2011 Libyan Civil War

First Edition, 2012

ISBN 978-81-323-4269-4

© All rights reserved.

Published by: White Word Publications 4735/22 Prakashdeep Bldg, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, Delhi - 110002 Email: [email protected] 

Table of Contents Chapter 1 - 2011 Libyan Civil War Chapter 2 - Late March 2011 Libyan Rebel Offensive Chapter 3 - Casualties of the 2011 Libyan Civil War Chapter 4 - Domestic Responses to the 2011 Libyan Protests Chapter 5 - 2011 Military Intervention in Libya Chapter 6 - International Reactions to the 2011 Libyan Civil War Chapter 7 - Protests against the 2011 Military Intervention in Libya Chapter 8 - Muammar Gaddafi's Response to the 2011 Libyan Civil War Chapter 9 - National Transitional Council Chapter 10 - International Reactions to the 2011 Military Intervention in Libya Chapter 11 - Timeline of the 2011 Libyan Civil War

Chapter 1

2011 Libyan Civil War

2011 Libyan civil war Part of 2010–11 Middle East and North Africa protests

• Cities controlled by pro-Gaddafi forces

• Cities controlled by anti-Gaddafi forces (supported by coalition forces)

• Ongoing fighting/unclear situation (situation as of 29 March 2011)

Date Location Status

15 February 2011 – present Libya Ongoing Belligerents

National Transitional Council   



Free Libyan Air Force Libyan People's Army National Conference for the Libyan Opposition Anti-Gaddafi tribes

UN member states enforcing UNSC Resolution 1973:   

Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 



Libyan Armed Forces o Libyan Army o Libyan Air Force o Libyan Navy Foreign mercenaries

NATO Qatar UAE

full list 

Commanders and leaders Mustafa Abdul Jalil Muammar Gaddafi Omar El-Hariri Abdul Fatah Younis Suleiman

Saif al-Islam al-Gaddafi Khamis al-Gaddafi Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr

Mahmoud Khalifa Belqasim Haftar

Charles Bouchard Strength Approximately 17,000 (1,000 trained men) 10,000–12,000 (Al Jazeera estimate)

International Forces: Numerous air and maritime forces Casualties and losses 1,567–2,049 opposition fighters killed

585–663 soldiers killed International Forces: 1 USAF F-15E Strike Eagle crashed (both pilots survived) [noncombat loss] Estimated total killed on both sides including civilians: 2,000–10,000

The 2011 Libyan civil war is an ongoing armed conflict in the North African country of Libya against Muammar Gaddafi's 42-year rule, with protesters calling for new leadership and democratic elections. The situation began as a series of protests and confrontations on 15 February 2011. Within a week, this uprising had spread and Gaddafi was struggling to retain control across the country. Gaddafi responded with military force and other such measures as censorship and blocking of communications. With his soldiers across the country defecting, Gaddafi allegedly recruited foreign mercenaries to supplement his forces. From a diplomatic angle, Gaddafi offered talks with opposition leaders through a representative but the rebels have rejected any form of dialogue; they pledge to keep fighting at all costs until either Gaddafi resign or be defeated militarily. The situation then escalated into armed conflict, with rebels establishing a coalition named the Transitional National Council based in Benghazi. The International Criminal Court warned Gaddafi that he and members of his government may have committed crimes against humanity. The United Nations Security Council passed an initial resolution freezing the assets of Gaddafi and ten members of his inner circle, and restricting their travel. The resolution also referred the actions of the government to the International Criminal Court for investigation. In early March, Gaddafi's forces rallied,

pushed eastwards and re-took several coastal cities before attacking Benghazi. A further resolution authorized member states to enforce a no-fly zone over Libya. The Gaddafi government then announced a ceasefire, but failed to uphold it. A collection of states began enforcing the no-fly zone on 19 March by disabling Gaddafi's air defenses.

