuristically guided, trial-and-error searches in tightly defined domains. The chapters each include useful "bibliographical and historical remarks." 327. Noble, David F. Forces of Production: a Social History of Industrial Automation (New York : Oxford University Press, 1986). Noble's book is the most significant work of research on the history of automation. He demonstrates the various social factors of implementation of numerically controlled machinery on the shop floor and contributes to understanding important distinctions between the theoretical and practical applications of automation. 328. Norberg, Arthur L., and O'Neill, Judy E., with contributions by Kerry J. Freedman. Transforming Computer Technology: Information Processing for the 1962-1986 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).

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Norberg and O'Neill provide an important institutional, technical, and policy history of the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) of the Defense Advance Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and more broadly, the development of ARPANET, early artificial intelligence research, advances in computer graphics, and other information technology that the IPTO helped organize, fund, and advance. The authors demonstrate how the vision of J. C. R. Licklider and subsequent directors of IPTO played a critical role in these processes. 329. Piaget, Jean. Psychology of Intelligence (New York: Humanities Press, 1966). Noted psychologist Jean Piaget provides an influential study on the nature of intelligence and the development of thought. The first part concentrates on the adaptivity of intelligence and classifies various interpretations of intelligence. This is followed by a discussion that differentiates, but also identifies analogies between perception and intelligence. Finally, she distinguishes between conceptual intelligence and sensori-motor intelligence. 330. Pratt, Vernon. Thinking Machines: The Evolution of Artificial Intelligence (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987). A provocative study that claims artificial intelligence is not a story, but a collection of projects with "aims and strategies that we can with hindsight see to be interestingly related." Pratt engages in the examination of three such projects: Leibniz's objective of building a "reasoning machine," Babbage's design of the Analytical Engine, and Turing's Universal Machine. While he identifies their failure (defined by their own lofty goals) as their only formal overlap, his rich analysis of the intellectual context of the three men and their projects leads him to identify the ultimate plot of the different stories as the evolution of formalism. 331. Pylyshyn, Zenon W., and Allen Newell. Report of 1973 Workshops on Information Processing Psychology (Pittsburgh, PA: Department of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University, 1973). Short report documents the findings of seven workshops on information processing psychology attended by leading cognitive scientists and artificial intelligence researchers that was held at Carnegie Mellon University during 1973. The themes for the workshops in the series included: automatic protocol analysis, concept attainment and rule induction, semantic representation (3 workshops) and short-term memory and the immediate processor (production systems). All of the workshops involved development of programs to explore the topics and a major goal was to ascertain how computer use could advance

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scientific communication. An appendix identifies the computing and software systems that were used in the workshops. 332. Rheingold, Howard. Tools for Thought: The People and Ideas Behind the Next Computer Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985). A popular cultural and intellectual history that explores the ideas of many of the pioneers in the development and rhetoric associated with computers, software, and networking. Chapter on "Knowledge Engineers and Epistemological Entrepreneurs," examines the early history of expert systems. 333. Ritchie, David. The Binary Brain: Artificial Intelligence in the Age of Electronics (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1984). Explores the past, present, and future of artificial intelligence within the framework of computers potentially being "the next step in human evolution." Many of the programs Ritchie discusses are expert systems in biology, chemistry, and medicine. He cautiously endorses the possibility of combining the human mind and computer technology to achieve what he refers to as the "Binary Brain," a human-machine system with endless and infallible memory. 334. Roszak, Theodore. The Cult of Information: The Folklore of Computers and the True Art of Thinking (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986). Outspoken critic of computers writes of how many computer scientists and industrialists have presented these machines in a fictitious manner. Discusses the federal and corporate funding of artificial intelligence research, arguing that money has completely exaggerated and distorted researchers' rhetoric on near term and future possibilities in the field of artificial intelligence. 335. Sackman, Harold. Rudiments of a Real-World Theory of Man-Computer Problem-Solving (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 1974). Proposes a theory of man-computer problem-solving in real-world environments. Presents what Sackman describes as promising results that indicate: analogous stages and dynamics of problem-solving with and without computers, the fundamental importance of the individual for basic problem insight and effective use of computers, dissatisfaction with inflexible software and poor computer solutions, and empirical evidence of the reliability and validity of the nine-stage problem-solving method extending from system theory. 336. Sayre, Kenneth M. Consciousness: A Philosophical Study of Minds and Machines (New York: Random House, 1969).

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A self-described essay on the philosophy of mind that argues that an important means of furthering understanding of mental function is to attempt to describe how such processes of the mind might be approximated by a mechanical system. In his detailed examination of consciousness, he states that there is nothing essentially human about the underlying attributes of consciousness. 337. Sayre, Kenneth M. Cybernetics and the Philosophy of Mind (London and Henley: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976). Philosophical treatise that advocates an approach to the "mind-body" problem circumventing conceptual barriers that retard comprehension of humans. His method starts with a concept of information as "technically defined communication theory." This, he argues, allows for the integration of aspects of mental and physical events. He believes that the mind-body problem, or the cybernetic approach, shares advantages of both reduction and monism, without being subject to their weaknesses. 338. Schank, Roger C , and Kenneth M. Colby. Computer Models of Thought and Language (San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1973). Contains a number of important articles on issues related to language understanding, including procedural models and concepts of mind. (See articles by Allen Newell, 462; and Terry Winograd, 545.) 339. Sebestyen, George S. Decision-Making Processes in Pattern Recognition (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1962). This is an important early text on computer pattern recognition (in speech, written text, and other images) drawing on work conducted at the Research Laboratory of Electronics and the Communication Science Laboratory. Argues that while no unifying concept or general theory exists in the area of pattern recognition, there are three general classes, definable by approaches rather than the questions they seek to answer. These are: solutions to specific problems that are not transferable; mechanized "pattern detection" by machines learning the same or analogous attributes; and finally, recognition of membership in classes as defined by a set of samples. 340. Shannon, Claude E., and John McCarthy, eds. Automata Studies, Annals of Mathematics Studies 34 (1956). Shannon and McCarthy produce a significant analysis of early theoretical work on automata, just prior to the formalization of the field of artificial intelligence. The essays address probabilistic logic and development of reliable organisms from unreliable components, universal elements of finite automata, examinations

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of Turing's idea of a Universal Machine and the inversion of functions defined by Turing machines. (See essays by Marvin L. Minsky, 454; John von Neumann, 534; and Claude E. Shannon, 510.) 341. Shannon, Claude, and W. Weaver. The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1949). Provides revised reprints of two important articles published by Claude E. Shannon and W. Weaver in the Bell Systems Technical Journal and Scientific American respectively. Shannon's article provides mathematical analysis that not only applies to communication theory, but also to computing machines. Weaver outlines recent contributions of mathematical theory to communication and how "technical," "semantic," and "effectiveness" problems can be overcome. 342. Simon, Herbert A. Sciences of the Artificial, (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1969). Modified lectures by Simon are brought together in this short work. The essays argue that certain phenomenon are artificial and exist within systems possessing underlying goals or purposes that soon develop an "air of contingency." The essays explore how a science of the artificial is possible. The first chapter indicates that a "natural history" of computers is now possible, while chapters 3 and 4 focus on the psychology of cognition. 343. Simon, Herbert A. Models of My Life (New York: Basic Books, 1991). This is an important autobiography by one of the pioneers in the field of artificial intelligence. Balanced in its coverage of his life into the 1980s, chapters 12 to 16 provide Simon's perspectives on the origins of artificial intelligence, and the creation of AI and cognitive science as scholarly disciplines. 344. Simon, Herbert A., and L. Siklossy. Representation and Meaning Experiments with Information Processing Systems (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972). Volume composed of discussion of Simon's research and five doctoral research projects of his students at Carnegie Institute/Carnegie Mellon University during the second half of the 1960s. Simon's article on "The Heuristic Compiler," describes his research to deepen understanding of problem-solving activity in computer programming as a means to produce more sophisticated compilers. The papers of his students/former students address the following topics: semantic methods of language processing, game playing, syntax-directed interpretation of natural language, and goal-oriented computer languages.

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345. Slagle, James R Artificial Intelligence: The Heuristic Programming Approach (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971). Written as a textbook for undergraduate and graduate students of computer science for courses on artificial intelligence. In addition to providing insight into how the field was being presented to students, the book does a strong job of compiling developments and knowledge in the area of heuristic programming. It serves as a good source for information on a number of early AI programs, including: game playing programs, the General Problem-Solver, and the Elementary Perceiving and Memorizing Program. 346. Sluckin, W. Minds and Machines (Harmonsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1954). Psychologist's extended essay on control and communication, learning and problem-solving, the brain, central nervous system, and the impact of computers on modern psychology. Concludes by indicating cybernetic models may suggest research projects in the psychology of thinking and learning. 347. Szolovits, Peter. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, Inc., 1982). Volume edited by MIT computer scientist Peter Szolovits that is based on papers given at a symposium on artificial intelligence and medicine sponsored by the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Houston, Texas, January 3-8, 1979. Although some of the programs discussed were developed after 1975, they have origins in research from the 1960s and first half of the 1970s. AI programs analyzed in depth include: INTERNIST, EXPERT, MYCIN, and Digitalis Therapy Advisor. 348. Taube, Mortimer. Computers and Common Sense: The Myth of Thinking Machines (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961). A short eloquent early critique of the idea that machines can or will be able to think comparable to human beings, and more broadly, an attack of the notion that there can be complete objectivity and truth in science. Taube argues that mechanical translation and computer linguistic analysis are not possible as a result of the nature of these activities. The critique is largely based on Taube's vision of meaning existing in continuum rather than as discrete and definable. 349. Turkle, Sherry. The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984).

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Insightful and original cultural and intellectual history of computers that explores many fundamental issues associated with the relationship between humans and computers. Chapter 7 represents the best treatment of the cultural history of artificial intelligence to date. 350. Von Neumann, John. The Computer and the Brain, (New Haven, CT.: Yale University Press, 1958). Text of the incomplete Silliman Lectures that von Neumann wrote. Part one is on the computer and logical control and part two focuses on the brain. The latter contains many analogies and connections between neural and machine systems. 351. Von Neumann, John. (A. H. Traub, general series editor). Collected Works Volume 5: Design of Computers, Theory of Automata and Numerical Analysis (Oxford: Permagon Press, 1963). This volume of von Neumann's collected works contains many of his writings that were influential to future cybernetics and artificial intelligence researchers. Some of the works in the collection were previously published in either serials or as reports, but many previously unpublished works are also present. This volume is the best single source for von Neumann's ideas on computer design and automata theory. 352. Von Neumann, John, (edited and compiled by Arthur W. Burks). Theory of Self-Reproducing Automata (Urbana and London: University of Illinois Press, 1966). This influential volume contains two of von Neumann's principal bodies of work on automata theory that were left in manuscript form when he died. Arthur Burks conducted extensive editing to prepare these pieces for publication. They include: "Theory and Organization of Complicated Automata" and "The Theory of Automata: Construction, Reproduction, Homogeneity." The former consisted of a series of five lectures delivered by von Neumann at the University of Illinois in December 1949. The latter was a manuscript von Neumann worked on during 1952 and 1953. The works present and elaborate upon von Neumann's idea that the mathematics of automata theory should begin with mathematical logic and progress toward analysis, probability theory, and thermodynamics. 353. Walker, Donald E., and Lewis M. Morton. Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (Washington, DC: International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 1969). Proceeding of large international conference with twelve sessions of four to nine papers that focuses on the major areas of research in artificial intelligence.

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Conference has sessions entitled: Man-Machine Symbiosis in Problem-solving, Pattern-Recognition-Signal Processing, Pictorial Pattern Recognition, Heuristic Problem-solving, Programming Systems and Models for Artificial Intelligence, Question-Answering Systems and Computer Understanding, Self-Organizing Systems, Physiological Modeling, Integrated Artificial Intelligence Systems, Linguistic Research Relevant to Artificial Intelligence, Linguistic and Contextual Methods in Pattern Recognition, and Psychological Modeling (See papers by Kenneth M. Colby, 387; Jullian Feldman, 399; and Nils J. Nilsson, 473.) 354. Weizenbaum, Joseph. Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgement to Calculation (San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman, 1976). Broad study of the position of computing technology in our society based on historical examination of his own and others' research in computer science. Explores the use of computer models in psychology, natural language and artificial intelligence. Discusses his own computer communication program, ELIZA, as well as a number of other "artificial intelligence" programs. The book presents two major arguments: that man and machines are different and that there are particular tasks for which computers should not be programmed. 355. Wexelblat, Richard L., ed. History of Programming Languages (New York: Academic Press, 1981). Proceedings of the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM) SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference, June 1-3, 1978. Provides a history of thirteen of the most significant programming languages. The histories are fairly technical and focus more on their development than their use. The questions and answers that followed each talk are transcribed. The LISP language developed for artificial intelligence applications is included (See paper by John McCarthy, 433.) 356. Wiener, Norbert. Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (New York: Wiley, 1948). This is the most important work on the science that serves as the title of the book and was originally coined by Wiener. The lengthy introduction does an excellent job of analyzing the historical development of the ideas of cybernetics through reflections on a decade of conversations between individuals from a range of established scientific fields. In the body of the text Wiener introduces Newtonian and Bergsonian concepts of time before turning to the mathematics underlying his ideas on time series, information, communication, feedback, and oscillation. He also explores his ideas within the context of psychopathology and offers a brief examination of the concepts of information and language.

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357. Wiener, Norbert. The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1950). A book that in many ways serves as a non-mathematical companion to Wiener's path breaking work, Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. In addition to conveying Wiener's ideas on communication machines and human behavior, he examines many related social and ethical issues. 358. Winograd, Terry. Understanding Natural Language (New York: Academic Press, 1972). Provides a strong overview of natural language systems and evaluates the current state of research in artificial intelligence on natural language processing, semantics, and theorem proving. Then moves on to detail the structure of the syntactic component, the treatment of semantics, and programming languages for problem-solving. Discusses LISP and PROGRAMMER in depth. 359. Winograd, Terry. Five Lectures on Artificial Intelligence, AI Memo-24 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University, 1974). Slightly edited version of five lectures that Winograd delivered at the Electromechanical Laboratory in Tokyo, Japan between March 18 and 23, 1974. Winograd presents his broad ideas on the state of the field of artificial intelligence and current research problems, particularly in the area of language and understanding. The specific topics of the five lectures are: the history of work in natural language understanding, a description of SHRDLU system, comparative analysis of difficult representations used in AI programs, a sketch for new representation building, and a discussion of the applications of these ideas to programming systems. 360. Winograd, Terry. Thinking Machines: Can There Be? Are We? (Stanford, CA: Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University, 1987). In this insightful essay, Winograd takes a look at the past body of artificial intelligence research and finds "a larger grain of truth in the critiques than enthusiastic predictions" about artificial intelligence. His main criticism is the "patchwork rationalism" guiding AI research. He sees three fundamental difficulties of "thinking" machines that make this "patchwork rationalism" insufficient: gaps in anticipation (absence of common sense), blindness of representation (for successful symbol systems decontexualized meanings are required), and restrictions of the domain. He concludes by attacking the projections of humans to machines and machines to humans that are so common

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in examinations of AI, likening them to projecting a three-dimensional world on a two-dimensional plane. 361. Winston, Patrick H., ed. The Psychology of Computer Vision (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975). Explores machine vision research at MIT's artificial intelligence laboratory by the following contributing researchers: Patrick Henry Winston, Berthold Horn, Marvin Minsky, Yoshiaki Shirai, and David Waltz. The authors seek to demonstrate the vast scope of machine vision research from frontal confrontation with light intensity rays to knowledge representation and manipulation. By making machines "see," they hope to better comprehend how animals see and contribute to the psychological understanding of seeing, learning, and knowledge representation. 362. Yates, David M. Turing's Legacy: A History of Computing at the National Physical Laboratory, 1945-1995 (London: National Museum of Science and Industry, 1997). Valuable study of computing at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in Great Britain in the half century following the end of World War II. While the scope is broad, from early mathematical work to Donald W. Davies's networking research, there is extensive discussion relating to computing and cognitive science, including: Turing's Universal Machine, pattern recognition, and manmachine interaction. The book also contains significant material on computing and the physical sciences at the NPL.

Articles 363. Amarel, Saul. "On Representations of Problems of Reasoning about Actions." Machine Intelligence 3 (1968): 131-171. Clarifies issues of representation in defining and solving problems. Stresses importance of choosing an appropriate machine language to which a verbal statement is translated. 364. Andrew, Alexander M. "Learning Machines." In National Physical Laboratory. Mechanisation of Thought Processes I (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1959): 473-506. Andrew, of the National Physical Laboratory, focuses his discussion on programming "learning machines" to engage in process control activities. He indicates how use of conditional properties based on existing statistical theory can be used to do advanced process control programming on a machine.

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365. Ashby, W. Ross. "Simulation of a Brain." In Harold Borko, ed. Computer Applications in the Behavioral Sciences (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962): 452-467. Indicates how the computer for the first time has brought the possibility of modeling human behavior on a machine. Cites three reasons for such simulation: presentation of a relationship can yield greater comprehension, systems too complex for words can be represented, and building an analog of a theory can potentially show what consequences may occur. 366. Aspray, William. "The Scientific Conceptualization of Information: A Survey." Annals of the History of Computing 7:2 (April 1985): 117-140. Insightful study arguing how the concept of information was extended to the status of a physical parameter subject to scientific study by a group of leading mathematically inclined scientists in the 1940s and 1950s: Claude Shannon, Norbert Weiner, Warren McColloch, Walter Pitts, Alan Turing, and John von Neumann. Aspray indicates how this research and theorizing on the concept of information had profound impacts in the following decade in developing and extending a number of new research fields: artificial intelligence, complexity theory, automata theory, cognitive computer science, information theory, cybernetics, and control and communication engineering. He concludes that the idea of information processing automata as an important area of scientific study remains at the heart of work in theoretical information science. 367. Bach, G. L. "A Computer for Carnegie." Annals of the History of Computing 8:1 (January 1986): 39-41. Briefly recounts the installation and early use of an IBM 650 at Carnegie Institute of Technology's Graduate School of Industrial Administration. This was perhaps the first business school installation of the machine and Herbert Simon, Allan Newell and others used it for studies on behavior, problem-solving, and decision analysis that contributed to the cognitive sciences, economics, and laid groundwork for the emerging field of artificial intelligence. 368. Bailey, Daniel E., and Peter G. Poison "Real-Time Computing in Psychology at the University of Colorado." American Psychologist 30:3 (March 1975): 212-218. This is a useful case study of the University of Colorado's Computer Laboratory for Instruction in Psychological Research (CLIPR). This Lab, established in 1970, was initiated to test a third model of computer use by psychologists,

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possibly to augment or partially displace the use of minicomputing systems and university wide computer centers. 369. Baker, Robert A. "The Future of Psychological Instrumentation." Behavioral Science 13:1 (1968): 1-17. Evaluates the past and projects future impact of psychological instrumentation. Digital computers figure prominently in this analysis. 370. Bell, C. Gordon, and Peter Freeman. "C.ai-A Computer Architecture for AI Research." In Proceedings of the AFIPS Fall Joint Computer Conference, Vol. 41 (Montvale, NJ: AFIPS Press, 1972): 779-90. Carnegie Mellon University researchers discuss project on list-processing machines and the use of the architecture C.ai for expanding computing power to better facilitate research on artificial intelligence. 371. Bennett, E. M., and J. W. Degan. "The Diagnostic Process in Men and Automata." IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics HFE 2:2 (September 1961): 68-72. One of the early articles focused on analysis of the steps involved with computer applications to diagnostic processes. Discusses verbal comprehension, symbol manipulation, special visualization and orientation, configural analysis, configural synthesis, principle generation and application, ideational fluency, and verbal fluency. 372. Bernstein, Alex, and M. De V. Roberts. "Computers vs. Chess Player." Scientific American (June 1958): 96-105. Nearly a decade after Claude Shannon's reports on computer chess playing, this article examines subsequent developments in the field, while focusing on description and analysis of a chess playing program of four researchers: Alex Berstein, Michael de V. Roberts, Timothy Arbuckle and M. A. Belsky~the former two from IBM and the latter two from the Service Bureau Corporation. The program was developed to run on the IBM 704. With this program, the researchers conclude that the 704 can play a "respectable" game of chess. Expectations for future advances are expected from programming deeper into the game rather than by learning from experience 373. Bloomfield, Brian. "The Culture of Artificial Intelligence." In Brian P. Bloomfield, ed. The Question of Artificial Intelligence: Philosophical and Sociological Perspectives (London: Croom Helm, 1987) 59-105.

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A social and cultural analysis of factors shaping the development of artificial intelligence in both its popular and academic forms. Bloomfield focuses on the scientific cultures of the "conveyors of AI" to show how the field is socially constructed. 374. Bobrow, Daniel G., and Dennis H. Klatt. "A Limited Speech Recognition System." In Proceedings of the AFIPS Fall Joint Computer Conference vol. 33 (Washington, DC: Thompson Book, 1968): 305-318. Researchers at Bolt Beranek and Newman discuss LISPER, a limited speech recognition system that simplifies aspects of the recognition task, thus facilitating computer experimentation. 375. Boring, E. G. "Mind and Mechanism." American Journal of Psychology 2 (April 1946): 173-192. This is a reprint of Presidential address at the Eastern Psychological Association, held at Fordham University, April 26, 1946. Boring, a Harvard University professor, provides an early theoretical essay on the relationship between the human mind and computerized robots. His primary concern is what can be gained through comparisons between humans and robots. He believes hypothetical robots can help avoid subjective focus on "mentalism." Whether actual or real, robots do not serve as a substitute for physiology, but provide an argument against use of vague terms commonly used by psychologists. 376. Borko, Harold. "Computers and the Behavioral Scientist." In Harold Borko, ed. Computer Applications in the Behavioral Sciences (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962): 4-8. Begins with the question of why should the behavioral scientist be concerned with computers, which "belong" in the realm of the physical sciences. His brief answer is in order to "define the role of man in the control and use of the machine and thus to optimize system interactions." He outlines the computer applications for three major functions: organization and reduction of statistical data, hypothesis seeking, and hypothesis testing. This chapter serves as an introduction to this broad edited volume that explores computer applications in cognitive science, medicine, and other fields. 377. Borko, Harold, "Do Computers Think?" in Harold Borko, ed. Computer Applications in the Behavioral Sciences (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962)12-21. Explores the question in the title philosophically and states that a positive answer presupposes a materialistic and pragmatic perspective emphasizing results, while

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a negative answer extends from a form of philosophical dualism. Borko believes computers cannot think-that computers can only do operations human operators correlate with thinking and mathematics. 378. Bowker, Geof. "How to be Universal: Some Cybernetic Strategies, 194370." Social Studies of Science 23 (1993): 107-127. Provides an analysis of the history of cybernetics from 1943 to 1970, with emphasis on cybernetics as a "universal discipline." Argues four primary points: claims for universality were based on a new interpretation of human history, new interpretation was bolstered by the development of a new universal language, language suggested a new division of labor within the sciences, and attempts were made to institute this new division of labor with a strategy complementary to Bruno Latour's strategy of "distributed passage points." 379. Brazier, Mary A. B. "The Analysis of Brain Waves." Scientific American 206 (June 1962): 142-153. Examines statistical and other electronic computer applications to achieve a more sophisticated understanding of electrical recordings of brain activity. 380. Brown, John Seely, et al. "SOPHIE: A Step Toward Creating a Reactive Learning Environment." International Journal of Man-Machine Studies 7:5 (September 1975): 675-696. Reports on an artificial intelligence question-answering, hypothesis testing, theory formation program in the area of electronic troubleshooting. The authors describe the simulation models and use of procedural specialists that are at the base of the program's logical or inferential capabilities. 381. Burks, Arthur W. "Von Neumann's Self Reproducing Automata." In Arthur W. Burks, eds. Essays on Cellular Automata (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1970): 3-64. This is an important article that serves as a companion piece to von Neumann's work (published posthumously and edited by Burks), Self Reproducing Automata. It provides a concise summary of extensive research on automata theory, and places it in the context of Wiener and others. 382. Bush, Vannevar. "As We May Think." Atlantic Monthly (July 1945): 101108. Highly influential article by the Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), who was responsible for mobilizing the scientific

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community in the United States to aid the defense effort during World War II. More than any other statement at the end of war, the article eloquently outlines and prescribes possibilities and opportunities for science, that in many ways, and in many areas, was changed by the wartime effort. The article broadly addresses the furtherance of scientific knowledge; the indexing, communication, and accessing of information and knowledge; and instrumentation to advance these possibilities. 383. Carr, John W. "Languages, Logic, Learning, and Computers." Computers and Automation (April 1958): 21-26. Argues that the lesson to be taken from the past ten years of computing is that the future role of such machines will likely be more involved with symbol manipulation than calculation. Discusses the current developments and future possibilities with regard to learning machines and computer programmers. 384. Castellan, N. John. "The Modern Minicomputer in Automation." American Psychologist 30:3 (March 1975): 205-211.

Laboratory

Gives overview of the place of the minicomputer in psychological research and then shifts to a case study of the DEC PDP-11 computer in use at the Psychology Department Computer Laboratory at Indiana University. Outlines stages of computer configuration as well as setup, recovery and analysis routines. Argues that we are only beginning to take advantage of the benefits of computer applications to psychological research and education. 385. Chamak, Brigitte. "The Emergence of Cognitive Science in France: A Comparison with the USA." Social Studies of Science 29:5 (1999): 643-684. This is an important contribution to the history of cognitive science and the comparative understanding of developments in the field in France and the United States. Analyzes institutional, social, political, and economic factors in the two countries from World War II forward, and how the national differences influenced opportunities and helped shape the evolution of cognitive science in the respective countries. Argues that the stronger concentration on neuroscience based cognitive research in France is likely responsible for the accelerating importance of the artificial intelligence perspective in that country. 386. Chandrasekaran, B., and Larry H. Reeker. "Artificial Intelligence: A Case for Agnosticism." IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man & Cybernetics 4:1 (January 1974): 88-94. Argues that in the past, expressions of computer scientists and others on the idea of thinking machines have been exclusively in two camps: the true believers and

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infidels. Chandrasekaran and Reeker believe that many people lie between these two extremes. They use the term agnostic to describe these individuals; and they examine the broader range of thinking on the issue of whether computers have or soon will achieve intelligence. 387. Colby, Kenneth M., and David C. Smith. "Dialogues Between Humans and An Artificial Belief System." In Donald E. Walker and Lewis M. Morton. Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (Washington, DC, 1969): 319-324. Describes the construction of an artificial belief software system (ABS1) at Stanford University capable of conversing with humans by estimating the credibility of human sources of information. 388. Collins, Allan M., and M. Ross Quillian. "Experiments on Semantic Memory and Language." In Lee W. Gregg, ed. Cognition in Learning and Memory (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1972): 117-138. Collins and Quillian, from Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc., present their work on the comprehension of language based upon Quillian's past model of a semantic memory network, the Teachable Language Comprehender. As an afterthought, the authors state that experimental psychology has severely neglected semantic memory and language comprehension. 389. Craik, F. I. M., and R. S. Lockhart. "Levels of Processing: A Framework for Memory Research." Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11 (1972): 671-684. This source examines multistore theories of memory and the difficulties of various approaches. It offers an alternative theory of human memory research focused on depth or levels of information processing. 390. Didday, R. L. "Simulating Distributed Computation in Nervous System" International Journal of Man-Machine Studies 3:2 (April 1971): 99-126. This article presents a model for simulating nervous systems based on current neurophysiological data. These simulations are used to inform theories on the operation of particular nervous networks and offer predictive capabilities. 391. Dutton, John M., and William H. Starbuck. "Computer Simulation Models of Human Behavior: A History of an Intellectual Technology." IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics SMC-1:2 (April 1971): 128171.

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Brief overview and extensive bibliography of artificial intelligence sources published up to 1970. The bibliography is broken down into six sections: studies of individual human beings, studies of individuals who interact, studies of aggregated individuals, studies of aggregation and interaction, systematic and formal methodological discussions, and diffuse methodological discussions. The bibliography is especially useful in its identification of works prior to World War II influential to post-war AI research. 392. Estes, W. K. "Some Targets for Mathematical Psychology." Journal of Mathematical Psychology (August 1975): 263-282. Gives overview of the development of mathematical psychology and examines the "encroachment" by computers and computer simulation models that has recently taken place. Believes problems that are associated with the use of mathematical methods and computer simulations in experimental psychology can be alleviated with the proper recognition of the complementary nature of mathematics and computer simulations to psychological theory. 393. Estrin, Thelma. "The UCLA Brain Research Institute Data Processing Laboratory." In Proceedings of ACM Conference on History of Medical Informatics (Bethesda, MD: Association for Computing Machinery, 1987): 7583. Estrin begins with a brief outline of the UCLA Brain Research Institute before moving on to the installation of computers into the Institute's research program. She discusses the use of an IBM 7090 and CDC 160 in the early 1960s, and the "Intelligent Peripheral Processors" of the second half of the decade, including a SDS 930 and 9300 and an IBM 360-75. In the 1970s the laboratory began to use a distributive network of IBM 360 mainframes in conjunction with DEC PDP-12 computers. She discusses programming in support of the lab's research, including her work on BRAINMAPS. Estrin predicts that in the next 25 years that advances in neuroscience, cognitive science, and artificial intelligence will make "medical informatics" a household term. 394. Feigenbaum, Edward A. "An Experimental Course in Simulation of Cognitive Processes." Behavioral Science 7:2 (April 1962): 244-245. Feigenbaum describes and analyzes the methods of a graduate seminar he taught in 1960 at the University of California, Berkeley on computer simulation of cognitive processes. 395. Feigenbaum, Edward A. "The Simulation of Verbal Learning Behavior." In Edward A. Feigenbaum, and Julian Feldman, eds. Computers and Thought (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963): 297- 309.

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This reports on the influential Elementary Perceiver and Memorizer (EPAM) program that Feigenbaum developed under Herbert Simon during graduate school at Carnegie Institute of Technology. While the program provides verbal learning modeling on a computer, Feigenbaum sees the greater accomplishment as the contribution of the system to understanding verbal learning in humans. 396. Feigenbaum, Edward A. "Artificial Intelligence Research." IEEE Transactions on Information Theory IT-9 (October 1963): 248-253. Historic survey of pioneering artificial intelligence research of the 1950s and 1960s. The survey focuses on "complex cognitive models," the area of AI research the author believes has made the greatest strides towards mechanical behavior defined as "intelligent" in humans. 397. Feigenbaum, Edward A., and R. W. Watson. "An Initial Problem Statement for a Machine Induction Research Project." In Proceedings of ACM Conference on History of Medical Informatics (Bethesda, MD: Association for Computing Machinery, 1987): 20-26. This paper provides a more systematic and formal account of the development of DENDRAL than that of Joshua Lederberg. It gives a sense of the evolution of DENDRAL and its applications. 398. Feldman, Julian A. "Computer Simulation of Cognitive Processes." In Harold Borko, ed. Computer Applications in the Behavioral Sciences (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962): 336-359. Provides a brief review of the short history of developing computer programs to model human cognition and then presents an experiment, the "binary choice experiment," as an example to show the consequences of computer modeling of human cognition and techniques used in developing such programs. 399. Feldman, Julian A., et al. "The Stanford Hand-Eye Project." In Donald E. Walker, and Lewis M. Morton. Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (Washington, DC, 1969): 521-526. Presents the primary goal of the Hand-Eye project at Stanford University's Computer Science Department as designing and implementing a system with "interesting perceptual-motor behavior." Indicates that most of the effort on this project has been directed at reconciling the mutual independence of programs with the "inherent independence of programmers."

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400. Fikes, R. E., and Nils J. Nilsson. "STRIPS: A New Approach to the Application of Theorem Proving to Problem Solving." Artificial Intelligence Journal2 (1971): 189-208. Gives a thorough introduction to and description of a significant problemsolving artificial intelligence program developed by Fikes and Nilsson. The article is the only "highly-cited" article to appear in the Artificial Intelligence Journal during the publication's first five years. 401. Fleck, James. "Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence." In Brian P. Bloomfield, ed. The Question of Artificial Intelligence: Philosophical and Sociological Perspectives (London: Croom Helm, 1987): 106-164. This is a reprint of an early sociological study of artificial intelligence examining the development of AI as a scientific discipline. He compares the governmental and institutional context of artificial intelligence research in the United States and Great Britain and documents the increasing commercialization of the field. 402. Forsythe, Diana E. "Engineering Knowledge: The Construction of Knowledge in Artificial Intelligence." Social Studies of Science 23 (1993): 445477. Anthropologist provides analysis of knowledge engineering within the expert system community of the artificial intelligence field. He examines the epistemological position of knowledge engineers and suggests that their perspectives become embedded within the resulting technology. 403. Friedberg, R. B., et al. "A Learning Machine, Part I." IBM Journal of Research and Development (January 1958): 2-13. This two-part article provides an early exploration of the possibilities, issues, and ramifications of computer learning through the creation of artificial intelligence programs. 404. Friedberg, R. B., et al. "A Learning Machine, Part II." IBM Journal of Research and Development (June 1959): 282-287. Consists of the second of two-part article on experimentation by IBM in developing/programming learning machines. Discusses a number of specific learning programs including Herman, Homer, Ramsey, and Teddy. The full applicability of these tests on smaller machines is uncertain for larger computers.

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405. Frijda, Nico H. "Problems of Computer Simulation." Behavioral Science 12:1 (1967): 59-67. Examines the many challenges associated with ^computer programs simulating psychological processes. Significant problems include the relationship between a program and the embodied theory, and the validation of the program's output. Despite challenges, Frijda stresses the important contributions of computers to psychology in the following areas: programs serving as unambiguous formulations of theory, computer simulation to test theories, and computer simulation as a heuristic in the search for models. 406. Galison, Peter. "The Ontology of the Enemy: Norbert Wiener and the Cybernetic Vision." Critical Inquiry 21 (1994): 228-266. This is an important study on the background and influences of Wiener's ideas on cybernetics. Galison examines Wiener's wartime computational work on anti-aircraft research and Weiner's development of a calculator he termed the antiaircraft predictor. Galison indicates how this work of Wiener's, and related studies of feedback mechanism, provided the basis for his conception of cybernetics. 407. Gelernter, H. L., and N. Rochester. "Intelligent Behavior in ProblemSolving Machines." IBM Journal of Research and Development 2:4 (Oct. 1958): 336-45. Reports on explorations of theories capable of proving elementary Euclidean plane geometry in order to learn more of computer intelligence. Divides computing machines into the parts: heuristic and deductive. Discusses use of a syntax computer to evaluate heuristic guesses of another machine. 408. Giuliano V. E., and Anthony G. Oettinger. "Research on Automatic Translation at the Harvard Computation Laboratory." In Information Processing: Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Processing, UNESCO (Paris: UNESCO, 1959): 163-183. Extensive article by pioneers in computer language translation programs that discusses their work at the Harvard Computational Laboratory in developing an automatic Russian-English dictionary of electronics and mathematics that is recorded on magnetic tape. The program has been successful at translating Russian scientific and technical scholarship. The article fully describes the fundamentals of the program and provides a number of examples of the dictionary's output.

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409. Goode, Frank M. "Training Mathematical Psychology Students in the Use of a Laboratory Computer." Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 4:2 (1972): 96-97. Provides snapshot of educational and research applications of a computer (DEC's LINC-8) that has been in use at the University of Michigan's Mathematical Psychology Laboratory for the past four years. 410. Gorn, Saul. "The Computer and Information Science and the Community of Disciplines." Behavorial Science 12:6 (1967): 433-452. Examines the computer and information science and the contribution of these emerging technologies to the sciences as well as the liberal arts. Presents philosophical approach that Gorn terms cybernetic pragmatism, a system that provides a model of the growth and interrelationship of information systems and the organizations utilizing them. 411. Grabiner, Judith V. "Computers and the Nature of Man: A Historian's Perspective on Controversies about Artificial Intelligence." Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 15: 2 (October 1986): 113-126. A historiography article on the history of artificial intelligence, an area of history that has largely been dominated by practitioner accounts rather than interpretations by historians. While the article does a good job of putting AI work in perspective, it also demonstrates how a more in-depth study of this sort is needed. 412. Green, Bert F., Jr. "Computer Languages for Symbol Manipulation." IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics HFE 2:1 (March 1961): 3-8. Discusses the development and use of list processing languages. Relates how these languages can be used to write game playing, problem-solving, and other "intelligent" programs. Specifically discusses IPL-V, LISP, FLPL, and COMIT. 413. Green, Bert F., Jr. "The Computer Conquest of Psychology." Psychology Today 1:7 (1967): 56-61. Provides overview and analysis of the computer applications in psychology. Discusses uses of computers for psychological research in laboratories, data analysis, and theory construction. 414. Gregg, Lee W. "Simulation Models of Learning and Memory." In Lee W. Gregg, ed. Cognition in Learning and Memory (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1972): 1-18.

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Gives a brief overview of programs simulating human learning and memory. Gregg focuses on the Elementary Perceiver and Memorizer (EPAM) in its different iterations to examine paired associate and serial learning. 415. Gregg, Lee W. "Computers: Large-Scale Usage in the Balance." American Psychologist 30:3 (March 1975): 199-204. Gregg examines past, current, and future use of large-scale computers in psychology. Discussion includes large scale systems configurations, the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network, statistical analysis, computer simulation, speech recognition, robotics, simulation languages and systems, and a number of programs and programming languages utilized in these areas, including: BASIC, FORTRAN, ALGOL, HEARSAY, SNOBOL and others. 416. Gunderson, Keith. "Robots, Consciousness, and Programmed Behavior." British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 19:2 (1968): 109-122. Thoughtfully explores a number of practical and philosophical issues related to artificial intelligence and its applications, including such fundamental questions as: the relationship between information processes and problem-solving capacities of humans; and which machine models of human mentality are subject to plausible neurophysiological interpretation. 417. Halstead, Ward C. "Brain and Intelligence." In Lloyd A. Jeffress, ed. Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior: The Hixon Symposium (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1951): 244-272. Broad overview of fundamental questions and research on the brain and intelligence from both a historical and contemporary perspective. He discusses structural correlates of intelligence, brain lesions and changes in intellect, factor analysis, and protein organization and mental function, to try to gain perspective on brain physiology and human thought. 418. Hammond, Allen L. "Artificial Intelligence: A Fascination with Robots or a Serious Intellectual Endeavor?" Science 180:4093 (June 1973): 1352-1353. Discusses report by Sir James Lighthill of Cambridge University surveying the field of artificial intelligence for the Science Research Council of Britain. The report was held up a year and "sanitized," but still remained highly critical of AI research in general, and the Edinburgh project in particular. Lighthill was particularly critical of research on robots, work he does not believe is an intellectually meaningful endeavor. Hammond indicates how Lighthill's understanding of robotic work and its relationship to artificial intelligence differs

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markedly from that of some of the leading researchers in the field such as Marvin Minsky and John McCarthy. 419. Hoggatt, Austin C , Joseph Esherick, and John T. Wheeler. "A Laboratory to Facilitate Computer-Controlled Behavioral Experiments." Administrative Science Quarterly 14:2 (1969): 202-207. Significant for its in-depth description of the administrative practice of equipping and structuring a computer controlled behavioral experiment laboratory. Outlines the hardware (including DEC PDP-5), programming systems, and overall organization and practices of the Management Science Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley, a laboratory funded by the National Science Foundation. Also reports on the costs of the system and expected output once it is in full operation. 420. Holland, John. "Iterative Circuit Computers." In Arthur W. Burks, ed. Essays on Cellular Automata (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1970): 277-296. Provides mathematical characterizations of iterative circuit computers, conveys how these machines can be utilized as a basis for adaptive systems, and relates the benefits and pitfalls of such an organizational system. 421. Hormann, Aiko. "How a Computer System Can Learn." IEEE Spectrum (July 1964): 110-119. Aiko, of the System Development Corporation, reports on tests of a computer's ability to generalize using increasingly complex iterations of the Tower of Hanoi puzzle. Ultimately, he concludes, that while generalization processes are complicated and illusive, within a particular problem domain generalization seems possible given current understanding in artificial intelligence research. 422. Horst, Paul. "The Missing Data Matrix." Journal of Clinical Psychology 24:3 (1968): 286-306. Examines computational procedures and mathematical proofs as tools to address the problem of the absence of values assigned to some data on individuals in a sample. 423. Johnson, Edward S. "Computer in Behavioral Science: The Computer as Experimenter." Behavorial Science 12:6 (1967): 484-489. Johnson reports on utilizing an IBM 1620 as an "automatic experimenter" in the field of psychology, the computer communicating with human subjects in English. He discusses the attributes and the drawbacks of this application and

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evaluates the preliminary data comparing the problem-solving capabilities of humans and computers. 424. Johnson, Edward S., and Robert F. Baker. "Computers in Behavioral Science: The Computer As Experimenter: New Results." Behavioral Science 18:5 (September 1973): 377-385. Discusses results of experiment on the effects of replacing a human experimenter with a computer in a concept formation task. Study indicates that individuals of high intellectual ability performed equally well under human or machine administered tasks, while people of lower intellect performed worse if a computer administered the tasks. 425. Jutila, Sakari T., and Giora Baram. "A User-Oriented Evaluation of a TimeShared Computer System." IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics SMC-1:4 (October 1971): 344-349. Reports on investigation on user satisfaction of time-shared computer systems. Indicates that there are many factors involved in understanding human-computer interaction. 426. Kahne, Merton J., Judah L. Schwartz, and Michael Knudsen. "Slides: A Dictionary System for Computer Controlled Study of Graphic or Pictorial Displays." Behavioral Science 14:5 (1969): 418-428. Describes the Slide System, a general purpose, filing system—a system that assigns labels to particular objects or groups of objects for slides, together with information on their spatial relations and sequential patterns. The system uses "ELIZA" as an interpreter that treats scripts as data. Its primitive elements are programmed in FAP and MAD. 427. Kelly, E. Lowell, and James C. Lingoes. "Data Processing in Psychological Research." In Harold Borko, ed. Computer Applications in the Behavioral Sciences (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962): 172-203. Starts by relating how psychologists were among the first behavioral scientists to utilize high-speed digital computers. States that, along with physical scientists and mathematicians, psychologists rank high in actual use of computer time. The majority of the article is focused on methodology, opportunities, and challenges in utilizing computers in psychological research. Topics include: sampling of subjects, problems with experimental controls, problems of measurement, factor analytic studies, multiple regressions, pattern analysis methods, multiple scalogram analysis (MSA), and an executive system program.

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428. Kemeny, J. G. "Man Viewed as a Machine." Scientific American 192 (April 1955): 58-67. Early discussion and analysis of the question of the relationship between the workings of computers and the human brain, and the question of whether or not a machine can "think." Specifically the article analyzes MANIAC, a computer built at the Institute for Advanced Study. Examines the various tasks, memory structure, and speed of MANIAC versus humans. Analyzes these questions in the context of Turing's Universal Machine. Concludes with an examination on whether machines can go through an evolutionary process, and the similarities and differences to biological evolution. 429. Kohler, Wolfgang. "Relational Determination in Perception." In Lloyd A. Jeffress, ed. Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior: The Hixon Symposium (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1951): 200-230. Focuses on research of electrical currents, in human brains, that have been recorded under conditions of pattern vision to explore relational determination in human perception. Offers a number of potential interpretations of the collected experimental data. He emphasizes the importance of being cautious and avoiding making any premature conclusions on pattern vision due to scale of analogous research in process related to such aspects of psychophysics. 430. Kulikowski, Casimir A. "Artificial Intelligence In Medicine: A Personal Retrospective On Its Emergence and Early Function." in Proceedings of ACM Conference on History of Medical Informatics (Bethesda, MD: Association for Computing Machinery, 1987): 199-206. Kulikowski, Rutgers University Professor of Computer Science, gives a brief overview of artificial intelligence and clinical decision-making, before focusing on his experience and his work in the area along with Saul Amarel and other computer scientists at Rutgers in the first half of the 1970s. He puts the work at Rutgers in context of projects at other schools, such as DENDRAL and MYCIN at Stanford University. 431. Lashley, K. S. "The Problem of the Serial Order in Behavior." In Lloyd A. Jeffress, ed. Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior: The Hixon Symposium (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1951): 112-135. Lashley asserts that problems of syntax cannot be examined by current physiological methods, and that serial order is a common problem of examining cerebral activity and offers no easy solutions. He states that the basis for human behavior is found far down the evolutionary scale and represented in the

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processes of the nervous system. He takes issue with those who express cerebral activity in terms of associated neuron chains. 432. Lederberg, Joshua. "How DENDRAL was Conceived and Born." In Proceedings of ACM Conference on History of Medical Informatics (Bethesda, MD: Association for Computing Machinery, 1987): 5-19. Discusses how he came to collaborate with Edward Feigenbaum on DENDRAL, and the nature of the collaborative project. Provides a largely informal personal account of the development of his professional work and the context of computer work at Stanford University and the DENDRAL program. Also discusses his general views on artificial intelligence as well as the MOLGEN program. 433. Lederberg, Joshua, et al. "A Heuristic Program for Solving Scientific Inference Problem: Summary of Motivation and Implementation." in R. B. Banerji and M. D. Mesarovic, eds. Theoretical Approaches to Non-Numerical Problem Solving (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1970): 400-409. Joshua Lederberg and his co-authors, in a short multi-authored piece with the other principal individuals on the DENDRAL project, explain the structure and main features of this expert system. They focus on DENDRAL's ability to conceptualize organic chemistry in terms of topological graph theory, utilize a hypothesis generator, and organize this generator to avoid duplication and simplicity. They conclude with some basic strategies that have emerged from the project: making certain the program's "theory of the world" is centralized and unified, that the program derives inference cues from its own theory, and that it separates theory and routines so theory can be continually improved upon. 434. Leith, Philip. "Involvement, Detachment, and Programming: The Belief in PROLOG." In Brian P. Bloomfield, ed. The Question of Artificial Intelligence: Philosophical and Sociological Perspectives (London: Croom Helm, 1987): 220-257. Using the logic programming language PROLOG as a case study, Leith argues that programming languages are shaped by social factors. He contends that the future development of computer science and artificial intelligence is dependent upon its adherents becoming more "detached" in their programming. 435. Licklider, J. C. R. "Man-Computer Symbiosis." IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics HFE 1:1 (March 1960): 4-11. Licklider provides one of the most influential early articles written on artificial intelligence. He outlines many of the future possibilities and goals of mancomputer symbiosis. He cites the main aims as letting computers formulate thinking, and enabling men and computers to cooperate in decision-making

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without resorting to predetermined programs. States that preliminary evidence shows that man-computer symbiosis allows man to perform more effectively than he could alone. 436. Lippman, Louis G., and Christopher J. Taylor. "Multiple Comparisons in Complex ANOVA Designs." Journal of General Psychology 86:2 (April 1972): 221-223. Discusses computer-based analysis of variance tests (ANOVA) to conduct psychological research. Computers make possible more complex designs and allow for multiple comparison analyses through use of subroutines in conjunction with main ANOVA programs. 437. Lucas, Nancy C. "Computers in Behavioral Science: An Experiment in Learning Behavior Using Computer-Assisted Instruction." Behavioral Science 15:5 (September 1970): 447-451. Describes experiment in verbal concept learning that utilizes computer-assisted instruction. Focus is primarily just on this experiment, but there is a brief discussion of the broader implications involving computer aided instruction and the behavioral sciences. 438. MacKinnon, William J., and Mary M. MacKinnon. "The Decisional Design and Cyclic Computation of SPAN." Behavioral Science 14:3 (1969): 244-247. Successive Proportionate Additive Numeration (SPAN) was developed by William J. MacKinnon and programmed in FORTRAN II for the IBM 7027 by Mary M. MacKinnon at the Numerical Analysis Laboratory of the University of Arizona. The program combines data of individuals as members of social groups to "pool judgmental estimates of stimuli." 439. Marill, Thomas. "Automatic Recognition of Speech." IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics HFE 2:1 (March 1961): 34-38. Marill reports that advances in the area of automatic speech recognition have been limited despite considerable resources that have recently gone into research in this area. Vocabularies are very limited and adjustments have to be made for individual speakers. Reviews specific hardware devices used for speech recognition. Concludes by stating that more complex digital computing equipment and advanced programming is beginning to address these deficiencies.

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440. Markowitz, Joseph. "Can a Small Dedicated Machine Find Happiness in a Company That Pioneered Time-sharing?" Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 1:7 (1969): 269-272. Discusses issues involved in deciding between a small, dedicated computer (a DEC PDP 1) and a large system with regard to research at a psychophysical laboratory. It evaluates important factors in this decision such as cost, flexibility, language level, reliability, and storage capability. The study draws upon the psychophysical laboratory at the company employing the author, Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc., briefly outlining the history of time-sharing at this firm. 441. McCarthy, John. "Programs with Common Sense." In National Physical Laboratory. Mechanisation of Thought Processes I (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1959): 75-85. Rather than focusing on the work a number of researchers are doing on programming computers to solve complex problems, McCarthy concentrates on programming a computer to have "common sense." The programs he outlines draw conclusions from a series of either declarative or imperative statements. 442. McCarthy, John. "Information." Scientific American 215:3 (September 1966). McCarthy addresses critiques of artificial intelligence that present computers as devices robbing humans of their individuality. 443. McCarthy, John. "History of LISP." In Richard L. Wexelblat, ed. History of Programming Languages, ACD Monograph Series: The History of Programming Languages Conference (New York: Academic Press, 1981): 173-185. McCarthy, the creator of LISP, provides a history of the formulation of his ideas on the program between 1956 and 1958. He describes: the implementation of this language designed for artificial intelligence applications, the development of LISP 1.5, and the LISP 2 project. He concludes by highlighting the importance of LISP, the second oldest (after FORTRAN) programming language in widespread use at the time of the conference (June 1978). 444. McCarthy, John. "Generality in Artificial Intelligence." Communications oftheACM30:\2 (December 11, 1987): 1030-1035. McCarthy's Turing Award lecture includes a comment written by the author in 1986 that reflects on the talk and the development of his ideas since he gave the lecture in 1971. It provides a useful and accessible overview of McCarthy's perspective on the field and his ideas on the lack of generality in artificial intelligence programs. He discusses the General Problem Solver (GPS) and its

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successor, early production systems, early attempts to represent knowledge in logic, and other elements of the development of the field between 1958 and 1971. 445. McCarthy, John, et al. "A Computer with Hands, Eyes and Ears." In Proceedings of the AFIPS Fall Joint Computer Conference 33 (1968): 329-338. Explores the extension of computers into tasks that require coordination between perceptual and motor processes when performed by humans. Concludes that it will require a substantial amount of future research to improve computer architectures and the understanding of perceptual and motor processes before a machine can equal the dexterity of a human being. The authors feel this will be accomplished, however, and that computer hand-eye-ear systems already outperform humans at certain tasks. 446. McCarthy, John, and P. J. Hayes. "Some Philosophical Problems from the Standpoint of Artificial Intelligence." Machine Intelligence 4 (1969): 463-502. The first part of the paper addresses the philosophical issues that arise within artificial intelligence, operating from the basis that for computer programs to act intelligently, they must have a general representation of the world. The machine's representation or model of the world will enable it to answer (not always correctly) questions such as: "What will happen next in a certain situation? What will happen if I do a certain action? Can I figure out how to do this or must I get information from someone else or something else?" The second part of the paper focuses on formalisms that can prove a given strategy will achieve a goal. 447. McCulloch, Warren S. "Why the Mind is in the Head." In Lloyd A. Jeffress, ed. Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior: The Hixon Symposium (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1951): 42-57. McCulloch engages in a broad analysis that includes examinations of the physiology of the brain and computers to approximate an answer to the question he poses in the title of the paper. He concludes that the head is the only place where there are hosts of potential connections to be developed as time and situational factors demand. New connections set the stage for future ones that allow humans to adapt to their world. An extensive discussion follows that examines a number of issues McCulloch raised from a range of different perspectives. 448. McCulloch, Warren S. "Biological Computers." IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers (September 1957): 190-194.

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This is an important piece examining neural networks and the breadth of what can be learned from gaining a clearer understanding of information processing mechanisms in the brain. 449. McCulloch, Warren S. "Agatha Tyche: Of Nervous Nets-the Lucky Reckoners." National Physical Laboratory. Mechanisation of Thought Processes II (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1959): 611-626. Examination of neural networks where McCulloch argues that neurons have shown logical stability under "common shift of threshold" and performed reliably and with flexibility in spite of "unreliable" components. 450. McCulloch, Warren S., and J. Pfeiffer. "Digital Computers Called Brains." Scientific Monthly 69 (1949): 368-376. Leading early scholars in cybernetics discuss many aspects and attributes of computing systems, human brains, and the relationship between the two. The article is based on a speech made by McCulloch to the American Institute of Electrical Engineers about a year prior to this publication. 451. Michie, Donald. "Future for Integrated Cognitive Systems." Nature 228: 5273 (November 1970): 111-122. Discusses work in several laboratories toward the development of an integrated cognitive system (ICS). Estimates that by the mid-1970s ICS will likely perform at levels similar to a two or three year old human infant. The limiting factor is identified as inadequate comprehension of mathematical-logical principles, and software programming rather than hardware speed or memory capacity of computers. Michie, a professor of machine intelligence and perception at the University of Edinburgh, writes primarily on European developments. He discusses studies with young children and educational as well as potential industrial applications of artificial intelligence. 452. Miller, George A. "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity to Process Information." Psychological Review 63:2 (March 1956): 63-81. Miller writes an influential article referenced by artificial intelligence scholars of succeeding decades. The study reports on experiments done at the PsychoAcoustic Laboratory at Harvard University for the Office of Naval Research. Miller identifies a level of human information processing that is often used as the basis of comparison with the information processing capabilities of computers. He concludes: that the span of immediate memory imposes limitations on the amount of information humans can receive, process, and recall; that linguistic recoding is the "lifeblood" of thought processes and deserves significant

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additional study; and that theories of information provide a useful quantitative tool to examine human memory and thought. 453. Miller, George A. "Needed: A Better Theory of Cognitive Organization." IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man & Cybernetics 4:1 (January 1974): 95-97. Miller examines possible reasons that computers have had minimal success in taking over certain information processing tasks in psychology, education and linguistics. 454. Minsky, Marvin L. "Some Universal Elements for Finite Automata." In Claude E. Shannon and John McCarthy, eds. Automata Studies, Annals of Mathematics Studies 34 (1956): 117-128. Demonstrates certain types of elements are universal in their ability to serve as components of machines that are capable of realizing arbitrary functions given certain restrictions. The analysis draws from the McCulloch-Pitts neurological model. 455. Minsky, Marvin L. "Some Methods of Artificial Intelligence and Heuristic Programming." In National Physical Laboratory. Mechanisation of Thought Processes I (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1959): 3-28. Minsky discusses programming techniques for problems which the designer has yet to come up with practical methods for solving, examining heuristic programming methods in the area McCarthy recently termed artificial intelligence. In the course of this important essay on early AI theory, he outlines the concepts of intelligence, problem-solving, methods of heuristic programs, pattern recognition, semantic models for heuristic diagrams, Solomonoff s proposed inductive inference engine, and structural similarity and network machines. 456. Minsky, Marvin L. "Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence." Proceedings of the IRE 49 (1961): 8-30. Important article that not only summarizes the significant early works on artificial intelligence by others, but also advances understanding in the field by presenting the author's own research at Lincoln Laboratory at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The focus on both counts is on problems of heuristic programming, which Minsky divides into five areas: search, pattern recognition, learning, planning, and induction. Concludes by stating the article has concentrated primarily on self-contained problem-solving, while much current research is being devoted to time-sharing and multi-computing systems.

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457. Minsky, Marvin L. "Matter, Minds, and Models." In Proceedings of IF IP Congress 65 (Washington, D. C : Spartan Books, Inc. 1965): 45-50. Minsky argues that questions of the mind and brain are being informed by research in writing programs to behave intelligently. He believes that when intelligence is programmed into computers, these machines will be as confused and as stubborn as humans in their convictions about consciousness and free will. 458. Minsky, Marvin L. "Artificial Intelligence." Scientific American 215:3 (September 1966): 247-260. This is an important early history and analysis of artificial intelligence by one of the field's pioneers. Argues that computers can exhibit intelligence, and programs enable these machines to do complex tasks such as setting up goals, making plans, considering hypotheses, and recognizing analogies. States that computer intelligence has been limited so far by the shortage of resources (people, time, and computing capacity) and programming capabilities, and that machines are capable of learning. 459. Minsky, Marvin L. "Computer Science and the Representation of Knowledge." in Michael Dertouzos, and Joel Moses, eds. The Computer Age: A Twenty-Year View (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1979): 392-421. Minsky addresses the claims for and challenges of artificial intelligence in this essay. He assesses the history of AI, current AI research, and both technical and social hurdles faced by the field. 460. Murray, F. J. "Mechanisms and Robots." Journal of the ACM 2 (April 1955): 61-85. This is a fundamental early article on robotics. Discusses the criteria under which a mechanism is termed a robot, outlines asymmetric behavior of robots, and focuses on the relationship between computers and robots. 461. Newell, Allen. "Remarks on the Relationship Between Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Psychology." In R. B. Banerji and M. D. Mesarovic, eds. Theoretical Approaches to Non-Numerical Problem Solving (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1970): 363-400. Newell provides an insightful essay reflecting on the relationship between artificial intelligence and cognitive psychology. He begins by examining eight possibilities to characterize the relationship: no relationship, metaphor/attention focusing, forces operationally, provides language, provides base (ideal) models,

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sufficiency analysis, and theoretical psychology. Newell takes the position on the strong side, seeing artificial intelligence as theoretical psychology. He concludes that information processing technology has already had a significant impact on psychology and that there is a shift in focus in experimental psychology from memory to the "whole of the immediate processor." 462. Newell, Allen. "Artificial Intelligence and the Concept of Mind." In R. Schank, and K. M. Colby, eds. Computer Models of Thought and Language, (San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1973): 1-60. This article represents Newell's broadest reflections on the nature and breadth of artificial intelligence and his ideas on the concept of mind. He concentrates on the issues of generality and ill-structured problems. 463. Newell, Allen, and George Ernst. "The Search for Generality." In Information Processing 1965: Proceedings of the IF IP Congress 65 (Washington, DC: Spartan Books, 1965): 17-24. Assesses the current state of heuristic programs developed in an effort to expand the new field of artificial intelligence. They come to three basic conclusions: that there has been a recent shifting focus from difficulty to generality in problem-solving, that basic formulation of previous problem-solving programs continue to underlie much current research, and more particularly, that basic methods to determine substitutions of variables used in past heuristic programs remain critical for current ones. 464. Newell, Allen, J. C. Shaw, and Herbert A. Simon. "Chess Playing Programs and the Problem of Complexity." IBM Journal of Research and Development 2 (1958): 320-325. Leading artificial intelligence scholars from Carnegie Mellon University survey the chess playing programs of the 1950s, related literature, and the implications for machine intelligence. The authors see great value in building heuristic programs for chess playing to bring man-machine communication to a highlevel equilibrium. 465. Newell, Allen, J. C. Shaw, and Herbert A. Simon. "Report on a General Problem-Solving Program." Information Processing: Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Processing, UNESCO (Paris: UNESCO, 1959): 256-264. Early report on Newell, Shaw, and Simon's pioneering artificial intelligence program, the General Problem Solving Program I. The paper describes the fundamental heuristics of the program and how these heuristics facilitate

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problem-solving. They conclude with a basic outline of elements of the program and its use that are too involved to address in detail in this relatively short paper. 466. Newell, Allen, J. C. Shaw, and Herbert A. Simon. "Empirical Explorations with the Logic Theory Machine: A Case Study of Heuristics." In Edward A. Feigenbaum and Julian Feldman, eds. Computers and Thought (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963): 109-133. Self-described case study of a program, the Logic Theory Machine, used to find proofs to theorems in elementary symbolic logic. The machine was designed to gain knowledge of solving complex problems, such as mathematical theorems, discovering scientific laws from empirical data, and playing chess. The authors assess the current limitations of this path-breaking program and what would be required to extend it to address problems of higher orders. 467. Newell, Allen and Herbert A. Simon. "The Logic Theory Machine-A Complex Information Processing System." IRE Transactions on Information Theory 2 (1956): 61-79. Description of the structure and use of the Logic Theorist, a program that can discover proofs for theorems in symbolic logic by relying heavily on heuristic methods. The system is written in formal language capable for coding digital computers; however, the discussion does not address the actual computer application. The last part of the paper includes the primitive instructions for the system. The Logic Theorist is widely considered the first artificial intelligence program, and established Simon and Newell among the foremost pioneers of the field of AI. 468. Newell, Allen, and Herbert A. Simon. "Computer Simulation of Human Thinking." Science 134 (December 22, 1961): 2011-2017. Newell and Simon describe the applications of computers to psychological research, and specifically, the simulation of human thought. They discuss the General Problem Solver, a computer program they developed for proving theorems and computer simulation of human thought. 469. Newell, Allen, and Herbert A. Simon. "GPS, A Program That Simulates Human Thought." In Edward A. Feigenbaum and Julian Feldman, eds. Computers and Thought (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963): 279-296. Reports on the General Problem Solver, a pioneering program in early artificial intelligence research. The article outlines how techniques for complex problemsolving with machines have advanced understanding and building theories of human thinking, merging the objectivity of behaviorism with data and complex

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behavior associated with Gestalt psychology. They argue that this indicates how free behavior of intelligent humans can be understood as the product of complex, but finite, laws. 470. Newell, Allen and Herbert A. Simon. "Simulation of Human Processing of Information." American Mathematical Quarterly 72 (1965): 111-118. Introduces sequence extrapolation problems and describes research on utilizing a list processing computer program to solve such problems. Addresses the broader range of problem-solving programs, briefly mentioning Symbolic Automatic Interger (SAINT) and other problem-solvers, as well as list processing languages used to produce them. 471. Newell, Allen and Herbert A. Simon. "Computer Science as Empirical Enquiry: Symbols and Search." Communications of the ACM 19 (March 1976): 113-126. This is the transcript of Newell and Simon's paper given as the Tenth Turing Award Lecture. They argue that computer science is an empirical discipline and that every new machine and program is an experiment. They provide two examples illustrating how computer intelligence is achieved: the development of the notion of a symbolic system and the development of the notion of a heuristic search. To conclude their address, they indicate the two keys to furthering the field of artificial intelligence are: future increases in computational power, and more importantly, attracting a large number of talented computer scientists to this area of inquiry. 472. Nickerson, R. S. "Man-Computer Interaction: A Challenge for Human Factors Research." Ergonomics 12:4 (1969): 501-517. Cites the increasing heterogeneity of computer applications, indicating that there may be as many as 1400 different uses of current computing machines. These users include scientists, engineers, administrators, and others. Nickerson argues that this heterogeneity presents a challenge to psychologists and human factor scholars that has yet to bring a concerted response. Lists three fundamental problems that human factors research should address: development and analysis of languages, determination of how system characteristics impact patterns adopted by users, and modeling of human-computer interaction. 473. Nilsson, Nils J. "A Mobile Automaton: An Application of Artificial Intelligence Techniques." In Donald E. Walker, and Lewis M. Morton. Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (Washington, DC, 1969): 509-520.

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Outlines a research project applying artificial intelligence techniques on a SDS940 computer to develop an integrated robot system to process and store sensory data. Cites the use of a formal theorem proving system to control higher-level functions as a novel feature of the system. 474. Oettinger, Anthony G. "Programming a Digital Computer to Learn." Philosophy Magazine A3 (December 1952): 1243-1263. Oettinger describes his work in programming the EDSAC at the Cambridge University Mathematical Laboratory. His programming allowed an operator to teach the machine to engage in a conditional reflex action. This represents a pioneering effort in teaching a computer to exhibit a form of learning. 475. Oettinger, Anthony G. "Automatic Processing of Natural and Formal Languages." In Proceedings of IF IP Congress 65 (Washington, D. C : Spartan Books, Inc. 1965): 9-16. Oettinger, of the Harvard Computation Laboratory, writes on the current state of artificial intelligence research in the areas of theory and semantics as associated with the automatic processing of natural and formal languages. 476. Oettinger, Anthony G. "The Uses of Computers in Science." Scientific American. 215:3 (1966): 161-172. Important article that proposes that the future impact of computers in the sciences may be more pronounced in developing scientific theories than as a powerful research instrument. The computer's role as an instrument is more established at the current time and Oettinger outlines some of these applications before examining the many potential areas that computers can contribute to the development and understanding of scientific theories. He designates the latter role, the computer as an actor, and perceives the increasing ability of these machines to stretch human reasoning and intuition. 477. Pask, G. "A Discussion of Artificial Intelligence and Self Organization." In Franz L. Alt and Morris Rubinoff, eds. Advances in Computers 5 (New York: Academic Press, 1964): 110-226. Pask provides a "cybernetic analysis" that examines similarities and differences between notions of self-organization and artificial intelligence. He is fundamentally concerned with the interaction between humans and their "intelligent artifacts." 478. Peelle, Howard A., and Edward M. Riseman. "Four Faces of HAL: A Framework for Using Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Computer-Assisted

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Instruction." IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man & Cybernetics 5:3 (May 1975): 375-380. This serves as an introduction to the use of artificial intelligence in computeraided instruction. Provides a solid history in this area and then explores present and future possibilities for computer learning. Examines differences between computer-aided instruction, with and without artificial intelligence techniques and systems. 479. Perlis, Alan J. "Two Thousand Words and Two Thousand Ideas-The 650 at Carnegie." Annals of the History of Computing 8:1 (January 1986): 42-46. Discusses the installation (July 1956) and early use of the IBM 650 at Carnegie Institute of Technology. This account, by the new Director of the school's Computation Center, indicates the smooth transition to using this machine and how it quickly advanced research. He relates that problems of inadequate software for the new hardware were not as severe with the 650 as with previous computers. 480. Quillian, M. Ross. "Semantic Memory." In Marvin L. Minsky. Semantic Information Processing (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1968): 216-270. Begins by discussing broad implications and past research on how semantic information is organized in human memory. He then describes and diagrams a memory model and the use of his memory model in a simulation program. Among other conclusions, he indicates that until some theoretical notion of cognition is included within linguistic conceptions, little will be accomplished with regard to powerful language-processing programs or psychologically relevant theories. 481. Rahimi, M. A., and T. A. Fino. "The PLANIT Computer-Assisted Instructional Language: A Potential Tool for Research in Psychology." Behavior, Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 4:2 (March 1972): 109111. Describes the structure and applications of PLANIT (Programming Language for Interactive Teaching), a language developed by the System Development Corporation under contract from the National Science Foundation. The language was developed for creating writing programs that present text to students, and read and record their responses. 482. Raphael, B. "The Relevance of Robot Research to Artificial Intelligence." In R. B. Banerji and M. D. Mesarovic, eds. Theoretical Approaches to NonNumerical Problem Solving (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1970): 455-466.

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In response to Edward A. Feigenbaum's assertion in 1968 that the major research effort on computer controlled hand-eye machines was an unexpected development of the past five years, Raphael argues that it is a significant extension of past developments in AI, and an important stimulant to the future evolution of the field. 483. Rapoport, Amnon. "Dynamic Programming Models for Multistage Decision-Making Tasks." Journal of Mathematical Psychology 4:1 (1967): 4871. Presents the dynamic programming approach to solving multistage decisionmaking problems. Discusses the results of an experiment involving seventeen subjects to test an adaptive model by evaluating a computer-controlled multistage decision-making task. 484. Reader, A. V. "Steps Toward Genuine Artificial Intelligence." Acta Psychologica 29:3 (1969): 279-289. Argues that Alan Turing's test, a thought experiment where subjects try to differentiate between a human and computer inquisitor, is inadequate to demonstrate genuine machine intelligence. He believes that a computer should successfully have to pass the Turing test ad infinitum to test intelligence; thus, the machine would require the ability to learn. Reader describes a mechanism using versatility and efficiency to evaluate machine learning and states that the hypothetical learning machine he describes would demonstrate "animal-like behavior." 485. Reddy, Raj. "Computer Recognition of Connected Speech." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 42 (1967): 329-47. Describes a computer system, an interconnected IBM 7090-DEC PDP1 including a feature extraction program that divides sounds into segments approximating phonemes, used to transcribe speech. Tests of systems were successful in identifying most vowel and consonant phonemes with time for analysis taking roughly 40 times real time. 486. Reitman, Walter R. "Programming Intelligent Problem Solvers." IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics HFE 2:1 (March 1961): 26-33. Strong overview of past accomplishments, present research, and future possibilities in the evolution heuristic programming systems and their ability to "intelligently" solve problems. Applications in mathematics, symbolic logic, industry and business problems, laboratory tasks, and game playing are

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discussed within the framework of the accomplishments and research strategies of artificial intelligence. 487. Restle, Frank, and Thomas V. Brown. "A Computer Running Several Psychological Laboratories." Behavior, Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 1:8 (1969): 312-317. Outlines the equipment, structure, and methods incorporated in utilizing an IBM 1800 real-time process control computer at Indiana University to run seven different psychological laboratories. Provides considerable detail of all the software and hardware used in automating many aspects of the experiments conducted at these laboratories. Software programs used include: SETUP, PROCEDURE, UTILITY, and OUTPUT. 488. Roberts, Richard B. "Learning and Memory from the Standpoint of Computer Model Building." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 111:6 (1967): 352-358. Discusses the development and testing of a program written in FORTRAN for the IBM 1130 to simulate the behavior of 100 interconnected neurons. Roberts, a member of the Terrestrial Magnetism Department at the Carnegie Institution, is concerned primarily with gaining insights into human memory, learning and adaptive behavior. 489. Rock, Donald A., et al. "A Fortran Computer Program for a Moderated Stepwise Prediction System." Educational & Psychological Measurement 27:3 (1967): 709-713. Describes a program developed in FORTRAN that is general in nature, but can provide information on group interaction of individuals and help determine attributes predicting success given certain parameters. 490. Roemer, Richard A. "Some Interactive Computer Applications in a Physiological Psychology Laboratory." American Psychologist 30:3 (March 1975): 295-298. Describes the applications of Digital Equipment Corporation's PDP-11 and PDP-12 computers in a physiological psychology lab, including instrumental conditioning of animals and training of ongoing electroencephalograms in psychophysiology. 491. Rosenblith, Walter A. "On Cybernetics and the Human Brain." The American Scholar (Spring 1966) 243-248.

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Rosenblith, a professor of communications biophysics in the department of electrical engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, provides an overview of past research and speculation comparing high-speed electronic digital computers to human brains. Critiques focus on questions regarding whether computers provide a good model for the brain or if human uniqueness is a matter only of quantity rather than quality. Instead, he argues that attention should be on more practical questions of how best we can make use of computing technology and achieve a wise division of labor between the "biological and the purely logical." 492. Rosenblueth, A., Norbert Wiener, and J. Bigelow. "Behavior, Teleology, and Purpose." Philosophy of Science 10 (1943): 18-24. Essay that seeks to "define the behavioristic study of natural events and to classify behavior," as well as stress the "importance of the concept of purpose." Within these goals the authors develop a classification tree of behavior and make a number of comparisons between the behavior of humans and the behavior of machines. 493. Sackett, Gene P., Edward Stephenson, and Gerald C. Ruppenthal. "Digital Data Acquisition Systems for Observing Behavior in Laboratory Field Settings." Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 5:4 (July 1973): 344348. Discusses computer coding systems for monitoring and recording behavioral research data. Presents two digital systems, Behavioral Observation Scoring System (BOSS), and MIDCARS. The latter system is available commercially from Electro General Corporation, Hopkins, Minnesota. 494. Sackman, Harold. "Experimental Analysis of Man-Computer ProblemSolving." Human Factors 12:2(1970): 187-201. Explores experimental methods of human problem-solving using stand-alone and time-shared computing systems. Argues that knowledge can be extended from studies of human-computer dialog, and that cross-disciplinary work between the behavioral sciences and computer science can help bridge the "humanistic lag" in human-computer communications. 495. Sakoda, James M. "A Dynamic Allocation Language -DYSTAL." Annals of the History of Computing 6:1 (January 1984): 37-38. This is a short account of DYSTAL, a storage allocation language, by its developer. Discusses non-numerical applications of DYSTAL in psychological

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research that involve list processing, string processing, simulation, and formula translation. 496. Sampson, Jeffrey R., and Iongo Chen. "Computer Simulation of Multiple Strategies in Human Binary Prediction." Psychological Reports 29:3 (Part 2) (December 1971): 1207-1221. Critiques existing models of human binary-prediction behavior, presenting a new computer simulated model. Concludes that preliminary studies indicate that models based on computer simulation of reasonable inferences can be increasingly important in research to understand human cognition. 497. Samuel, Arthur L. "Some Studies in Machine Learning Using the Game of Checkers." IBM Journal of Research and Development 3 (1959): 211-229. IBM researcher reports on a program developed that only provides general parameters of the game of checkers, but allows a machine to beat the programmer. Article concludes that it is now possible to develop learning schemes for machines that will outperform the average person and may eventually be economical to apply to real-life problems. 498. Samuel, Arthur L. "'Artificial Intelligence: A Frontier of Automation." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 340 (March 1962): 10-20. Provides an overview of the past developments, present work, and future possibilities. Serves as an apologia for the potential benefits of artificial intelligence, and challenges critiques of AI that present computers as a source of technological unemployment. Examines two basic approaches to AI research: understanding intellectual processes, and the duplication of specific behavior of the brain. 499. Scholz, Karl W. "Computerized Process Control in Behavioral Science Research." Behavior, Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 4:4 (July 1972): 203-208. Discusses the implementation of automated systems into behavioral research laboratories, using the laboratory at Indiana University as a case study. The focus is on the operating system, but also discusses PROSS, a process control language that is incorporated (See following citation.) 500. Scholz, Karl W. "PROSS: A Process Control Programming Language." Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 5:2 (March 1973): 245247.

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PROSS is a process control language developed at Indiana University that is especially designed for use by psychologists in conducting experiments. Details the genesis structure and applications of PROSS. 501. Searle, John R. "Minds Brains and Programs." The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3 (1980): 417-434. Influential critique of artificial intelligence. He attacks not only the idea that human thought can be programmed, but also that artificial intelligence contributes to cognitive science. He proposes that intelligence not only requires behavior comparable to the human mind, but also the "right causal powers" to be at the base of this behavior. 502. Sebeok, T. A., and V. J. Zeps. "Computer Research in Psycholinguistics Toward an Analysis of Poetic Language." Behavioral Science 6 (October 1961): 365-369. This details a project at Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics on computers and language. The article indicates the interdisciplinary nature of much of early work related to artificial intelligence. 503. Selfridge, Oliver G. "Pattern Recognition and Modern Computers." Proceedings of the 1955 Western Joint Computer Conference (March 1955). 504. Selfridge, Oliver G. "Pandemonium: A Paradigm for Learning." In National Physical Laboratory. Mechanisation of Thought Processes I (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1959): 527-535. Selfridge outlines a model, named Pandemonium, for a process to adaptively learn in conducting pattern recognition tasks that cannot be significantly defined in advance. Offers a speech typewriter as an example of such a machine. Pandemonium, Selfridge argues, has greater flexibility and less restrictions than existing models of computer programs that can "learn." 505. Selfridge, Oliver G., and Ulrich Neisser. "Pattern Recognition by Machine." Scientific American (August 1960): 60-68. Examines the fundamental question of whether or not machines can think, concluding that they can think, but they cannot perceive-a fact sharply distinguishing them from living organisms. Details early pattern recognition work at Lincoln Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, including development and testing of two programs: Morse Automatic Decoder (MAUDE) and a "Pandemonium" (parallel processing) system.

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506. Shackel, B. "Man-Computer Interaction: The Contribution of the Human Sciences." Ergonomics 12:4 (1969): 485-499. Presents a potential taxonomy of the human sciences with regard to computing systems and human-computer interaction. Offers a research agenda for the human sciences to inform theory and practice of human-computer systems. These areas include: the development and evaluation of programming languages; the evaluation of system characteristics; the ergonomic aspects of possibilities for new communication methods at the hardware interface; the software interface; characteristics of human problem-solving in a closed human-computer system; and problems involved with identifying the needs of human users. 507. Shannon, Claude. "A Chess-Playing Machine." Scientific American 182 (February 1950)48-51. This early article on computer chess playing by a leading researcher in this field. Discusses basic process by which a computer is programmed to play a game of chess, and how random generation of equally rated moves can allow the computer to vary its game. Concludes with the fundamental question of whether a computer's ability to play a relatively strong game of chess represents "thinking." Argues that it depends on how the term is defined and provides examples showing how the answer depends on how the question is approached. 508. Shannon, Claude. "Computers and Automata." Proceedings of the IRE (1953): 1234-1241. Shannon provides an early article discussing Turing Machines, logic programs, computers and game playing, and self-reproducing machines. It concludes with a series of provocative questions in the area of thinking machines, many of which represent critical issues explored by researchers of artificial intelligence in the coming years and decades. 509. Shannon, Claude. "Game Playing Machines." Journal of the Franklin Institute 260:6 (1955): 447-453. This is an early and important analysis of the history and current state of research and development (programming) of machines for playing chess, checkers, and other games. Game playing became a primary focus of early artificial intelligence research, and this article, by one of the leading contributors to this research, is critical to understanding the beginnings of this work. 510. Shannon, Claude. "A Universal Turing Machine with Two Internal States" In Claude E. Shannon, and John McCarthy, eds. Automata Studies, Annals of Mathematics Studies 34 (1956): 157-166.

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Reports on theoretical work reflecting that a Universal Turing Machine can be formulated using one tape and possessing two internal states, but is not possible with one internal state. 511. Shannon, Claude. "Von Neumann's Contributions to Automata Theory." Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 64:3 part 2 (May 1959): 123129. Describes how von Neumann spent much of his last years of life working on computers and automata theory and logic and proof theory. Very short sketch of von Neumann's ideas in these areas gives insights into his influence on Shannon's thought. 512. Shure, Gerald H., and Robert J. Meeker. "A Computer-based Experimental Laboratory." American Psychologist 25:10 (October 1970): 962-969. Details a computer behavioral research laboratory in use over the previous six years at the System Development Corporation (SDC). While numerous applications of computers to psychology occurred in the 1960s, Shure argues that few studies in behavioral psychology made use of the full range of opportunities a large-scale general purpose electronic digital computer allows. Expresses that computers have been particularly underutilized as a tool for studying social interaction and complex processes. Article covers the equipment (including a Philco S-2000), set up, methods, and studies of the SDC laboratory. 513. Sidowski, Joseph B. "Various Uses of Minicomputers in Psychology." Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 4:2 (March 1972): 4350. An informative article on minicomputers used in psychology. Gives overview of the relative significance and applications of Digital Equipment Corporation machines as well as others, including Data General's NOVA and SUPERNOVA. Stresses the importance of DECUS, and user groups to the development of the market and applications for scientific users. 514. Sidowski, Joseph B. "Instrumentation and Computer Technology: Applications and Influences in Modern Psychology." American Psychologist 30:3 (March 1975): 191-196. This provides an overview of instrumentation in psychology between 1969 and 1975, with a focus on computing equipment. Discussion includes large mainframes, mini computers, real time networking.