Background History Gaddafi has been the de-facto ruler of Libya since the overthrow of King Idris I in 1969. While placing relatives and loyal members of his tribe in central military and government positions, he has skilfully marginalized supporters and rivals, thus maintaining a delicate balance of powers, stability and economic developments. This extends even to his own children, as he changes affections to avoid the rise of a clear successor and rival. Petroleum revenues contribute up to 58% of Libya's GDP. Governments with "resource curse" revenue have a lower need for taxes from other industries and consequently feel less pressure to develop their middle class. To calm down opposition, they can use the income from natural resources to offer services to the population, or to specific government supporters. Libya's oil wealth being spread over a relatively small population has allowed for a relatively high living standard compared to neighboring countries. Despite one of the highest unemployment rates in the region at 21% (latest census), there was a consistent labor shortage with over a million migrant workers present on the market. These migrant workers formed the bulk of the refugees leaving Libya after the beginning of hostilities. Libya's purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP per capita in 2010 was US $14,878; its human development index in 2010 was 0.755; and its literacy rate in 2009 was 87%. These numbers were lower in Egypt and Tunisia. Indeed, Libyan citizens are considered to be well educated and to have a high standard of living. This specific situation creates a wider contrast between good education, high demand for democracy, and the government's practices (perceived corruption, political system, supply of democracy). The uprising has been viewed as a part of the 2010–2011 Middle East and North Africa protests which has already resulted in the ousting of long-term presidents of adjacent Tunisia and Egypt with the initial protests all using similar slogans. Social media had played an important role in organizing the opposition.

Corruption Gaddafi amassed a vast fortune during his 42-year rule. Much of the country's income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring militancy and terror around the world. According to The Economist, the eastern parts of the country, once a breadbasket of the ancient world, have fared badly under Gaddafi's economic theories. Libya's corruption perception index in

2010 was 2.2, which was worse than that of Egypt and Tunisia, two neighboring countries who have faced an uprising before Libya.

Human rights According to the 2009 Freedom of the Press Index, Libya is the most-censored country in the Middle East and North Africa. Some 453 Basic People's Congresses meeting quarterly form the legal basis of the government. Each elects a secretariat and various People's Committees as its executive branch. The Basic Congresses and their Committees are overseen by Revolutionary committees which report to Gaddafi via a Permanent Revolutionary Committee. Revolutionary committees are embedded throughout most government-controlled organizations including enterprises and the education sector. According to the U.S. State Department, 10 to 20 percent of Libyans work in surveillance for these committees, a proportion of informants on par with Saddam Hussein's Iraq or Kim Jong Il's North Korea. Engaging in political conversations with foreigners is a crime punishable by three years of prison in most cases. During late 1980s and early 1990s western languages were removed from the school curriculum. The government has reportedly paid for assassination of its critics around the world. As of 2004, Libya still provided bounties for critics, including US$1 million for Ashur Shamis, a Libyan-British journalist. The regime has often executed opposition activists publicly and the executions are rebroadcast on state television channels.

Anti-Gaddafi movement

The flag of the former Kingdom of Libya. It, or modified versions, has been used by many protesters as an opposition flag.

Beginnings of open protest Between 13 and 16 January, upset at delays in the building of housing units and over political corruption, protesters in Darnah, Benghazi, Bani Walid and other cities broke into and occupied housing that the government was building. On 24 January 2011, Libya blocked access to YouTube after it featured videos of demonstrations in the Libyan city of Benghazi by families of detainees who were killed in the 1996 Abu Salim prison massacre. The blocking was criticized by Human Rights Watch. By 27 January, the government had responded to the housing unrest with a US$24 billion investment fund to provide housing and development. In late January, Jamal al-Hajji, a writer, political commentator and accountant, "call[ed] on the Internet for demonstrations to be held in support of greater freedoms in Libya" inspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. He was arrested on 1 February by plainclothes police officers, and charged on 3 February with injuring someone with his car. Amnesty International claimed that because al-Hajji had previously been imprisoned for his non-violent political opinions, the real reason for the present arrest appeared to be his call for demonstrations. In early February, Gaddafi, on behalf of the Jamahiriya, met with political activists, journalists, and media figures and warned them that they would be held responsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos in Libya.

Uprising and civil war

A girl in Benghazi showing support for a united, democratic Libya, 23 February 2011.

The protests and confrontations began in earnest on 15 February 2011. On the evening of 15 February, between 500 and 600 protesters chanted slogans in front of the police headquarters in Benghazi. The protest was broken up violently by police, resulting in 38 injuries. The novelist Idris Al-Mesmari was arrested hours after giving an interview with Al Jazeera about the police reaction to protests. In Al Bayda and Az Zintan, hundreds of protesters in each town called for an end of the Gaddafi regime and set fire to police and security buildings. In Az Zintan, the protesters set up tents in the town centre. The protests continued the following day in Benghazi, Darnah and Al Bayda, leading to four deaths and three injuries. Hundreds gathered at Maydan al-Shajara in Benghazi, and authorities tried to disperse protesters with water cannons. A "Day of Rage" in Libya and by Libyans in exile is planned for 17 February. The National Conference for the Libyan Opposition asked that all groups opposed to the Gaddafi regime protests on 17 February, in memory of demonstrations in Benghazi two years earlier. The plans to protest were inspired by the 2010–2011 Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. In early February, Jamahiriya spokesperson Muammar Gaddafi met with Libyan political activists, journalists, and media figures and warned them that they would be held responsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos in Libya.

Organization

Libyan Boy Scouts helping in the social services in Benghazi Many opposition participants called for return to the 1952 constitution and transition to multi-party democracy. Military units who have joined the rebellion and many volunteers have formed an army to defend against Jamahiriya attacks and to work to bring Tripoli under the influence of Jalil. In Tobruk, volunteers turned a former headquarters of the regime into a center for helping protesters. Volunteers reportedly guard the port, local

banks and oil terminals to keep the oil flowing. Teachers and engineers have set up a committee to collect weapons. The National Transitional Council was established on 27 February in an effort to consolidate efforts for change in the rule of Libya. The main objectives of the group did not include forming an interim government, but instead to coordinate resistance efforts between the different towns held in rebel control, and to give a political "face" to the opposition to present to the world. The Benghazi-based opposition government has called for a no-fly zone and airstrikes against the Jamahiriya. The council refers to the Libyan state as the Libyan Republic and it now has a website. Former Jamahiriya Justice Minister Mustafa Abdel Jalil said in February that the new government will prepare for elections and they could be held in three months. On 29 March the political and international affairs committee of the Council presented its eight-point plan for the country in The Guardian newspaper, stating they would hold free and fair elections and draft a national constitution. An independent newspaper called Libya appeared in Benghazi, as well as rebel-controlled radio stations. Some of the rebels oppose tribalism and wear vests bearing slogans such as "No to tribalism, no to factionalism". Libyans have said that they have found abandoned torture chambers and devices that have been used in the past.

Composition of rebel forces The rebels are composed primarily of civilians, such as teachers, students, lawyers, and oil workers, and a contingent of professional soldiers that defected from the Libyan Army and joined the rebels. Gaddafi's administration had repeatedly asserted that the rebels included al-Qaeda fighters. NATO commander Admiral Stavridis stated that intelligence reports suggested "flickers" of al-Qaeda activity were present among the rebels, but also added that there is not sufficient information to confirm there is any significant al-Qaeda or terrorist presence. Denials of al-Qaeda membership were issued by the rebels.

Gaddafi's response Gaddafi has accused his opponents as those who have been influenced by hallucinogenic drugs put in drinks and pills. He has specifically referred to substances in milk, coffee and Nescafé. He has claimed that Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda are distributing these hallucinogenic drugs. He has also blamed alcohol. He later also claimed that the revolt against his rule is the result of a colonialist plot by foreign countries, particularly blaming France, the US, and the UK, to control oil and enslave the Libyan people. Gaddafi vowed to cleanse Libya house by house until he had crushed the insurrection. Gaddafi declared that people who don't "love" him "do not deserve to live". A Swedish arms trafficking watchdog organization observed flights between Tripoli and Belarus, including visits to a dedicated Belorussian military base that only handles stockpiled weaponry and military equipment.

Muammar Gaddafi vowing to hunt down and execute any opposition members.

Blocking of communications and media Gaddafi shut down all Internet communications in the country, and arrested Libyans who had given phone interviews to the media. International journalists were banned by the Libyan authorities from reporting from Libya except by invitation of the Gaddafi government. International journalists who have attempted to cover the events have been attacked by Gaddafi's forces. A BBC News crew was beaten and then lined up against a wall by Gaddafi's soldiers, who then shot next to a journalist's ear and laughed at them. A journalist working for The Guardian and another Brazilian journalist have been detained. An Al-Jazeera journalist Hassan Al Jaber was murdered, and was apparently deliberately targeted. On 21 February, The New York Times reported that Gaddafi had tried to impose a blackout on information from the country. Several residents reported that cellphone service was down, and even landline phone service was sporadic. The 26 March incident with Iman al-Obeidi, a Libyan woman who had been forcibly silenced and detained after she attempted to tell the international media of her alleged gang-rape by Gaddafi's troops, was seen by the media as representative of the trend.