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515. Sidowski, Joseph B., and Sherman Rose. "Instrumentation in Psychology." American Psychologist 24:3 (1969): 187-198. Gives broad sweep of instruments and their applications in psychological research prior to 1969, including significant discussion of computing equipment. 516. Simon, Herbert A. "The Architecture of Complexity." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 26 (1962): 487-82. This is a theoretical article that presents Simon's theory of complex systems by way of a theory of hierarchy. He discusses how complex systems, in their dynamics, possess a property of "near-decomposability" that simplifies their behavior. Simon's ideas on systems were highly influential to his work in the field of artificial intelligence. 517. Simon, Herbert A. "Experiments with a Heuristic Compiler." Journal of the A CM 10 (1963): 493-506. Reports on collaborative research experiments of Simon and Rand Corporation in developing a compiler that utilizes heuristic programming techniques. The research was focused on addressing problems associated with creating more powerful programming languages and compilers. Discusses routines (state description compiler, functional description compiler, and general compiler) for compiling programs in Information Processing Language V (IPL-V), an interpretive list processing language. 518. Simon, Herbert A. "What is Visual Imagery? An Information Processing Interpretation." In Lee W. Gregg, ed. Cognition in Learning and Memory (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1972): 183-204. Utilizing elements of the dominant paired-associate learning paradigm, Simon argues the feasibility and importance of explaining and predicting differences in learning speed based on how information is recognized, represented and processed. 519. Simon, Herbert A. "Allen Newell: 1927-1992." IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 20:2 (April-June 1998): 63-76. Biography that briefly documents the life and accomplishments of Allen Newell, including his childhood and youth, time at Rand, and work on: list processing programming, the General Problem Solver, production system languages, Chess programs, human problem-solving, scientific statesmanship, cognitive software design, the Merlin program, and other areas.

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520. Simon, Herbert A., and M. Barenfeld. "Information Processing Analysis of Perceptual Processes in Problem Solving." Psychological Review 16 (September 1969): 473-483. Proposes theory explaining common phenomenon in perceptual phases of problem-solving and relates that existing computer heuristic and learning programs can produce such common phenomena and parallel human behavior. Discussion is based on a PERCEIVER program developed to monitor behavior information in chess playing. Simon and Barenfeld indicate how this program, in conjunction with EPAM-like recording mechanisms, can account for the ability of masters to remember chessboards after brief exposure. They cite the significance of these experiments to a broader understanding of problem-solving and learning and the potential of serial information processing systems. 521. Simon, Herbert A., and K. Kotovsky. "Human Acquisition of Concepts for Sequential Patterns." Psychology Review 70 (1963): 534-46. Espouses a theory, comprising a language for pattern description and a computer program, to explain the methods people use in the Thurstone Letter Series Completion task. 522. Simon, Herbert A., and Allen Newell. "Heuristic Problem Solving: The Next Advance in Operations Research." Operations Research 6 (JanuaryFebruary 1958) 1-10. Co-written address Simon presented at the Twelfth National Meeting of the Operations Research Society of America, Pittsburgh, on November 14, 1957. Simon relates the interdisciplinary nature of the field, its historical development over the past decade and a half, and prior work in related areas to apply intelligence in a systematic way to management. This discussion introduces the primary argument of the address, that operations research thus far has been limited by the nature of its tools, but recent understanding of heuristic processes and their simulation by digital computers has created a pathway to scientifically address ill-structured problems and help make computers "coextensive with the human mind." 523. Simon, Herbert A., and Allen Newell. "Information Processing Language V on the IBM 650." Annals of the History of Computing 8:1 (January 1986): 4749. Artificial intelligence pioneers recount the history of their work in the development and use of the list-processing language IPL-V on the IBM 650. They stress the importance of the IBM 650 at Carnegie Institute in facilitating the creation of the first prominent list-processing language, and as a training tool

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for many graduate students to learn skills in utilizing computers for complex information processing. 524. Solomonoff, R. J., "Some Recent Work in Artificial Intelligence." Proceedings of the IEEE 54:12 (December 1966) 1687-1697. Discusses work in heuristic programming in the first half of the 1960s that is aimed at enabling machines to improve their own performance and solve problems typically requiring human intelligence. Does a strong job of identifying and briefly explaining major issues and research in artificial intelligence. 525. Spence, Donald P. "Analog and Digital Descriptions of Behavior." American Psychologist 28:6 (June 1973): 479-488. Compares and contrasts the relative merits and shortcomings of digital and analog computing applications to the field of psychology. Comes down on the side of analog equipment, citing its greater flexibility. 526. Taylor, Richard L. "COGLAB: A Computer System Designed for Human Research." Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 4:2 (March 1972): 94-95. Describes the hardware, software, and applications of a computer system set up for human research at Memorial University of Newfoundland. The system consists of a Hewlett-Packard 2114 and is programmed in FORTRAN. 527. Thorpe, Pamela K. "Influence of Cognitive Science in the Development of Production Systems." American Journal of Psychology 106 (1993): 101-119. Although focused on production systems, this article provides a very useful overview of the history of cognitive science and examines the contributions of Allen Newell and Herbert Simon to this history. 528. Tomeski, Edward A., and Michael Klahr. "How Artificial Intelligence has Developed." Journal of Systems Management 6 (May 1986): 6-10. Briefly examines the history of artificial intelligence with regard to broad economic and labor trends. 529. Tonge, D. G. "Logical Properties of the Perceived Behavior Patterns of a Dynamic System." International Journal of Man-Machine Studies 6:6 (November 1974): 715-728.

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Addresses problem of simulating adaptive control processes of human behavior. The fundamental problem arises from the continuous signal sources in the external world and the generally discontinuous representations when real world phenomena is quantified and represented. 530. Turing, Alan M. "Computing Machinery and Intelligence." Mind 59 (1950): 433-460. This is a seminal article that influenced research on artificial intelligence in the following decade and beyond. Turing proposes the fundamental question of whether or not machines can think. He introduces the "imitation game" to analyze the original question and shift it to "are there imaginable digital computers which would do as well [as humans] in the imitation game." Turing concluded that current computers cannot perform as well at the game, but in the coming decades, they will be indistinguishable from human interrogators. 531. Unger, S. H. "Pattern Detection and Recognition." Proceedings of the IRE 47 (October 1949): 1737-1752. Focuses on two types of pattern-processing problems: pattern detection and pattern recognition. Discusses early work on pattern processing problems using an IBM 704 programmed to simulate a stored program computer with master control unit directing a network of logical modules. The program permits relatively large variations in size, shape, and proportions. 532. Uttal, William R. "Buggywhips, Whalebones, and Clipboards: Some Notes on Generating Complex Stimuli with Small Computers." American Psychologist 24:3 (1969): 202-206. Asserts that the past five years have seen a growth in new experimental paradigms and theoretical positions as a result of the proliferation of small inexpensive on-line real time digital computers. Broadly outlines how these machines have transformed psychology research laboratories with regard to response acquisition, data analysis, contingent programming, and immediacy and timing, and then presents two specific display applications at the University of Michigan. 533. Von Neumann, John. "The General and Logical Theory of Automata." In Lloyd A. Jeffress, ed. Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior: The Hixon Symposium (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1951): 1 -31. Von Neumann outlines a theory of automata that seeks to inform cognitive scientists on the methods of mathematicians, and the past, present, and future role of automata in the cognitive and other sciences. He begins by indicating the

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profound and increasing impact automata have had on the natural sciences. Then he examines various traits of human organisms and computing machines, offering a number of comparisons between the relatively less complex machines and the central nervous system. He discusses how the current limitations on artificial automata extend from the large size and limited reliability of the componentry compared to natural ones for highly complex applications. He hypothesizes that while on one level self-reproducing automata are degenerative, there is a certain minimal level where this characteristic is no longer universal. 534. Von Neumann, John. "Probabilistic Logics and the Synthesis of Reliable Organisms From Unreliable Components." In Claude E. Shannon and John McCarthy, eds. Automata Studies, Annals of Mathematics Studies 34 (1956): 4398. Paper is based on notes taken by R. S. Pierce on five lectures von Neumann gave at Cal Tech in January 1952. The theme brought together in these lectures is the role of error, an essential part of synthesis of automata, in logic. Suggests error should be treated by "thermodynamic models." 535. Wang, Hao. "Toward Mechanical Mathematics." IBM Journal for Research and Development 4 (I960): 2-22. Argues that the nature and difficulties between "calculating" and "proving" have been misrepresented and exaggerated as a result of the lack of appreciation of the combined capabilities of mathematical logic and computers. 536. Wang, Hao. "Games, Logic and Computers." Scientific American 213 (November 1965): 98-104. Examines the connection between programming computers to play games and understanding the broader question of what computers cannot achieve. The conclusion is that all mathematics can be reduced, with the concept of Turing machines, to a game of solitaire with colored dominoes. This game achieves this by proving certain problems unsolvable. 537. Weiss, Bernard. "Instrumentation for Operant Behavior Research." American Psychologist 24:3 (1969): 255-258. Indicates that the operant approach to contemporary behavior science is entering a new stage dominated by the digital computer. He cites the great advantage bringing about this change in recent years as a result of stored program capacity of computers and the fact that simple programming can change the parameters of reinforcement schedules and provide more efficient and greater control over

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behavioral experiments. The author discusses the use of both LINC and the PDP-8 in his behavior laboratory. 538. Weiss, Bernard. "Can Computers Answer Behavioral Questions?" Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 5:2 (March 1973): 6779. Answers this question affirmatively, arguing that computer technology has made significant contributions to behavioral research in the past and this will only continue as systems become cheaper and more advanced. 539. Weizenbaum, Joseph. "ELIZA-A Computer Program for the Study of Natural Language Communication Between Man and Machine." Communications of the ACM 9: 1 (January 1965): 36-45. Developed as part of Project MAC at MIT, ELIZA is program operating within a time-sharing system that enables human-computer natural language conversation. The article explores various cognitive issues related to ELIZA as well as future possibilities in this area of research. 540. White, Benjamin W. "Computer Applications to Pyschological Research: Studies in Perception." Behavioral Science 7:3 (July 1962): 396-401. Provides a discussion of a symposium on computer applications in psychological research that was led by White at the 1960 American Psychological Association (APA) Meeting in Chicago as part of White's address to the 1961 meeting of the organization in New York in a symposium on the same topic. He reviews recent perceptual research making use of computers and then discusses the more general impact of computer applications to the thinking of psychologists about perceptual problems. 541. White, Benjamin W. "Studies of Perception." In Harold Borko, ed. Computer Applications in the Behavioral Sciences (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962): 280-307. Discusses advancements in electronic instrumentation for recording and studying audio and visual material. Relates how few studies have been done using computer generated visual displays to assist psychologists doing perceptual research. Gives some indications about possibilities and methodologies for such research, describing equipment, input techniques, pattern transformations, auditory patterns generated by the computer, and automatic pattern recognition.

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542. Wiener, Norbert. "Cybernetics: New Field of Study Looks Into Processes Common to Nervous Systems and Mathematical Machines." Scientific American 179 (November 1948): 14-19. Wiener's article that came out the same year as his famous book on "Cybernetics." He defines the word as representing a new field of study that examines "common elements in the functioning of automatic machines and the human nervous system." Discusses some of the applications of cybernetics in the pathology of the mind. 543. Wiener, Norbert. "Some Moral and Technical Consequences of Automation." Science 131 (May 6, 1960) 1355-1358. A dozen years after writing Cybernetics, Wiener reflects on developments in this area and the social and ethical ramifications. His discussion begins with game playing, evolves into learning, and then the real world significance in terms of war, automation and labor, and other fundamental moral issues. 544. Wilkes, Maurice V. "Can Machines Think?" Proceedings of the IRE 41 (October 1953): 1230-1234. This is a reprint of Wilkes' article in the May 1953 issue of the British publication, Discovery. He critiques Berkeley's criteria for thinking machines, and tries to offer a balanced view to the questions posed~one that avoids excessive claims of computers as giant brains, but recognizes the early theoretical accomplishments of Turing, Oettinger and others towards the goal of thinking machines. The paper addresses computers programmed to imitate humans, discrimination, and generalized learning programs. 545. Winograd, Terry. "A Procedural Model of Language Understanding." In Computer Models of Thought and Language, R. Schank and K. M. Colby, eds. (San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1973): 152-186. Winograd provides an overview of the different methods of language translation and then focuses on modeling language understanding. He indicates the great challenges that remain in developing programs that address a number of concurrent processes without operating under a strict hierarchical structure. He argues that a language model must be able to implement the "heterarchy" of biological systems. Though this is not currently possible, he believes advanced computational models will move toward addressing these challenges. 546. Winograd, Terry. "Strategic Computing Research and the Universities." In Charles E. M. Dunlop, and Rob Kling, eds. Computerization and Controversy:

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Value Conflicts and Social Choices (Boston, MA: Academic Press, 1991): 704716. Provides an important history of strategic (primarily Department of Defense) computing research at universities and the rhetoric and legitimization of projects. 547. Wrigley, Charles. "The University Computer Center." In Harold Borko, ed. Computer Applications in the Behavioral Sciences (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962): 140-171. Begins by discussing the differences between the computing needs of physical scientists and behavioral scientists, and then explores step by step practical issues of concern to behavioral science and computing. He outlines issues such as winning support for computers in behavioral research facilities, assessing computing needs, computer obsolescence, rental versus purchase, programming and personnel, overall functions of a university computer center, and multivariate analysis. He discusses the uses of the ILLIAC, ILLIAC II, IBM Stretch, and other machines. 548. Zadeh, Lotfi A. "Outline of a New Approach to the Analysis of Complex Systems and Decision Processes." IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man & Cybernetics 3:1 (January 1973): 28-44. Makes argument against the application of the quantitative techniques developed over a long period of time for analyzing mechanical and physical systems for research on humanistic systems. Cites the computer as fundamental to establishing and advancing quantitative techniques. Zadeh believes analysis based on linguistic variables and fuzzy algorithms provides an approximate, yet effective, means of describing behavior systems, systems that are too complex and misunderstood to benefit from precise mathematical models. 549. Zimmer, Jules M., and Kathleen H. Cowles. "Content Analysis Using FORTRAN: Applied to Interviews Conducted by C. Rogers, F. Perless, and A. Ellis." Journal of Counseling Psychology 19:2 (March 1972): 161-166. Significant source that demonstrates how FORTRAN can be used to successfully analyze therapeutic interviews.

Serials 550. Artificial Intelligence Journal (1970-Present)

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Shortly after its initiation in 1970 this became the primary scholarly publication in the field of artificial intelligence and is a critical source to understanding the evolution of the field over the past two decades 551. Memo, Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Stanford University (1963ongoing). A half-decade after MIT's Artificial Intelligence Laboratory began publishing "Memos" on research, the Stanford University Lab followed suit. This serial documents the research projects and findings of Stanford University AI researchers. Between 1963 and 1982 there were 346 Memos published. These were compiled as a book and are available at other libraries on microfilm. 552. Memo, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (1958-1985). Part one of this serial contains hundreds of irregularly published "Memos" from 1958 to 1979. The Memos are a very important source that documents the research projects and findings of MIT's Artificial Intelligence Lab over decades. Print and microfilm collections of the complete run of the first series of this publication are held at several dozen research university libraries in the United States.

Manuscript Collections 553. Academic Computing Collection, ca 1950-1985. CBI 61. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. [22 cubic feet]. This collection documents computer development activities at a large number of universities in the United States. It contains materials that give a strong perspective on the nature of academic computer research and development, and provide the grist for analysis of how such work at academic institutions might have differed from that at national laboratories and computer firms. Contains material on artificial intelligence research at some of the institutions. 554. American Association for Artificial Intelligence Records, 1969-1998. Stanford University Libraries, Department of Special Collections, Stanford University. [112.5 linear feet]. The American Association for Artificial Intelligence published AI Magazine. The records include correspondence, submitted manuscripts, conference presentations, audiovisual materials and a full run of AI Magazine.

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555. Berkeley, Edmund C , Papers, 1923-1988. CBI 50. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. [73.25 cubic feet]. This large collection of personal papers details the evolution of Berkeley's ideas prior to and after his writing of Giant Brains, Or Machines That Think (1949), one of the first books on electronic computers written for a popular audience. Berkeley's ideas on robotics and man-machine systems are well-documented in the collection. 556. Bledsoe, Woodrow "Woody" W., Papers, 1950-1996. Center for American History, University of Texas, Austin. [48 cubic feet]. Bledsoe was a computer scientist at the University of Texas whose research focused on automatic theorem proving and artificial intelligence. This extensive collection contains correspondence, project proposals, research reports, course materials, lectures, essays, and films documenting Bledsoe and his laboratory's contributions to the field of artificial intelligence. 557. Feigenbaum, Edward A., Papers. Stanford University Libraries, Department of Special Collections, Stanford University. [86 linear feet]. Feigenbaum served as Director of Stanford Computation Center from 1965-1968 and Chair of the Department of Computer Science from 1976-1981. He has long been a leading artificial intelligence scholar and is commonly credited as the father of expert systems. Feigenbaum collaborated with biological and physical scientists and physicians to develop expert or diagnostic systems that combine a specialized knowledge base with an inference engine in the chemical, geological and medical sciences. Most of the collection is on the development of such systems and other artificial intelligence research at Stanford University. It includes correspondence, administrative records, project files, trip files, proposals, reports, reprints, Artificial Intelligence Lab memos, audio tapes, video tapes, and materials detailing the development of a number of software programs (including DENDRAL, MOLGEN, and, EPAM). 558. Forsythe, George and Alexandra Forsythe Papers. Stanford University Libraries, Department of Special Collections, Stanford University. [40 linear feet]. After serving as a meteorologist for the Air Force during World War II, George Forsythe worked at Boeing and at the Institute for Numerical Analysis at the National Bureau of Standards before accepting a position in the mathematics department in 1957. He quickly developed a strong interest in computers and mathematics and in 1965 he founded the Department of Computer Science at Stanford University, one of the first such departments in the world. The

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collection contains Forsythe's professional correspondence related to the administration of the Computer Science Department, research in computation and mathematics, leadership in professional organizations, and related documentation. The materials provide historical resources on Stanford's emergence as a leading center of artificial intelligence research during the 1960s. 559. Goldstein, Gordon D., Papers, 1950-1979. CBI 68. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. [0.8 cubic feet]. At mid-century Goldstein became Chief Engineer for the Census Bureau in Philadelphia. The following year he shifted to the Navy Department to work as an electronics scientist with the Naval Ordnance Laboratory. He engaged in a project to develop a Russian translation program for the UNIVAC. Contains materials on these events and a number of conferences including the Xth International Conference of Linguistics, 1966-1967. 560. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Industrial Liaison Program Records, 1974-1989. Institute Archives and Special Collections, MIT Libraries, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [11.7 cubic feet]. This collection contains records of Massachusetts Institute of Technology Industrial Liaison Program's domestic and international activities. Includes correspondence, minutes of staff meetings, etc. Some of the material is on Massachusetts Institute of Technology Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. 561. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Laboratory for Computer Science Records, 1961-1988. Institute Archives and Special Collections, MIT Libraries, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [28 cubic feet]. Established in 1963 as Project MAC in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, the Project Mac laboratory (renamed the Laboratory for Computer Science in 1975) drew in individuals from a range of science and engineering disciplines interested in computer applications to their scientific research. The records are particularly strong in detailing some of the important research at MIT on artificial intelligence. The material is also significant in its documentation of the management of this important laboratory. 562. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Servomechanisms Laboratory Records, 1941-1947. Institute Archives and Special Collections, MIT Libraries, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [5 cubic feet]. Small, incomplete, but important collection that provides partial documentation of the important research and development work of this MIT laboratory that was

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run by Jay Forester and conducted the Whirlwind and other important projects. In 1951 it was renamed the Digital Computer Laboratory. 563. McCarthy, John Papers. 1958-1978. Stanford University Libraries, Department of Special Collections, Stanford University. [45 linear feet]. From 1965 to 1980 McCarthy was the organizer and director of Stanford's Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. He invented the computer programming language LISP in 1958. In 1990 he received the National Medal of Science for helping to create the science of artificial intelligence. Papers include: correspondence, memos, reports, course materials, newsletters, articles, reprints, computer manuals, and other materials related to McCarthy's research and teaching at Stanford and MIT. 564. Mooers, Calvin N., Papers, 1930-1990. CBI 81. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. [28 cubic feet]. This collection broadly documents the work of Mooers, the founder and research director of Zator Company. It includes significant records on Zator's entry into artificial intelligence research with a grant in the late 1950s from the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The collection details Mooer's development of the Text Reckoning and Compiling (TRAC) language, an artificial intelligence/text recognition program that combined aspects of LISP, COMIT, and macro facilities in a unique manner. In addition to technical records, there are materials that address the intellectual property context of TRAC. 565. Newell, Allen, Collection. Carnegie Mellon, University Libraries, Carnegie Mellon University. [116 cubic feet]. One of the most important primary source collections on cognitive science and artificial intelligence, containing the research and teaching records of one of the foremost early researchers in these fields. The records include: scientific papers, project reports, manuals, experiment data, student files, correspondence, lecture materials, conference information, publication reprints, interoffice memoranda, printouts of electronic mail, and lecture materials. These records are divided into a dozen series: The Rand Corporation, SOAR, Human Problem Solving, William James Lectures, Unified Theories of Cognition, COGNET, Conferences and Professional Organizations, ARPA, Publications, Programming Instructions, Correspondence, and the Carnegie Computer Science Department. In addition to paper records the collection is comprised of audio cassettes, videotapes, photographs, negatives, computer tapes. A significant portion of the collection has been digitized and is available online, including 145,000 digital images. See http://heinzl.librarv.cmu.edu/Newell/contents.html (Last checked July 2001).

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566. Oettinger, Anthony Gervin, Papers. Harvard University Library, Pusey Library, Harvard University. [9.75 cubic feet]. Oettinger is Gordon McKay Professor of Applied Mathematics and Professor of Information Resources Policy at Harvard University. These papers currently contain correspondence, and research and teaching-related materials on applied mathematics, linguistics, educational technology, and communications from the late 1950s to the early 1970s. His research on linguistics includes computer translation and other artificial intelligence related work. 567. Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory Records, 1940-1972. Harvard University Library, Pusey Library, Harvard University. [11 cubic feet]. Harvard Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory (PAL) was an important center of artificial intelligence and cognitive science work on speech, hearing, and communications beginning in the early years of World War II. In 1962 it was renamed the Laboratory of Psychophysics. Collection includes correspondence, memoranda, reports, etc. 568. Simon, Herbert A. Collection, 1940-, 1950-1990. Carnegie Mellon, University Libraries, Carnegie Mellon University. [62 cubit feet]. This is one of the most important primary source collections in the history of cognitive science and artificial intelligence. The accomplishments of Simon, a pioneer in both fields, cannot be overstated~nor can the value of the documentation of these events and accomplishments in this relatively large collection of personal papers. The materials include correspondence, lecture materials, publications, reprints, awards, and a vast range of audio and audiovisual materials. Highlights of the collection include drafts of Simon's collaborative research with Allen Newell that resulted in Human Problem Solving. 569. Waterman, D. A., Papers, 1961-1987. Stanford University Libraries, Department of Special Collections, Stanford University. [3 linear feet]. Waterman was the first Ph.D. from Stanford University studying Artificial Intelligence. He contributed early foundational research to what is now called "expert systems." In 1975 he joined the Information Sciences Department at the Rand Corporation. The collection includes course notes and research material in computer science, electrical engineering, psychology, and other fields, as well as papers concerning Waterman's dissertation (a card playing program named DEUCE).

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570. Weizenbaum, Joseph, Papers. Institute Archives and Special Collections, MIT Libraries, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. This collection documents Weizenbaum's theoretical research in the fields of cybernetics and artificial intelligence. 571. Wiener, Norbert Papers, 1898-1966. Institute Archives and Special Collections, MIT Libraries, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [22.5 cubic feet]. Wiener, a mathematician and a leader in the development of communication and control theory, coined the term "cybernetics" for this area of scientific inquiry. The collection contains correspondence and manuscripts of Wiener and others. This material thoroughly details the development of his ideas on communication, control, and computing. Oral Histories 572. Amarel, Saul, Oral History interview conducted by Arthur L. Norberg, October 5, 1989 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 176). Amarel discusses his early research in artificial intelligence while he was at RCA. He gives an overview of the artificial intelligence research programs at Carnegie Institute/Carnegie Mellon University and Stanford in the 1960s and his work in establishing the Computer Science Department at Rutgers University in the early 1970s. As part of this, he provides his perspective on the evolving relationship between artificial intelligence and computer science. 573. Buchanon, Bruce G., Oral History interview conducted by Arthur L. Norberg, June 11-12, 1991 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 230). Buchanon relates his research as well as the development of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. He places his work and the laboratory in the context of research in the artificial intelligence field more generally, and discusses the funding of artificial intelligence research by the Department of Defense. He concludes with a comparison of the trajectories of the development and evolution of the fields of artificial intelligence and computer science. 574. Denert, Ernest, Oral History interview conducted by William Aspray, June 29, 1993 (IEEE History Center, Rutgers University).

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This interview contains discussion of the early development of the field of computer science and research in artificial intelligence (formal logic and automata). 575. Feigenbaum, Edward A., Oral History interview conducted by Pamela McCorduck, June 12, 1979 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 14). Feigenbaum outlines the founding and expansion of Stanford University's Computer Science Department. The focus is on the evolution of the department, but he does give some attention to artificial intelligence. He credits the success at Stanford to the insight of George Forsythe and the hiring of John McCarthy. 576. Feigenbaum, Edward A., Oral History interview conducted by William Aspray, March 3, 1989 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 157). Provides brief discussion of Feigenbaum's work on time-sharing and artificial intelligence research at Stanford, but most of the short interview is related to the role the Advanced Research Project Agency played in funding artificial intelligence work. 577. Feigenbaum, Edward A., Oral History interview conducted by Jeffrey R. Yost, October 13, 2000 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH # not yet assigned). Broadly addresses Feigenbaum's research on artificial intelligence, from his work in graduate school with Herbert Simon on learning, memory, and computer programming (including EPAM) all the way to research in the late 1990s. Feigenbaum discusses the important role expert system's work he and others accomplished at Stanford played in revitalizing the field of artificial intelligence and shifting it to important real world applications in chemistry (DENDRAL), medicine (MYCIN), and many other areas (EMYCIN and other expert systems). 578. Fein, Louis, Oral History interview conducted by Pamela McCorduck, May 9, 1984 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 15). Among other topics, Fein discusses the past and future of interaction among "intelligent beings," both human and machine. 579. Huskey, Harry D., Oral History interview conducted by Christopher R. Evans, ca 1976 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 83).

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In addition to discussing his work at the Moore School on the ENIAC project, Huskey relates his research at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in England. Specifically, he addresses his interactions with Alan Turing, Turing's ideas on artificial intelligence, and factors that led to Turing's departure from the NPL. 580. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Oral History Program (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Institute Archives and Special Collections, Cambridge, MA). Five oral histories contained within one collection. Though they have some relevance to computing in the physical sciences, they are more directly focused upon issues of cognitive science and computing. The interviewees include: John W. Carr, a professor of electrical engineering at University of Pennsylvania, Robert R. Everett, president of the MITRE Corporation, Jay W. Forester, a professor of management at MIT, Harold L. Hazen, a professor emeritus of electrical engineering at MIT, and Alan J. Perlis, a professor of computer science at Yale University. 581. McCarthy, John, Oral History interview conducted by William Aspray, March 2, 1989 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 156). McCarthy discusses his research in artificial intelligence after moving from MIT to Stanford University in 1962. He outlines his work in logic-based artificial intelligence and the development of LISP, as well as his research on robotics. He provides a description of the artificial intelligence laboratory at Stanford University and relates the role the Advanced Research Projects Agency had in funding artificial intelligence work. 582. Mooers, Calvin N., and Charlotte D. Mooers, Oral History conducted by Kevin D. Corbitt, June 22, 1993 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, OH 254). Calvin and Charlotte Mooers discuss the formation of the Zator Company and the development and marketing of the TRAC programming language. They also discuss research in inductive inference more broadly. 583. Newell, Allen, Oral History interview conducted by Arthur L. Norberg, June 10-12, 1991 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 227).

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An important resource on the early history of artificial intelligence that broadly covers research of Newell and his colleagues (including Herbert Simon, Raj Reddy, Alan J. Perlis, and others) at Carnegie Institute of Technology (later Carnegie Mellon University) and the Rand Corporation, as well as the larger growth of the artificial intelligence research community. Also discusses Defense Department funding of AI. 584. Nilsson, Nils J., Oral History interview conducted by William Aspray, March 1, 1989 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 155). Provides an outline of Advanced Research Project Agency sponsored research on artificial intelligence at the Stanford Research Institute. Nilsson discusses his research in robotics, natural language, and speech recognition. Most of the interview centers upon his robotics research during the second half of the 1960s and early 1970s. He places this research and development work into the broader field of artificial intelligence and also provides a list of contributions of artificial intelligence research that came out of ARPA-sponsored projects of the 1960s and 1970s. 585. Reddy, Raj, Oral History interview conducted by Arthur L. Norberg, June 12, 1991 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 231). Reddy discusses his research in speech recognition and other areas of artificial intelligence. He provides information and perspectives on: the interaction of researchers at Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Defense Advanced Research Project Agency's funding of artificial intelligence research, and major developments in the field of artificial intelligence from the 1960s into the 1980s. 586. Tareski, Val, Oral History interview conducted by William Aspray, October 15, 1990 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 225). Tareski discusses his work in theoretical computer science as well as the artificial intelligence focus of computer science research by military agencies. 587. Weizenbaum, Joseph, Oral History Interview conducted by Robina Mapstone, April 17, 1973 (Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution). Interview spans Weizenbaum's career from the 1940s through the early 1970s. He discusses the work of programmers on machines used for scientific and business applications in the 1950s. Most pertinent to scientific computing is his

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discussion of the development and use of ELIZA, an important program that had a significant impact on theory and work in the field of artificial intelligence. 588. Winograd, Terry, Oral History interview conducted by Arthur L. Norberg, December 11, 1991 (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, OH 237). Winograd discusses the work of Marvin Minsky and other artificial intelligence researchers at MIT, his move to the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, and his work in linguistics conducted at Xerox PARC.

Chapter Three Biological Sciences Books/Reports 589. Bartcher, Ronald L. Fortran IV Program for Estimation of Cladistic Relationships Using the IBM 7040 (Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas, 1966). This publication contains introductory discussion and the transcription of the code of three programs, CLADN1, CLADN2, and CLADN3, programs that, in conjunction, provide a method for estimating cladistic relationships, or the evolutionary branching sequences, of taxonomic units. The text gives some context and description of the three programs that can be used: CLADN1 computes compatibility matrixes from an original matrix; CLADN2 applies monothetic clustering to the matrix to produce a relative parsimonious cladogram; and CLADN3 performs a number of operations to improve the structure of the procladogram and produces a more parsimonious tree. 590. Bishop, Jerry E., and Michael Waldholz. Genome: The Story of the Most Astonishing Scientific Adventure of our Time—the Attempt to Map All the Genes of the Human Body (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990). This is a well-researched popular account of research on the human genome that gives some indication of computer applications in the field of genetics. 591. Blackwelder, R. E. Taxonomy (New York. John Wiley & Sons, 1967).

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This detailed taxonomy text and reference source demonstrates how taxonomy was still a field divided in the late 1960s. It not only ignores computer applications, but directs the reader to the work of Robert Sokol and others for discussion of numerical taxonomy. 592. Conference on Biologically Motivated Automata Theory. Proceedings of the 1974 Conference on Biologically Motivated Automata Theory, McLean, VA, June 19-21, 1974 (New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1974). Multidisciplinary conference on biology and automata theory bringing together biologists, linguists, psychologists, and other individuals working on artificial intelligence or cognitive science. The conference theme is that there may be a number of useful applications of automata theory to the field of biology in such areas as neurophysiological and embryological systems. The proceedings include full transcripts on papers discussing automata and algae growth, early embryonic development of Snail Lymnaea Stagnalis, the dynamics of language in biology, etc. Although considerable content of the papers is related to AI and medicine, many of the applications are to biology. 593. Davies, R. G. Computer Programming in Quantitative Biology (London: Academic Press, 1971). Davies asserts that the proliferation of digital computers is transforming the education and training of biologists. He provides one of the most thorough practical introductions to the use of computers in this field by covering correlation and regression analysis, matrix techniques, modeling and simulation, and other topics. 594. George, Frank H. Cybernetics and Biology (San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1965). Published as part of a University Reviews in Biology series this book is intended to introduce cybernetics to biologists, and particularly to ethologists or biologists interested in behavioral problems. The focus of the book is where and how biology and cybernetics overlap, which George states, is currently in the area of artificial intelligence. 595. Handler, Philip. Biology and the Future of Man (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970). Major survey of biology written by a distinguished panel of leading biologists. Serves as an introduction and an evaluation to the state of various areas of the discipline, as well as an examination of applications and future impacts. The

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book devotes an entire chapter to digital computers and the life sciences. This chapter discusses image processing, data acquisition, genetics, simulation, and measurement calculations in molecular biology and biochemistry as areas of research and methodologies where computers can be successfully applied. Describes LINC as an example of computer hardware impacted by the life sciences, and calls for more active participation by biologists to help shape computing technology "to their own advancement." 596. International Business Machines. The IBM Taxonomy Application—An Experimental Procedure for Classification and Prediction Purposes. Parts I and II. IBM 704 Program IB CLF. Mathematics and Applications Department. Data Systems Division, International Business Machines. (New York: IBM, 1959). 597. International Business Machines. Electronic Computers in the Life Sciences, FORTRAN Programming and Applications (Los Angeles, CA: International Business Machines Corporation, System Research and Development Center, 1964). Company produced manual that starts by teaching the basics, but moves on to provide extensive instruction for scientists in the life sciences to program in the FORTRAN language. Topical dividers are included for quick reference in basic operations. 598. International Business Machines. Proceedings of IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Statistics (White Plains, NY: IBM Data Processing Division, 1965). Transcripts of important early conference covering a range of different areas in scientific computing, containing particularly strong contributions in the biological sciences. 599. International Business Machines. IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Environmental Sciences. Data Processing Division (New York: IBM, 1966). 600. Jacquez, John A., ed. The Diagnostic Process: The Proceedings of a Conference Sponsored by the Biomedical Data Processing Training Program of the University of Michigan, May 9-11, 1963 (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, 1964). Transcript of eighteen papers and discussion from an important early conference on computer diagnosis. Most take a balanced approach, seeing some potential for future benefits of computer analysis to diagnostic processes, but some

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indicate severe limits to what computers can achieve. (See articles by John A. Jacquez, 860; Lee B. Lusted, 917; and Robert Sokal, 663.) 601. Kevles, Daniel J., and Leroy Hood, eds. The Code of Codes: Scientific and Social Issues in the Human Genome Project (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992). This edited volume represents the best historical study of the early work on the Human Genome Project. It addresses the context of some early computer applications to genetics and provides detailed discussion of the Biological Signal Processor (BISP). 602. Kochen, M., et al. Computers and Comprehension, (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 1964). Memorandum that originated from a four-week symposium on computers and comprehension conducted at the Rand Corporation in the summer of 1963 as part of a symposia series on Mathematical Biology. The group focuses on language comprehension and discusses research that lies at the intersection of biology and artificial intelligence. 603. Lewis, R. Computers in the Life Sciences (London: Crom Helm, 1979). Edited volume that discusses the use of computers in biological and biomedical research and education. Includes such topics as minicomputers used in interfacing with gamma scintillation cameras and teaching biological systems and signal analysis to undergraduates. 604. Orr, Howard. Introduction to Computer Programming for Biological Scientists (Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1973). This is a college textbook to introduce biology students to computer applications in their discipline, in anticipation that the use of computers in the biological sciences will accelerate in the coming decade much like computer applications in the physical sciences did in the previous decade. 605. Proceedings of the San Jose Conference on Health Information Retrieval (San Jose, CA: University of Southern California School of Medicine and International Business Machines Corporation Advanced Systems Development Division, October 7-9, 1959). Conference provides extensive information on the state of computer medical applications at the end of the 1950s. Nearly fifty physicians and IBM System Development Division staff attended this conference. The proceedings include

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the fourteen talks as well as discussion. Among other topics, papers were presented on computers as simulators of disease, computers as aids to diagnosis, information storage and retrieval in cardiovascular disease, and epidemiological studies in the Veterans Administration. The consensus conclusions of the conference emphasize that traditional health information systems are inadequate and that computer information storage and retrieval is already in "a state where it may be applied to the problem." 606. Quastler, H., ed. Essays on the Use of Information Theory in Biology (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1953). Edited volume providing some significant background to the theory behind subsequent computer applications in the biological sciences. 607. Rubin, J. Optimal Taxonomy Program for the IBM 7090 (New York: IBM, 1965). 608. Rubin, J. Optimal Classification into Groups: An Approach for Solving the Taxonomy Problem (New York: International Business Machines, 1966). 609. Siler, William, ed. Computers in Life Science Research (New York: Plenum Press, 1974). Proceedings of the FASEB conference on the computer as a research tool in the life sciences. Many of the presentations address computing in the biological sciences, but there are also some papers on medical informatics and artificial intelligence. The book contains six sections, two on applications, and one each on: equipment, databases, networks, and costs. The section on networks has particularly important contributions to the literature (See articles by M. A. Dayhoff, 625; Rodney B. Harrington and Ronald L. Giese, 632; and F. E. Heart, 633.) 610. Snider, Gregory A. Introduction to Computing Methods in Biology (Iowa City, IA: Regional Computing Center, 1973). 611. Sokal, Robert R., and P. H. A. Sneath. Principles of Numerical Taxonomy. (San Francisco. W.H. Freeman and Co., 1963). This is a classic study outlining the structure and practice of the field of numerical taxonomy. It provides the most extensive treatment of applications of computers to taxonomy when it was published in 1963. In addition to extensive description, it presents a flow chart on the process of conducting numerical taxonomy in seven steps: choosing specimens, discovering and measuring of characteristics, coding characteristics, calculating of affinity between spec-

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imens, clustering specimens into phenons, extracting data on taxa, and identifying specimens. Computers are critical to speeding up the process in the calculation of affinities among specimens. Also examines controversial issues, including the relationship of thought processes to computer applications in taxonomy, and whether or not computers are "superior" to taxonomists. 612. Sterling, Theodore D., and Seymour V. Pollack. Computers and the Life Sciences (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965). Defines the life sciences broadly, with discussion addressing biology, medicine, psychology and social science. The first section, on "anatomy" and "physiology" of robots, discusses both hardware and programming extensively. 613. Tanimoto, Taffee T. An Elementary Mathematical Theory of Classification and Prediction (New York: International Business Machines, 1958). Short document introducing techniques for using modern large-scale electronic computers to advance the analysis of qualitative data in taxonomy, psychiatric diagnosis, and other areas of study where quantification is difficult. 614. Tanimoto, Taffee T., and R. G. Loomis. A Taxonomy Program for the IBM 704 (New York: International Business Machines. Data Systems Division, 1959). Articles 615. Anderson, E. "Natural History, Statistics, and Applied Mathematics." American Journal of Botany A3 (1956): 882-889. Discusses natural history, statistics, pattern recognition, and mathematical applications to genetics and taxonomic research. 616. Arden, Bruce. "Time Sharing: Its Promise and Problems." American Journal of Human Genetics 19:3 (Supplement) (May 1967): 222-232. Article in a supplement of The American Journal of Human Genetics publishing the revised proceedings of a workshop entitled, "The Use of Computers in Human Genetics," held at the University of Michigan, August 15-27, 1966. Analyzes future possibilities of time-sharing with focus on users' activities, software, costs, etc. 617. Blackwelder, R. E. "A Critique of Numerical Taxonomy." Systematic Zoology 16 (1967): 64-72.

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Critique of the methods of numerical taxonomy broadly, with concentration of the critique on Robert R. Sokal and P. H. Sneath's Principles of Numerical Taxonomy. (See 611.) By using computers, Backwelder sees nothing being added to most areas of the science of taxonomy. He does credit statistical methods and computer applications with advancing one specific area of taxonomic research, bacteriological classification. 618. Bonner, Raymond E. "On Some Clustering Techniques." IBM Journal of Research and Development 8:1 (1964): 22-32. Evaluates the potential computer applications, in this case using an IBM 7090, to cluster large amounts of data to allow it to be better understood and analyzed. The discussion generally is on abstract techniques rather than real world applications; however, much of the discussion relates to methods that might prove useful in taxonomy and medicine. One medical application in the health sciences is presented as an example. 619. Bossert, W. '"'Computer Techniques in Systematics." In Systematic Biology. Proceedings of an International Conference (Washington, DC National Academy of Science publication 1692, 1969)595-614. Strong early overview of computers and taxonomy that is followed by a transcript of the subsequent discussion to this paper presented at an international conference on systematic biology held at the University of Michigan, June 1416, 1967. Presents computers as an increasingly powerful tool for taxonomists, but challenges the notion that these machines have produced new systematic techniques or that they pose any threat to taxonomists. 620. Bush, Ian E. "Fast Processing of Chemical Analytical Data on Small Computers." American Journal of Human Genetics 19:3 (Supplement) (May 1967): 755-768. 621. Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., and A. W. F. Edwards. "Phylogenetic Analysis, Models and Estimation Procedures." American Journal of Human Genetics 19:3 (Supplement) (May 1967): 233-257. Article in a supplement of The American Journal of Human Genetics publishing the revised proceedings of a workshop entitled, "The Use of Computers in Human Genetics," held at the University of Michigan, August 15-27, 1966. Discusses a procedure for modeling elements of evolution, and computer applications to this research. Logical content and evaluation of the limits of methods are examined.