Mercenaries and human shields There have been reports of Gaddafi employing foreign nationals to attack Libyan civilians. French-speaking fighters apparently come from neighbouring African countries such as Chad and Niger. However, some have urged caution, noting that Libya has a significant black population who could be mistaken for mercenaries but are actually serving in the regular army. Also, many Chadian soldiers who fought for Gaddafi in past

conflicts with Chad were given Libyan citizenship. There have been reports of Gadaffi employing mercenaries from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Mali, Sudan, Tunisia, Kenya and possibly even Asia and Eastern Europe. Speculation that members of the Zimbabwe National Army were covertly fighting in Libya grew as Zimbabwe's Defence Minister Emmerson Mnangagwa avoided giving a clear answer to a question on the topic posed in Parliament. Some of Gaddafi's mercenaries stated they were deceived and forcibly airlifted to shoot demonstrators. Human Rights Watch has argued that there has been no evidence of mercenaries being employed in Libya. Hysteria created by the alleged use of mercenaries has led to numerous attacks on black Libyans and African migrant workers with subsequent mob lynching in rebel controlled areas. According the International Federation for Human Rights, thousands of migrants would have been forced to join the army and are being used as front-line fighters or simple human shield for Libyan soldiers in street fights. Cases such as handcuffing truck drivers to steering wheels to prevent them from running away have been documented.

Treatment of dissidents Amnesty International has called Gaddafi's policy to kill those who oppose him unacceptable. The organization reported that writers, intellectuals and other prominent opposition sympathizers disappeared during the early days of the conflict in cities controlled by Gaddafi. There are fears they may be subjected to illegal detention, torture or may have been killed. Amnesty International reported that Gaddafi's forces are targeting paramedics who help injured protesters. In multiple incidents people have also documented Gaddafi's forces using ambulances in their attacks. Injured demonstrators have been denied access to hospitals and ambulance transport. The regime also banned giving blood transfusions to people who have taken part in the demonstrations. Gaddafi suppressed the protests in Tripoli by distributing automobiles, money and weapons for hired thugs to drive around Tripoli and attack people showing signs of dissent. Military commanders appear to summarily execute soldiers who refuse to defend Gaddafi. The International Federation for Human Rights reported a case where Gaddafi's commanders executed 130 soldiers who had refused to support Gaddafi. Gaddafi's commanders have burned alive soldiers who have refused to fight protesters. On 24 February, the International Federation for Human Rights concluded that Gaddafi is implementing a strategy of scorched earth and seeks to eliminate and suppress Libyan citizens who stood up against his regime.

Paid protesters Libyans studying in the US have received phone calls from the Libyan embassy urging them to take part in pro-Gaddafi demonstrations or lose government-funded scholarships. Gaddafi has a history of using paid demonstrators for public relations, including paying

US$2,000 to each hired demonstrator in a pro-Gaddafi rally when he visited the United Nations headquarters in New York City in 2009.

Battles between Gaddafi and opposition

Rebels on the outskirts of Brega. By 23 February, headlines in online news services were reporting a range of themes underlining the precarious state of the regime – former justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil alleged that Gaddafi personally ordered the 1988 Lockerbie bombing, resignations and defections of close allies, the loss of Benghazi, the second largest city in Libya, reported to be "alive with celebration" and other cities including Tobruk and Misrata reportedly falling with some reports that the government retained control of just a few pockets, mounting international isolation and pressure, and reports that Middle East media consider the end of his regime all but inevitable. By the end of February, Gaddafi had lost control of a significant part of the country, including the major cities of Misrata and Benghazi, and the important harbors at Ra's Lanuf and Mersa Brega. After taking over the city of Zawiyah on 24 February, Gaddafi's troops attacked the outskirts of the city on 28 February, but were repelled. The town of Nalut, on the Tunisian border, had also fallen to the opposition forces. On 2 March, government forces attempted to recapture the oil port town of Brega, but the attack failed and they retreated to Ra's Lanuf. Rebel forces advanced following their victory and on 4 March, the opposition captured Ra's Lanuf. On the same day, government troops started a full-scale

assault on Zawiyah with tank, artillery and air strikes. On 6 March, the rebel advance along the coastline had been stopped by government forces at the town of Bin Jawad. Government troops ambushed the rebel column and dozens of rebels were killed. At the same time, Gaddafi's forces attempted an attack on Misrata and managed to get as far as the centre of the city before their attack was stopped and they retreated to the city's outskirts.

Gaddafi counteroffensive On 6 March, the Gaddafi regime launched a counteroffensive, retaking Ra's Lanuf and Mersa Brega, pushing towards Ajdabiya and Benghazi. Gaddafi has remained in continuous control of Tripoli, Sirte, Zliten and Sabha, as well as several other towns. On 10 March, Zawiyah and Ra's Lanuf were retaken by Gaddafi's forces. By 15 March, the town of Brega had also been recaptured by Gaddafi's forces and the rebel city of Ajdabiya, the last town before Benghazi, was surrounded.

United Nations intervention On 17 March, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution to impose a no-fly zone in Libyan airspace. As a result of the UN resolution, on 18 March, Gaddafi's government declared an immediate ceasefire, but a few hours later, Al Jazeera reported that government forces were still fighting with rebels. Even after the governmentdeclared ceasefire, artillery shelling on Misrata and Ajdabiya continued, and government soldiers continued approaching Benghazi. BBC News reported that government tanks entered the city on 19 March while hundreds fled the fighting. Artillery and mortars were also fired into the city. The same day, a Mig23BN belonging to the Free Libyan Air Force was shot down over Benghazi, after being engaged by rebel ground forces in error. The Libyan government subsequently argued that the rebels had violated the no-fly-zone resolution by using a helicopter and a fighter jet to bomb Libyan armed forces.

Coalition suppresses Libyan air defenses

A French Navy rescue helicopter, from the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle, lands aboard the American command ship USS Mount Whitney

At 1600 GMT 19 March, the BBC News reported that the French Air Force had sent nineteen fighter planes over Benghazi to prevent any attacks on the rebel-controlled city. French jets attacked government armour southwest of Benghazi, destroying four tanks. By 2031 GMT, the US and British naval vessels had fired at least 114 Tomahawk cruise missiles at twenty Libyan integrated air and ground defense systems. Three U.S. B-2 Spirit stealth bombers reportedly flew non-stop from the United States to drop forty bombs on a major Libyan airfield with US fighter jets searching for Libyan ground forces to attack. Twenty-five coalition ships, including three US submarines, began operating in the area. Also on 20 March, Free Libyan Air Forcepilot Mohammed Mukhtar Osman crashed his plane into the Bab al-Aziziya barracks in Tripoli. Khamis al-Gaddafi was allegedly killed in the attack. On March 20, the Free Libyan Air Force carried out a suicide attack on the Bab alAziziya barracks in Tripoli, one of Gaddafi's residences, when pilot Muhammad Mukhtar Osman crashed his plane into the barracks. Khamis al-Gaddafi was allegedly killed in the attack. Widespread reports stated that Khamis had sustained severe burn injuries, and died in intensive care several hours later. U.S. officials confirmed that they had unconfirmed reports that one of Gaddafi's sons may have been killed. Gaddafi's regime denied the reports. Libyan State TV reported that Libyan forces had shot down a French warplane over Tripoli, a claim denied by France. On 20 March, several Storm Shadow missiles were launched against Libyan targets by British jets. Sustained anti-aircraft fire was reported in Tripoli throughout the night. Gaddafi's forces claimed they had shot down two planes, a claim denied by the US. An American F-15E Strike Eagle fighter jet on a bombing mission crashed after experiencing equipment failure. The pilot and weapons officer ejected and were recovered by US rescue teams. By 22 March, US forces had fired 161 Tomahawk cruise missiles against Libyan targets. The UK also fired US-made Tomahawk missiles; two fired from a British submarine had hit Gaddafi's compound in Tripoli on 21 March. On 25 March, NATO announced that it would be taking over the command of the no-flyzone operations, after several days of heated debate over who should control operations in Libya. The US had continuously reiterated that it wished to hand over command to an international organization.

Second rebel advance After airstrikes began, rebel forces began a renewed offensive towards Tripoli. They advanced 150 miles along the coast, and retook all lost ground, while international airstrikes targeted government armour and supply columns. Government forces put up resistance in Ajdabiya, which fell to the rebel push after intense airstrikes. Rebels took Brega, Ra's Lanuf, and Bin Jawad. Airstrikes inflicted heavy losses on government forces, and forced them into a chaotic retreat eastward. Gaddafi's soldiers left behind military equipment, uniforms, and rations as they fled, and their morale significantly

dropped. On 28 March, heavy fighting took place near Gaddafi's home town of Sirt, and government troops managed to halt the rebel advance. Due to increasing airstrikes targeting military vehicles, government troops increasingly replaced armour with civilian vehicles fitted with weapons. On 29 March, government forces launched a counteroffensive, forcing the rebels into a chaotic retreat from Bin Jawad toward Ra's Lanuf. On 30 March, the rebels said that they were pulling out of Ras Lanuf due to heavy tank and artillery fire from loyalist forces. The rebels also pulled back from Ajdabiyah, and hundreds of cars and small trucks heading east clogged the highway on the approaches to Brega. Gaddafi's forces subsequently pushed forward, retaking lost ground, as airstrikes on government targets throughout Libya took place. The Coalition began considering whether to supply arms to the rebels.