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622. Cohen, Dan, and Gavrela Eilam. "Computer Simulation of Biological Pattern Generation by Purely Local Interactions: Lobed and Smooth Boundaries." Computers and Biology in Medicine 1:2 (December 1970): 117223. Botanists from Hebrew University in Jerusalem use a computer simulation to model biological pattern generation by cell interaction. Of broader significance, the work demonstrates the potential feasibility of large-scale determination by short-range local cell interaction. 623. Cox, J. R. "Special Purpose Digital Computers in Biology." In Ralph W. Stacy and Bruce D. Waxman, eds. Computers in Biomedical Research. Volume 1. (New York: Academic Press, 1965): 62-99. One of the most fundamental early works on biological computing. It addresses many techniques of computer applications to biology, including histograms, statistical analyses, analog to digital conversion equipment, and processing graphical information. 624. Dayhoff, Margaret O. "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution." Scientific American 221:1 (1969): 87-95. Discusses the use of computers in genetic analysis to reconstruct natural history and advance biological understanding. More specifically, computer techniques to analyze the relations among protein sequences are outlined. 625. Dayhoff, Margaret O. "Computer Analysis of Protein Sequences." In William Siler, ed. Computers in Life Science Research (New York: Plenum Press, 1974): 9-14. Dayhoff reports on her work using computers to analyze protein sequences during the early 1970s. Includes discussion of how this work has advanced the Atlas of Protein Sequences and Structure. Overall, the short article provides an important perspective of early computer applications in the field of genetics. 626. Driver, H. E. "Survey of Numerical Classification in Anthropology." In E. Hymes, ed. The Use of Computers in Anthropology (The Hague, Netherlands: Mouton, 1965). Although this volume of papers from a conference in Austria in June 1962 is focused on anthropology, it contains some information and analysis relevant to biology, linguistics, and cognitive science.

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627. Eades, D. C. "Theoretical and Procedural Aspects of Numerical Phyletics." Systematic Zoology 19 (1970): 142-171. Relates how computer may facilitate a common ground between conventional and numerical taxonomy through computer analysis of characters. Describes new algorithms for character and cluster analyses and the many tests utilizing computer analysis on four sets of taxonomic data. Results indicate that statistically significant improvements were gained through computer applications to adjusting correlated characters and for weighing characters. 628. Ehrlich, Paul R. "Systematics in 1970: Some Unpopular Predictions." Systematic Zoology 10(1961): 157-158. Predicts the transforming role computers will have in the field of taxonomy by the 1970s, becoming the "most important tool of the taxonomist." Ehrlich estimates that electronic data processing equipment will allow "repeatable and relatively exact assaying of systematic relationships." He also believes that such work will help inform research in other biological disciplines in the area of computer applications, including population genetics. 629. Felsenstein, J. "Numerical Methods for Inferring Evolutionary Trees." Quarterly Review of Biology 57 (1982): 379-404. Geneticist takes a look back at the history of numerical taxonomy. Relates how the use of the computers in the 1950s resulted in the development of phonetic clustering methods for classification, which in turn cultivated interest in the development of explicit numerical techniques to infer phylogenies. 630. Friedland, Peter, and Laurence H. Kedes. "Discovering the Secrets of DNA." Communications of the ACM 28:11 (November 1985): 1164-1186. Takes a historical perspective in discussing past, present, and potential future contributions of pattern recognition and artificial intelligence software developed to help biologists understand how nature operates. Includes discussion of MOLGEN as "intelligence applifier for the biological scientist." Argues that such a system can aid scientists as a result of its thoroughness, lack of prejudice, and coordination of reason. 631. Galucci, Vincent F., and I. H. Shames. "An Electrostatic Computer Model of a Biological Membrane." Computers and Biology in Medicine 1:4 (September 1971): 263-277. Presents computer model of biological cell membranes simulated by planar arrays of dipoles.

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632. Harrington, Rodney B., and Ronald L. Giese. "MIRACLE: A Hierarchical Data Acquisition System for Laboratory Automation." In William Siler, ed. Computers in Life Science Research (New York: Plenum Press, 1974): 195-199. MIRACLE, or Multidisciplinary Integrated Research Activities Complex Laboratory Environments is a real time computer network initiated in 1971 to advance computing in the biological, physical, and other sciences. This brief article addresses the basic hardware as well as some applications of the network. 633. Heart, F. E. "Networks and the Life Sciences: the ARPA Network and Telnet." In William Siler, ed. Computers in Life Science Research (New York: Plenum Press, 1974): 209-215. Briefly outlines some of the primary features and applications of the ARPANET and Telnet in the sciences, with particular attention to the life sciences. The discussion touches upon the economics of scientific research, computer networks, and opportunities for "human" to "human" interaction. 634. Hine, Christine. "Representations of Information Technology in Disciplinary Development: Disappearing Plants and Invisible Networks." Science, Technology and Human Values 20:1 (Winter 1995): 65-85. One of the most important contributions to the history of taxonomy and computing technology, Hine's article begins by providing a useful overview of the role of computing in taxonomy, outlining the evolution of major developments and issues. She then engages in a detailed case study of information systems projects that examines the dual challenge of achieving scientific legitimacy and utilizing computers to "reengineer" the discipline. Specifically, the multi-institutional information system project presented (ILDIS) was developed to study Leguminosae, a plant family making up about eight percent of the world's flora. 635. Hunt, Theodore L. "Margaret O. Dayhoff, 1925-1983." DNA 2 (1983): 9798. Obituary of a prominent research biochemist at Georgetown Medical Center and a member of DNA's Editorial Board. Dayhoff played a major role in the application of computers to biology and medicine. Article describes Dayhoff s work in the early 1960s to use computers in determining protein sequences, as well as other subsequent work in computers and biology. Dayhoff was particularly interested in trying to deduce evolutionary connections of the biological kingdoms, phyla, and groups from protein sequence data.

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636. Jahn, T. L. "Man versus Machine: A Future Problem in Protozoan Taxonomy." Systematic Zoology 10(1961): 179-192. The author states he uses the word future in the title because no taxonomists are regularly applying computers in the field. He cites thirteen potential uses of computers for taxonomic analysis. He briefly discusses the first use of coding biological data for computer analysis by the OSRD project of the ChemicalBiological Coordinating Center (CBCC), which screened anti-malarials in World War II. 637. Jungck, J. R. "Margaret Oakley Dayhoff, "Harnessing the Computer Revolution." American Biology Teacher 47 (1985): 9-10. Short, but significant, article on Margaret Dayhoff, one of the pioneering women in applying mathematics and computers to the field of biology and medicine. The article provides a biography and brief description of her 37-year career. 638. Keller, Evelyn Fox. "The Body of a New Machine: Situating the Organism Between Telegraphs and Computers." Perspectives on Science: Historical, Philosophical, Social 2 (1994): 302-323. A brief, but important contribution to computing and genetics. Fox offers a thoughtful examination of the impact of electronic communication and information processing technology (from the telegraphy to the digital computers) on the representation of the organism in molecular and developmental biology. 639. Lillian, Y. F. Hsu, and Kurt Hirshhorn. "The Potential Usefulness of Computerized Chromosome Analysis in Human Genetics." Computers in Biology and Medicine 2:2 (October 1972): 99-106. This article stresses benefits of computerized chromosome analysis in genetics in the areas of population cytogenics, epidemiology, and preventative medicine. Highlights three types of studies: measurement studies, chromosome aberration incidence studies, and environmentally damaged chromosome studies. 640. MacCluer, Jean W. "Monte Carlo Methods in Human Population Genetics: A Computer Model Incorporating Age-Specific Birth and Death Rates." American Journal of Human Genetics 19:3 (Supplement) (May 1967): 303-312. Article in a supplement of The American Journal of Human Genetics publishing the revised proceedings of a workshop entitled, "The Use of Computers in Human Genetics," held at the University of Michigan, August 15-27, 1966. Discusses the controversial issue of the contribution Monte Carlo methods can make to human population genetics. Discusses several genetics programs in

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FORTRAN II used on an IBM 1130, and their specific applications to genetics research. 641. MacCluer, Jean W., et al. "Some Genetics Programs to Supplement SelfInstruction in FORTRAN." American Journal of Human Genetics 19:3 (Supplement) (May 1967): 189-221. Significant article presenting and analyzing genetic programs to complement self-instruction in FORTRAN based on a workshop held at the Department of Human Genetics at the University of Michigan Medical School. 642. Mi, Ming-Pi. "Segregation Analysis." American Journal of Human Genetics 19:3 (Supplement) (May 1967): 313-321. Article in a supplement of The American Journal of Human Genetics publishing the revised proceedings of a workshop entitled, "The Use of Computers in Human Genetics," held at the University of Michigan, August 15-27, 1966. Reports on SEGRAN program written in FORTRAN IV used on a CDC 3100 computer at the Department of Genetics at the University of Hawaii to analyze: data with arbitrary segregation ratios, frequency and incidence in sporadic cases, and separation of mutations, phenocopies, and incomplete penetrance. 643. Michener, C. D. "Symposium: Interactions of Phyletic and Phenetic Taxonomies." Systematic Zoology 14 (1965): 174-175. Concise statement about the ongoing advance of numerical taxonomy and the state of more traditional taxonomic methods, issues having significant impact on the use of computers in taxonomy in coming years. 644. Murphy, Edmond A., and David R. Boiling. "Testing Single Locus Hypotheses Where There is Incomplete Separation of the Phenotypes." American Journal of Human Genetics 19:3 (Supplement) (May 1967): 322-334. Article in a supplement of The American Journal of Human Genetics publishing the revised proceedings of a workshop entitled, "The Use of Computers in Human Genetics," held at the University of Michigan, August 15-27, 1966. Examines computer applications of decomposition of Gaussian populations to test the data's confirmation of a Mendelian hypothesis. 645. Newcombe, Howard B. "Record Linking: The Design of Efficient Systems for Linking Records into Individual and Family Histories." American Journal of Human Genetics 19:3 (Supplement) (May 1967): 352-366.

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Discusses using computers in linking records of individuals and families. As opposed to mathematical calculation, the computer serves essentially the role of a filing clerk. Indicates that using computers for such applications in genetics has been fruitful with regard to accuracy, speed, and cost. 646. Patrick, E. A., et al. "Computer Controlled Picture Scanning with Application to Labeled Biological Cells." Computers in Biology and Medicine 2:1 (February 1972): 5-14. Outlines two electrical engineers and a biologist's system for high-speed automatic processing of photographic images for biological and medical research. Method allows examination of a part of an image without storing the entire image in the computer's memory. 647. Proctor, J. R., and W. B. Kendrick. "Unequal Weighting in Numerical Taxonomy." Nature 197 (1963): 716-717. Discusses the use of mathematics as a tool in taxonomy, providing context for understanding early computer applications to this field of study. 648. Randall, James E. "The Analog Computer in the Biological Lab." In Ralph W. Stacy and Bruce D. Waxman. Computers in Biomedical Research. Volume 1 (New York: Academic Press, 1965): 65-86. Step-by-step guide to programming and use of analog computers for various projects in a biological laboratory. 649. Renwick, J. H. "A Program-Complex for Ecoding, Analyzing, and Storing Human Linkage Data." American Journal of Human Genetics 19:3 (Supplement) (May 1967): 360-367. Article in a supplement of The American Journal of Human Genetics publishing the revised proceedings of a workshop entitled, "The Use of Computers in Human Genetics," held at the University of Michigan, August 15-27, 1966. Asserts that the limiting factor in human linkage research has shifted from data storage to analysis of time. Discusses a system incorporating a number of software programs, including NULINK, COMPARE, PEDCOD, PRUNE, ELIM, and SELINK, for gathering and storing linkage results from multiple marker pedigree data. 650. Rogers, David J. "Recent Endeavors with Computers in Taxonomy." Garden Journal (1961): 201-204.

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Brief but generally good overview of the current practice and perceptions regarding computer applications to the field of taxonomy. 651. Rogers, David J. "Taximetrics: New Name, Old Concept." Brittonia 15 (1963): 285-290. Argues that the new systematics in taxonomy that broadened the field to incorporate more comparative studies of ecology, physiology, and genetics at the species level, still included many earlier elements of taxonomy. Relates how the most significant new element is the application of the electronic computer to taxonomy, and discusses the mathematic and computer programming skills that are needed to supplement knowledge in taxonomy to fully benefit from the new machines. 652. Rogers, David J., et al. "Use of Computers in Studies of Taxonomy and Evolution." In T. Dobzhansky, M. K. Hecht, and W. C. Steere, eds. Evolutionary Biology 1 (1967): 169-196. Provides strong overview and analysis of the first ten years of the use of data processing applications to taxonomy and phylogenetic studies. Begins with an examination of the interdependence of biologists and mathematicians to this area of study before examining computers as a research tool in comprehending evolutionary problems, changes in genetic composition of populations, morphologic changes, and taxonomic progression and diversification within a complex of larger taxonomic scope. 653. Rogers, David J., and Taffee T. Tanimoto. "A Computer Program for Classifying Plants." Science 132 (1960): 1115-1118. Presents the double-edged problem faced by taxonomists in plant classification, classical methods being too slow and statistical methods too laborious. Sees the application of electronic computers as an answer to this problem. Describes use of a computer program that allows the taxonomist to have complete control over the process of comparing and classifying information, but the computer greatly advances the efficiency of the work. 654. Rohlf, F. James. "Multivariate Methods in Taxonomy." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of IBM Scientific Computing on Statistics (White Plains, NY: IBM Data Processing Division, 1965) 3-14. Examines the application of multivariate statistical methods in the field of taxonomy, indicating current and potential future use of computing technology in this area. States that high-speed electronic computing has largely been the impetus for the rising interest in the theoretical basis of taxonomy and growth of quantitative methods of classification over the past several years.

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655. Rohlf, F. James, and Robert R. Sokal. "Taxonomic Structure from Randomly and Systematically Scanned Biological Images." Systematic Zoology 16 (1967): 246-260. Cites the inability of current taxonomic procedure to measure the diversity of organisms at speeds that present computing technology is capable of handling. Suggests that optical scanners will probably have a more significant impact on the field of taxonomy than other automated recording tools. These devices take objects, drawings, photographic images, microbes, or other sources and measure them by a designated criteria into numerical code and record them on IBM punched cards. 656. Rollins, Reed C. "On the Bases of Biological Classification." Taxon 14 (1964): 1-6. While recognizing that digital computers have extended the possibilities for utilizing information and improving systems of classification, Rollins stresses that computers are scientific instruments, like microscopes, that are useful, but do not insure objectivity. Argues that the "fad of computerism" is being used as a promotional lever to gain recognition for certain methods or to discredit traditional taxonomic practices. 657. Saunders, P. T. "Alan Turing and Biology." IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 15:3 (1993): 33-36. During Turing's final years at Manchester University his research included work in morphogenesis. His reaction-diffusion model of pattern formation became highly influential in the field of theoretical biology. Saunders shows analogies and discontinuities between Turing's work in this area and in computing. 658. Schoenfeld, Robert L. "The Role of a Digital Computer as a Biological Instrument." Computers in Biology and Medicine 115 (July 31, 1964): 915942. 659. Schull, William. "On the Use of Computers in Human Genetics." American Journal of Human Genetics 19:3 (Supplement) (May 1967): 183-188. Introductory article in a supplement of The American Journal of Human Genetics publishing the revised proceedings of a workshop entitled, "The Use of Computers in Human Genetics," held at the University of Michigan, August 1527, 1966. This article provides a brief history on computing applications to human genetics. Emphasizes the many areas computers can contribute to genetics, listing several important applications: collating, editing and analysis of

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data; simulation through Monte Carlo techniques; representation of threedimensional structures; and as teaching aids. 660. Simpson, George G. "Numerical Taxonomy and Biological Classification." Science 144 (1964): 712-713. This gives a brief overview of the evolution of numerical taxonomy. States that advanced quantitative methods of numerical taxonomy had little chance to significantly advance prior to the advent and initial use of electronic digital computers in the 1950s. 661. Sneath, P. H. A. "The Application of Computers to Taxonomy." Journal of General Microbiology 17 (1957): 201-226. Outlines a technique for processing large amounts of taxonomic data using a digital computer. Compares possibilities along these lines with conventional classification techniques. 662. Sneath, P. H. A. "Computers in Bacterial Classification." Advancement of Science 20 (1964): 572-582. Sneath, of the National Institute for Medical Research, gives a brief overview of numerical taxonomy and indicates how computers can be applied to this field, and particularly, to bacteriological classification. 663. Sokal, Robert R. "Numerical Taxonomy and Disease Classification." In John A. Jacquez. The Diagnostic Process: The Proceedings of a Conference Sponsored by the Biomedical Data Processing Training Program of the University of Michigan, May 9-11, 1963 (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, 1964). This is an article heavy on description of computer applications to taxonomy, but light on actual discussion of illness, diagnosis, and medical treatment. Sokal describes the change in taxonomic work by applications of data processing equipment as revolutionary. Indicates some of the general processes of taxonomic applications to understanding diseases. 664. Sokal, Robert R. "Statistical Methods in Systematics." Biological Reviews 40 (1965): 337-391. Provides extensive discussion and analysis of the use of statistics in gaining understanding of taxonomic data. At the end of this lengthy article the author examines the various computer applications to the statistical analysis discussed earlier. He emphasizes the importance of automatic programming languages

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such as FORTRAN for writing statistical programs and advancing the methods and practice of taxonomic research. 665. Sokal, Robert R. "Numerical Taxonomy." Scientific American 215:12 (1966): 106-116. Important early article detailing the recent impact high-speed electronic computers have had on classification in the biological sciences. Use of computers in biological classification, has fueled controversy and disagreement between numerical taxonomists and traditional taxonomists. Sokal argues that biological taxonomy will be influenced by the computer in many ways beyond numerical taxonomy, such as the storage and retrieval of taxonomic information. 666. Sokal, Robert R. "Classification: Prospects." Science 185 (1974): 1115-1123.

Purposes, Principles, Progress,

Outlines the history, theory, methods, and applications of the science of classification. Indicates that many ideas on the mathematics of classification predate electronic digital computers; nevertheless, the impact of the proliferation of these machines on the interest and achievement in the science of classification has been substantial. Although Sokal's area of primary research is taxonomy, he indicates the many other sciences in which computers have been used to aid "classification," including: medicine, psychiatry, and physical anthropology. 667. Sokal, Robert R. "The Principles of Numerical Taxonomy; Twenty-Five Years Later." In M. Goodfellow, D. Jones, and F. G. Priest, eds. Computerassisted Bacterial Systematics (Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1985). Recounts and reflects on the origins of numerical taxonomy, giving his perspective on his role in pioneering research in this area. 668. Sokal, Robert R., and J. H. Camin. "The Two Taxonomies: Areas of Agreement and Conflict." Systematic Zoology 14 (1965): 176-195. Examines the present and theorizes about the future relationship of conventional and numerical taxonomy. Included in this discussion is a brief examination of the practical problems involved with the recent application of computing systems to many aspects of systematics and the automation of museum techniques. 669. Sokal, Robert R., and P. H. A. Sneath. "Efficiency in Taxonomy." Taxon 15(1966): 1-21. Discusses the recent evolution of the field of taxonomy and the controversy surrounding numerical taxonomy or the quantification of the classificatory

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process. Discusses the many benefits of the use of computers to numerical taxonomy, including: the rapid calculation of the similarity of coefficients among taxa; the ability to generate classifications based on taxonomic structure by a varied number of defined characteristics; and basic storage and searching of large quantities of information. Also discusses time-sharing and the many opportunities this provides, particularly for smaller more isolated institutions, as well as the training of systematists, or numerical taxonomists. Believes that greater future interaction between electronic data processing specialists and taxonomists can yield more effective hardware and software systems to advance the efficiency and quality of work in taxonomy. 670. Vernon, K. "The Founding of Numerical Taxonomy." British Journal for the History of Science. 21 (1988): 143-159. This is an important historical treatment of the development of numerical taxonomy. Discusses the different individuals and groups of researchers that contributed to this new approach during the late 1950s and early 1960s, including Robert Sokol, H. A. Sneath, A. J. Cain, and G. A. Harrison. Common elements of the work of these researchers are identified to indicate the emergence of a relatively coherent set of features defining numerical taxonomy by the early 1960s. During that decade, and particularly in the following ones, computers became an important tool used to conduct and advance numerical taxonomy. Vernon argues that the computer was not, however, very influential to the invention of numerical taxonomy. 671. Vernon, K. "Desperately Seeking Status: Evolutionary Systematics and the Taxonomists' Search for Respectability, 1940-1960." British Journal for the History of Science. 26 (1993): 207-227. Provides additional context on evolutionary systematics for the state of the field of taxonomy at the time numerical taxonomy was emerging and computers were first starting to be used in the field. 672. Walker, Geoffrey, and Charles J. Kowalski. "Computer Morphometrics in Craniofacial Biology." Computers in Biology and Medicine 2:3 (November 1972): 235-249. Discusses quantification, analysis, and simulation of the growth of craniofacial complex using data from lateral x-ray films. 673. Walter, Charles. "A Possible Relationship Between Continuous and Discontinuous Events in Biological Systems: Multi-stationary States in Chemical Systems." Computers in Biology and Medicine 1:3 (April 1971): 215-221.

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Describes study of biological control systems, indicating that multiple stationary states arise. 674. Weinberg, Roger and Ronald E. Morgan. "Ecological Problems." In Harold Sackman, and Harold Borko. Computers and the Problems of Society (Montvale, NJ: AFIPS Press, 1972): 339-384. Provides examination and discussion of computer applications to a number of environmental and ecological problems. Discusses ongoing computer simulation work related to grassland ecosystems, epidemic and epizootic waves, salmon streams, salmon pools, carbon monoxide in the atmosphere, and biogeochemical cycles. A number of systems, particularly the ILLIAC IV, and software programs are discussed. The authors argue that computers will contribute significantly to addressing ecological problems in the future by: improving weather forecasting, planning optimal resource use, improving decision-making through providing data on alternate ecological policies, and planning and implementing pollution control. 675. Wilson, Edward O. "A Consistency Test for Phylogenies Based on Contemporaneous Species." Systematic Zoology 14 (1965): 214-220. While the focus of this article is not on the use of computers in taxonomy, it provides important context for understanding the relative attributes and shortcomings of evolutionary and numerical taxonomy. The latter is shown to be very useful, but only in certain situations. Wilson's partial critique of numerical taxonomy indicates the limits of these methods in the broader field. 676. Yeisley, Warren G., and Ernest C. Pollard. "Analog Computer Study of Differential Equations Concerned with Bacterial Cell Synthesis." Journal of Theoretical Biology 1 (1964): 485-503. Reports on a study of bacterial cell synthesis using differential equations and an analog computer system. These Pennsylvania State University biophysicists conclude that the analog computer is a powerful tool in describing the nature of bacterial cells in a simplified form.


Chapter Four Medical Sciences Bibliographies, Dictionaries, and Other Reference Sources 677. Allen, Ruth. An Annotated Bibliography of Biomedical Computer Applications (Interuniversity Communications Council, Inc., 1969). Annotated bibliography that surveys a wide range of articles on computers and medicine in medical journals between 1964 and 1967. As stated in the introduction, the focus of the annotations is on chronicling computing machines rather than discussing the scientific/medical applications. 678. Cortada, James W. A Bibliographic Guide to the History of Computer Applications, 1950-1990 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996). An annotated bibliography that broadly addresses the many different areas of computer applications in the four decades after the advent of digital computers. The bibliography is especially strong in business applications, but also has brief sections on medical informatics, scientific research, and artificial intelligence. 679. Olsen, Nancy, and K. C. Tsien. Medical Information and Computers (New York, 1972). This bibliographical work is a valuable resource for its citations of international books and scholarly articles on some specific areas of medical computing in the 1960s. Works from Japan, Germany, Great Britain, Russia, France, the United States and other countries are included. Roughly one-third of the sources are

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annotated. Focus is on sources documenting computing systems used to record information on specific diseases and the application of these systems for diagnostic and other purposes. The volume does not contain sources on some important areas of medical informatics, including: computer monitoring, EKG analyses, computers used for psychiatric purposes, Hospital Information Systems, and radiation dose treatment planning. 680. Shahid, K. M., et al. Involvement of Computers in Medical Sciences (Amsterdam: Swets and Zeitlinger, 1969). This is a significant bibliographic contribution, particularly on the international literature of computers in the medical sciences from the 1960s. Some entries are annotated and there are short sections on: hospitals, dentistry, diagnosis, anesthesiology, biochemistry, gastroenterology, cardiology, neurology, psychology, pharmacology, and other topics. Contains an author and subject index. 681. Turner, Arch H., Jr. ed. Computers in Medicine Bibliography (Columbia, MO: Medical Center Library, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, 1965). A good source for early citations of medical computing articles appearing in medical journals and books from the late 1950s through 1964. Citations are not annotated and are presented by title and by a code. Bibliography neglects articles outside traditional medical literature that address medical informatics. 682. Wagner, G., et al. "Problems of Medical Diagnosis: A Bibliography." Methods of Information in Medicine 17 (January 1978): 55-74. This is a significant bibliography on medical diagnosis. Citations are listed in alphabetical order, but a subject category list of numbered sources is included at the end. Overall, this is a useful source, but is limited to medical literature (excludes computer related publications) and does not contain any annotations.

Books/Reports 683. Abernathy, William J., Alan Sheldon, and Coimbatore K. Prahalad, eds. The Management of Health Care (Cambridge, MA: J. Lippincott, 1974). Edited volume bringing together the work of physicians, social scientists, and management theorists on implementation, efficiency, and ethics of medical computing systems. (See articles by William J. Abernathy, 735; and Morris F. Collen, 792.)

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684. Abrams, M. E., ed. Medical Computing (New York: American Elsevier Publishing Co., 1970). Papers from invited conference entitled, "Medical Computing: Progress and Problems" held at the University of Birmingham, January 6-10, 1969. The papers provide a number of case studies and overviews of medical informatics in Great Britain. Topics include the use of computing in biochemistry, pathology, pattern recognition, diagnostic processes, radiotherapy, medical education, and patient monitoring statistics. (See papers by J. Anderson, 745; W. L. Card, 787; C. A. E. Davis, 805; D. Hicks, 851; M. D. Lawton, 881; A. I. Llewelyn, 907; D. W. Neill, 930; J. A. Newell, 931, G. B. Newman, 933; and B. Richards, 953.) 685. Anderson, James G., and Stephen J. Jay. Use and Impact of Computers in Clinical Medicine (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1987). Most of this edited volume is focused on present and future policy, but a few of the articles take a historical approach to assessing uses and impacts of computers in medicine. (See articles by Bonnie Kaplan, 865; and Everett M. Rogers, 956.) 686. Anderson, John, and J. Malcolm Forsythe. Proceedings of the First World Conference on Medical Information Volume one (MEDINFO) (Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Company, 1974). The papers of the first "world conference" on medical informatics that was held in Stockholm, August 5-10, 1974. Includes over four dozen short talks on the following broad topical areas for a wide range of European countries: policies for introducing computers in health services, management techniques of implementation efforts, evaluation of medical information systems, confidentiality and security, staff education on computing, impact of medical computing on practice and people, health database development, case studies of computer medical information systems, and improving hospital administration. 687. Anderson, John, and J. Malcolm Forsythe. Proceedings of the First World Conference on Medical Information Volume two (MEDINFO) (North Holland Publishing Company, 1974). The papers of the first "world conference" on medical informatics that was held in Stockholm, August 5-10, 1974. Includes over three dozen short talks on the following broad topical areas in a wide range of European countries: the theory and practice of medical diagnosis, signal analysis, computers and intensive care, image processing, drug data handling, medical linguistics, and computers in the clinical laboratory.

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688. Barber, B., and W. Abbott. Computing and Operational Research at the London Hospital (London: Butterworths, 1972). A thorough case study of the decision-making, early organization, and use of a computing system at the London Hospital. The ICL 803, installed in 1964, was one of the first computers in the U.K. utilized for medical applications. The description and analysis builds up to the implementation of real-time computing capabilities at the hospital. The book also contains a very useful appendix listing all the "National Health Service Computer Installations" in Great Britain from 1964 to 1972. 689. Blum, Bruce I., and Karen Duncan. A History of Medical Informatics (New York: ACM Press, 1990). Significant volume on the development of medical informatics. Includes the transcripts of papers by medical computing practitioners at an important conference addressing many different aspects of the field. Major topical areas include: computing systems, signal and image processing, clinical processing, health information systems, patient management systems and clinical decisionmaking. 690. Caceres, Cesar A., ed. Biomedical Telemetry (New York: Academic Press, 1965). Provides an overview of telemetry in medicine, a precursor to online computer monitoring systems. It briefly discusses use of remote computers in medical telemetry. 691. Caceres, Cesar A., and Arthur E. Rilki. Diagnostic Computers (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1969). Addresses the pros and cons of computers in medical data storage and diagnosis, and provides a brief history of research, development, and implementation of early clinical diagnostic computers. 692. Caceres, Cesar A., and Leonard S. Dreifus, eds. Clinical Electrocardiography and Computers (New York: Academic Press, 1977). Edited volume exploring the use of computers in electrocardiography. Topics include: computerized instrumentation, computer programming techniques (including time-sharing), electrocardiogram monitoring, case studies of medical diagnostic computing centers, and overviews of the historical use of computers in cardiology. (See articles by Alan S. Berson, 767; Cesar A. Caceres, 783; Lee

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D. Cady, 784; Robert J. Dobrow, 810; Howard M. Hochberg, 854; Jack D. Klingeman, 872.) 693. Collen, Morris F. Hospital Computer Systems (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974). Edited volume providing case studies of early computing information systems at United States and British hospitals. Other articles in the volume outline a practical approach to implement medical computing systems in healthcare institutions. 694. Enslein, Kurt, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 1 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1961). One of the best early sources on early medical informatics, this annual conference (held in 1961) brought together most of the pioneering physicians and other professionals in this field and addressed a broad range of fundamental issues and topics. Sessions include: Computers in Biology and Medicine, Computers and Psychiatry, Pattern Recognition, Clinical and Research Instrumentation for Biological Systems, and Instrumentation for ECG. A minority of the papers relate more directly to cognitive science, but most focus on medical applications (Lee B. Lusted, 912; Robert H. Morris, 925; D. F. Parkhill, 939; V. Pipberger, 943; Royden N. Rand, 949.) 695. Enslein, Kurt, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 2 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1962). Significant work on early medical informatics, this annual conference (held in 1962) brought together most of the pioneering physicians and other professionals in this field and addressed a broad range of fundamental issues and topics. Sessions include: Keynote Address, Analysis in Medical Research, AnalogDigital Approaches and Relationships, and Diagnostic Procedures and Treatment. (See papers by Kurt Enslein, 811; William J. Lennon, 899; Vaun A. Newill, 932; and Eugene L. Saenger, 963.) 696. Enslein, Kurt, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 3 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1964). Important resource on early medical informatics, this annual conference (held in 1963) brought together some of the pioneering physicians and other professionals in this field and addressed a broad range of fundamental issues and topics. Sessions include: Keynote Address, The Computer, the Physician and the Hospital, Computer Diagnosis, Computer Applications in Psychiatry and Psychophysiology, Information Retrieval, Limitations and Potential of Computer

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Processing and Analysis, and Modeling and Pattern Recognition (See papers by Eugene Agalides, 739; J. W. Butler, 780; John E. Gustafson, 843; Roger A. Hopkins, 856; and Joseph Jaffe, 861.) 697. Enslein, Kurt, and John F. Winslow, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 4 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1966). Useful volume reporting on medical informatics conference held in 1964. (See papers Norman I. Harway, 849; and Howard P. Iker, 849.) 698. Enslein, Kurt. ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 5 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968). Significant source on early medical informatics, this annual conference (held in 1965). (See papers by Howard J. Barnhard, 756; Julius Korein, 876; Richard Moore, 924; and L. E. Ostrander, 936.) 699. International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 3rd IBM Medical Symposium (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1961). I have found no indication that the papers from either the 1st and 2nd IBM Medical Symposium were published. My correspondence with the IBM Corporate Archives corroborates this. References made to these first two conferences in the third and later symposia do not include page numbers. Thus, this third symposium, composed of about two dozen papers, appears to be the first of the IBM Symposiums published. Topics include: profiles of early medical computing centers and research programs, computing and genetics, artificial intelligence in medicine, and computing and electrocardiography. (See papers by W. Ross Adey, 738; Robert C. F. Bartles, 758; Reginald G. Brickford, 775; Callahan, Arthur B., 785; C. S. Chung, 788; Felix E. Moore, 758; Edmond A. Murphy, 927; James Shannon, 970; and Bruce D. Waxman, 1002.) 700. International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 4th IBM Medical Symposium 1962 (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1962). Transcripts of several dozen papers presented at the 1962 IBM Medical Symposium, most of which are directly related to some aspect of medical informatics. Topics, among others, include computer applications in biology, nuclear medicine, public health, medical research, therapeutics, clinical diagnosis, and medical information systems. (See papers by Joel D. Aron, 945; Ralph W. Gerard, 829; Arcadio M. Neill, 954; Richard E. Ogburn, 935; Arnold W. Pratt, 945; James S. Robinson, 954; Harold P. Rome, 958; and Franklin D. Yoder, 1013.)

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701. International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 5th IBM Medical Symposium 1963 (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1963). Transcripts of several dozen papers presented at the 1963 IBM Medical Symposium, most of which are directly related to some aspect of medical informatics. Topics, among others, include: computer diagnosis of heart disease, dynamic programming, neural network models, and computers and prediction in interdisciplinary psychiatric research. (See papers by Robert A. Bruce, 779; Belmont G. Farley, 813; James V. Maloney, 919; Osier L. Peterson, 941; and James W. Sweeney, 988.) 702. International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 6th IBM Medical Symposium 1964 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1964). Transcripts of several dozen papers presented at the 1964 IBM Medical Symposium, most of which are directly related to some aspect of medical informatics. Topics range from computer center operations at hospitals and computer aided diagnostics, to computing and psychiatric analysis and computers and genetics. (See articles by Raymond E. Bonner, 772; Victor A. McKusick, 921; Robert P. Rich, 952; Howard P. Rome, 959; Samuel A. Talbot, 989; and George N. Webb, 1003.) 703. International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 7th IBM Medical Symposium 1965 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1965). Conference papers exploring a number of different issues in medical computing. Includes a heavy concentration of papers on using computers to control and access references to ever expanding medical literature, as well as computer applications in patient monitoring. (See papers by Morris F. Collen, 790; J. Gottlieb, 835; J. B. Hartgering, 848; Arnold Lazarow, 882; George Stobie, 985; and Donald Wortzman, 1011.) 704. International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 8th IBM Medical Symposium 1967 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1967). Transcripts of several dozen papers presented at the 1967 IBM Medical Symposium, most of which are directly related to some aspect of medical informatics. Topics, among others, include: regional medical programs, international monitoring and data processing, computer applications to clinical practices, computers and medical education, pictorial data processing methods in microscopy, computer automation of radiation treatment planning, and blood cell separators. (See papers by Stephen Ackerman, 737; Burgess L. Gordon, 832; Frederick J. Moore, 923; and Judith M. S. Prewitt, 946.)

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705. International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 9th IBM Medical Symposium 1968 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1968). Transcripts of about two-dozen papers presented at the 1968 IBM Medical Symposium, most of which are directly related to some aspect of medical informatics. Topics, among others, include computer applications to medical education, surgical diagnosis, radiology, and preventative medicine. Also discussed is the impact of computer time-sharing on medicine. (See papers by Allan H. Levy, 902; Osier L. Peterson, 942; Rhett F. Tsao, 993; and Carlos Vallbona, 996.) 706. Knights, Edwin M. Jr., eds. Mini-Computers in the Clinical Laboratory (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1970). Provides analysis on a variety of areas in the application of computers in medical laboratories. Includes discussion of the use of mini-computers versus other types of machines and the use of computers for quality control in clinical laboratories. (See articles by William R. Dito, 808; and Edwin M. Knights, Jr., 873.) 707. Lederberg, Joshua. Computation of Molecular Formulas for Mass Spectrometry (San Francisco, CA: Holden-Day, Inc., 1964). Lederberg briefly discusses the future role that digital computers will have in analysis of a mass spectrum using high-resolution instrumentation and data reduction. He addresses the economically driven shortage of digital computers in scientific laboratories today, and provides mathematical tables to aid the work of scientists in this area until these machines become more readily available. His discussion is of particular interest given his pioneering work with Edward Feigenbaum and others a half decade later in developing a mass spectrum analyzing expert system, DENDRAL. 708. Ledley, Robert S. A Digitalization, Systemization and Formulation of the Theory of Methods of the Prepositional Calculus. National Bureau of Standards Report No. 3363 (National Bureau of Standards, 1954). Ledly provides a fundamental early report of the formulation of propositional calculus conducive to mechanization and systematic rules for arithmetic handling of prepositional functions. Though not discussed in this report, he would later apply a number of these ideas to the field of medical informatics. 709. Ledley, Robert S. Programming and Utilizing Digital Computers (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962).

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Monumental achievement by medical informatics pioneer and leading apologist. The more than 900 pages of text offer immense scope, providing significant information on many important issues, questions, and techniques. It, however, is meant to be a book of introduction and instruction rather than a documentation of the early field and does not generally present secondary work. The book begins with a thorough discussion of how and when computers should be utilized in the biomedical sciences, before engaging topics related to specific types of computing equipment and systems, including analog, digital, and hybrid systems. Considerable attention is given to programming and a number of techniques, compilers, interpreters, and languages are presented. 710. Ledley, Robert S. The Use of Computers in Biology and Medicine (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965). Expands upon his Programming and Utilizing Digital Computers to reflect his expanding knowledge and practice of applying computing technology to medicine. Discusses instrumentation and techniques in a wide range of medical specialities. 711. Lindberg, Donald A. The Computer and Medical Care (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1968). Lindberg, a pathologist, focuses on describing and assessing working computer systems and techniques for acquiring, processing and evaluating patient medical data. Most of the examples are from pathology and draw on the author's own experience and research at the University of Missouri Medical Center. Seeks to inform about new opportunities for computers to advance not only the practice but also the teaching of medicine. Concludes with an assessment of the potential future of computer medical applications, which he views very optimistically. 712. Lindberg, Donald A. The Growth of Medical Information Systems in the United States (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company, 1979). Provides a history of the evolution of medical information systems (MIS). Evaluates barriers to development and diffusion of MIS, impacts of public policy on MIS, and the use of such systems in creating greater efficiencies in health care delivery. 713. Love, Ewen B., Aspects of Digital Computing for Medical Workers (Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1971). This volume seeks to expand the number of medical workers using computers by providing instruction on medical computing applications. It describes different

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types of computers, programming techniques, control units, basic arithmetic and logic. 714. Lusted, Lee B. Introduction to Medical Decision-Making (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1968). An important work for understanding the place of medical informatics in the broader area of medical decision-making in the late 1960s by one of the pioneering figures and advocates of applying computers to medicine. Includes extensive discussion of computer aided diagnosis in automated multiphasic testing, and related shorter treatments of computers and the diagnosis of congenital heart disease, Cushing's syndrome, gastric ulcers, hematological diseases, primary bone tumors and thyroid disease. 715. Lusted, Lee B., and R. W. Coffin. PRIME: An Automated Information System for Hospitals and Biomedical Research Laboratories (Chicago, IL: Year Book Medical Publishers, 1967). 716. Mason, Edward E., and William G. Bulgren. Computer Applications in Medicine (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1964). One of the better early overviews of medical informatics, written by a professor of surgery at the University of Iowa (Mason) and a mathematics graduate student at the school (Bulgren). After a broad introductory chapter to computers, the book addresses applications in hospital administration and operations research, diagnosis, electroencephalography and electrocardiography, information access, and education. 717. McLachlan, Gordon, and Richard A. Shegog, eds. Computers in the Service of Medicine, Volume I (London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust by the Oxford University Press, 1968). Edited volume explores many different issues of medical computing in Great Britain through a series of case studies. Among the topics covered are: implementation of computer systems, patient records systems and computer drug monitoring. (See articles by J. Crooks, 800; K. W. Cross, 801; E. G. Knox, 874; and T. P. Whitehead, 1006.) 718. McLachlan, Gordon, and Richard A. Shegog, eds. Computers in the Service of Medicine, Volume II (London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust by the Oxford University Press, 1968). Edited volume explores medical computing in Great Britain and addresses issues including: systems analysis, automatic coding and diagnosis, computers and case

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records, and the development and implementation of a computer-based hospital information system. (See articles by G. A. Debenham, 806; F. D. James, 862; and A. M. Scott, 968.) 719. Moore, Frederick J. Development of a Clinical Decision Support System (Yorktown Heights, NY: IBM, 1969). 720. New York, State University of New York at Buffalo. Right of Privacy and Medical Computing: Transactions on the Use of Computers in Clinical Medicine (Buffalo: State University of New York at Buffalo, 1969). This conference transcript provides a useful account of perspectives of a number of physicians, medical administrators, lawyers and other professionals on issues of privacy in medical informatics. Each of the papers is followed by transcripts of the discussion. (See Guy E. Alfano, 743; Mary E. Converse, 798; William D. Hawkland, 850; and William Homes, 855.) 721. Ockenden, J. M., and K. E. Bodenham. Focus on Medical Computer Development: A Study of the Scottish Scene by Scientific Control Systems Ltd. (London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust by the Oxford University Press, 1970). Report by Scientific Control Systems, Ltd. on the present state of the application of computers to medicine and the health care industry in Scotland. The report offers an assessment on current conditions as well as recommendations on implementation and management of medical computer systems. 722. Parslow, R. D., and R. Elliot Green., eds. Computer Graphics in Medical Research and Hospital Administration (London: Plenum Press, 1971). This small edited volume is an important contribution to the literature on the applications of computer graphics to medical care, research, and administration by two professors in the Department of Computer Science at Brunei University. The volume is based on papers presented at the Computer Graphics 1970 International Symposium, Brunei University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, England. Contributions are from both specialists in medicine and computing from the United Kingdom and the United States. Papers detail topics such as graphic input-output devices for planning radiotherapy, mini-computer graphics in the physiological laboratory, and computer graphics in molecular biology (See articles by R. E. Bentley, 766; L. Katz, 867; C. Levinthal, 867; J. Milan, 766; and C. C. Wilton-Davies, 1008.) 723. Payne, L. C. An Introduction to Medical Automation (Philadelphia, PA: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1966).

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An important source on medical informatics in the United Kingdom written by the former Director of the Medical Automation Unit of University College Hospital in London. Contains one on the scope and character of medical computing as section specifically detailing issues in the introduction of computers in medical settings. The former discusses automation, medical records systems, computer-aided diagnosis, laboratory measurement, patientmonitoring systems, and para-medical uses of computers, while the latter presents the "basic principles" and "physical attributes" of computers. Overall, the book examines both the medical effectiveness of various computing techniques as well as issues of economic efficiency. 724. Poole, Lynn, and Gray Poole. Electronics in Medicine (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964). Broadly addresses all areas of electronics in medicine, while chapter three focuses on computers in medicine. This chapter concentrates on computers in medical research and discusses work being done at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. 725. Proceedings of ACM Conference on History of Medical Informatics (Bethesda, MD: Association for Computing Machinery, 1987). Important source providing informal reflections on the fundamental areas of the history of medical informatics by the principal developers and advocates of medical computing applications. Most presenters are documenting their own contributions to the field from roughly two decades ago. Papers focus on expert medical systems, hospital case studies, image processing, clinical diagnostic and patient management systems, and other topics. (See papers by G. Octo Barnett, 754; Wesley A. Clark, 88; Morris F. Collen, 994; Thelma Estrin, 313, Edward A. Feigenbaum, 397; Charles D. Flagle, 821; Casimir A. Kulikowski, 430; Joshua Lederberg, 432; Robert S. Ledley, 893; Gwilym S. Lodwick, 908; Lee B. Lusted, 914; and J.D. Myers, 928) 726. Ramsey, Diane, ed. Image Processing in Biological Science (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1968). Proceedings of a Conference at the UCLA School of Medicine, November, 1966. It details automated equipment in various areas of medical image processing, including automated systems for chromosome analysis, image processing in the nervous system, and automatic processing of mammograms. Of particular importance is the "Summation and Perspective" section at the end of the book that contains brief passages by Frank Ervin and Joshua Lederberg on biomedicine, and Wesley A. Clark and Marvin Minsky on computing hardware.

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727. Reiser, Stanley J. Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978). This is an excellent book on technology and medicine. Much of it predates the origin of digital computing, but it does include a brief discussion of computer applications to cell analysis diagnosis and patient history databases. Contains balanced assessment of computer applications to diagnosis during the 1960s. 728. Ryan, George A., and K. E. Monroe. Computer Assisted Medical Practice TheAMA 's Role (Chicago, IL: American Medical Association, 1971). Gives overview of the many medical applications of computers, including: management systems, patient histories, automated multiphasic testing, computerassisted diagnosis, physiological monitoring, ECG interpretation, and automated laboratories. Examines ethical, legal, and performance issues and then discusses the range of options for the AMA involvement. The appendices offer data on medical computing, and cost-benefit analysis of different levels of involvement by the AMA. 729. Schmitt, Otto H., and Cesar A. Caceres. Electronic and Computer-Assisted Studies of Biomedical Problems (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1964). This is a very useful resource consisting of the dialogue of a meeting held to examine a number of fundamental questions, opportunities and challenges of computer applications to the life sciences. Participants include leading physicians, national laboratory scientists, and individuals from the computer and medical instrument industries. Many issues arise in the open discussion and are explored, but the three-day event focused primarily on five principal questions: What data should be recorded and extracted for machine input and automated analysis? What computer techniques should be used? What forms of magnetic tape are optimal? What are the features of quality biotelemetry? What general features characterize a useful computer for research in the life sciences? 730. Siler, William, and Theodore D. Sterling. Advances in Biomedical Computer Applications (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1966) 721-1116. 731. Stacy, Ralph W., and Bruce D. Waxman. Computers in Biomedical Research. Volume 1 (New York: Academic Press, 1965). This first volume has significant articles in computer applications to biology, medicine, and psychology. The specific areas include biological laboratories,

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cardiology, electroencephalography, and personality assessments (See articles by Lee B. Lusted, 913; and James E. Randall, 648.) 732. Summaries of Papers Presented at the Sixth Annual Southeastern Regional Meeting of the Association for Computing Machinery and the National Meeting of the Society for Biomedical Computing. Vols 1 and 2. (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1967). This conference, held June 15-17, 1967, combined an ACM regional meeting with the National Meeting of the Society for Biomedical Computing to focus on issues related to medical informatics-roughly two-thirds of the papers were on this theme. Papers addressed programs for classification of psychiatric patients, computer assisted cancer diagnosis, computerized medical record systems, online medical record systems, digital computer analysis of respiratory status of patients, computer simulation to identify arterial systems, computer programs for heart analysis, and other topics of medical informatics. 733. Symposium on Progress in Medical Computing. Proceedings of a One Day Symposium on Progress in Medical Computing. Held at the Royal Festival Hall, London, June 2, 1965 (London, 1965). A useful publication documenting the state of developments in various areas of medical computing in Great Britain in the mid-1960s. Includes papers on computer assisted diabetic analysis, psychiatric research, health management, radio-isotope investigation, radiation, diagnosis of non-toxic goiter, routine tracer tests, statistical uses of laboratory data, and cardiovascular analysis. 734. Taylor, Raymond T. The Principles of Medical Computing (Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, 1967). Textbook that provides insight into what physicians and students were learning about the equipment and techniques in a range of different diagnostic and research medical applications in the mid to late 1960s.

Articles 735. Abernathy, William J., and Coimbatore K. Prahalad. "Technology and Productivity in Health Organizations." in Abernathy, William J., Alan Sheldon, and Coimbatore K. Prahalad, eds. The Management of Health Care (Cambridge, MA: J. Lippincott, 1974): 189-203. Indicates how computers and other technologies influence organizational structure, decision-making and productivity in delivering health care services.

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736. Abildskov, J. A. "The Nature of Atrial Fibrillation." In Cesar A. Caceres and Leonard S. Dreifus. Clinical Electrocardiography and Computers (New York: Academic Press, 1970): 359-370. Discusses a project in which a computer was used to simulate some properties of cardiac muscle that are known to be relevant to the process of fibrillation. The computer study demonstrated that the excitation process could break into independent wave fronts after premature excitation. 737. Ackerman, Stephen J. "Regional Medical Programs." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 8th IBM Medical Symposium 1967 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1967): 19-24. Provides a broad overview of issues in regional medical programs and the application of information processing technology. 738. Adey, W. Ross. "The Modeling of Cerebral Systems from Commutation of Brain Wave Records." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 3rd IBM Medical Symposium (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1961): 507-548. Gives overview of three groups of electronic and/or computer-aided physiologic experiments at Maimonides Hospital, Brooklyn, New York: an exploration of the possibility of using motor power of the diaphragm to share the work of the myocardium, the building of an electronic circuit to stimulate various muscles of a dog, and the development of a self-contained, self-powered, electronic circuit to help control a particular type of heart disease. 739. Agalides, E., and Chih-Min Yen. "Data Acquisition and Data Processing in Recording Nervous Activity of the Spinal Cord." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 2 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1963): 99-128. Outlines experiments at the University of Rochester Medical Center and the Physical Biology Department at Cornell University studying nervous activity in the spinal cord of a cat using IBM 704 and IBM 1620 computers. 740. Agalides, Eugene, and Scott Swisher. "The Limitations in Biological and Medical Data Acquisition and Processing." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 3 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1964): 223-242. General Dynamics researcher and University of Rochester physician, respectively, offer a critique to excessive optimism about medical computing

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applications. Discusses the types of errors that can occur in using analog computing systems, the limits of the requirement of discrete data for digital computer systems and related classification, the incompatibility of systems of different manufacturers, the benefits and liabilities of hybrid systems, and finally, the limits of data in the diagnosis of many diseases. 741. Alexander, David C. "Multichannel Simultaneous Analysis of the Electrocardiogram Using Simultaneously Recorded 3-Lead Sets." In Cesar A. Cacares and Leonard. S. Dreifus, eds. Clinical Electrocardiography and Computers (New York: Academic Press, 1977): 149-156. Discusses tests in the mid to late 1960s at the Mayo Clinic and Mount Sinai Hospital in New York on programs written in FORTRAN for the IBM 7040, IBM 1800, and IBM S/360 to analyze electrocardiograms. 742. Alexander, M. K., et al. "A Data Processing System for Hospital Bacteriology." Journal of Clinical Pathology 23:1 (February 1970): 77-80. Describes system for the automatic capture and retrieval of information from routine bacteriological reports on IBM 1401 and Elliot 4100 computing systems. Study indicates the usefulness of these computers in monitoring epidemiological findings and raising the level of laboratory work. 743. Alfano, Guy E. "Privacy and the Data Generator." In New York, State University of New York at Buffalo. Right of Privacy and Medical Computing: Transactions on the Use of Computers in Clinical Medicine (Buffalo: State University of New York at Buffalo, 1969). Discusses privacy issues from the standpoint of the users of central health computers. He argues that the long-standing theory that patient confidentiality can be broken when social necessity requires it may be applicable to transferring patient data from a central computer bank. 744. Almy, Thomas P. "Some Comments on the Usefulness of Electronic Data Processing in Medical Practice." IRE Transactions on Medical Electronics ME7:4: (October 1960): 315-316. Almy stresses the important role of computers in taking over some information processing functions, but also emphasizes the significance of doctor-patient interaction as essential to therapeutics. 745. Anderson, J. "The Medical Student and the Computer." In M. E. Abrams, ed. Medical Computing (New York: American Elsevier Publishing Co., 1970): 151-155.

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Discusses the increasing role computers are playing in patient medical records and the need to teach medical students computer methods using electronic storage of data. 746. Anderson, John. "King's College Hospital Computer System (London)." In Morris F. Collen, ed. Hospital Computer Systems (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974): 457-516. Provides overview of medical computing in the National Health Service in the United Kingdom, giving particular attention to the Kings College Hospital Computer System. Examines problems with unstructured medical data that result in massive and costly "medical record cemeteries." 747. Apter, Julia T. "The Analog Computer as a Teaching Aid in Medical Practice and Research." Computers in Biology and Medicine 1:2 (1970): 133140. Surgeon reports on a large analog computer at St. Lukes Hospital in Chicago used to help clarify physicians' understanding of clinical problems. Four examples in different areas of medicine are discussed. 748. Aron, Joel D. "Introduction to Simulation." International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 4th IBM Medical Symposium 1962 (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1962): 181-192. Aron, the Manager of Programming and Technical Coordination of IBM's Federal Systems Divisions, outlines methodologies of simulation and modeling using digital computers. He argues that simulation can improve scientists' ability to make decisions and thus advance the possibilities and efficiency of research. 749. Ball, Marion J. "Computers: Prescription for Hospitals Ills." Datamation 21:9 (September 1975): 50-51. Examines the procedures and costs involved with the storage, management, and use of information in hospitals. He concludes that computers offer important opportunities for making hospitals more efficient at managing and using information. Includes statistics from an extensive AHA study of 5,912 hospitals. 750. Barnes, Donald R., and Cesar A. Caceres. "Coordinated Planning of an ECG Data Pool." In Cesar A. Cacares, and Leonard. S. Dreifus, eds. Clinical Electrocardiography and Computers (New York: Academic Press, 1977): 247260.

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Discusses the Medical Systems Development Laboratory (MSDL) of the U. S. Public Health Service's effort in the late 1960s to provide access to its Electrocardiogram (ECG) processing system and programs for a national ECG data pool to familiarize medical, research, and industrial groups with automated techniques in medicine. 751. Barnet, Ann B., and A. Lodge. "Diagnosis of Deafness in Infants with the Use of Computer-Averaged Electroencephalographic Responses to Sound." Journal of Pediatrics 69:5 (November 1966): 753-758. Describes how computers and electro-encephalographic autiometry equipment can help address the difficult diagnosis of hearing loss in young children by averaging brain responses to auditory stimuli. 752. Barnett, G. Octo. "Computers and Patient Care." New England Journal of Medicine 279 (1968): 1321-1327. Provides strong overview of past and current thinking on use of computers in medical diagnosis, laboratory work, screening, medical record keeping, and hospital information systems. Indicates initial optimism and enthusiasm for medical computing has lessened, and sober recognition of the painful, slow evolutionary nature of integrating computers into medicine has come to be recognized. 753. Barnett, G. Octo. "Massachusetts General Hospital Computer System (Boston)." In Morris F. Collen, ed. Hospital Computer Systems (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974): 517-545. Using Massachusetts General Hospital as a case study, the author provides a practical approach to implementation of medical computing. 754. Barnett, G. Octo. "History of the Development of Medical Information Systems at the Laboratory of Computer Science at Massachusetts General Hospital." In Proceedings of ACM Conference on History of Medical Informatics (Bethesda, MD: Association for Computing Machinery, 1987): 4349. Barnett, a physician at Harvard Medical School, recounts early work in medical informatics and the circumstances that led him to get into this field. He discusses the early optimism in the medical computing field, and how unrealistic expectations created challenges in the 1960s.

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755. Barnett, G. Octo, and Robert A. Greenes. "High-Level Programming Languages." Computers and Biomedical Research 3 (1970): 488-494. Highlights one of the important elements of developing medical computing systems, the use of high level programming languages. Argues that high-level languages are much simpler than any comparable radical innovation in medical care delivery systems. 756. Barnhard, Howard J., et al. "The Automatic Coding, Selecting and Correlation of Patient Data in Radiology." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 5 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968): 15-20. Reports on a system to code narrative medical data, specifically, radiology diagnostic reports. Indicates the handling of misspellings with a high degree of accuracy is very promising. 757. Baron, D. N., and Patricia M. Fraser. "The Digital Computer in the Classification and Diagnosis of Diseases." Lancet 2:7421 (November 20, 1965): 1066-1069. Outlines basic process of setting up a computer diagnostic system and the relationship between a computer system and traditional diagnosis. 758. Bartels, Robert C. F., and Felix E. Moore. "Practical Considerations in Establishing a Biomedical Data Processing Research Center." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 3rd IBM Medical Symposium (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1961): 151-164. Discusses the anticipated structure of a new Biomedical Data Processing Research Center at the University of Michigan. The Center will provide postgraduate training and operate in collaboration with the Medical School, the School for Public Health, and the University-wide Computer Center. The paper details how this collaboration will occur to advance biomedical computer applications. 759. Baruch, Jordan J. "Doctor-Machine Symbiosis." IRE Transactions on Medical Electronics ME-7:4: (October 1960): 290-293. Baruch focuses on strategies for utilizing computers as tools for aiding physicians in the diagnosis. He argues that computers must be embraced as a welcome assistant for their potential contributions to be realized.

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760. Baruch, Jordan J., and G. Octo Barnett. "Joint Venture at Massachusetts General." Datamation 111 (December 1965): 29-33. This article takes the form of an interview with Barusch, Vice President, Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc. (BBN), and Barnett, Director of the Laboratory of Computer Science at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) in Cambridge. Barusch initiated the joint venture BBN-MGH Hospital Computer Project and Barnett held responsibility for program specifications, use, and evaluation. The interview addresses the objectives, equipment, scientific and technical methodology, finances, programming languages, and safeguards of the system. 761. Batchlor, Charles D. "Resolved Orthogonal Leads for Optimal Separation of Diagnostic Entities." In Cesar A. Cacares and Leonard. S. Dreifus, eds. Clinical Electrocardiography and Computers (New York: Academic Press, 1977): 387-399. Discusses a computer program developed for determining electrocardiogram lead directions, which would optimally separate any pair of diagnostic entities. 762. Beich, H. L. "The Computer as a Consultant." New England Journal of Medicine 284:3 (January 21, 1971): 141-171. This is one of the more extensive and important overviews of the use of computers in medical diagnosis by the early 1970s. It address a number of different areas in both clinical medicine and in medical research. 763. Beilin, L. J., et al. "Computer-Based Hypertension Clinic Records: A Cooperative Study." British Medical Journal 2:912 (April 27, 1974): 212-216. Examines the use of computers in hypertension research and management of patients. Based on a two-year-old ongoing study of over 20 doctors and 900 patients in three United Kingdom clinics. 764. Benfari, R. C , and A. H. Leighton. "PROBE: A Computer Instrument for Field Surveys of Psychiatric Disorder." Archives of General Psychiatry 23:4 (October 1970): 352-358. Discusses the application of PROBE to evaluate detailed symptom patterns in psychiatric assessments. Based on test comparing correlation between the program and psychiatrists. They conclude that the computer is as effective as its human counterpart.

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765. Bennett, A. E., and W. W. Holland. "Towards the Development of Electronic Data-Processing Systems for Medical Records." Lancet 2:7423 (December 4, 1965): 1176-1178. Cites the many challenges to computer medical record systems. These include: cost, inadequate data during machine processing, input errors, variation of terminology used in medical history taking, and the unwillingness of computing firms to devote resources to developing aids for analysis of medical data. 766. Bentley, R. E., and J. Milan. "The Use of Graphic Input and Output Devices Attached to a Small Computer for Planning in Radiotherapy." In R. D. Parslow, and R. Elliot Green, eds. Computer Graphics in Medical Research and Hospital Administration (London: Plenum Press, 1971): 19-26. Indicates that planning radiation therapy is fundamentally a graphical problem, then outlines the use of a DEC PDP 8/1 to address this problem. 767. Berson, Alan S. "Analog-To-Digital Conversion for Medicine." In Cesar A. Caceres, and Leonard S. Dreifus. Clinical Electrocardiography and Computers (New York: Academic Press, 1970): 21-35. Theoretical and practical examination of issues involved with analog-to-digital conversion in medical computing. Divides process into three stages: sampling, quantification process and interpolation process. 768. Binder, Sidney, and W. R. Simmons. "Computers in Public Health." Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 8:1 (January-February, 1967): 162-169. Discusses the use of the 17 computers at the United States Public Health Service for maintaining and analyzing vital health statistics. Also focuses on integration issues and possibilities of medical computer systems at federal and state level health agencies. 769. Black, P. "The Cartesian Computer." JAMA 228:4 (April 22, 1974): 463. Letter to editor discusses the introspective nature of human thought, contrasting it with a computer. Hints at the limitations of computers in medical diagnosis. 770. Blackburn, J. P. "On-line Computing in Surgery." British Journal of Surgery 5S:\0 (October 1971): 789-781. Evaluates benefits and shortcomings of computer monitoring (or what it refers to as on-line computing) in surgery. The article outlines many current limitations of computers such as: difficulty in programming computers to recognize every

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potential error and continuous waves that need to be broken because digital computers can only deal with discrete numbers. 771. Bleich, Howard L. "The Computer as Consultant." New England Journal of Medicine 284:3 (January 21, 1971): 141-147. Compares and contrasts physical and functional characteristics of the computer (DEC PDP-9) and the human brain with regard to clinical consulting. 772. Bonner, Raymond E., and Herbert D. Steinbeck. "DAP-A Diagnostic Assistance Program." International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 6th IBM Medical Symposium 1964 (Poughkeepsie, NY: IBM, 1964): 81-108. Moves beyond the question of whether or not a computer can provide aid to diagnosis, to deal with the methodology to effectively store and tap medical data, a practice that involves coding the disease process itself. Describes this experiment in medical data processing and outlines plans for future research. 773. Brandt, Edward N., Jr. "What is a Biomedical Computer Center?" Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 8:1 (January-February 1967): 158-161. Discusses the elements of a computer center for biomedical institutions designed to be multidisciplinary in services and approach, as opposed to one developed for special purpose or laboratory applications. Outlines the basic function, personnel, and equipment of biomedical computing centers. 774. Brazier, Mary A. B. "From Calculating Machines to Computers and Their Adoption by the Medical Sciences." Medical History 17 (1973): 235-243. Examines the development and use of calculating machines from the 17th Century to the early 1950s. Despite the title, medical applications of the various calculators and computers are often not discussed. 775. Brickford, Reginald G., and Charles E. McCarthy. "Mayo-IBM Program for the Analysis of Electroencephalograms." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 3rd IBM Medical Symposium (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1961): 491-506. Outlines the steps of the Mayo Clinic's Electroencephalograms classification program. Places them it the context of existing technology, and documents the spectral analysis approach to pattern recognition. 776. Brodman, Keeve, et al. "Interpretation of Symptoms with a Data-Processing Machine." Archives of Internal Medicine 103 (May 1959): 776-782.

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One of the earlier reports of computer medical diagnosis, draws upon a study by the authors in 1956 at the Department of Medicine, New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center. The study consisted of 60 different diseases and 1,697 male subjects who were administered a Cornell Medical Index Health Questionnaire by computer. 777. Brodman, Keeve, and Adrianus J. Van Woerkom. "Computer-aided Diagnostic Screening for 100 Common Diseases." JAMA 197:11 (September 12, 1966). Discusses study at Cornell Medical Center using a Medical Data Screen (MDS) to question and collect comprehensive patient histories and analyze them to diagnose any of 100 common diseases. The article puts in perspective the limits of the system and how it is used in combination with the expertise of a clinician. 778. Brown, Donald W., and David S. Groome. "The Role of the Digital Computer in Nuclear Medicine." JAMA 203:2 (January 8, 1968): 131-137. Describes the applications of computers in nuclear medicine, outlining six general areas: education; handling, sorting and coding; building and updating a radioisotope inventory; analysis of functional studies through numerical analysis and statistics; analysis and display of the radioisotope scan; and systems analysis of the overall laboratory operation. 779. Bruce, Robert A. "Computer Diagnosis of Heart Disease." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 5th IBM Medical Symposium 1963 (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1963): 77-98. Bruce, a professor of Medicine at the University of Washington, discusses computer probability diagnosis of heart disease based on preliminary testing that revealed 200 clinical manifestations in a common discrete disease, acute myocardial infarction. Indicates the preliminary tests contributed more to the education of investigators than to serving as a reliable diagnostic aid. 780. Butler, J. W., et al. "Automatic Classification of Chromosomes," In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 3 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1964): 261-276. Describes project conducted at Argonne National Laboratory to use computing technology to automatically classify chromosome data. 781. Cacares, Cesar A„ et al. "Computer Aids in Electrocardiography." Annals of the New York Academy of Science 118 (1964): 85-102.

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One of the pioneers in computer medical diagnosis discusses the ways in which electronic digital computer systems are being used in electrocardiography to improve treatment and diagnosis of heart disease. 782. Caceres, Cesar A. "Computer Analysis of Medical Signals." Datamation 11 (December 1965): 34-39. Informative article reporting on the feasibility and prototype projects of the Instrumentation Field Station, Heart Disease Control Program, U.S. Public Health Service. The program has six major goals: provide automated interpretation of medical signals, examine methods of data classification to reflect biological factors, write computer programs for patient monitoring, develop general diagnostic criteria, instruct medical practitioners in machine analysis of signals, and to give assistance with computer diagnostic programs. 783. Cacares, Cesar A. "Dedicated Computers: The Key to a Nationwide Capability for Computer Analysis of Medical Signals." In Cesar A. Caceres and Leonard S. Dreifus, eds. Clinical Electrocardiography and Computers (New York: Academic Press, 1970): 57-66. Discusses the Medical Systems Development Laboratory's compact computer analysis system that encourages wider use of medical signals, saves physician labor, reduces costs, and improves quality of ECG interpretations. 784. Cady, Lee. "Programming Computer Systems for Medical Applications." In Cesar A. Cacares and Leonard. S. Dreifus, eds. Clinical Electrocardiography and Computers (New York: Academic Press, 1977): 73-80. Gives brief overview of past ten years of computer medical applications and advocates making programs available for ECG analysis in FORTRAN or COBOL. 785. Callahan, Arthur B. "Development of a Medical Research Computer Center at the Massachusetts General Hospital." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 3rd IBM Medical Symposium (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1961): 175-188. Outlines Massachusetts General Hospital's use of computing systems for clinical and research programs. Cites a number of examples of applications of the many computers in the Boston area that the hospital utilizes on a rental basis. Also highlights the potential benefits of the computing systems for educational purposes in medicine.

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786. Callaway, E. III. "Schizophrenia and Interference: An Analogy With a Malfunctioning Computer." Archives of General Psychiatry 22:3 (March 1970): 193-208. This article presents malfunctioning computers as a model for understanding schizophrenia. Analogies are made between interference and noise of programs, and interruptions in thought experienced by schizophrenics. 787. Card, W. I. "The Diagnostic Process." in M. E. Abrams. Medical Computing (New York: American Elsevier Publishing Co., 1970): 29-34. Stresses the current and future role of the computer in turning the practice of medicine into more of a mathematically based science, and the benefits of such a logical structure. 788. Chung, C. S. "Genetic Analysis of Human Family and Population Data with Use of Digital Computers." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 3rd IBM Medical Symposium (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1961): 51-78. Discusses a number of programs used on high-speed computers to advance research in human genetics. Reports on SEGRAN, EQUIGEN, and MULREG. 789. Clark, Wesley A., and C. E. Molnar. "A Description of the LINC." In R. W. Stacy, and B. D. Waxman, eds. Computers in Biomedical Research (New York: Academic Press, 1965). Clark and Molnar provide an excellent outline on the applications of the LINC computer to biomedical applications. 790. Collen, Morris F. "Computers in Preventative Health Services Research." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 7th IBM Medical Symposium 1965 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1965): 331-344. Collen gives perspectives on computer applications to preventative health care and research. Discussing the Permanente Medical Group (Oakland), where Collen is the Director, he relates the implementation of multiphasic screening at Permanente in 1951, and the introduction of an automated multiphasic screening system for computer diagnosis (using an IBM 1050) eleven years later. 791. Collen, Morris F. "Periodic Health Examinations Using an Automated Multitest Laboratory." JAMA 195 (1966): 830-833. Discusses advantages of an automated multitest laboratory with computing and other electronic equipment to provide large numbers of people health

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examinations at a reasonable cost. Cites six fundamental advantages of automated multitest laboratories: 1) improved efficiency of patient service; 2) improved physician efficiency; 3) improved quality control; 4) greater economies by providing more tests at a cheaper cost per test; 5) earlier detection of unanticipated diseases of seemingly healthy individuals; and 6) the ability to conduct multivariable epidemiological research previously not possible. 792. Collen, Morris F. "Planning and Implementing Large Medical Information Systems." In William J. Abernathy, and C. K. Prahalad. The Management of Health Care (Cambridge, MA: J. Lippincott, 1974): 127-139. Provides a case study of the first decade of computer information systems within the Kaiser-Permanente (K-P) Medical Care Program (first introduction of a computer to medical care at K-P was in 1964). Defines medical information systems and outlines the use of computer technology in K-P's different "subsystems." 793. Collen, Morris F. "Origins of Informatics." Western Journal of Medicine 145 (December 1986): 778-785. Discusses the etymology of the term medical informatics and the history of the early use of computers in medicine. Provides some statistics on the use of computers for various medical applications in the 1960s as well as information on professional conferences devoted to the subject during the 1960s and 1970s. 794. Collen, Morris F. "Health Care Information Systems: A Personal Historic Review." In Proceedings of ACM Conference on History of Medical Informatics (Bethesda, MD: Association for Computing Machinery, 1987): 123-136. Collen outlines the career transition he made from medical practice into medical computing in 1961. He discusses his important work at Kaiser Permanente's Department of Medical Research to advance medical computing in a number of areas and serve as one of the new field's emerging spokespersons. 795. Collen, Morris F., et al. "Automated Multiphasic Screening and Diagnosis." American Journal of Public Health 54 (1964): 741-750. Describes a multiphasic screening program using automated equipment to test for a large number of diseases. Uses statistical method developed by J. Neyman in 1950 and discusses the advantages of this method over the commonly utilized Bayes' theorem.

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796. Collen, Morris F., et al. "Dollar Cost Per Positive Test for Automated Multiphasic Screening." New England Journal of Medicine 283 (August 27, 1970): 459-463. Breaks down the different costs for automated multiphasic screening to indicate the cost per individual testing positive for several different diseases. Suggests that findings could later be combined with morbidity and mortality statistics to enable a cost-benefit analysis to be conducted. 797. "The Computer and Tuberculosis." New England Journal of Medicine 285:14 (September 30, 1971): 803-804. Discusses the Tuberculosis Program of the Massachusetts Department of Health effort to create a database of tuberculosis patient records. 798. Converse, Mary E. "Privacy of the Hospital Medical Record," in New York, State University of New York at Buffalo. Right of Privacy and Medical Computing: Transactions on the Use of Computers in Clinical Medicine (Buffalo: State University of New York at Buffalo, 1969). Converse argues that responsibility for a patient's medical record generally lies with the medical care provider and that this involves a substantial responsibility to avoid violation of the patient's rights. Nevertheless, she emphasizes the importance of sharing medical records to provide continuity to care, eliminating duplication of costly tests, and preventing bad outcomes from the unkowing mixture of different treatments. 799. Cosby, Richard S., et al.. "Physician-Computer Interaction as a Clinical Research Technique." JAMA 218:10 (December 6, 1971): 1548-1551. Article details Physician-Computer Interaction (PCI), a patient history database diagnostic tool, and its value to extending clinical capabilities beyond what can be provided by non-computer statistical methodologies. 800. Crooks, J. "Computer Applications in Patient Follow-up." In Gordon McLachlan, and Richard A. Shegog, eds. Computers in the Service of Medicine (London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust by Oxford University Press, 1968): 75-84. Discusses the potentialities of a computerized "risk register" system to determine long-term effects of certain treatments. 801. Cross, K. W., J. Droar, and J. L. Roberts. "Electronic Processing of Hospital Records." In Gordon McLachlan and Richard A. Shegog, eds.

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Computers in the Service of Medicine (London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust by Oxford University Press, 1968): 23-39. Outlines the process of mechanical and electronic processing of hospital patient records at Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham. 802. Crouse, Linda, and Gio Wiederhold. "An Advanced Computer for RealTime Medical Applications." Computers in Biomedical Research 2 (1969): 582598. Reports on the use of the ACME (Advanced Computer Medical Research) timesharing system at Stanford University. The system consists of an IBM 360/50, an IBM 1800, and an incremental compiler for a subset of PL/1. 803. Curran, William J., et al. "Privacy, Confidentiality, and Other Legal Considerations in the Establishment of a Centralized Health Data System." New England Journal of Medicine 281 (July 31, 1969): 241-248. Reports on research developing out of a study conducted by the MIT-Harvard University Joint Center for Urban Studies to examine the feasibility and ethical considerations of a health information database in the Boston area. 804. "Data Processing in Clinical Pathology. Report of a Working Party of the Association of Clinical Pathologists." Journal of Clinical Pathology 21:2 (March 1968): 231-301. Report of the Association of Clinical Pathologists on the medical, economic, and policy issues involved with using computers in pathology in Great Britain. 805. Davis, A. E. "Computers -An Evolutionary Force in the Development of Medical Records." In M. E. Abrams. Medical Computing (New York: American Elsevier Publishing Co., 1970): 112-119. Argues that medicine is becoming more of an operational science, where physicians must be more systematic in their approach to diagnosis. Emphasizes that doctors should work more closely with computer scientists. 806. Debenham, G. A. "The Systems Analysis of a Large Out-Patient Department." In Gordon McLachlan, and Richard A. Shegog, eds. Computers in the Service of Medicine, Volume II (London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust by the Oxford University Press, 1968): 1-32. Debenham, of English Electric Computers, discusses the early implementation of a hospital Out-Patient Department system. Breaks down computer system

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implementation into six processes: systems study, job planning, program identification, programming, pilot running, and parallel running. 807. Dickson, James, III, and Lawrence Stark. "Remote Real-time Computing System for Medical Research and Diagnosis." JAMA 196 (June 13 1966) 967972. Discusses the work of electrical engineers, mathematicians, physicists and biomedical scientists at the Neurological Section, Electronic Systems Laboratory at MIT to apply control theory and servoanalysis techniques to research on neurological and biological systems. 808. Dito, William R. "Programmable Calculator for Quality Control in Clinical Chemistry." In Edwin M. Knights, Jr., ed. Mini-Computers in the Clinical Laboratory (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1970): 9-29. Examines both the potential uses and problems of the Olivetti Underwood Programma 101 minicomputer system in a clinical laboratory. While there are many limitations, Dito argues that computer-asked questions can extend medical workers' observations and strengthen quality control. 809. Dobrow, Robert J., et al. "Transmission of Electrocardiograms from a Community Hospital for Remote Computer Analysis." The American Journal of Cardiology 21 (May 1968): 687-698. Describes process by which computerized electrocardiogram readings are recorded and inscribed on FM magnetic tape at Hartford Hospital, and played into a Bell System Dataphone to transmit to the computer system at the National Center for Chronic Disease Control in Washington, D.C. 810. Dobrow, Robert J., and Arnold Fieldman. "Computer Determinations in an Outpatient Population." In Cesar A. Caceres, and Leonard S. Dreifus, eds. Clinical Electrocardiography and Computers (New York: Academic Press, 1970): 229-245. Describes Hartford Hospital's practice, in place since 1965, of automated processing and analysis of ECGs to screen for heart disease in outpatients. 811. Enslein, K. "Digital and Analog Computation: Considerations for Biomedical Problems." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 2 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1963): 173-190.

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Seeks to explain fundamental features and applications of analog and digital computers to biomedical science. Examines which of these two types of computers is best for particular purposes. Discusses how some hybrid systems work better than stand alone analog or digital computers. 812. Evans, Alfred S. "Development of a Computer Program for the Public Health Laboratory." Public Health Reports 82:2 (February 1967): 169-179. Identifies four general objectives of computer programs for public health labs (epidemiological information on disease distribution, recording laboratory tests, identifying geographical areas where control programs are most necessary, and providing statistics to aid budget preparation) and examines the case of the IBM 1410 in use at the Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene. 813. Farley, Belmont G. "A Neural Network Model and Its Possible Relation to Electrophysiology." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 5th IBM Medical Symposium 1963 (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1963): 391-400. MIT researcher describes his model of neural networks and how this model works to produce reasonable experimental results related to human physiology. 814. Feinstein, Alvan R. "Compassion, Computers, and the Regulation of Clinical Technology." Annals of Internal Medicine 66:4 (April 1967): 789-805. Feinstein examines the use of computers in medicine within the backdrop of different types of technology (chemical, physical, and electrical). He explores a number of humanistic and ethical issues, and concludes that science and technology do not dehumanize clinical medicine as some people have claimed. 815. Feinstein, Alvan R., and N. Koss. "Computer-aided Prognosis I: Organization and Coding of Data." Archives of Internal Medicine 127:3 (March 1971): 438-447. Argues that inefficiencies with managing large amounts of complex data have long retarded the progress of clinical therapy. Feinstein believes that modern digital computers can go a long way in addressing this problem by: having a large infallible memory, rapid sorting capabilities, and by performing mnemonic and enumerative tasks with which humans have difficulties. 816. Feinstein, Alvan R., and N. Koss. "Computer-aided Prognosis I: ComputerAided Prognosis." Archives of Internal Medicine 127:3 (March 1971): 448-459. Continues analysis of article above with a focus on the application of coded data on lung cancer patients to aid in clinical prognostication. Discusses the use of

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regression analysis, a statistical technique using coefficients and basis prediction on certain calculations, as opposed to the traditional technique of selectiveexclusion. 817. Ferderber, Charles J. "A Standardized Solution for Hospital Systems." Datamation2\ (1975): 52-53. Discusses the implementation and results (at Deaconess Hospital in Evansville, Indiana) of a turnkey hospital information system called VITAL that was developed by the Data Communications Corporation. 818. Feurzeig, Wallace, et al. "Computer-aided Teaching in Medical Diagnosis," Journal of Medical Education 39 (August 1964): 746-754. This reports on the development of a computer program, "Socratic System," to assist in diagnostic education. 819. Fieldman, Arnold, et al. "Evaluation of Routine ECG Screening of an Outpatient Population with Computer Diagnosis." JAMA 205:9 (August 26, 1968): 627-630. Fieldman describes the use of computers at Hartford Hospital in an outpatient screening project. He argues that the system incorporated could serve as a model for larger epidemiological studies by using numerous remote centers for data acquisition in conjunction with a centralized computational facility. 820. Finney, Joseph C. "Programmed Interpretation of MMPI and CPI." Archives of General Psychiatry 15:1 (July 1966): 75-81.

Discusses a program to utilize and interpret the results of patient responses to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the California Psychological Inventory (CPI). 821. Flagle, Charles D. "The Perception of System and the Reduction of Uncertainty." In Proceedings of ACM Conference on History of Medical Informatics (Bethesda, MD: Association for Computing Machinery, 1987): 127142. Flagle details the separate currents of medical information systems and clinical medical applications in the early to mid-1960s. He relates the importance of the integration of aspects of these activities in late 1960s with the formation of the National Center for Health Services Research in 1968.