Humanitarian situation Medical supplies, fuel and food have run dangerously low in the country. On 25 February, the International Committee of the Red Cross launched an emergency appeal for US$6.4 million to meet the emergency needs of people affected by the violent unrest in the country. On 2 March, the ICRC's director general reminded everyone taking part in the violence that health workers must be allowed to do their jobs safely. Fleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 people were crossing the LibyaTunisia border daily during the first days of the uprising. Among those escaping the violence were foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisians and Turks – as well as Libyans. By 1 March, officials from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees had confirmed allegations of discrimination against sub-Saharan Africans who were held in dangerous conditions in the no-man's-land between Tunisia and Libya. By 3 March, an estimated 200,000 refugees had fled Libya to either Tunisia or Egypt. A provisional refugee camp was set up at Ras Ejder with a capacity for 10,000 was overflowing with an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 refugees. Many tens of thousands were still trapped on the Libyan side of the frontier. By 3 March, the situation was described as a logistical nightmare, with the World Health Organization warning of the risk of epidemics. With a migrant population of about two million, countries that border Libya, especially Egypt and Tunisia, have been receiving a flow of migrants and nationals escaping the violence. Migrants workers as well as Libyan nationals have been finding their way to the border cities of Sallum in Egypt and Ras Ajdir in Tunisia creating a humanitarian crisis. According to the International Organization for Migration, as of 7 March, 115,399 migrants had arrived in Tunisia (19,184 of them Tunisians, 47,631 Egyptians and the rest from various nationalities), 101,609 in Egypt (of which 65,509 were Egyptian), 2,205 in Niger (1,865 Nigerians) and 5,448 in Algeria.

African migrants attacked by anti-Gaddafi mobs Al Jazeera reported that African migrant workers were being attacked, injured and perhaps killed by anti-government mobs according to witnesses. "We were being attacked by local people who said that we were mercenaries killing people. Let me say that they did not want to see black people," Julius Kiluu, a sixty-year-old building supervisor, told Reuters. "Our camp was burnt down, and we were assisted by the Kenyan embassy and our company to get to the airport," he said. Al Jazeera was told by Seidou Boubaker Jallou, a Malian citizen, that he fled Libya after many black migrants were attacked. Some injured migrants were unable to seek medical treatment for fear of being killed. Saad Jabbar, deputy director of the North Africa Centre at Cambridge University, confirmed that Africans have become targets of antigovernment Libyans and that they "will be slaughtered in Libya" Jabbar said. Human Rights organisations claim that some anti-Gaddafi protesters mistakenly associate African workers with state-sponsored violence. "African immigrants are now linked to state-orchestrated violence and mass killings, and we may therefore fear the worst about the violent backlash that may follow particularly after Gaddafi is ousted," said Hein de Haas, a senior fellow with the International Migration Institute. "I think it is urgent to do something about it now, otherwise, a genocide against anyone who has black skin and who doesn't speak perfect Arabic is possible," said Jabbar.

Casualties

People protesting against Gaddafi's use of violence against Libyans. Independent numbers of dead and injured in the conflict have still not been made available. Estimates have been widely varied. Conservative estimates have put the death toll at 1,000, The International Criminal Court estimated 10,000 killed on 7 March. The numbers of injured were estimated to be around 4,000 by 22 February. On 2 March, the International Federation for Human Rights estimated a death toll as high as 3,000 and the World Health Organization estimated approximately 2,000 killed. At the same time, the opposition claimed that 6,500 people had died. The Libyan Human Rights League estimated 6,000 killed on 5 March. Later, rebel spokesman Abdul Hafiz Ghoga reported that the death toll reached 8,000. On 20 March, it was reported by the anti-Gaddafi Al Manara Media that Khamis alGaddafi had died from his injuries sustained when pilot Muhammad Mokhtar Osman allegedly crashed his plane into Bab al-Azizia a week earlier. However, this had not been confirmed by any other independent media. The crashing of the plane itself had also not been previously reported or confirmed by any other independent media except Al Manara and the Algerian Shuruk newspaper, which is closely connected to Al Manara, and with it there is a possibility of the reports being part of the rebel propaganda operations.