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822. Fowler, Raymond D., Jr. "The Current Status of Computer Interpretation of Psychological Tests." American Journal of Psychiatry 125:7 (supplement) (January 1969): 21-27. Describes current research in using computers to interpret personality and other areas of psychological testing. Relates challenges of computer interpretation of projective tests as a result of response classification. 823. Frana, Philip L. "Testing Physicians' Limits: Medical Informatics and Diagnostic Decision-Making." CBI Newsletter 22:4 (Summer 2000): 4-5, 7. This is a short article by a historian providing analysis of the early history of medical computing. Addresses some of the pioneers, hardware, and software, and characterizes changing levels of acceptance in various areas of clinical medicine over time. 824. Frey, Harvey S. "An Interactive Computer Program for Chromosome Analysis." Computers and Biomedical Research 2 (1969): 274-290. Reports on a software program written for pattern recognition of chromosomes at the Health Sciences Computing facility at University of California, Los Angeles. 825. Fries, James F. "Time-Oriented Patient Records and a Computer Databank." JAMA 222:12 (December 18, 1972): 1536-1542. Fries advocates using a computer databank to generate time-oriented patient records. Such records are presented in a "flow-sheet" format that facilitates a focus on data rather than memory in decision-making. 826. Gabrieli, E. R., et al. "The Computer's Contribution to Information Content in Laboratory Data." JAMA 198:1 (October 3, 1966): 181-184. Discusses implementation of an IBM 7044 computer at the Research Division of Clinical Laboratories, E. J. Meyer Memorial Hospital, SUNY at Buffalo. Presents how this computer was valuable to storing data in an easily retrievable form, and how computers can be utilized to extract new information. 827. Garfinkel, David, et al. "Simulation and Analysis of Biomedical Systems I: Representation of Chemical Kinetics." Communications of the ACM 4 (December 1961): 559-562. Outlines methods for setting up and solving differential equations representing chemical systems and conducting tests during the solutions.

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828. Garfinkel, David et al. "Simulation and Analysis of Biomedical System III: Analysis of Pattern Recognition." Communications of the ACM 5 (February 1967): 45-48. Discusses the use of MASTER EDIT I and II editor routines in reducing and ordering data for interpretation from differential equations of chemical systems in the study of enzyme kinetics. 829. Gerard, Ralph W. "Quantitation in Biology." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 4th IBM Medical Symposium 1962 (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1962): 29-48. Stresses that "qualification" rather than "quantification" is what is most relevant when examining computer applications to the field of biology. In addition to outlining differences of computer applications between the biological and physical sciences, he discusses the emerging field of artificial intelligence. 830. Glueck, Bernard C , Jr., and Charles F. Stroebel. "The Computer and the Clinical Decision Process II." American Journal of Psychiatry 125:7 (supplement) (January 1969): 2-7. Physicians provide classification system that is heavily dependent on the insights of clinicians, and describe how a computer system can be set up to assist with pattern recognition, data presentation, and diagnosis. 831. Goodenough, John B. "Lightpen-controlled Program for Online Data Analysis." Communications of the ACM $ (February 1965): 130-134. Describes a computer driven scope (and associated statistical program, STATPAC) that displays a menu of the vocabulary of a programming language and allows for the use of a light pen to make choices. The system was developed to obviate the need for scientists to master a programming language. 832. Gordon, Burgess L. "Biomedical Language and Format for Manual and Computer Applications," in International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 8th IBM Medical Symposium 1967 (Poughkeepsie, NY: IBM, 1967): 149152. Gordon, Director of the Office of Current Medical Terminology at the American Medical Association, relates the importance of standardization of medical terminology, and the work of his division in this effort. He indicates the heightened need for standard terms resulting from medical computing.

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833. Gorman, Patricia A., and John M. Evans. "Computer Analysis of the Electrocardiogram: Evaluation of Experience in a Hospital Heart Station." American Heart Journal 80:4 (October 1970): 515-521. Provides economic analysis and medical evaluation of a computer system for ECG interpretation at George Washington University Medical Center. 834. Gorry, G. Anthony, and G. Octo Barnett. "Sequential Diagnosis by Computer." JAMA 205 (1968): 849-854. Based on a limited test (243 cases of bone tumors), the authors discuss the ability of a computer program to employ sequential decision-making. 835. Gottlieb, J. "Research and Schizophrenia." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 7th IBM Medical Symposium 1965 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1965): 243-262. Provides a case study of computer applications at the Layfayette Clinic, a 145 bed psychiatric hospital adjacent to Wayne State University School of Medicine. 836. Gray, C. H., et al. "Implementation of a British Computer System for Laboratory Data Handling." Journal of Clinical Pathology 27:12 (December 1974): 1005-1012. Describes the equipment (including the CDC 9421), implementation, and use of a computer system for data recording and analysis at the Department of Chemical Pathology, Kings College Hospital Group, Great Britain. 837. Greanias, Evon C. "The Computer in Medicine." Datamation 11 (December 1965): 25-28. Addresses current applications (confined largely to administrative tasks) and trends (computer patient monitoring) in medical informatics. Drawing on Dr. F. J. Moore's (IBM Advanced Systems Development Division) assessment, Greanias argues computers can contribute to clinical care. 838. Greenes, Robert A., et al. "Design and Implementation of a Clinical Data Management System." Comparative Biomedical Research 2 (1969): 469-485. Outlines a computer-based medical records system. Discusses the many issues involved with developing a standard vocabulary for a hypertension outpatient clinic.

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839. Greenes, Robert A., et al., "Recording, Retrieval and Review of Medical Data by Physician/Computer Interaction." New England Journal of Medicine 282 (1970): 307-315. Green and his colleagues outline the use of and evaluate computer and pysician symbiosis in diagnosistic work. 840. Grossman, Jerome H., et al. "Evaluation of Computer-Acquired Patient Histories." JAMA 215 (February 22, 1971): 1286-1291. Discusses computer system for automated collection of patient medical histories at the Laboratory of Computer Science and the Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School. Reports that patients have had a favorable response to the computer system, while the reaction of physicians has been mixed. 841. Grossman, Jerome H. "An Automated Medical Record System for a Prepaid Group Practice." JAMA 244 (1973): 1616-1621. Reports and analyzes on the first two years of an automated medical record system implemented by the Laboratory of Computer Science at Massachusetts General Hospital. Emphasizes how the necessary standardization and other features force a fundamental rethinking of the content, structure, and purpose of medical records. 842. Gustafson, John E., et al. "Methods of Computer Diagnosis." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 2 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1963): 83-89. Discusses methods and results of computer diagnosis systems. Indicates that physicians using even small computers have a "tremendous advantage" with diagnoses and improving efficiency regardless of specific methods used. 843. Gustafson, John E., et al. "The Value of the Computer in Medical Diagnosis." in Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 3 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1964): 17-22. Argues that clinicians are still novices to computer applications and often misinformed. Provides a case study of an electronic digital computer to aid cardiologists with diagnosis of congenital heart disease. 844. Guyton, Arthur C. "Simulation of Physiological Mechanisms." In Proceedings, IBM Scientific Computing Symposium Digital Simulation of Continuous Systems (White Plains, NY: IBM, 1967): 129-160.

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Guyton reports on the "state of the art" in the application of computers to simulate physiological mechanisms and better understand the causes of hypertension in renal disease. 845. Hagan, William K. "Telephone Applications." In Cesar A. Caceres, ed. Biomedical Telemetry (New York: Academic Press, 1965): 39-66. Hagan provides short discussion of the use of remote computers in analyzing telemetry and medicine. 846. Harless, William G., et al. "CASE -A National Language Computer Model." Computers in Biology and Medicine 3:3 (October 1973): 227-246. Discusses a computer-aided simulation of clinical encounters (CASE) for medical education. 847. Harman, Charles E., and Christopher S. Raymond. "Computer Prediction of Chronic Psychiatric Patients." Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 150:6 (June 1970): 490-503. Evaluates the use of a computer to classify and predict the outcome of long-term psychiatric patients based on a study conducted at the Institute of Neurological Sciences, Pacific Medical Center, San Francisco. 848. Hartgering, J. B. "Clinical Hospital Information." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 7th IBM Medical Symposium 1965 (Poughkeepsie, NY: IBM, 1965): 309-315. This paper, in contrast to all others at the conference, deals with the broad social, legal, and medical implications of hospital information systems. 849. Harway, Norman I., and Howard P. Iker. "Objective Content Analysis of Psychotherapy by Computer." in Kurt Enslein and John F. Kinslow, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 4 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1966): 139-154. Outlines parameters and methods of applying an IBM 7074 to psychological content analysis. 850. Hawkland, William D. "Legislative Approach to Control Computer-Stored Health Data." In New York, State University of New York at Buffalo. Right of Privacy and Medical Computing: Transactions on the Use of Computers in Clinical Medicine (Buffalo: State University of New York at Buffalo, 1969).

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Professor of Law and Dean of the SUNY Buffalo Law School discusses importance of developing proper legislation to protect the rights of various individuals, groups, and the larger society with regard to privacy issues in medical informatics. 851. Hicks, D. "Operational Research in the Health Services." In M. E. Abrams. Medical Computing (New York: American Elsevier Publishing Co., 1970): 338344. Applies scientific analysis to management of human resources, machines, and money in the health care field. Argues the importance of philosophical understanding of goals prior to experimentation with computing systems. 852. Hicks, G. Phillip, et al. "Routine Use of a Small Digital Computer in the Clinical Laboratory." JAMA 196:11 (June 13, 1966): 973-978. Discusses how a small inexpensive high-speed computer (MIT's Laboratory Instrument Computer or LINC) can help with the collection and calculation of laboratory test results. 853. Hillman, Robert G. "The Teaching of Psychotherapy Problems by Computer." Archives of General Psychiatry 25'A (October 1971): 324-329. Presents analysis of THERAPY (Theoretical Human Electronic Response with a Practical Yield), a psychotherapeutic computer program written in PL/ACME of PL/I that runs on the IBM 360/50 at the Stanford Medical Center. 854. Hochberg, H. M. "Operational Problems of a Medical Diagnostic Computer Center." In Cesar A. Caceres, and Leonard S. Dreifus, eds. Clinical Electrocardiography and Computers (New York: Academic Press, 1970): 261266. Analyzes case of the Medical Systems Development Laboratory of the USPHS and the Cardiology Section of the George Washington University Hospital. The organizations cooperated in the creation of a model "heart station" where the computer was used routinely to evaluate ECGs. 855. Homes, William. "Privacy Techniques for Medical Data Systems." In New York, State University of New York at Buffalo. Right of Privacy and Medical Computing: Transactions on the Use of Computers in Clinical Medicine (Buffalo: State University of New York at Buffalo, 1969). More focused on the technical side than the other conference papers, this discusses the opportunities created by time-sharing.

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856. Hopkins, Roger A., and Elmer A. Gardner. "Development of a Flexible Control System in the Maintenance of a Patient Case Register." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 3 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1964): 191-200. The authors indicate some similarities between medical and financial and other distributed information retrieval systems. 857. Hubbard, H. C. "Hazards of Medical Computing." Lancet 2:7775 (September 2, 1972): 489-500. Indicates potential risks in placing too much reliance on computers in medical diagnosis, citing potential human errors in using the machine as well as the limits of computer reasoning. 858. Inamura, Klyonari, and Shiro Ontani. "National Cancer Center Radiotherapy Computer System." Computer Programs in Biomedicine 2 (1972): 200-215. Analog computer applications to radiotherapy began in 1965 at the National Cancer Center in Tokyo. In 1967, the HITAC 8300 digital computer was installed. This article details the objectives and performance of the system. 859. "The Inanimate Observer." JAMA 201:4 (July 24, 1967): 261-262. Editorial discusses the anxiety and insecurity computer automation brings to many physicians and compares it with automation in industrial settings. 860. Jacquez, John A. "The Diagnostic Process: Problems and Perspectives." In John A. Jacquez. ed. The Diagnostic Process: The Proceedings of a Conference Sponsored by the Biomedical Data Processing Training Program of the University of Michigan, May 9-11, 1963 (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, 1964). The paper indicates how the advent of digital computers and the possibility of their medical applications have led physicians to take a more careful look at the structure of traditional diagnostic methods. Presents the disease manifestation matrix approach, a flow chart of diagnostic processes. 861. Jaffe, Joseph, et al. "Computation of Information Measures in Diagnostic Interviews." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 3 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1964): 143-150.

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Outlines the organization and structure of diagnostic interviews and the input, storage, and use of case data using an IBM 7090. Gives guidance on a theoretical framework for defining organization and disorganization in diagnostic interviews. 862. James, F. D. "The Development and Implementation of a Computer-Based Hospital Information System." in Gordon McLachlan, and Richard A. Shegog, eds. Computers in the Service of Medicine, Volume II (London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust by the Oxford University Press, 1968): 157-167. Explores issues of computers as aids in the clinical management of hospitals. Argues that in failing to utilize computers' non-calculating abilities that hospitals have neglected to fully take advantage of computers. 863. Johnson, O. G. "Packaged Computer Programs for Local Health Departments." Public Health Reports 81:9 (September 1966): 849-854. Discusses project at the University of California School for Public Health to establish and analyze criteria for packaged computer programs to be used in local health departments for keeping medical records. 864. Kanner, I. F. "Programmed Medical History Taking With or Without Computers" JAMA 207:2 (January 13, 1969): 317-322. Outlines both handwritten and computer techniques for recording patient case histories. Discusses economies of scale at large clinics and hospitals and indicates how handwritten techniques can be used at more remote facilities. 865. Kaplan, Bonnie. "The Influence of Medical Values and Practices on Medical Computer Applications." In James G. Anderson and Stephen J. Jay. Use and Impact of Computers in Clinical Medicine (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1987): 39-50. Discusses how "medical computing" policymakers have failed to recognize the differences in adoption of computing innovations in medical institutions. Suggests that closer attention to medical culture, practices and social institutions could improve the design of medical computing applications. 866. Kaplan, Bonnie. "The Computer Prescription: Medical Computing, Public Policy, and Views of History." Science, Technology, and Human Values 20 (1993): 5-38. Significant study detailing the history of public policy with regard to computer diagnosis and other areas of medical computing.

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867. Katz, L., and C. Levinthal. "Computer Graphics in Molecular Biology." in R. D. Parslow and R. Elliot Green, eds. Computer Graphics in Medical Research and Hospital Administration (London: Plenum Press, 1971): 56-70. Professors at the Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, discuss their application of computer display techniques to research on macromolecules, smaller molecules, and three-dimensional neural anatomy of small invertebrates. 868. Kenney, Edward C. "The Challenge to Medical Practice." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 4th IBM Medical Symposium 1962 (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1962): 5-28. Kenney, Rear Admiral, U. S. Navy and Surgeon General, provides broad context to the problems, possibilities, and economic issues of computer applications to medicine in both military and civilian medicine. 869. Kent, A. "Computers and Biomedical Information Storage and Retrieval." JAMA 196:11 (June 13, 1966): 927-932. Outlines current limitations and difficulties with computers in medicine, but stresses that if limited to certain types of information processing, computers can be beneficial. Advocates continued studies of the development of computing systems for remote access and time-sharing. 870. Kiely, Joseph M. "A Computer-based Medical Record." JAMA 205:8 (August 19, 1968): 571-576. Physicians from the Mayo Clinic discuss their experience with a computer-input system that includes a video screen and light pen. This system allows the caregiver to use ordinary English for entry and retrieval of historical and examination data. 871. Kleinmuntz, Benjamin. "Clinical Information Processing." Datamation 11 (December 1965): 40-49. Psychologist Kleinmuntz reports on the current state of the art and problemsolving strategies in applying computers to assist diagnosticians. Provides important and rare comparisons between computer applications in diagnosis in physiological and psychological ailments (using MMPI). 872. Klingeman, Jack D., and Hubert V. Pipberger. "Time-shared Computer Analysis of Orthogonal Electrocardiograms." In Cesar A. Caceres, and Leonard

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S. Dreifus, eds. Clinical Electrocardiography and Computers (New York: Academic Press, 1970): 121-131. Describes Washington DC VA Hospital's Control Data 3200 computer with operating system set to allow ECG processing in three different modes: online processing in a time-shared mode, automatic processing from FM analog tape, and processing pre-digitized from a digital tape. 873. Knights, Edwin M., Jr. "Why Mini-Computers?" In Edwin M. Knights, Jr. ed. Mini-Computers in the Clinical Laboratory (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1970): 3-8. Reports on the 1968 Computer Automated Laboratory Project, known as the Pilot Project, which studied the effort to develop a "total computer system" at different hospitals in Michigan. Touches upon costs and benefits of different systems and argues that minicomputers can increase efficiency, increase quality control and serve as a stepping stone "into the world of total automation." 874. Knox, E. G. "Introducing a Computer to a Hospital: Experiences of the Experiment at Birmingham." In Gordon McLachlan, and Richard A. Shegog, eds. Computers in the Service of Medicine (London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust by Oxford University Press, 1968): 1-22. Discusses the three years of preparation and subsequent implementation of an IBM 1440 computer system at the Medical School at Birmingham. The article focuses on the process of introduction and problems encountered. 875. Kobernick, S. D., and G. H. Mandell. "Implementing a Laboratory Computer System: A Case History." American Journal of Clinical Pathology 61:1 (January 1974): 122-134. Provides a case study of the many decisions that go into choosing, implementing, and administering a medical laboratory computer system. The study discusses many important non-medical contextual issues, raising and examining organizational, financial, and scientific questions involved in installing a computing system. 876. Korein, Julius. "Computer Processing of Narrative Medical Data." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 5 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968): 157-162. Discusses project in place since 1963 at the New York University Medical Center to apply digital computing technology to process narrative medical data.

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Most recently the project has made use of the Control Data Corporation 1604 and 924A large scale computing systems in conjunction with smaller computers. 877. Korein, Julius, et al. "Computer Processing of Medical Data by VariableField-Length Format." JAMA (June 13, 1966): 132-138. Variable-Field-Length (VFL) format is an important tool used to facilitate the efficient collection of narrative and numerical data in a mode compatible with computers allowing for subsequent storage, analysis and retrieval. Before engaging in analysis of VFL and its applications, Korein attacks the notion that computers could replace physicians. 878. Korein, Julius, et al. "Computer Processing of Medical Data by VariableField-Length Format III: Statistical Analysis of Narrative Content." JAMA 196:11 (June 13, 1966): 957-963. Discusses large computer systems used for statistical analysis of narrative medical data. Emphasizes that the potential benefits from utilizing variablefield-length (VFL) format depends upon the ability to produce economical and meaningful computer programs. 879. Larson, Richard, et al. "Simulation and Analysis of Biochemical Systems II: Solution of Differential Equations." Communications of the ACM 5 (January 1962): 63-65. Provides technical information on the design of ECG machines for use with computing systems. Argues that computing systems will solve many reliability and operational problems of medical signal processing systems. 880. Laska, Eugene, et al. "SCRIBE: A Method for Producing Case Histories." American Journal of Psychiatry 124 (July 1967): 82-84. Describes and evaluates SCRIBE, a computer program used on an IBM 1620 to develop a flow or tree diagram to produce automated narrative psychiatric case histories. 881. Lawton, M. D. "Systems Design for a Management-Oriented Hospital Information System." In M. E. Abrams. Medical Computing (New York: American Elsevier Publishing Co., 1970): 358-373. Presents a detailed case study of feasibility analysis conducted by the Hospital Services Section of English Electric Computers in the summer of 1967 for the North Staffordshire Hospital Group. Discusses outpatient, in-patient, medical records, and service department sub-systems.

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882. Lazarow, Arnold. "Newer Methods of Information Handling As They Relate to the Organization of a National Biomedical Information Network." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 7th IBM Medical Symposium 1965 (Poughkeepsie, NY: IBM, 1965): 55-96. Lazarow describes information storage and retrieval methods as applied to the conduct and dissemination of biomedical research. He discusses his work as chair of a committee of the American Diabetes Association as a case study of the practices and possibilities for medical record keeping. 883. Lederberg, Joshua. "Digital Communications and the Conduct of Science: The New Literacy." Proceedings of the IEEE 66:11 (1978): 1314-1319. Essay analyzes the use of network computer communication and its impact on the sciences. Lederberg refers to the integration of user, file, processor, and distance-indifferent communication link as a EUGRAM system. 884. Ledley, Robert S. "Digital Computational Methods in Symbolic Logic, With Examples in Biochemistry." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4 (1955): 498-511. Precursor to Ledley's many works on medical informatics that examines the feasibility of prepositional calculus and symbolic logic through "new digitalized techniques." It hints at future applications of computers in biochemistry. 885. Ledley, Robert S. "Digital Electronic Computers in Biomedical Science." Science 130 (November 6, 1959): 1225-1234. One of the best early brief articles examining the possibilities of computers in medicine and the hurdles limiting these machines' near-term adoption in hospitals, clinics, and other medical research centers. 886. Ledley, Robert S. "Using Electronic Computers in Medical Diagnosis." IRE Transactions on Medical Electronics ME-7:4: (October 1960) 274-280. Focuses on the logic, probability, and value theory that lies at the base of all computer applications to medical diagnosis. 887. Ledley, Robert S. "Advances in Biomedical Science and Diagnosis." In Harold Borko, ed. Computer Applications in the Behavioral Sciences (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962): 490-521.

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States that unlike in the physical sciences, applications of computers to medicine have just begun. He indicates that only five percent of the computer time at university laboratories is for biomedicine. Despite this, Ledley believes that medicine may be the field where computers can most fully be applied. 888. Ledley, Robert S. "High-Speed Automatic Analysis of Biomedical Pictures." Science 146 (1964): 216-223. Details FIDAC (Film Input to Digital Automatic Computer) and FIDACSYS. FIDAC is a scanning instrument used to read a picture into the memory of a computer while FIDACSYS is a programming system that processes relevant data according to predefined specifications for a particular diagnostic application. 889. Ledley, Robert S. "Computer Aids to Medical Diagnosis." JAMA 196:11 (June 13, 1966): 933-943. Ledley compares the future possibilities of computer in agricultural to industrial revolutions of the past to emphasize the potential for this new technology. 890. Ledley, Robert S. "Practical Problems in the Use of Computers in Medical Diagnosis." Proceedings of the IEEE 57 (1969): 1900-1918. Outlines methods for overcoming problems of either scarcity or overabundance of medical information by applying Bayes formula or pattern recognition respectively in computer analysis. 891. Ledley, Robert S. "Use of Computers in Biomedical Pattern Recognition." Advances in Computers 10 (1970): 217-252. Outlines past use of computers in both abstract and pictorial pattern-recognition. Discusses methods used for recognizing overlapping chromosomes, analyzing cells, and studying bone structure. Argues that computers will become increasingly important to pattern-recognition in biomedicine in the future. 892. Ledley, Robert S. "Introduction to Chromosome Analysis." Computers in Biology and Medicine 2:2 (October 1972): 107-128. Reports mass screening of chromosomes at National Biomedical Research Center Foundation, Georgetown University Medical Center. Discusses use of microscopic scanner, SPIDAC; film scanner, FIDAC; graphic display unit MACDAC; and software for the recognition, measurement and analysis of chromosomal data.

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893. Ledley, Robert S. "Medical Informatics: A Personal View of Sowing the Seeds." In Proceedings ofACM Conference on History of Medical Informatics (Bethesda, MD: Association for Computing Machinery, 1987): 31-41. Ledley provides an informal discussion of the early development of medical computing applications and his role in theorizing, practicing, and promoting this field. Discusses how he became involved in medical computing and relates some of his early work in this area. 894. Ledley, Robert S., and Lee B. Lusted. "Reasoning Foundation of Medical Diagnosis: Symbolic Logic, Probability and Value Theory Aid our Understanding of How Physicians Reason." Science 130 (1959): 9-21. This is an influential article on the early development of computer applications to medicine. Outlines how symbolic logic, and certain mathematical theories of probability can be utilized to better understand the thought processes of physicians in diagnosing illness and disease. 895. Ledley, Robert S., and Lee B. Lusted. "The Use of Electronic Computers to Aid in Medical Diagnosis." Proceedings of the IRE 47:11 (1959): 1970-1977. Ledley and Lusted provide a clear early articulation of the benefits of expressing a problem as a conditional probability. The authors describe how digital computers can apply conditional probability to medical diagnosis. 896. Ledley, Robert S., and Lee B. Lusted. "Computers in Medical Data Processing." Operations Research 8:3 (1960): 299-310. Paper given in November 1959 at the Operations Research Society of America Meeting. Ledley and Lusted, two of the leaders in defining, promoting, and advancing the use of computers in medicine, advocate a national health computer network. 897. Ledley, Robert S., and Lee B. Lusted. "Biomedical Electronics: Potentialities and Problems" Science 135:2499 (1962): 198-201. Provides a brief analysis of public support for computer applications to the biomedical sciences. Argues that the many benefits, including research, monitoring, and diagnosis, can only be fully realized if obstacles to industry participation are overcome. Cites primary problems of: inadequate knowledge of necessary devices, difficulty with testing devices, and selling the instruments. 898. Ledley, Robert S., and Frank H. Ruddle. "Chromosome Analysis by Computer." Scientific American 214 (April 1966): 40-46.

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An early article discussing the current and future possibilities of analyzing genetic material using a computer, one. Outlines use of a computer scanning system, Film Input to Digital Automatic Computer (FIDAC), to count and meausre chromosomes. 899. Lennon, William J. "Talking to Computers -Some Approaches to the Problems of Communications Between Researchers and High-Speed Computers." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 2 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1963): 27-43. Psychiatric researcher gives perspectives on computer hardware, and software to advance communication between scientists and computers. Concentrates heavily on the use of list programming languages and specifically discusses the General Problem Solver, IPL, LISP, and COMIT. 900. Lenoir, Timothy. "Shaping Biomedicine as an Information Science." In Mary Ellen Bowden, Trudi Bellardo Hahn, and Robert V. Williams, eds. Proceedings of the 1998 Conference on the History and Heritage of Science Information Systems (Medford, NJ: Information Today, Inc., 1999): 27-45. One of the most important historical studies of medical informatics to date, this documents the merging of computer science and molecular biology into the new field of medical informatics during the 1970s by exploring projects such as MOLGEN (a study in heuristic programming) at Stanford University. 901. Lenoski, Edward F., Bernhard Hanes, and Willis A. Wingert. "Computer Processing of Pediatric Emergency Room Data." JAMA 204:9 (May 27, 1968): 797-804. Outlines a computer coding diagnosis methodology in use at Los Angeles County General Hospital that is based on anatomical site, condition, and specific etiology of diseases common to pediatric emergency rooms. Attributes the success of the system to its simplicity, the fact that it was physician-developed, and the prior education of the staff to its goals and potential value. 902. Levy, Allan. "Time-Sharing: A Tool for Biomedical Research." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 9th IBM Medical Symposium 1968 (Poughkeepsie, NY: IBM, 1968): 125-128. Levy discusses his work with the Baylor College of Medicine's program to implement a medical time-sharing system. Outlines the College's teleprocessing system (piloted in 1965 using 1050 Telewriter terminals connected to an IBM 1410 computer).

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903. Lines, J. G. "Work Study of a Desk Computer in the Clinical Laboratory." Journal of Clinical Pathology 22:5 (September 1969): 617-620. Reports on use of the British Olivetti, Ltd.'s Programma 101 desk computer that has been installed at Addenbrooke's Hospital in Cambridge to ease the burden of calculating data in the pathology laboratory. 904. Lipkin, Martin K. "Correlation of Data with a Digital Computer in the Differential Diagnosis of Hematological Diseases." IRE Transactions on Medical Electronics ME-7:4 (October 1960): 243-246. Reports on work using a digital computer to compare hospital case data at Cornell Medical Division of Bellevue Hospital, New York with data characteristic of hematologic diseases. Points out that it is important to see the use of the digital computer as an information tool that creates efficiencies and enhances diagnosis, rather than as a "diagnosis machine." 905. Lipkin, Martin K. "Digital Computer as Aid to Differential Diagnosis." Archives of Internal Medicine 108 (1961): 56-72. Outlines a procedure used to test a differential diagnostic computer program. The findings show that the computer made the same diagnosis as the physicians at the hospital in all 28 of the test cases. 906. Lipkin, Martin and Max A. Woodbury. "Coding of Medical Case History Data for Computer Analysis." Communications of the ACM 5 (October 1962): 532-534. One of the first articles detailing the use of computing in medicine to appear in a computing journal. Discusses computer applications to simulate differential diagnosis and to maintain a database of cases for future analyses. 907. Llewelyn, A. I. "Efficient Use of Computing Resources." in M. E. Abrams. Medical Computing (New York: American Elsevier Publishing Co., 1970): 173182. Addresses efficiency issues in planning, implementation, and use of computing systems and software for medical applications. Discusses tradeoffs and optimization with regard to large and small systems, time-sharing and remote access, and balance of cost advantages. 908. Lodwick, Gwilym S. "The History of the Use of Computers in the Interpretation of Radiological Images." In Proceedings ofACM Conference on

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History of Medical Informatics (Bethesda, MD: Association for Computing Machinery, 1987): 85-94. Lodwick's paper documents his career (as Chief of Radiology at the University of Iowa Medical School) and leading role in bringing computers into the field of radiology. He discusses introduction of computing into diagnosis, radiological assessment of the growth rate of tumors, automated image analysis, automated diagnosis of congenital heart disease, and automated analysis of texture in bone. 909. Lodwick, Gwilym S., et al. "Computer Diagnosis of Primary Bone Tumors: A Preliminary Report." Radiology 80 (February 1963): 273-275. One of the earliest involved analyses of applications of computers to radiology, and a significant contribution to the more general use of computers in medical diagnosis. Identifies the five critical steps to developing digital computer programs to aid diagnosis of bone tumors from roentgenograms: 1) assurance a diagnosis can be made; 2) digitizing results; 3) determination of probability; 4) assessing disease probabilities; 5) testing and modifying the computer program. 910. Lodwick, Gwilym S., et al. "Computer Aided Diagnosis of Radiographic Images." Journal oj Chronic Diseases 19 (April 1966): 293-313. Provides a summary of developments in computer applications to radiology. Focuses on computer evaluation of images of possible bone tumors. Stresses the value of the computer as a teaching tool in radiology. 911. Lusted, Lee B. "Computer Programming of Diagnostic Tests." IRE Transactions on Medical Electronics ME-7:4 (October 1960): 255-258. Discusses his and Robert Ledley's work in the use of computers in medicine, and the U.S. Air Force's early sponsorship and dissemination of such research. Provides example of differential diagnosis of pernicious anemia versus other hematological diseases. 912. Lusted, Lee B. "The Development of National Biomedical Computing Capability." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 1 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1962): 3-9. Lusted indicated in this opening address that it was the first conference on biomedical data processing at a medical school in the United States and the first time such a conference has been sponsored in part by a medical society (Monroe County Medical Society). He argues that the field of biomedical data processing has been slow to develop becuase most biologists and medical scientists have inadequate knowledge of mathematics and the physical sciences.

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913. Lusted, Lee B. "Computer Techniques in Medical Diagnosis." in Ralph W. Stacy and Bruce D. Waxman. Computers in Biomedical Research. Volume 1 (New York: Academic Press, 1965): 65-86 Historical review that outlines techniques for leading diagnostic process references. 914. Lusted, Lee B. "Some Roots of Clinical Decision Making." In Proceedings of ACM Conference on History of Medical Informatics (Bethesda, MD: Association for Computing Machinery, 1987): 165-193. Lusted documents the early history of computer applications to clinical decisionmaking, and the National Institutes of Health's (NIH) and other federal agencies' role in the process. The NIH and NSF both provided hundreds of thousands of dollars in support of medical computing research in the late 1950s. In 1960 the NIH formed the Advisory Committee on Computers and Research. 915. Lusted, Lee B. "A Clearing 'Haze': A View From My Window." Medical Decision Making 11 (April-June 1991): 76-87. One of the pioneers of medical informatics reflects on the early history of the field. Discusses the pioneering applications of the Bayesian approach by Robert Ledley in the late 1950s and the broader efforts to stimulate biomedical computing in the United States during the following decade. 916. Lusted, Lee B., and Robert S. Ledley. "Mathematical Models in Medical Diagnosis." Journal of Medical Education 35:3 (1960): 214-222. Early work analyzing mathematical models combined with computer analysis to aid in medical diagnosis, treatment, and teaching. Examines and evaluates possibilities for models in symbolic logic, probability, and value theory. 917. Lusted, Lee B., and Walter R. Stahl. "Conceptual Models of Diagnosis." in John A. Jacquez, ed. The Diagnostic Process: The Proceedings of a Conference Sponsored by the Biomedical Data Processing Training Program of the University of Michigan, May 9-11, 1963 (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, 1964): 157-184. Argues that it is not necessary to know in detail how physicians make diagnoses in order to benefit from computer diagnostic equipment. Algorithms cannot be written for complete diagnostic procedures, but can aid portions of the process, such as helping doctors overcome pattern weighting resulting from past experiences that distort actual probabilities.

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918. MacLennan, H. "The Art of Gynecology in a Computer Age." American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 97:5 (March 1, 1967): 590-596. While recognizing the importance of the computer in monitoring, MacLennan argues the vast limitations of the machine in diagnostics and therapeutics in gynecology. 919. Maloney, James V. "A Digital Simulation of the Blood Biomedical System." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 5th IBM Medical Symposium 1963 (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1963) 269-298. Outlines results of cooperative study between the UCLA Medical Center and the Rand Corporation using high-speed digital computing to mathematically model complex biological systems. 920. Mayne. J. G. "The Computer and Its Potential for Medicine." Annals of Internal Medicine 70 (January 1969): 207-214. Very basic article that was written as a primer to prepare members of the American College of Physicians for one of the main topics to be discussed at the upcoming Fiftieth Annual Session to be held in Chicago: the role of computers in medicine. Indicates a belief that most physicians have very little idea what a computer is, let alone computer applications to medicine at this time. 921. McKusick, Victor A. "Some Computer Applications to Problems in Human Genetics." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 6th IBM Medical Symposium 1964 (Poughkeepsie, NY: IBM, 1964): 207-218. Reports on the development and use of a computer program at Johns Hopkins University for estimating genetic linkage in humans. 922. McNamara, James J. "Legal Aspects of Computerized Medical Records." JAMA 205 (August 26, 1968): 153-154. Highlights some of the major ethical and legal issues involved with the use of computers in medicine, particularly privacy and data entry errors. Despite challenges, the author believes that computers can be of social and professional value in medicine. 923. Moore, Frederick J., and Gerald Goertzel. "An Experimental Clinical Decision Support System." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 8th IBM Medical Symposium 1967 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1967): 85-94.

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Moore and Goertzel, of the Medical Information Systems Department of the Advanced Systems Development Division at IBM, discuss the medical content of the IBM CDS System database, and the fact that the company considers this system to be non-proprietary in order to make it widely available to the medical community. 924. Moore, Richard. "Application of Computers to a General Medical Research Laboratory." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 5 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968): 195-206. Reports on work at the Blood Research Laboratory, American National Red Cross and their experiences with different computers and programming techniques. Discusses use of various systems and software, including: the IBM 1620, IBM 7094, IBM 1410, OMNITAB, FORTRAN II, FIDAC, FIDACYSYS, and BUGSYS. This equipment/software was applied to analyses of epidemiological data, biomedical engineering calculations, simulation of cost and heat transfer studies, membrane permeability, and pattern recognition. 925. Morris, Robert H. "Automatic Data Processing in Science (with reference to specific examples)." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 1 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1962): 10-15. Short technical article discussing equipment and methods in applying computing technology to the sciences. 926. Morrow, George M., Jr. "Computers in Psychiatry. Discussion: An Internist Assesses Future Computer Use." American Journal of Psychiatry 125:7 (supplement) (January 1969): 34-36. Morrow, an internist taking part in study at the Mayo Clinic conducted by 8 physicians and 21 technical personnel on the use of computers in taking medical history for psychiatric patients, emphasizes the greater flexibility and performance of the DIAGNO II over the DIAGNO I in psychiatric diagnosis. 927. Murphy, Edmond A., and Jane Schulze. "A Program for Estimation of Genetic Linkage in Man." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 3rd IBM Medical Symposium (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1961): 105-116. The authors discuss an application on an IBM 7090 to estimate human genetic linkage in three stages: the machine determines genotype possibilities, calculates the probability of a pedigree for particular crossover values, and determines appropriate confidence limits.

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928. Myers, J. D. "The Background of INTERNIST I and QMR." In Proceedings ofACM Conference on History of Medical Informatics (Bethesda, MD: Association for Computing Machinery, 1987): 195-197. University Professor Myers, Chair of the Department of Medicine at the University of Pittsburgh from 1955 to 1970, describes the development of INTERNIST, a diagnostic logic program of the 1970s. 929. Nash, F. A. "Differential Diagnosis: An Apparatus to Assist the Logical Faculties." Lancet (April 24, 1954): 874-876. Discusses a mechanical device used as a diagnostic medical tool. Although not a computer, it uses a mechanical table with hundreds of removable columns that can be manipulated to evaluate qualitative medical data by assisting with various types of logical thinking. 930. Neill, D. W., and J. R. Doggart. "The Use of an Off-line Computer in a Hospital Biochemical Laboratory." in M. E. Abrams. Medical Computing (New York: American Elsevier Publishing Co., 1970): 7-19. Discusses the introduction of biochemical screening using a Technicon Sequential Multiple Analyzer (SMA12) in 1967. Shortly thereafter an IBM 1130 is installed to analyze the results of data regarding frequency distributions for 12 plasma constituents, and to determine "normal" ranges. 931. Newell, J. A. "Radiotherapy Rotational Treatment Planning on a Small Slow Computer." In M. E. Abrams. Medical Computing (New York: American Elsevier Publishing Co., 1970): 146-149. Discusses the use of IBM 1440 in calculating a rotational program of radiation therapy at Birmingham Hospital. Although time consuming, the computer was effectively programmed (with the help of IBM programmers) to calculate a very full dosage distribution automatically. 932. Newill, V. A. "Report of Research and Development of Medical Information Retrieval Projects." in Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 2 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1963): 129-138. Physician discusses the "crisis" in medical information, and the role computer information retrieval systems can play in addressing the flood of information. Reports on information processing projects at the Center for Documentation and Communication Research and Center for Disease Control.

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933. Newman, G. B., and A. R. Kench. "Computer Time-Sharing in a Medical Environment." in M. E. Abrams. Medical Computing (New York: American Elsevier Publishing Co., 1970): 391-396. Newman, a lecturer in Mathematics, and Kench, a marketing manager with G.E.I.S. Ltd., give an endorsement of the benefits of time-sharing to health care organizations, and the cost advantages over on-site computer systems. 934. O'Brien, Thomas F., Ralph L. Kent, and Antone A. Medeiros. "Computergenerated Plots of Results of Antimicrobial-Susceptibility Tests." JAMA 210:1 (October 6, 1969): 84-92. Based on research using computer-generated plots of antimicrobial-suceptibility tests, the authors argue that computers can aid quality control of testing procedures and bacterial classification, and provide physicians with a graphical statistical basis for selecting antibiotics. 935. Ogburn, Richard E. "Computers in Nuclear Medicine." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 4th IBM Medical Symposium 1962 (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1962): 109-120. Discusses a study at the Veterans Administration Hospital in Omaha to use computers to "qualitate" and "quantitate" particular trace elements-in this case, zinc, copper, manganese, cadmium, in biological specimens. 936. Ostrander, L. E., et al. "Finite State Models with Boolean Variables." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 5 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968): 207-222. Physician discusses structures, techniques, attendant problems, and potential solutions in developing static and dynamic computer models to be applied in bioengineering. 937. Overall, John E., and Leo E. Hollister. "Computer Procedures for Psychiatric Classification." JAMA 187 (February 22, 1964): 583-588. With the growing interest in the use of the computer as a diagnostic tool in other areas of medicine, the authors examine computer applications in psychiatric classification and diagnosis. 938. Overall, John E., and Clyde M. Williams. "Models for Medical Diagnosis." Behavioral Science 6:2 (1961): 134-141.

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Discusses two models for computer diagnosis, the discriminate function model and the frequency count model, in prelude to examining feasible steps toward establishing a comprehensive system of medical diagnostics. 939. Parkhill, D. F. "Distributed State Response Pattern Recognition Systems." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 1 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1962): 63-75. Parkhill, at Information Technology Division of General Dynamics, discusses perceptions of computers as giant brains or thinking machines, and conceptualizations of the current situation and projected changes in the future of medicine and other areas of science. 940. Paycha, Francois. "Medical Diagnosis and Cybernetics." In National Physical Laboratory. Mechanisation of Thought Processes II (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1959): 635-660. Paycha attempts to outline the "logical structure of medicine," exploring the relationship of cybernetics and medicine, and opportunities provided in the convergence of these two fields. Presents a digital notation system for information in medicine and discusses the conditions necessary and the value of such a system for differential diagnosis. 941. Peterson, Osier L., and Ernest M Barsamian. "An Application of Logic to a Study of Quality of Surgical Care." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 5th IBM Medical Symposium 1963 (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1963): 169-176. Peterson and Barsamian, Harvard Medical School Professor and Roxbury V.A. Hospital Surgeon respectively, report on their application of computing technology to the study of surgical patient care using records of community hospitals. 942. Peterson, Osier L. "Computer Application to Studies of Surgical Diagnosis (Part One)." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 9th IBM Medical Symposium 1968 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1968): 41-44. Peterson describes the work of himself and others in preventative medicine at Harvard Medical School to put together a computer program to determine whether particular patients needed surgery. 943. Pipberger, Hubert V. "Data Processing for ECG." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 1 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1962): 149-155.

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Data processing of electrocardiograms was among the first medical applications of computers. This article focuses on analysis of the P-QRS-T complex of electrocardiograms using electronic digital computers. 944. Poletti, B. J., J. F. Zack, Jr., and T. J. Meller. "Computer Control in the Clinical Laboratory." American Journal of Clinical Pathology 53:5 (May 1970): 7331-7338. Discusses use of computers to automate clinical laboratories and the current and potential future impacts on medical research, using the clinical laboratory of the Department of Pathology, Queen of Angels Hospital in Los Angeles as a case study. Indicates how IBM 1130 and 1080s (using analog to digital converters) are connected to medical monitoring devices to record and process the output of the laboratory. 945. Pratt, Arnold W. "Computer Analysis of the Ultraviolet Absorption Spectra of RNA." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 4th IBM Medical Symposium 1962 (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1962): 49-76. Reports on use of a Cary spectrophotometer, an analog-to-digital converter and an IBM 1620 to record and process spectral data. 946. Prewitt, Judith M. S., et al. "Pictorial Data Processing Methods in Microscopy." in International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 8th IBM Medical Symposium 1967 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1967): 153- 164. Discusses the design, application, and equipment of a flexible system in use for processing microscopic images. This includes a general-purpose sensor and transducer (CYDAC) developed by Airborne Instruments Laboratory in conjunction with the University of Pennsylvania Medical School. 947. "Privacy and the Record." Lancet 2:7683 (November 28, 1970): 11221124. Reports on workshop of the National Council on Civil Liberties of Great Britain held recently in London. Challenges the notion of the benefits of medical computer databanks, arguing that privacy is more important than increased efficiency. 948. Pylyshyn, Zenon W. "FINDSIT: A Computer Program for Language Research." Behavioral Science 14:3 (1969): 248-251. Describes an IBM 7040 program, FINDSIT, that helps develop and analyze statistical and structural data from large files of natural language text. While the

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program has a number of potential applications within as well as outside of the sciences, it is currently being used primarily for transcript analysis of psychiatric patients. 949. Rand, Royden N. "Instrumentation Needs in the Clinical Chemistry Laboratory." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 1 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1962): 123-132. Addresses issue of the instrumentation of a physiological chemistry laboratory. The discussion relates to computerized control and monitoring equipment. 950. Raub, William F. "The Life Sciences Computer Resources Program of the National Institutes of Health." Computers in Biology and Medicine 2:3 (November 1972): 211-220. Discusses the computing resources the NIH provides to advance life sciences research. Details aggregate funding as well as highlights specific programs and institutions. Assesses the successes and failures of the program over the past decade. 951. Rawles, J. M., and G. S. Crockett. "Automation on a General Medical Ward: Monitron System of Patient Monitoring." British Medical Journal 3 (September 20, 1969): 707-711. Outlines use of Monitron, a patient monitoring system in use at Kettering General Hospital that records the temperature, pulse rate, blood pressure automatically on over a hundred patients on the hospital's general medical ward. 952. Rich, Robert P. "Computer Center Operation." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 6th IBM Medical Symposium 1964 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1964): 5-18. Provides a case study of the Johns Hopkins University Computing facilities, the equipment and locations, and applications to the sciences, particularly medicine. The Medical Center has ten people and an IBM 1401 while the Applied Physics Laboratory has seventy-five individuals and two IBM 7094 computers. The mode of operation, batch processing, is discussed, as is technical and policy administration of the computer center. 953. Richards, Bernard. "Software: The Language Problem." In M. E. Abrams. Medical Computing (New York: American Elsevier Publishing Co., 1970): 219225.

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Discusses Hospital Information System (H.I.S.) programming and the use of higher-level languages. Evaluates such languages and concludes that PL/1 offers the most advantages and fewest disadvantages for H.I.S. (compared to FORTRAN, COBOL, and ALGOL). 954. Robertson, James S., and Arcadio M. Neill. "Use of a Digital Computer in the Development of a Positron Scanning Procedure." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 4th IBM Medical Symposium 1962 (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1962): 77-104. Relates the use of digital computers in the initial design and two approaches to translating coincidence data to a form indicating the location of the positron emitter, aiding the diagnosis and treatment of brain tumors. 955. Rockwell, M. A., Jr., et al. "Shock III: A Computer System as an Aid in the Management of Critically 111 Patients." Communications of the ACM 9 (May 1966): 355-357. Concise largely technical article on SHOCK III, an online digital computer system that assists physicians and clinicians in monitoring and recording information on critically ill patients. Describes the IBM 1620-1710 used, as well as the analog equipment, manual input, output and software programs. 956. Rogers, Everett M. "Diffusion of Innovation: An Overview." In James G., Anderson and Stephen J. Jay. Use and Impact of Computers in Clinical Medicine (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1987): 113-131. Characterizes the history of the diffusion of innovations in medical practice and provides a context for understanding developments in the implementation of computers into medicine. 957. "The Role of Computers in Modern Medicine." JAMA 196:11 (June 13, 1966): 1014-1015. Broadly discusses the use of digital, analog, and hybrid computers in medicine. Cites both attributes of expanding computer use in medicine as well as the limitations. Argues against the notion that computers can replace the role of competent physicians. 958. Rome, Howard P. "Automation Techniques In Clinical Psychiatric Practice." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 4th IBM Medical Symposium 1962 (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1962): 335-346.

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Rome discusses the extension of a pilot study to completely automate the personality inventory (MMPI) used by the Mayo Clinic. The proposal calls for reprogramming the current IBM 650 procedures for use of a new IBM 1620 computer. He argues how this new equipment and programming will advance opportunities to study medical, psychological, and psychiatric problems. 959. Rome, Howard P. "Microsociology of Automation: Medical Sector." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 6th IBM Medical Symposium 1964 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1964): 19-30. Insightful analysis that begins with the sociological impacts of automation and then moves to focus on factors specifically in medical care settings. Examines the changing roles of physicians, nurses and other medical care providers, discussing the effect of computer applications on behavioral practices, organizational hierarchy, and other sociological issues. 960. Rosati, R. A., et al. "A New Information System for Medical Practice." Archives of Internal Medicine 135:8 (August 1975): 1017-1024. Discusses databank at the Division of Cardiology at Duke University Medical Center of more than 3,000 patients believed to have ischemic heart disease. Outlines the methods for documenting, storing, and retrieving information to improve patient care. Refers to this data processing system as a computer textbook, of which the data on the above chronic disease is only a chapter. 961. Rosenberg, Mervin, and R. Peter Ericson. "The Clinician and the Computer -Affair, Marriage, or Divorce?" American Journal of Psychiatry 125:7 (supplement) (January 1969): 28-32. Analyzes stages and responses often encountered by psychiatric clinicians with the advent of computing into clinics. Provides an evenhanded analysis that indicates both the costs and benefits of computing systems and provides guidance on planning and working with programmers to make the development, implementation, and functioning of the system more successful. 962. Rosenberg, Mervin, Bernard C. Glueck, Jr., and Charles F. Stroebel. "The Computer and the Clinical Decision Process." American Journal of Psychiatry 124:5 (November 1967): 595-599. Describes the methods and results of using a computer database of nurses' notes at the Institute for the Living. The database can be used to indicate both shortterm and longer-term progress or decline in the mental health of psychiatric patients and can be an effective tool to judge whether or not treatment methods are working successfully.

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963. Saenger, E. L. "Some Plain Facts About Computer-Oriented Programs in Medical Centers." In Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 2 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1963): 321-329. Attempts to answer practical problems associated with implementation of computer systems for medical applications. Discusses issues of administration and efficiency and provides advice and guidance to physicians in adjusting computer information processing systems. 964. Schoenfeld, Robert L. "The Digital Computer and Public Health." Archives of Environmental Health 14:2 (February 1967): 327-332. Provides overview of the early applications of digital computers to medicine and stresses that computers facilitate many qualitative scientific approaches. Surveys current practices as well as computer "anatomy," characteristics and limitations. 965. Schoenfeld, Robert L. "Computer Retrieval of Epidemiological Data." Archives of Environmental Health 19:5 (November 1969): 726-739. Outlines how clinical and epidemiological information was collected and coded on Hollerith cards for all children born in Aberdeen, Scotland during the 1950s. Discusses the process of transferring this information onto numerical magnetic tape to make it compatible with digital computer processing (using FORTRAN). 966. Schoolman, Harold M., and Lionel M. Berstein. "Computer Use in Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Therapy." Science 200 (1978): 926-931. States that although diagnosis and therapy are better than they have ever been, there is greater dissatisfaction. Provides a brief outline of the evolution of classes of computer systems applied to medicine and hints that a greater synergism is developing between physicians and computers. 967. Schwartz, William B. "Medicine and the Computer: The Promise and the Problems of Change." New England Journal of Medicine 283 (December 3, 1970): 1257-1264. Argues that computers will assist, and sometimes replace, the cognitive functions of the physician. The author prescribes optimistic caution in the implementation of computers into the field of medicine and examines a number of social costs with regard to psychological, organizational, legal, economic, and technical factors.

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968. Scott, A. M. "Automatic Coding of a Diagnosis." In Gordon McLachlan, and Richard A. Shegog, eds. Computers in the Service of Medicine, Volume II (London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust by the Oxford University Press, 1968): 89-105. Discusses study conducted on problems associated with automatic coding of diagnosis. Divides problems into three categories: the phraseology of the diagnosis in the medical record, the system of classification, and the most advantageous use of the computer as a link between them. 969. Sekelj, P., et al. "Automatic Electronic Computer for 6th Estimation of Arterial Concentration of Evans Blue Dye." American Heart Journal 55:4 (1958): 485-503. Reports on one of the earlier uses of electronic digital computers in medicine. Physicians from the Department of Physiology at McGill University discuss the use of a computer to standardize and calibrate instruments to record dye dilution curves in quantifying arterial concentration. 970. Shannon, James, and Fay M. Hemphill. "Medical Research Potentials in Light of Modern Data Processing." in International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 3rd IBM Medical Symposium (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1961): 720. Shannon, Director of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), foresees computers having a substantial future impact on medical practice and research. He believes computers will be especially pervasive in advancing epidemiology, behavioral science, cardiovascular studies, and neurophysiology. He argues the importance of government agencies, such as the NIH, providing support to facilitate the further development of medical informatics. 971. Sheppard, Louis C , et al. "Automated Treatment of Critically 111 Patients Following Operation." Annals of Surgery 168 (October 1968): 596-604. Physicians at the University of Alabama Medical Center discuss early results of an automated care system for patients following intracardiac operations. The system uses an IBM 1800 digital computer in conjunction with sensing devices to monitor and control basic treatment such as the infusion of blood. 972. Shubin, H., and Max H. Weil. "Efficient Monitoring with a Digital Computer of Cardiovascular Function in Seriously 111 Patients." Annals of Internal Medicine 65:3 (September 1966): 453-460.

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Researchers from the Shock Research Unit, Department of Medicine at the University of Southern California, discuss the use of a digital computer to monitor the cardiovascular activity in seriously ill patients. The system's use in this department has indicated that it is an effective tool for critically ill patients. 973. Siler, William, and John S. Laughlin. "A Computer Method for Radiation Treatment Planning." Communications of the ACM 5 (July 1962): 407-408. Discusses the early history and current practice of automated radiation treatment by the Physics staff of Memorial Hospital and Sloan-Kettering Institute. This was first accomplished in 1954 and the system of punched cards, a sorter, and accounting machine was used until 1961 when it was replaced by a Bendix G15D digital computer. 974. Slack, Warner V., et al. "A Computer-Based Medical-History System." New England Journal of Medicine 274:4 (January 27, 1966): 194-198. Emphasizes the importance of medical history records to improving health care and the benefits that can be gained from a computer-based medical history system. Details pilot study on allergies at the University of Wisconsin Hospitals using a small general purpose computer, Laboratory Instrument Computer (LINC), specially designed for on-line collection of information and "real-time" processing. 975. Slack, Warner V., et al. "A Computer-Based Physical Examination System." JAMA 200:3 (April 17, 1967): 224-228. Discusses use of the Laboratory Instrument Computer (LINC), a machine coming into common use by physicians in the latter portion of the 1960s. Details methods incorporated in a gynecological study at University of Wisconsin Hospitals. 976. Slack, Warner V., and C. W. Slack. "Patient-Computer Dialog." New England Journal of Medicine 286:24 (June 15, 1972): 1304-1309. Discusses study that examines doctor-patient dialogues and computer-patient dialogues in taking mental health case histories. The system evaluated includes a DEC PDP 12 connected to a microphone to record information for clinicians. 977. Sletten, Ivan W., et al. "The Missouri Standard System of Psychiatry (SSOP): Computer Generated Diagnosis." Archives of General Psychiatry 23:1 (1970): 73-79.

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Discusses the Missouri Standard System of Psychiatry (SSOP), a psychiatric diagnostic system that the authors argue compares favorably with the wider-used DIAGNO I and DIAGNO II systems. 978. Sletten, Ivan. W., et al. "Computer Assignment of Psychotropic Drugs." American Journal of Psychiatry 130:5 (May 1973): 595-598. Reports on a study demonstrating that a computer used by the Missouri Division of Mental Health can be effectively programmed to decide which of three types of drug assignment (major tranquilizers, minor tranquilizers, or anti-depressants) are appropriate for given patients. Patients were likely to receive the same treatment designation from the computer as they were from clinicians. 979. Spencer, W. A., and C. Vallbona. "Digitation of Clinical and Research Data in Serial Evaluation of Disease Processes." IRE Transactions, ME-7:4 (October 1960): 296-308. Early call for increased digitization of clinical and research information to aid in understanding the nature of chronic diseases-particularly the variability of disease processes resulting from human-environmental interaction. Discusses two-year practice at Baylor University College of Medicine. 980. Spitzer, Robert L., and Jean Endicott. "DIAGNO: A Computer Program for Psychiatric Diagnosis Utilizing the Differential Diagnostic Procedure." Archives of General Psychiatry 18:6 (June 1968): 746-756. Discusses a computer program, DIAGNO, that was developed at the New York State Psychiatric Institute and is based on a logical decision tree rather than a statistical model. 981. Spitzer, Robert L., and Jean Endicott. "DIAGNO II: Further Developments in a Computer Program for Psychiatric Diagnosis." American Journal of Psychiatry 125:7 (1969): 12-21. A revision of the original DIAGNO, DIAGNO II operates on much the same principle as its predecessor. DIAGNO II, however, solicits responses to most questions presented to patients on a scale from 1 to 6 (rather than just true or false questions on DIAGNO). While correlation between computer and clinical diagnosis was relatively low with DIAGNO, DIAGNO II comes much closer to clinicians' assessments. 982. Spivack, Alfred P., and Don K. Miller. "The Arrhythmia Trainer: A Small Computer for Training the Recognition and Electronic Treatment of Arrhythmias." JAMA 202:4 (October 23, 1967): 299-301.

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Describes a small computer used at the Palo Alto-Stanford Hospital to train physicians and nurses in arrhythmia pattern recognition. 983. Sterling, Theodore D., J. Nickson, and S. V. Pollack. "Is Medical Diagnosis a General Computer Problem?" JAMA 198:3 (October 17, 1966): 281-286. Concedes the importance of computers to radiotherapy, radioactive isotope scanning, and some other areas, but critiques the more general notion of the computer as a scientific tool for diagnosis. 984. Stillman, Richard W., et al. "An On-Line Computer System for Initial Psychiatric Inventory." American Journal of Psychiatry 125:7 (supplement) (January 1969): 28-32. Developers of a software program, CASE (Computer Assisted Special Enquirer) outline the application of their system at the Stanford Medical Center. CASE elicits and records mental condition and personal history information directly from patients through a branching system where follow-up questions are based on prior responses. The system is written in PL/ACME, a subset of PL/I, and operates on the IBM Series 360/50. 985. Stobie, George. "Medical Data Processing in a Large Hospital Environment." in International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 7th IBM Medical Symposium 1965 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1965): 365-374. Stobie provides case study of medical computing at the Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit. 986. Sullivan, F. J., E. A. Mroz, and R. E. Miller. "The Precision of a Special Purpose Analog Computer in Clinical Cardiac Output Determination." Annals of Surgery 181:2 (February 1975): 232-238. Physicians from the Physiology Division of the U.S. Army Medical Research and Nutrition Laboratory discuss a study of a special purpose analog computer to evaluate cardiac output determination. Concludes with a number of suggestions to minimize the errors involved with using such equipment. 987. Swedlow, David B., et al. "A Simple Programming System ("Driver") for the Creation and Execution of an Automated Medical History." Computers and Biomedical Research 5 (1972): 90-98.

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Describes the use of a driver (program written for repetitive tasks) to automate the medical history system at the Massachusetts General Hospital. The program directs the on-line interview and produces a narrative summary. 988. Sweeney, James W. "The Role of a Computer Center in Biomedicine." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 5th IBM Medical Symposium 1963 (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1963): 5-18. Sweeney, a professor of Computer Medicine and Director of the Computing Centers at Tulane University, gives an overview of his talk at the 1959 symposium and his work on medical computing over the succeeding four years. He discusses training, consultation, medical records, patient care, data acquisition and transmission, storage, and biomathematics. 989. Talbot, Samuel A., and W. K. Harrison, Jr. "Computer Evaluation of Physiological Data for Diagnosis." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 6th IBM Medical Symposium 1964 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1964): 53-68. Argues that there are two fundamental roles of computers with regard to physiological data: the sorting, editing, normalization, noise reduction, featurespecification, recognition, and analysis of data; and the calculation of population distributions and analysis with respect to specific diseases. 990. Tauxe, W. Newton "Digital Computer Processing of Radioisotope Scintiscan Matrixes." JAMA 205:5 (July 29, 1968): 283-289. Evaluates the results of digital processing of radioisotope scintiscan matrices at the Mayo Clinic. Concludes that digital computers represent an important tool for x-ray scanning. 991. Taylor, Richard T. "Major Problems in the Use of Computing Machines." IRE Transactions on Medical Electronics ME-7:4 (October 1960): 253-254. Briefly introduces and analyzes five areas of medical computing that Taylor argues are problematic: recording and use of medical histories, machine aided diagnosis, laboratory data, the handling of graphical information, and communication between doctor and computer. 992. Taylor, T. R., et al. "Doctors as Decision-makers: A Computer-assisted Study of Diagnosis as a Cognitive Skill." British Medical Journal 3:765 (July 3, 1971): 35-40.

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Discusses the use of a PDP 8 computer linked to a time-sharing ICL KDF9 computer used in a study of the skill and cognitive methods of six physicians in diagnosing identical cases of non-toxic goiter. 993. Tsao, Rhett F. "Computer Application to Studies of Surgical Analysis (Part Two)." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 9th IBM Medical Symposium 1968 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1968): 45-48. Tsao, of the IBM Cambridge Science Center, discusses the use of two types of computing systems for diagnosis: those using logic tree methods, and those using a Bayes' theorem method. 994. Tsien, K. C. "The Application of Automatic Computing Machines to Radiation Treatment Planning." British Journal of Radiology 29 (1955): 432. Provides a brief report on the first use of automated computational equipment to radiation therapy, which was accomplished by the physics staff of Memorial Hospital and Sloan-Kettering Institute in 1954. 995. Tversky, Amos, and Daniel Kahneman. "Judgement Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases in Medical Decision-Making." Science 185 (1974): 11241131. Examines some of the underlying theory behind medical diagnosis, and more generally, medical knowledge. Focuses on cognitive biases that develop out of the reliance on judgmental heuristics. 996. Vallbona, Carlos. "Ten Years of Computers in Medicine -A Retrospective View." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 9th IBM Medical Symposium 1968 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1968): 189-194. Briefly discusses the meeting Dr. Carl Berkeley of the Rockefeller Institute put together nearly ten years earlier and the progress that has been made in various areas of medical computing between that meeting and the present one in areas such as computer applications to the detection of disease, the effectiveness of treatment, extending delivery of health care services, and medical education. 997. Walker, Weldon J. "A Small Portable Digital-Analogue Device for Electrocardiographic Screening." JAMA 200:4 (April 24, 1967): 137-140. Reports on a successful small portable digital-analog system that analyzes electrocardiogram data to assess whether it is within predetermined parameters. Indicates how a small portable digital-analog device has been successfully used

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at the White Memorial Medical Center in Los Angeles to recognize parameters of a sealer ECG to determine if it is within programmed parameters. 998. Warner, Homer R. "The Role of Computers in Medical Research." JAMA 196:11 (June 13, 1966): 944-949. Provides an excellent overview of computer applications in medical research during the first half of the 1960s. The focus of the article is on the use of timesharing and computer simulation of living systems through the development of modeling programs. With regard to time-sharing, the article discusses MEDLAB, a system that allows multiple researchers to utilize a computer simultaneously from remote locations. 999. Warner, Homer R., et al. "A Mathematical Approach to Medical Diagnosis -Application to Congenital Heart Disease." JAMA 177 (1961): 75-83. Outlines a new equation of conditional probability to express the logical thought process utilized by physicians to make diagnoses from medical data. Demonstrates the attributes of the equation in examining its application to congenital heart disease. 1000. Warner, Homer R., et al. "HELP -A Program for Medical DecisionMaking." Computers and Biomedical Research 5 (1972): 65-74. Outlines the use of HELP, a computer program to assist physicians and nurses with recognition of attributes or behavior symptomatic of particular diseases or illnesses. Places the importance of this program within the context of the growing difficulty of keeping up with growing knowledge in many different medical specialties. Specifically evaluates the application of HELP at the University of Utah, Latter Day Saints Hospital. 1001. Warner, Homer R., A. F. Toronto, and L. G. Veasey. "Experience with Bayes Theorem for Computer Diagnosis of Congenital Heart Disease." Annals of the New York Academy of Science 115 (1954): 558-567. One of the first articles addressing the topic of medical computing. Discusses the application of Bayes Theorem using a computer to aid in the diagnosis of heart disease. 1002. Waxman, Bruce D. "Public Health Service Support of Biomedical Computing." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 3r IBM Medical Symposium (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1961): 197-202.

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Details the early history of support for biomedical computing provided by the Public Health Service, starting with the National Institutes of Health's establishment of the Advisory Committee on Computers in Research. Gives perspective on the review process for grants in this area and the types of projects supported. 1003. Webb, George N. "Communicating Biological Information to the 1401 Computer, Coding, Editing, and Interfacing-Problems and Results." In International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 6th IBM Medical Symposium 1964 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1964): 69-80. Paper focuses on two primary areas: outlining methods of acquisition and processing of medical data; and the use of an IBM 1401 computer for writing gapped digital tape. The first is divided into discussing four tasks: establishment of disease entities, establishment of disease criteria, diagnosis and care, and model building. The second discusses the particular hardware, such as multiplexers and analog to digital converters used in conjunction with the IBM 1401. 1004. Weed, L. L. "Medical Records that Guide and Teach." New England Journal of Medicine 278 (March 14 and March 21, 1968): 593-599, 652-657. Seeks to identify and analyze the difficulties faced by clinical clerks, house officers, and physicians in dealing with medical records. By looking at the experience of the medical record broadly, the article provides a contextual basis for understanding how computers can affect the equation. 1005. Weil, Max H., H. Shubin, and W. Rand. "Experience with a Digital Computer for Study and Improved Management of the Critical 111." JAMA 198:9 (November 28, 1966): 1011-1016. Documents work at the Shock Research Unit at Los Angeles County General Hospital using a high-speed digital computer to compile data on patients and immediately report it to ward staff. 1006. Whitehead, T. P., J. F. Becker, and M. Peters. "Data Processing in a Clinical Biochemistry Laboratory" In Gordon McLachlan and Richard A. Shegog, eds. Computers in the Service of Medicine (London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust by Oxford University Press, 1968): 113-134. Discusses the equipment (IBM 1440 and IBM 870) and methods of using dataprocessing techniques at a hospital chemistry lab at Queen Elizabeth Hospital between 1964 and 1967. The experiment has been successful in reducing labor of scientific staff.

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1007. Wilber, Stewart A., and William S. Derrick. "Patient Monitoring and Anesthetic Management." JAMA 191 (March 15, 1965): 893-898. Outlines how a physiological communication network consisting of an automatic transducer system and a digital computer is being used to gather and display important and timely physiological information to surgeons for immediate use in clinical decision-making. 1008. Wilton-Davies, C. C. "Small Computer Graphics in the Physiological Laboratory." in R. D. Parslow and R. Elliot Green, eds. Computer Graphics in Medical Research and Hospital Administration (London: Plenum Press, 1971): 27-34. Wilton-Davies, of the Royal Naval Physiological Laboratory, Alverstoke, Gosport, indicates that after the benefits of computing technology were recognized in his lab, they were faced with the choice between using a link to a large central computer or a smaller computer on site. Because their primary uses were data processing rather than calculation, they chose the latter, a DEC LINC8. 1009. Woodward, John K. "Contextual Structure Analysis." in Kurt Enslein, ed. Data Acquisition and Processing in Biology and Medicine, Volume 1 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1962): 45-50. Woodward, of the University of Rochester Computer Center, discusses how computers can advance linguistic analysis and cognitive science by speeding up analysis, and avoiding the types of errors humans make as a result of fatigue or inadequate concentration. 1010. Woolf, C. R., et al. "The Use of 'Program Evaluation and Review Technique' (PERT) in the Design and Control of a Medical Research Project." Computers and Biomedical Research 2 (1968): 176-198. Discusses the application of Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT), a system developed by the U.S. Navy in 1958, to medical research projects at Toronto General Hospital. This involves breaking down tasks, sequencing, and identifying time estimates for each activity to code into an IBM 1130. PERT evaluates whether or not individual targets are being met and the overall progress of the medical research projects. 1011. Wortzman, Donald, et al. "Computer Identification of Cardiac Arrhythmia." in International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 7th IBM Medical Symposium 1965 (Poughkeepsie, New York: IBM, 1965): 197-205.

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Wortzman, an IBM researcher and project manager, discusses an automatic system developed for measuring and interpreting electrocardiograms at the IBM Advanced Systems Development Division. He relates the specific hardware (IBM 1401) and software that make up the system. Specifically, this system is developed and used to detect and identify particular cardiac arrhythmias. 1012. Yasaki, Edward K. "What Will They Zap at El Camino? The CRT, or the Two-Year Old MIS?" Datamation (October 1973): 142-146. Discusses the computerized management information system (MIS) at El Camino Hospital in Mountain View, California. 1013. Yoder, Franklin D. "Data Processing in Public Health." International Business Machines. Proceedings of the 4th IBM Medical Symposium 1962 (Endicott, NY: IBM, 1962): 193-204. Yoder, Director of Public Health for Illinois, provides a case study of data processing applications in the State's public health administration. The discussion includes the types of data processing, the main functions of data processing, equipment and personnel to carry out these activities for Illinois, and specific examples of applications. 1014. Yoder, Richard D., Mary R. Evans, James W. Sweeney. "Processing Pictures with Computers. An Introduction." JAMA 200:13 (June 26, 1967): 1171-1175. Indicates that the use of computers in processing medical images is still in a largely preliminary stage, but argues that in a short time these machines will become important tools in the analysis of medical pictures, much as they have been in the past with regard to non-medical images such as bubble chamber photographs in nuclear physics. Serials 1015. Computers and Biomedical Research v. 1- (New York: Academic Press, 1965An international journal published by Academic Press. Most of the articles are from computer specialists, scientists, and physicians from the U.S. and relate to technical and broad policy issues. Journal becomes increasingly technical after the first volume.

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1016. Computers in Biology and Medicine v. 1- (New York: Elsevier Science, 1971-) International journal, published by Pergamon Press and edited by medical informatics pioneer Robert Ledley, that offers articles on computer applications in basic biological research, applied biology, and medicine. Some pieces focus on the computing systems and others on techniques. An emphasis is placed on the unique role computers contribute to biological and medical problems. 1017. Computer Programs in Biomedicine v. 1-19 (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Co., 1970-1985). Technical international publication of the North Holland Publishing Company with articles on a range of applications from process control to studies of large scale computing systems and adapting existing software for biomedical uses. 1018. International Journal of Biomedical Computing v.l- (Barking, England: Applied Science Publishers, 1970-). Publishes articles in English, French, and German on computing applications to bio-medicine, both research and clinical practice. The journal republishes significant articles to provide an international forum as well as original studies, interpretive reviews. 1019. Journal of Clinical Computing v.l- (New York, American Elsevier Publishing Company, 1971-). International journal seeking to focus on pragmatic issues in medical computing, such as how, when, and with what equipment to computerize facilities and operations in clinical settings. A number of articles address economic concerns and the efficiency and cost feasibility of computer systems. First volume had issues of between two and eight pages in length and was originally titled, Western New York Health Data Network and Western New York Medical Record Association Newsletter. 1020. Methods of Information in Medicine v.l- (Stuttgart: F. K. Schattauer, 1962-). International journal published by Verlag with articles in both German and English (German title: Methodik der Information in der Medizin). It appears a half decade to decade before the other medical informatics journals, but is only partly devoted to computer applications, and in the early years had relatively few articles in this area. By the end of the 1960s it was more heavily concentrated in this area of research.

Medical Sciences

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1021. Sigbio Newsletter/ Special Interest Group on Biomedical Computing (Volume 1-January 1969-). Manuscript Collections 1022. American Association for Medical Systems and Informatics Records, 1972-1984. [1.6 linear feet]. The American Association for Medical Systems and Informatics was formed in 1981 through the merger of the Society for Computer Medicine (SCM, founded in 1972), and the Society for Advanced Medical Systems (SAMS, founded in 1975). The AAMSI serves as the national professional medical society devoted to the development and implementation of medical care, teaching, research, and health administration. Collection includes correspondence, minutes, reports, agendas, membership records and newsletters from the AAMSI and its two predecessor organizations. 1023. History of Computing at University of Alabama Birmingham Project Research Files, 1967-1993. University of Alabama Birmingham Library, Birmingham, Alabama [2 cubic feet]. Consists of materials gathered by Dr. Steve Wixon as part of the "History at University of Alabama Birmingham Project," to document the use of computing in research in a number of the University's schools and departments. Most of the records are on the history of medical informatics from the school's Departments of Medicine and Surgery. The documentation begins with Dr. Josiah Macy's work in organizing the Department of Information Sciences in the 1960s and includes records on medical computer applications from the 1960s into the 1990s. 1024. Schultz, Claire K., Papers, ca. 1948-1980. CBI 86. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. [67 cubic feet]. Schultz was fundamental to the development of automated information systems for Merk, Sharp, and Dome in the 1950s, and subsequently, at Sperry Rand's UNIVAC Division. She was involved in developing the MEDLARS/MEDLINE system in the early 1960s, a significant contribution to aiding medical research. The records include correspondence and other materials related to this important development.


Author Index Numbers in index refer to entry numbers. Abbott, W., 688 Abernathy, William J., 683, 735 Abildskov, J. A., 736 Abrams, M. E., 684 Ackerman, Stephen J., 737 Adam, Alison, 250 Adams, E. P., 44 Adey, W. Ross, 738 Agalides, E., 739-740 Ahearne, John F., 64 Alexander, David C , 741 Alexander, M. K., 742 Alfano, Guy E., 743 Allen, Ruth, 677 Almy, Thomas P., 744 Alsop, Joyce, 1 Alt, Franz L., 7 Amarel, Saul, 363 Amosov, Nikolai M., 251 Amouyal, Albert, 65 Anderson, E., 615 Anderson, J., 745 Anderson, James G., 685 Anderson, John, 686-687, 746 Andrew, Alexander M., 364 Apter, Julia T., 747 Arbib, Michael A., 252-253 Arden, Bruce, 616 Aron, Joel D., 748 Ashby, W. Ross, 365 Aspray, William, 8, 66-69, 242, 366,574,576,581,584,586

Bach, G. L., 367 Backus, John, 70 Backwelder, R. E., 617 Bailey, Daniel E., 368 Baker, Robert A., 369 Baker, Robert F., 424 Ball, Marion J., 749 Banerji, Ranan B., 254-255 Baram, Giora, 425 Barber, B., 688 Barenfeld, M., 520 Barlow, Horace B., 256 Barnes, Donald R., 750 Barnet, Ann B., 751 Barnett, G. Octo, 752-755, 760, 834 Barnhard, Howard J., 756 Baron, D. N., 757 Barr, Avron, 257-260 Barsamian, Ernest M., 941 Bartcher, Ronald L., 589 Bartels, Robert C. F., 758 Baruch, Jordan J., 759-760 Bashe, Charles J., 9, 71 Batchlor, Charles D., 761 Beach, Ann F., 2 Beaver, Donald, 68 Becker, J. F., 1006 Beich, H. L., 762 Beilin, L. J., 763 Bell, Gordon C , 370

244

Author Index

Bellman, Richard E., 261 Benfari, R. C , 764 Beninger, James R., 72 Bennett, A. E., 765 Bennett, E. M., 371 Bentley, R. E., 766 Berkeley, Edmund C , 262, 555 Bernstein, Alex, 372 Bernstein, Lionel M., 966 Berson, Alan S., 767 Bewley, William L., 263 Bieman, K., 73 Bigelow, Julian, 74 Binder, Sidney, 768 Birdsall, Charles K., 75 Birkenstock, James W., 76 Birkoff, Garrett, 77 Bishop, Jerry E., 590 Black, P., 769 Blackburn, J. P., 770 Blackney, Willard C , 78 Blackwelder, R. E., 591,617 Bleich, Howard L., 771 Bloomfield, Brian, 264, 373 Blum, Bruce I., 689 Bobrow, Daniel G., 265, 374 Boden, Margaret A., 266-269 Bodenham, K. E., 721 Boiling, David R., 644 Bolt, Bruce A., 79 Bolter, David A., 270 Bonham-Carter, Graeme, 28 Bonner, Raymond E., 618, 772 Booth, Donald Andrew, 226 Boring, E. G., 375 Borko, Harold, 271, 376-377 Bossert, W., 619 Bowden, Mary Ellen, 10 Bowker, Geof, 378 Brandt, Edward N., Jr., 773 Brazier, Mary A. B., 379, 774 Brickford, Reginald G., 775 Bright, Herbert S., 80 Brodman, Keeve, 776-777 Brown, Donald W., 778

Brown, John Seely, 380 Brown, Thomas V., 487 Bruce, Robert A., 779 Bruemmer, Bruce, 3 Bulgren, William G., 716 Bunker, Don L., 81 Burk, C. F., 4-5 Burks, Alice R., 83 Burks, Arthur W., 82-83, 272, 381 Bush, Ian E., 620 Bush, Vannevar, 382 Butler, J. W., 780 Caceres, Cesar A., 690-692, 729, 750,781-783 Cady, Lee, 784 Callahan, Arthur B., 785 Callaway, E., Ill, 786 Cameron, Joseph M., 84 Camin, J. H., 668 Campbell-Kelly, Martin, 85 Card, W. I., 787 Carr, John W., 86, 383 Castellan, N.John, 384 Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., 621 Ceruzzi, Paul, 11 Chamak, Brigitte, 385 Chandrasekaran B., 386 Chang, Chin-Liang, 273 Chen, Iongo, 496 Chomsky, Noam, 274 Chu, Jeffrey Chuan, 87 Chung, C. S., 788 Clark, Andy, 314 Clark, Wesley A., 88, 789 Coffin, R. W., 715 Cohen, Dan, 622 Cohen, I. Bernard, 12, 89 Colburn, Timothy R., 275 Colby, Kenneth, M., 338, 387 Collen, Morris F., 693, 790-796 Collins, Allan M., 388 Collins, Harry M., 276 Commission on College Physics, 13 Comrie, L. C , 90

Author Index Converse, Mary E., 798 Corbitt, Kevin, 582 Cortada, James W., 6, 14, 678 Cote, Alfred J., Jr., 277 Cowles, Kathleen H., 549 Cox, J. R., 623 Craik, F. I. M., 389 Crevier, Daneil, 278 Crichton,J. W.,301 Croarken, Mary, 15, 91 Crockett, G. S., 951 Crooks, J., 800 Crosby, Richard S., 799 Cross, K. W., 801 Crouse, Linda, 802 Culbertson, James T., 279 Curran, William J., 803 Curtis, John H., 92 Curtis, K. K., 93 Cuthill, Elizabeth, 94 Data Processing Management Association, 16 Davies, R. G., 593 Davis, A. E., 805 Dawson, John M., 75 Dayhoff, Margaret O., 624-625 Debenham, G. A., 806 Degan, J. W., 371 Derrick, William S., 1007 Dertouzos, Michael, 459 Dickson, James F., Ill, 807 Didday, R. L., 390 Diebold, John, 280-281 Dito, William R., 808 Dobrin, Milton B., 95 Dobrow, Robert J., 809-810 Doggart, J. R., 930 Dreifus, Leonard S., 692 Dreyfus, Hubert L., 282 Driver, H. E., 626 Droar, J., 801 Duncan, Karen, 689 Dupuy, Jean-Pierre, 283 Dutton, John M., 391

245

Dyson, George B., 284 Eades, D. C, 627 Earnest, Lester, 285, 445 Eckert, J. Presper, Jr., 97 Eckert, Wallace J., 17, 18 Edwards, A. W. F., 621 Ehrlich, Paul R., 628 Eilam, Gavrela, 622 Elzen, Boelie, 98 Endicott, Jean, 980-981 Engineering Research Associates, 19 Enslein, Kurt, 694-698, 811 Ernst, George, 463 Estes, W. K., 392 Estrin, Thelma, 393 Esherick, Joseph, 419 Ericson, R. Peter, 961 Estes, W. K., 392 Evans, Alfreds., 812 Evans, Christopher R., 226, 229 237, 243, 579 Evans, John M., 833 Evans, Mary R., 1014 Everett, Robert R., 99 Fahidy,T.Z., 100 Farley, BelmontG., 813 Feigenbaum, Edward A., 257-260, 286, 287, 394-397 Feinstein, Alvan R., 814-816 Feldman, Julian A., 287, 398-399 Felsenstein, J., 629 Ferderber, Charles J., 817 Fernbach, Sidney, 20, 101 Feurzeig, Wallace, 818 Fieldman, Arnold, 810, 819 Fikes, R. E., 400 Fimple, M. D., 102 Finney, Joseph C , 820 Fino,T.A.,481 Fisher, Franklin M., 21 Flagle, Charles D., 821 Flamm, Kenneth, 22