Domestic responses Resignation of government officials In response to the use of force against protesters, a number of senior Libyan public officials either renounced the Gaddafi regime or resigned from their positions. Justice Minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil and Interior Minister Major General Abdul Fatah Younis both defected to the opposition. Oil Minister Shukri Ghanem and Foreign Minister Mussa Kussa fled the country, with the latter defecting to the UK. Libyan Prosecutor General Abdul-Rahman al-Abbar resigned his position and joined the opposition. A number of senior military officials defected to the opposition, including Major General Suleiman Mahmoud, Brigadier General Musa'ed Ghaidan Al Mansouri, Brigadier General Hassan Ibrahim Al Qarawi and Brigadier General Dawood Issa Al Qafsi. Two Libyan Air Force colonels each flew their Mirage F1 fighter jets to Malta, and requested asylum, after being ordered to carry out air strikes against anti-government protesters in Benghazi Colonel Nuretin Hurala, the commander of the Benghazi Naval Base also defected. The staff of a number of diplomatic missions of Libya have either resigned or condemned the action of the Gaddafi regime. The ambassadors to the Arab League, European Union and United Nations have either resigned or stated that they no longer support the government. The ambassadors to Bangladesh, Belgium, People's Republic of China, France, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, and the US also renounced the Gaddafi regime or formally resigned.

Economic, religious and tribal The Arabian Gulf Oil Company, the second-largest state-owned oil company in Libya, announced plans to use oil funds to support anti-Gaddafi forces. Islamic leaders and clerics in Libya, notably the Network of Free Ulema – Libya urged all Muslims to rebel against Gaddafi. The Warfalla, Tuareg and Magarha tribes announced their support of the protesters. The Zuwayya tribe, based in eastern Libya, threatened to cut off oil exports from fields in its part of the country if Libyan security forces continued attacking demonstrators.

Libyan royal family

A young Benghazian carrying King Idris' photo. Support of the royal Senussi dynasty has traditionally been strong in Cyrenaica. Libyan-throne claimant, Muhammad as-Senussi, sent his condolences "for the heroes who have laid down their lives, killed by the brutal forces of Gaddafi" and called on the international community "to halt all support for the dictator with immediate effect." asSenussi said that the protesters would be "victorious in the end" and calls for international support to end the violence. On 24 February, as-Senussi gave an interview to Al Jazeera where he called upon the international community to help remove Gaddafi from power and stop the ongoing "massacre". He dismissed talk of a civil war saying "The Libyan people and the tribes have proven they are united". He later stated that international community needs "less talk and more action" to stop the violence. He asked for a no-fly zone over Libya but does not support foreign ground troops. In an interview with Adnkronos, Idris al-Senussi, a pretender to the Libyan throne, announced he was ready to return to the country once change had been initiated. On 21 February, Idris made an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight to discuss the uprising. In March, it was reported Idris had held meetings at the State Department and Congress in Washington with US government Officials. It was also reported attempts at contact had been initiated by French and Saudi officials. On 3 March, it was reported that Prince Al Senussi Zouber Al Senussi had fled Libya with his family and was seeking asylum in Totebo, Sweden.

International reactions Official responses

March for free Libya in Japan. A number of states and supranational bodies condemned Gaddafi's use of military and mercenaries against Libyan civilians. However, Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega, North Korean leader Kim-Jong-il, Cuban political leader Fidel Castro and Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez all expressed support for Gaddafi. Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi initially said he did not want to disturb Gaddafi, but two days later he called the attacks on protesters unacceptable. The Arab League suspended Libya from taking part in council meetings at an emergency meeting on 22 February and issued a statement condemning the "crimes against the current peaceful popular protests and demonstrations in several Libyan cities". Libya was suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council by a unanimous vote of the United Nations General Assembly, citing the Gaddafi government's use of violence against protesters. On 26 February, the United Nations Security Council voted unanimously to impose strict sanctions against Gaddafi's government and, refer Gaddafi and other members of his regime to the International Criminal Court for investigation into allegations of brutality against civilians. Interpol issued a security alert concerning the "possible movement of dangerous individuals and assets" based on the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970, listing Gaddafi himself and fifteen members of his clan or his regime. A number of governments, including Britain, Canada, Switzerland, the United States, Germany and Australia took action to freeze assets of Gaddafi and his associates. The Gulf Cooperation Council issued a joint statement on 8 March, calling on the United Nations Security Council to impose an air embargo on Libya to protect civilians. The Arab League did the same on 12 March, with only Algeria and Syria voting against the measure.