246

Author Index

Fleck, James, 401 Fogel, Lawrence J., 288 Forsythe, Diana E., 402 Forsythe, J. Malcolm, 686-687 Fortun, M., 103 Fowler, Raymond D., Jr., 822 Frana, Philip L., 823 Fraser, Patricia M., 757 Frazer,J. W., 104 Freeman, Peter, 370 Frey, Harvey S., 824 Friedberg, R. B., 403-404 Friedland, Peter, 630 Fries, James F., 825 Frijda, Nico H., 405 Fritz, W. Barkley, 105 Fuchs, Walter R., 23 Gabrieli, E. R., 826 Galison, Peter, 106-107, 406 Galucci, Vincent F., 631 Gardner, Elmer A., 856 Gardner, Howard, 289 Garfinkel, David, 827-828 Giese, Ronald L., 632 George, Frank H., 290-291, 594 Gelernter, H. L., 407 Gerard, Ralph W., 829 Gill, S., 62 Giuliano, V. E., 408 Glueck, Bernard C, Jr., 830, 962 Goertzel, Gerald, 923 Goldstine, Herman H., 24 Goode, Frank M., 409 Goodenough, John B., 831 Goodzeit, C. L., 108 Gordon, Burgess L., 832 Gordon, Howard, 292 Gorman, Patricia A., 833 Gorn, Saul, 410 Gorry, G. Anthony, 834 Gottlieb, J., 835 Grabiner, Judith V., 411 Gray, C. H., 836 Greanias, Evon C , 837

Green, Bert F., Jr., 412-413 Green, George D., 234 Green, R. Elliot, 722 Greenes, Robert A., 755, 838-839 Greenstadt, John, 109 Gregg, Lee W., 293, 414-415 Grier, David Alan, 110 Groome, David S., 778 Grossman, Jerome H., 840-841 Gruenberger, Fred J., 294 Gunderson, Keith, 295, 416 Gurer, Denise W., 111 Gustafson, John E., 842-843 Gutknecht, Martin H., 112 Guyton, Arthur C , 844 Hagan, William K., 845 Halstead, Ward C , 417 Hamming, Richard W., 25, 26 Hammond, Allen L., 418 Handler, Philip, 595 Hanes, Berhard, 901 Hanson, Allen R., 253 Harbaugh, John Warvelle, 27-29 Harless, William G., 846 Harlow, Francis, 113 Harman, Charles E., 847 Harrington, Rodney B., 632 Harrison, W. K., Jr., 989 Hartgering, J. B., 848 Hartman, Roger D., 114 Hartree, Douglas R., 296 Harway, Norman I., 849 Hass, John K., 30 Hawkland, William D., 850 Hayes, P. J., 446 Heart, F. E., 633 Heilbron, John. L., 31 Heims, Stephen J., 297-298 Hemphill, Fay M., 970 Heyer, Mark, 236 Hicks, D., 851 Hicks, G. Phillip, 852 Hillman, Robert G., 853 Hilsenrath, Joseph, 84

Author Index Hine, Christine, 634 Hirshhorn, Kurt, 639 Hochberg, H. M., 854 Hodges, Andrew, 299 Hofstadter, Douglas, 300 Hoggatt, Austin C , 419 Holl, Jack M., 32 Holland, John H., 301, 420 Holland, W. W., 765 Hollister, Leo H., 937 Homes, William, 855 Hood, Leroy, 601 Hook, Sidney, 302 Hopkins, Roger A., 856 Hormann, Aiko, 421 Horn, Werner, 249 Horst, Paul, 422 Householder, A. S., 115-116 Howard, Gordon, 292 Howlett, Jack, 117 Hruska, J. 5 Hubbard, H. C , 857 Hughes, Robert A., 118 Hughes, Thomas P., 119 Hunt, Earl B., 303 Hunt, Theodore L., 635 Hurd, Cuthbert C , 120-122 Huskey, Harold D., 123-124 Iker, Howard P., 849 Inamura, Klyonari, 858 International Business Machines, 33-37, 596-599, 699-705 Jackson, Philip C , Jr., 305 Jacquez, John A., 600, 860 Jaffe, Joseph, 861 Jahn, T. L., 636 James, F. D., 862 Jay, Stephen J., 685 Jeffress, Lloyd A., 306 Johnson, Edward S., 423-424 Johnson, George, 307 Johnson, Lyle R., 55 Johnson, O. G., 863

247

Jones, David O., 52 Jones, Rebecca, 18 Jungck, J. R., 637 Jutila, Sakari T., 425 Kahn, Kenneth M., 308 Kahne, Merton J., 426 Kahneman, Daniel, 995 Kalos, Malvin H., 125 Kanner, I. F., 864 Kaplan, Bonnie, 865-866 Katz, L., 867 Kaufrnann, William J., 38 Kedes, Laurence H., 630 Keller, Evelyn Fox, 638 Kelly, E. Lowell, 427 Kemeny, J. G., 428 Kench, A. R., 933 Kendrick, W. B., 647 Kenney, Edward C , 868, Kent, A., 869 Kent, Ralph L, 934 Kevles, Daniel J., 39, 601 Kidwell, Peggy Aldrich, 126 Kiely, Joseph M., 870 Kistermann, Friedrich W., 127 Klahr, Michael, 528 Klatt, Dennis H., 374 Kleinmuntz, Benjamin, 871 Klingeman, Jack D., 872 Knights, Edwin M., Jr., 706, 873 Knox, E. G., 874 Knudsen, Michael, 426 Kobernick, S. D., 875 Koch, George S, 40, 128 Kochen, M., 602 Kohler, Wolfgang, 429 Korein, Julius, 876-878 Korn, Granino Arthur, 41 Koss, N., 815-816 Kotovsky, K., 521 Kowalski, Charles J., 672 Kowarski, L., 129 Krumbein, W. C , 130

Kruskal , Mar tin

248

Author Index

Kulikowski, Casimir A., 430 Kurzweil, Raymond, 309 Ladd,D. W., 132 Larson, Richard, 879 Lashley, K. S., 431 Laska, Eugene, 880 Laughlin, John S., 973 Lawton, M. D., 881 Lazarow, Arnold, 882 Lederberg, Joshua, 432-433, 707, 883 Ledley, Robert S., 708-710, 884898,916 Leighton, A. H., 764 Leith, Philip, 434 Lennon, William J., 899 Lenoir, Timothy, 133, 900 Lenoski, Edward F., 901 Leslie, Stuart, 42 Levinthal, C, 867 Levy, Allan, 902 Lewis, R., 603 Licklider, J. C. R., 435 Lillian, Y. F. Hsu, 639 Lindberg, Donald A., 711-712 Lindsay, Robert K., 310 Lines, J. G., 903 Lingoes, James C, 427 Lipkin, Martin K., 904-906 Lippmann, Louis G., 436 Llewelyn, A. I., 907 Lockhart, R. S., 389 Lodge, A., 751 Lodwick, Gwilym S., 908-910 Loomis, R. G., 614 Loudon, Victor T., 43, 44 Love, EwenB., 713 Lowan, Arnold N., 134 Lowell, Sherman, 135 Lucas, Nancy C , 437 Lusted, Lee B., 714-715, 894-897, 911-917 Lynch, Michael F., 136

MacCluer, Jean W., 640-641 MacKenzie, Donald, 98, 137-138 MacKinnon, Mary M., 438 MacKinnon, William J., 438 MacLennan, H., 918 Maloney, James V., 919 Mandell, G. H., 875 Mandler, G., 311 Mandler, J. M., 311 Mapstone, Robina, 587 Marill, Thomas, 439 Markowitz, Joseph, 440 Marks, Sema, 50 Maron, M. E., 312 Mason, Edward E., 716 Mathews, M. V., 139 Mauchly, John W., 140 Mayne, J. G., 920 McCarthy, Charles E., 775 McCarthy, John, 340, 433, 441-446 McClelland, William F., 141-142 McCorduck, Pamela, 231, 241, 313,575,578 McCulloch, Warren S., 447-450 McKusick, Victor A., 921 McLachlan, Gordon, 717-718 McLean, A. D., 143 McNamara, James J., 922 Medeiros, Antone A., 934 Medwick, Paul A., 144 Meeker, Robert J., 512 Melkanoff, Michael A., 45 Meller, T. J., 944 Mendelsohn, Everett, 46 Merriam, Daniel F., 29, 47 Mesarovic, M. D., 255 Metropolis, Nicholas, 48, 145-147 Mi, Ming-Pi, 642 Michener, C. D., 643 Michie, Donald, 451 Milan, J., 766 Miller, Don K., 982 Miller, George A., 452-453 Miller, R. E., 986 Millican, Peter, 314

Author Index Minsky, Marvin L., 248, 315, 316317,454-459 Mitchell, Herbert F., Jr., 148 Molnar, C. E., 789 Monroe, K. E., 728 Moore, Felix E., 758 Moore, Frederick J., 719, 923 Moore, Richard, 924 Morgan, Ronald E., 674 Morris, Robert H., 925 Morrow, George M., Jr., 926 Morton, Lewis, M., 353 Moses, Joel, 459 Mroz, E. A., 986 Murphy, Edmond A., 644, 927 Murray, F. J., 460 Myers, J. D., 928 Nash, F. A., 929 Nash, Stephen G., 49 National Institutes of Health, 318 National Physical Laboratory, 319320 Nebeker, Frederik, 228, 233, 246 Neill, Arcadio M., 954 Neill, D. W., 930 Neisser, Ulrich, 505 Newcombe, Howard B., 645 Newell, Allen, 321-325, 331, 461471,522-523 Newell, J. A., 931 Newill, V.A.., 932 Newman, G. B., 933 Nickerson, R. S., 472 Nickson, J., 983 Nilsson, Nils J., 326, 400, 473, Noble, David F., 327 Norberg, Arthur L., 149, 328, 572573, 583, 585, 588 O'Brien, Thomas F., 934 Ockenden, J. M., 721 Oettinger, Anthony G., 50, 408, 474-476 Ogburn, Richard E., 935

249

Olsen, Nancy, 679 O'Neill, Judy E., 328 Ontani, Shiro, 858 Orr, Howard, 604 Ostrander, L. E., 936 Overall, John E., 937-938 Pall, Gabriel A., 51 Palmer, John H., 55 Papert, Seymour, 317 Parkhill, D. F., 939, Parslow, R. D., 722 Pask, G., 477 Pasta, John R., 150 Patrick, E. A., 646 Paycha, Francois, 940 Payne, L. C, 723 Peelle, Howard A., 478 Peikert, E. W., 151 Pendry, D. W., 142 Perlis, Alan J., 86, 479 Perone, Sam P., 52 Peters, M., 1006 Peterson, Osier L., 941, 942 Pfeiffer, J., 450 Piaget, Jean, 329 Pinsky, Al, 236 Pipberger, Hubert V., 872, 943 Poletti, B. J., 944 Pollack, S. V., 983 Pollard, Ernest C , 676 Poole, Gray, 724 Poole, Lynn, 724 Prahalad, Coimbatore K., 683, 735 Pratt, Arnold W., 945 Pratt, Vernon, 330 Prewitt, Judith, M. S., 946 Proctor, J. R., 647 Pugh, Emerson W., 53, 54, 55 Pylyshyn, Zenon, W., 331, 948 Quastler, H., 606 Quillian, M.Ross, 388,480 Rahimi, M. A.,481

250

Author Index

Ramsey, Diane, 726 Rand, Royden N., 949 Rand, W., 1005 Randall, James E., 648 Raphael, B. 482 Rapoport, Amnon, 483 Raub, William F., 950 Raup, David M., 152 Rawles, J. M., 951 Reddy, Raj, 445, 485, 585 Redmond, Kent C , 56 Reeker, Larry H., 386 Rees, Mina, 153 Reiser, Stanley J., 727 Reitman, Walter R., 486 Renwick, J. H., 649 Restle, Frank, 487 Rheingold, Howard, 332 Rich, Robert P., 952 Richards, Bernard, 953 Rilki, Arthur E., 691 Riseman, Edward M., 478 Ritchie, David, 333 Roberts, J. L., 801 Roberts, M. De V., 372 Roberts, Richard B., 488 Robertson, James E., 154 Robertson , James S., 954 Rock, Donald A., 489 Rockwell, M. A., Jr., 955 Roemer, Richard A., 490 Rogers, David J., 650-653 Rogers, Everette M., 956 Rohlf, F. James, 654-655 Rollins, Reed C , 656 Rome, Howard P., 958-959 Rosati, R. A., 960 Rose, Sherman 515 Rosenberg, Mervin, 961-962 Rosenblith, Walter A., 491 Rosenblueth, A., 492 Ross, James Baker, 232, 235 Roszak, Theodore, 334 Rubin, J., 607-608 Rubinoff, Morris, 7

Ruddle, Frank H., 898 Ruppenthal, Gerald C , 493 Ryan, George A., 728 Sackett, Gene P., 493 Sackman, Harold, 335, 494 Saenger, E. L., 963 Sakoda, James M., 495 Sammet, Jean E., 57, 155 Sampson, Jeffrey R., 496 Samuel, Arthur L., 497-498 Saunders, P. T., 657 Sayre, Kenneth M., 336-337 Schank, Roger C, 338 Schmitt, Otto H., 729 Schoenfeld, Robert L., 658, 964965 Scholz, Karl W., 499-500 Schoolman, Harold M., 966 Schull, William, 659 Schulze, Jane, 927 Schwartz, Judah L., 426 Schwartz, William B., 967 Schweber, S. S., 103 Scott, A. M., 968 Searle, John R., 501 Sebeok, T. A., 502 Sebestyen, George S., 339 Secrest, Don, 156 Sederholm, C. H., 157 Seidel, Robert W., 31, 158-161, 239 Sekelj, P., 969 Selfridge, Oliver G., 503-505 Shackel, B., 506 Shahid, K. M., 680 Shames, I. H., 631 Shannon, Claude, 340-341, 507511 Shannon, James, 970 Shapiro, Stuart, 162 Shaw, J. C, 324, 464-466 Shegog, Richard A., 717-718 Sheldon, Alan, 683, 735 Sheldon, John W., 132, 163

Author Index Sheppard, Louis C , 971 Shirer, Donald L., 164 Shubin, H., 972, 1005 Shure, Gerald H., 512 Sidowski, Joseph B., 513-515 Siler, William, 609, 730 Siklossy, L., 344 Siler, William, 609, 730, 973 Simmons, W. R., 768 Simon, Herbert A., 324-325, 342344,464-471,516-523 Simpson, George G., 660 Slack, C. W., 976 Slack, Warner V., 974-976 Slagle, James R., 345 Sletten, Ivan W., 977-978 Sluckin, W., 346 Smaar, Larry L., 38 Smith, CharleneP., 261 Smith, David C , 387 Smith, Frederick Gordon, 58 Smith, Thomas M., 56 Sneath, P. H. A., 611, 661-662, 669 Snider, Gregory A., 610 Snyder, James N., 165 Sokol, Robert R., 611, 655, 663669 Solomonoff, R. J., 524 Spence, Donald P., 525 Spencer, W. A., 979 Spinrad, Robert J., 166-167 Spitzer, Robert L., 980-981 Spivack, Alfred P., 982 Stacy, Ralph W., 731 Stahl, Walter R., 917 Starbuck, William H., 391 Steinacker, Ingeburg, 249 Steinbeck, Herbert D., 772 Stephenson, Edward, 493 Sterling, Theodore D., 612, 730, 983 Stern, Nancy, 59, 230, 238, 245 Stillman, Richard W., 984 Stobie, Goerge, 985 Stroebel, Charles F., 830, 962

251

Sullivan, F. J., 986 Svoboda, Antonin, 60 Swalen, J. D., 168 Swedlow, David B., 987 Sweeney, James W., 988, 1014 Swisher, Scott, 740 Szolovits, Peter, 347 Talbot, Samuel A., 989 Tanimoto, Taffee T., 613-614, 653 Taub, A., 20 Taube, Mortimer, 348 Tauxe, W. Newton, 990 Taylor, Christopher J., 436 Taylor, Raymond T., 734 Taylor, Richard L., 526 Taylor, Richard T., 991 Taylor, T. R., 992 Thomas, L. H., 163 Thornton, James E., 169 Thorpe, Pamela K., 527 Todd, John, 170 Tomash, Erwin, 171 Tomeski, Edward A., 528 Tonge, D. G., 529 Toronto, A. F., 1001 Trappl, Robert, 249 Tropp, Henry S., 224, 240 Tsao, Rhett F., 993 Tsien, K. C , 679, 994 Tukey, John, W., 172 Turing, Alan M., 530 Turkle, Sherry, 349 Turner, A. H., Jr., 681 Tversky, Amos, 995 Ulam, Stanislaw M., 173 Unger, S. H., 531 Utall, William R., 532 Vallbona, Carlos, 979, 996 Van Woerkom, Adrianus J., 777 Veasey, L. G., 1001 Vernon, K., 670-671 Vicens, P. J., 445

252

Author Index

Von Neumann, John, 350-352, 533534 Wagner, G., 682 Waldholz, Michael, 590 Walker, Donald E., 353 Walker, Geoffrey, 672 Walker, Weldon J., 997 Walter, Charles, 673 Wang, Hao, 535-536 Warner, Homer R., 998-1001 Watson, R. W., 397 Watson, Thomas J. Jr., 174 Waxman, Bruce D., 731, 1002 Weaver, W., 341 Webb, George N., 1003 Weed, L. L., 1004 Weil, Max H., 972, 1005 Weinberg, Roger, 674 Weiss, Bernard, 537-538 Weizenbaum, Joseph, 354, 539 Wexelblat, Richard H., 355 Wheeler, David J., 62, 175 Wheeler, John T., 419 Wheeler, Joyce M., 176 White, Benjamin W., 540-541 Whitehead, T. P., 1006 Whitten, E. H. T., 177 Wiederhold, Gio, 802 Wiener, Norbert, 356-357, 492, 542-543 Wilber, Stewart A., 1007

Wilkes, Maurice V., 61, 62, 544 Williams, Bernard O., 69 Williams, Clyde M., 938 Williams, Michael R., 178 Wilson, Edward O., 675 Wilton-Davies, C. C, 1008 Wingert, Willis A., 901 Winograd, Terry, 358-360, 545546 Winslow, John F., 697 Winston, Patrick H., 361 Womersley, J. R., 179 Woodbury, Max A., 906 Woodward, John K., 1009 Woolf,C. R., 1010 Worthy, James C , 63, Wortzman, Donald, 1011 Wrigley, Charles 547 Yang, C.N., 180 Yasaki, Edward K., 1012 Yates, David M., 362 Yeisley, Warren G., 676 Yen, Chih-Min, 739 Yoder, Franklin D., 1013 Yoder, Richard D., 1014 Yost, Jeffrey R., 577 Zack, J. F., Jr., 944 Zadeh, Lotfi A., 548 Zeps, V. J., 502 Zimmer, Jules M., 549

Subject Index Numbers in index refer to entry numbers. AARDVARK, 84 Academic computing, general overviews, 67, 150, 183 Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), 219, 328, 565, 581,633 Aerospace research and computing, 34 Aiken Relay Calculator, 148 Alabama Medical Center, 971 ALGOL, 64, 151, 164, 227, 415, 953 Amarel, Saul, 572 American Association for Artificial Intelligence (AAAI), 554 American Association for Medical Systems and Informatics, 1022 American College of Physicians, 920 American Diabetes Association, 882 American Medical Association (AMA) and medical computing, 728, 832 Analog computing, 15, 19,26, 187, 525,676,740,747,811,986 Analog to digital conversion equipment, 767, 944,-945, 957, 997, 1003 ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) programs, 436 Anthropology and computing, 159 Archival record appraisal, 30

Argonne National Laboratory, 32, 48,87, 184,224,241 Argonne's Version of Institute's Automatic Digital Computer (AVIDAC), 87 Artificial intelligence Apologies for, 498 Broad reference, 257-260, 287 Critiques of, 282, 334, 386, 502 Education, 263,481 Ethics, 266 Evolution, 284-285, 288 Futurism, 309 Gender constructions, 250 Histories of, 270, 276, 278, 313314,330,332,349,362,373, 396 Medical applications, 318, 347, 430 Outside cognitive science chapter, 7, 35, 151, 173,200, 597, 707, 828 Textbooks, 305 Ash, Eric, 225 Astrophysics and computing, 8, 17, 18,96, 191 Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC), 140 ATLAS, 186 ATLAS Computer Laboratory, 117, Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 39, 93, 101, 160, 199, 219

254

Subject Index

Automata theory, 272, 340, 350352,366,381,454,508,511, 533, 592 Automation Ethics 528, 543 Industrial, 280-281, 290, 327, 384 Medical, 713, 723,795,987 AVIDAC, 160,224 Bacterial classification and computing, 662, 934 BASIC (Beginners Ail-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), 415 Bayes Theorem, 1001 Baylor University College of Medicine, 979 Behavioral science, computer applications, 271, 376, 390, 419,423-424,431,437,492493, 499-500, 525, 537-538 Bendix, 973 Berkeley, Edmund C , 555 BINAC (Binary Automated Computer), 59, 97, 240 Biological computing, outside of biology chapter, 37, 729, 829, 950 Biological computing textbooks, 604,610,612 Biological Signal Processor (BISP), 601 Biology, mathematical applications, 602,613,646 Biomedical computing centers, 773 Biotelemetry, 729 BIZMAC,214 Bledsoe, Woodrow, 556 Bolt Baranek and Newman Inc., (BBN), 760 Botany and computing, 622, 634, 653 BOUMAC, 84 Boyer-Moore Theorem Prover, 259

Brain mechanisms, 353, 300-301, 312,333,350,365,379,417, 448,450,457,491,738 Bright, Herbert S., 185 British computer laboratories, 15, 60,61 British Olivetti Ltd., 903 Brookhaven National Laboratory, 108, 166, 197 Bubble chamber research, 20, 106, 108, 129, 165 Buchanon, Bruce G., 573 BUGSYS, 911,924 Burroughs Corporation, 21, 186 B5000, 186,227 B5500,64, 186 E101,86, 186 Bush, Vannevar, 187 Calculus and computing, 25 Cambridge Electron Accelerator, 188 Cambridge University Computer laboratory, 61, 200 Mathematical laboratory, 474 Canadian computing archives, 3 Cardiology and computing, 371, 692,694,736,741,750,761, 763,779,781,784,819,833, 854, 872, 879, 943, 960, 972, 1011 Carnegie Mellon University, artificial intelligence program, 331,344,367,370,395,479, 565, 568, 572 Carr, John W., 580 Case Western Reserve University, artificial intelligence program, 254 Center for Disease Control, 932 CERN. See European Organization for Nuclear Research Checker's player 259, 497

Subject Index Chemistry and computing, 20, 37, 73,81, 104, 120, 124, 134, 143, 156,205,827,949 Chess, computer, 372, 464, 507 CLADNl,2and3, 589 Clinical medicine (general) and computing, 685, 774 COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language), 102, 953 COGLAB, 526 Cognitive Science Ethics, 266 Histories of, 283, 289, 292 Outside of cognitive science chapter, 151,200,205,597 COGO (Coordinate Geometry), 84 Columbia University, computing at, 67 Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique, 65 Competitive advantage and academic computing, 67 Computer-Assisted Special Enquirer (CASE), 846, 984 Continuous Systems, 11, 36 Control Data Corporation Broad History, 63, 189 CDC 7600, 38, 189 CDC 6600, 169, 189 CDC 1604, 189,876 Cooley, James W., 228 Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., 190 Cornell Medical Center, 776 Cost-effectiveness and scientific computing, 113 Creativity, 330, 324 Cybernetics, 252, 290, 297-298, 306,315-316,341,350-352, 356,357,366,477,491,542, 570-571 CYDAC, 946 DAM (Data Acquisition Manager), 84

255

DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency), 328, See ARPA Data General Nova, 513 Supernova, 513 Data Processing Management Association, 16 Davis, Donald Watts, 229 DENDRAL, 258, 310, 397, 432433, 707 Denert,, Ernst, 574 DIAGNO, 926, 940, 977, 980-981 DIAGNO-11,926,977,981 Diagnostic Assistance Program (DAP), 772 Diagnostic (general medical) computing, 691, 714, 757, 759, 762,769,771-772,777,782, 787,815-816,834,842-843, 860-861,871,886,889-890, 894-895,905,913-914,916917,923,929,938,966-968, 995, 999 Differential analyzers. See Analog computing Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-1,203,440 PDP-8, 537 PDP-9, 165 PDP-12,976 Dow Chemical Company, 78 Duke University Medical Center, 960 Dynamic Allocation Language (DYSTAL), 495 E. J. Meyer Memorial Hospital, 826 Eckert, J. Presper, 230 Eckert, Wallace J., 191 Ecology and computing, 674

256

Subject Index

EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator), 61, 85, 89, 175-176,474 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), 59,89,97, 123, 178, 197,234 First Report on, 59 EASL, 100 El Camino Hospital, 1012 Electrodata Datatron, 86, 186 Electron optics, 85, 114 Eliza, 354, 539 Energy Research and Development Administration, 101 Engineering Research Associates, 19,22, 149, 171, 192-193 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), 24, 59,71,82-83,89,97, 105, 123, 134, 140, 146,216,224,234 EPAM, 259, 286, 395, 414 Epidemiology and computing, 965 See Public health Ergonomics, 506 Error monitoring, 145 Eugram, 883 European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), 201 Expert systems, 258-259, 265, 276, 310,397,432-433,707 F. J. Seiler Research Laboratory, 64 FAP, 426 Feigenbaum, Edward, 557, 575-577 Fein, Louis, 578 Fermi-Pasta-Ulam Problem, 131 Fermi-Thomas-Dirac Equation, 163 Feynman, Richard, P. 194 FIDAC, 924 Film Input to Digital Computer (FIDAC), 888, 892 FINDSIT, 948 Fluid dynamics and computing, 8, 77, 143

Forsythe, Alexandra, 231, 558 Forsythe, George, 558 FORTRAN (Formula Translation program), 6, 58, 70, 80, 102, 118, 151, 164,218,227,415, 488-489, 549 Fox, Margaret R., 195,232 France, cognitive science research, 385 Game playing machines (general), 509 GEIS Ltd., 933 General Problem Solver (GPS), 255, 257, 322, 345, 444, 465, 468-469 Genetics and computing, 96, 590, 616,621,625,629,630,638641,649,780,824,892,898, 921 Geology and computing, 4, 5, 20, 27-29,40,79,85,95, 128, 130, 151, 152, 177, 181 GEORGE, 160 German scientific computing, 246 Getting, Ivan, 233 Giant brains metaphor, 262 Goldstein, Gordon D., 559 Goldstine, Herman H., 234 Graphics and medical computing, See Medical Computing and imaging Great Britain, scientific computing in (medical), 684-686, 688, 717-718,721,733,746,763, 765,800-801,806,836,903, 940, 947 Great Britain, scientific computing in (non-medical), 15, 61, 85, 89, 91, 175-176, 179,200,225, 226,229,319-320,377,390, 449, 454, 505 Gynecology and computing, 918, 975

Subject Index Hammer, Carl, 196, 235 Hartford Hospital, 810 Harvard University, computing at, 67, 148, 188 Computational laboratory, 408 Mark I, 67, 71, 89, 134, 190,240 Psycho-Acoustics Laboratory, 567 HEARSAY, 257, 260 HELP (Health Evaluation Through Logical Processes), 1000 Hematological diseases and computing, 904 Henry Ford Hospital, 985 Heuristics and computing, 344-345, 407,466,486,517,522 Hill, Albert Gordon, 198 Hillier, James, 236 Historiography Artificial intelligence, 411 Programming languages, 155 Psycho-acoustics Laboratory, 452 Scientific experimentation and theory, 133 Hixon Symposium, 306, 417, 429, 432,447 Hospital information systems, 684, 693,715,746,785,801,806, 817,862,881,953,985, 1012 Human factors research, 248, 371, 412,435,439,472 Human problem-solving, 255, 263, 321,325,335 Hurd, Cuthbert C , 199, 237-239 Huskey, Harry D., 579 Hydrogen bomb, 243 IBM Applied Science Department, 18, 132, 141, 163, 191, 199 Artificial intelligence research, general, 498

257

Broad assessments of contributions to scientific computing, 69 Cambridge Science Center, 993 Electromechanical calculating machines, 1, 9, 17, 18, 142, 191 IBM 360, 393, 802, 853, 984 IBM 650, 86, 242, 479, 523 IBM 700 series, 109, 120-121, 141, 142, 174,214,238 IBM 1130, 488, 944 IBM 1300,78, 100 IBM 1401, 924, 952, 1003, 1011 IBM 1410, 924 IBM 1440, 874, 931, 1006 IBM 1620,423,924,955,958 IBM 1800,78,802,971 IBM 7040, 946, 948 IBM 7044, 826 IBM 7074, 849 IBM 7090, 607, 861, 924, 927, 952 IBM System/360, 53, 55 IBM System/370, 55 MARK I. See Harvard University, MARK I Marketing, 21 Medical computing, 699-705, 748, 775 San Jose Research Laboratory's Department of Large Scale Scientific Computations, 143 Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC), 71 Stretch, 9, 53-55, 81,89, 121 Systems Research Institute, 16 Technical Computing Bureau, 109 Imitation game, 530 Information Processing Techniques Office, 328 Institute for Advanced Study. See Princeton University Institute of Neurological Sciences, 847

258

Subject Index

International Computers Ltd., 992 Internist, 258, 347, 357, 928 IPL-V, 523 Johns Hopkins University Medical computing, 724 821, 952 KICK, 165 Laboratory, computers' role Physical sciences, 167-168 Language. See Linguistics and Semantics LARC, 97, 160 Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 31 Lawrence Livermore Radiation Laboratory, 104, 118, 137, 158 Learning machines, 326, 484 LINC. See MIT, LINC Linguistics, 403, 475, 502 LISP, 443 Logic Theorist, 466-467 Los Alamos National Laboratory, 39,74,81, 122, 131, 137, 146147, 243 Los Angeles County General Hospital, 1005 LRLTRAN, 118 MACDAC, 892 Macy Conferences, 298 MACYMA, 258 MAD. See University of Michigan Magic number seven, 452 Manchester, University of, and computing, 91 MANIAC, 146-147, 160,428 Mapother, Dillon Edward, 202, MARK I. See Harvard University, Mark I Marketing scientific computers, 21, 68 Mass spectrometry research, 73

Massachusetts General Hospital, 753-754,760,785,840-841, 987 Mathematical Tables Project, 110, 134 Mathematics and computing, 92, 110, 115, 138,317,407 Mayo Clinic, 775, 926, 958 McCarthy, John, 563 McCulloch-Pitts neurological model, 454 Medical brain research, 738 Medical computing. See Biomedical computing centers Broad contemporary assessments, 730-732, 884-887, 893, 896897 Broad histories of, 689, 725, 727, 793, 823, 996 Critique of, 739, 857 Economic issues, 796, 907, 933, 967 Education, 713, 745, 747, 818, 846,912,916,982 Efficiency, 749 Ethics, 739, 814, 851,865, 866 Imaging and graphical displays, 722,726,766,867,888,991, 1008, 1014 Legal issues, 922 Networking, 770, 783, 792, 845, 869, 872, 930 Outside of medical computing chapter, 258, 318, 347, 605, 646 Patient perspectives, 752 Pattern recognition, 836, 939, 982 Standardization, 832 Textbooks, 709, 716 Medical Information Systems (MIS), 712, 765, 792, 794, 803, 821,838,840,875 See Hospital information systems

Subject Index Medical workers computer training, 713 MEDLAB, 998 Memory research, 389 Meteorology and computing, 96, 117,220,231 Microsociology and computing, 959 MIDAS, 100 Miller, William F., 241 MIMIC, 100 Minicomputers, 41, 157, 384, 533, 706 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 820 MIT Biophysics Laboratory, 88 Committee on Computers, 198 Computing, general, 67 Digital Computer Laboratory, 204 Electrical Engineering Department, 203 Industrial Liaison Program, 560 Laboratory for Computer Science, 561 LINC, 88, 595, 789, 853, 975 Lincoln Laboratory, 88, 198, 456, 505 Physics Department, 206 Project MAC, 539 Radiation Laboratory, 60, 233 Research Laboratory of Electronics Records, 205 Servomechanisms Laboratory, 562 Whirlwind, Project, 56, 67, 99, 123,153 MMPI, 958 MOLGEN, 259, 432, 900 Monitoring Systems (medical), 951, 955,971-972, 1007 Monitron, 951 Monte Carlo techniques, 16, 122, 125, 640, 659

259

Mooers, Calvin N., 582 Moore School of Electrical Engineering. See University of Pennsylvania Pennsylvania University Moore School of Electrical Engineering, 24, 67 Morse Automatic Decoder (MAUDE), 505 Multiphasic screening, 795 MYCIN, 258, 347 NAREC (Navel Research Electronic Computer), 89 Nash, John Purcell, 207 National Bureau of Standards (NBS), 39, 84, 111, 170, 195, 219,232 National Applied Mathematics Laboratories, 92, 170 Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC), 123, 170, 195 Standards Western Automatic Computer (SWAC), 123-124, 170 National Cancer Center (Tokyo), 858 National Center for Chronic Disease Control, 809 National Institutes of Health (NIH), 914,950,970 National Physical Laboratory, 15, 60, 144, 229, 256, 319-320, 449 National Science Foundation (NSF) Sponsoring scientific computing, 69,93,219 National scientific laboratories (U.S.) 31-32, 39, 60, 69, 87, 104, 108, 116, 121-122, 131, 137, 146-147, 158-161, 166, 197,199,237,239,241,243 Natural language. See Linguistics and Semantics

260

Subject Index

Networking. See Medical computing Neurophysiology, 173, 253, 301, 740,813 New York University Medical Center, 876 Newell, Allen, 265, 519, 527, 565, 583 Nilsson, Nils J., 584 Norris, William, 63 NOVA, See Data General Nuclear medicine and computing, 778 Nuclear science/engineering and computing, 35, 65, 94, 209 Numerical Taxonomy, See Taxonomy and computing Oak Ridge Automatic Computer (ORACLE), 87, 116,219,237, 239 Oettinger, Anthony G., 566 Office of Naval Research (ONR), 153, 182, 190,208,214 Office of Scientific Research Development (OSRD), 382 OMNITAB, 84,911,924 Operating Systems, 37, 157 Operations research, 103 Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 96, 209 Optics and computing, 7 ORDVAC, 154, 175,207 Outpatient programs and computing, 810 OUTPUT, 487 PACTOLUS, 100 PANG, 165 Parallel Processing, 317, 505 Particle accelerators, 180 Pasta, John R., 93 Pathology and computing, 711, 742, 804, 836 Pattern recognition, 263, 339, 503, 531,891

PDP computers. See Digital Equipment Corporation Pediatrics and computing, 751, 901 PEPR, 165 PERCEIVER, 520 Perception research, 541 Perceptrons, 317 Philosophy of mind, 266-269, 275, 283,302-303,336-337,401402,416 Phylogenetic analysis, 621 Physical science computing Education, 13, 64, 114, 164, 206, 210,221 Outside physical sciences chapter, 827, 949 Physician Computer Interaction (PCI), 799, 805, 899 Physicists, initial reception of computing, 166 PL/1, 151 Plasma physics and computing, 20, 75 PLATO. See University of Illinois Pollak, Leo Wenzel, 127 Preventative healthcare and computing, 390 PRIME, 715 Princeton University, computing at, 67 Institute for Advanced Study (IAS), 24, 66, 67, 74, 141, 153, 245 Privacy issues and medical computing, 720, 743, 798, 803, 850, 855, 947 PROBE, 764 Problem-solving. See Human problem-solving PROCEDURE, 487 Procedure-oriented languages, 7 Productivity and medicine, 735 Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), 1010

Subject Index Programming Language for Interactive Teaching (PLANIT), 481 Programming languages, 6, 57, 58, 64,70,80, 102, 118, 151, 155, 218,227,355,383,415,481, 488-489, 549, 755 Project MAC. See MIT, Project MAC PROLOG, 434 Psychiatrics and computing, 764, 786, 820, 822, 830, 835, 840, 926,937,958,961-962,977981 Psychology and computing, 258, 266-269,311,329,346,361, 368-369,392,405,409,413, 422,427,436,452-453,461, 483,487,513-515,521,532, 540, 822 Psychophysics, 253 Psychotropic drugs and computing, 978-979 Public health and computing, 768, 782,791,812,965,989,1002, 1013 Punched-card machines, 2 Quantum physics and computing, 144, 194 Queen of Angels Hospital (Los Angeles), 944 Radio Corporation of America (RCA), 196, 236, 245 Radiology and computing, 756, 908-910,931,946,973,983, 990 Rand Corporation, 919 Reactor physics, 34 Real-time computing (general), 156,368 Real-time computing (medicine), 807 Reddy, Raj, 585

261

Remington Rand, 21, 193, 215 Robotics, 277, 279, 375, 418, 460, 473, 482 Schizophrenia and computing, 835 Schultz, Claire K., 1024 Science information systems, 10 Scientific computing-physical sciences Limitations, 8 Overviews, 49, 172-173 SCRIBE, 880 SEGRAN, 642 Seitz, Frederick, 211 Selection of computers (for given scientific applications), 139 Semantics, 300, 316,480 See Linguistics Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE), 99, 186 Servomechanisms, 406 SETUP, 487 SHACO, 120 SHARE, 212 SHOCK III, 955 Shock Research, 1005 SHRUDLU, 257, 359 Simon, Herbert, 343, 527, 568 Sinai Hospital of Detroit, 875 Sloan-Kettering Institute, 994 Small-scale scientific computers/calculators (preminicomputers), 86, 90 Software. See Operating Systems, Programming Languages, Software Engineering Software engineering, 162 User groups, 212, 223 SOPHIE, 258, 380 Spectral analysis, 37, 78 Speech recognition, 323, 371, 374, 439, 456, 485 Sperry Rand Corporation, 215-216

262

Subject Index

Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC). See National Bureau of Standards Standards Western Automatic Computer (SWAC). See National Bureau of Standards Stanford University, 213, 557-563 Artificial intelligence research program, 257-260, 273, 286287, 394-397 Hand-eye project, 399 Medical computing, 802, 982 SLAC,213 STATPAC, 831 Stretch. See IBM, Stretch STRIPS, 400 SUMEX-AIM, 873 Supercomputing and science, 38, 98 Supernova. See Data General Surgery and computing, 770, 941942 Switzerland, scientific computing in, 112 Symbolic Automatic Integer (SAINT), 470 Symbolic logic, 273, 304 System Development Corporation (SDC), 512 Tareski, Val, 586 Taxonomy and computing, 617, 652, 665, 667-669, 675 Theoretical Human Electronic Response with A Practical Yield (THERAPY), 853 Theoretical physics, 143 Time sharing systems, 425, 440, 802, 872, 902, 933 Tower of Hanoi puzzle, 421 Translation (language) programs, 408 See Linguistics Triangle Universities Computation Center, 217

Tuberculosis and computing, 797 Turing, Alan, 270, 284, 299, 314, 362,510,530,544 Turing machines, 314, 510 Ulam, Stanislaw M. 243 UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer), 59, 89, 97, 123, 221,224,244 University computing centers (overview), 533, 547 University of Alabama, Birmingham, Medical School, 874,1023 University of California, Los Angeles Brain Research Institute, 393 Medical Center, 919 University of Illinois and computing, 154, 156, 202, 207 ILLIAC (Illinois Automatic Computer), 154, 175,207 ILLIAC IV, 38 PLATO, 221 University of Iowa and computing, 210 University of Michigan Biomedical Data Processing Research Center, 758 Computer Center, 426 MAD, 164,426 University of Pennsylvania Medical School, 946 Moore School of Electrical Engineering, 24, 67 University of Pittsburgh Department of Medicine, 928 University of Rochester Computer Center, 1009 U.S. Government's role in funding computing, 67, 69, 89, 119, 187,219,633, U.S. Navy and computing, 22, 153 USE, 223 UTILITY, 487

Subject Index Van Allen, James A., 210 Variable Field Length Format (VFL), 877-878 Von Neumann, John, 8, 66, 148, 153,284,297,366,381 Ware, Willis, 245 Waterman, D. A., 569 Watson, Thomas J., Jr., 174 Watson, Thomas J., Sr., 174 Watson, Thomas J. Scientific Computing Laboratory, 235, 242 Wave mechanics, 85 Weizenbaum, Joseph, 570, 587

263

Westinghouse-Bettis Laboratory, 80 Wiener, Norbert, 406, 571 Whirlwind. See MIT, Whirlwind, Project Williams, F. C , 91 Winograd, Terry, 588 Women and software programming, 111,637 X-ray crystallography and computing, 7, 124, 226 Zoology and computing, 628, 655 Zuse, Konrad, 89, 246

About the Author JEFFREY R. YOST is Associate Director and Research Historian at the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.

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