Evacuations During the uprising, many countries evacuated their citizens. China set up its largest evacuation operation ever with over 30,000 Chinese nationals evacuated, as well as 2,100 citizens from twelve other countries. On 25 February, 500 passengers, mostly Americans, sailed into Malta after a rough eight-hour journey from Tripoli following a two-day wait for the seas to calm. South Korea evacuated 1,200 residents of Libya, utilizing cars, airplanes and ferries, to nearby countries, including Malta. Bulgaria evacuated some of its citizens with planes, along with Romanian and Chinese citizens. The Indian government launched Operation Safe Homecoming and evacuated 15,000 of its nationals. The Turkish government sent three ships to evacuate a reported 25,000 Turkish workers and return them to Istanbul. The Irish Department of Foreign Affairs assisted over 115 Irish nationals in leaving Libya. Several Russians, twenty-one Tadjiks and some Kazachs were evacuated by Russia authorities. A number of international oil companies decided to withdraw their employees from Libya to ensure their safety, including Gazprom, Royal Dutch Shell, Sinopec, Suncor Energy, Pertamina and BP. Other companies that decided to evacuate their employees included Siemens and Russian Railways. The evacuations often involved assistance from various military forces. The United Kingdom deployed aircraft and the frigate HMS Cumberland to assist in the evacuations. China's frigate Xuzhou of the People's Liberation Army Navy was ordered to guard the Chinese evacuation efforts. The South Korean Navy destroyer ROKS Choi Young arrived off the coast of Tripoli on 1 March to evacuate South Korean citizens. The UK Royal Navy destroyer HMS York docked in the port of Benghazi on 2 March, evacuated 43 nationals, and delivered medical supplies and other humanitarian aid donated by the Swedish government. Canada deployed the frigate HMCS Charlottetown to aid in the evacuation of Canadian citizens and to provide humanitarian relief operations in conjunction with an US Navy carrier strike group, led by the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier USS Enterprise. Two Royal Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft with British Special Forces onboard evacuated approximately 100 foreign nationals, mainly oil workers, to Malta from the desert south of Benghazi. A subsequent joint evacuation operation between the UK and Germany evacuated 22 Germans and about 100 other Europeans, mostly British oil workers, from the airport at Nafurah to Crete. An attempt by the Royal Netherlands Navy frigate HNLMS Tromp on 27 February to evacuate a Dutch civilian and another European from the coastal city of Sirte by helicopter failed after its three-man crew was apprehended by Libyan forces loyal to Gaddafi for infiltrating Libyan airspace without clearance. The civilians were released soon after and the crew was released twelve days later, but the helicopter was confiscated. A cruise ship arrived to save the 7,913 Filipinos in Libya from the destruction. They stopped in Greece and then safely made it home to the Philippines.

Mediation proposals There have been several peace mediation prospects during the crisis. Early in the conflict, Gaddafi's son reportedly requested that former British Prime Minister Tony Blair, who had dealings with Gaddafi in the last few years, mediate the crisis. Blair, however, bluntly refused and downplayed his dealings with the Libyan regime. The South African government proposed an African Union-led mediation effort to prevent civil war. Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez also put himself forward as a mediator. Although Gaddafi accepted in principle a proposal by Chávez to negotiate a settlement between the opposition and the Libyan government, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi later said there was no need for any foreign mediation. The proposal has also been under consideration by the Arab League, according to its Secretary-General Amr Moussa. The Libyan opposition has stated any deal would have to involve Gaddafi stepping down. The US and French governments also dismissed any initiative that would allow Gaddafi to remain in power. Turkish Prime Minister Tayyip Erdogan, the 2010 winner of the alGaddafi prize for Human Rights, has offered to mediate the crisis, and proposed that Gaddafi appoint a president acceptable to all Libyans as means of overcoming the crisis.

United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 On 28 February, UK Prime Minister David Cameron proposed the idea of a no-fly zone to prevent Gaddafi from airlifting mercenaries and using military aircraft against civilians. A number of states indicated they would support a no-fly zone if it was backed by the UN. US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates was initially skeptical of this option, warning the US Congress that a no-fly zone would have to begin with an attack on Libya's air defenses. Russia and China, both holding UN Security Council veto power, indicated they were opposed to the implementation of a no-fly zone. Romania, India and Turkey also indicated they were opposed to the implementation of a no-fly zone. On 7 March, a UN diplomat confirmed to Agence France-Presse, on condition of anonymity, that France and the UK were drawing up a resolution for the UN Security Council to authorize a no-fly zone over Libya. The foreign ministers of the Arab League agreed at their 12 March meeting to ask the UN to impose a no-fly zone over Libya. The rebels concurrently stated that a no-fly zone alone would not be sufficient, because the majority of the bombardments were coming from tanks and rockets, not aircraft. The US changed its position, as Gadaffi forces were quickly approaching Benghazi, and voiced support for the no-fly-zone concept. On 17 March, the UN Security Council approved UN Security Council Resolution 1973 (2011), authorizing a no-fly zone, amongst other measures, by a vote of ten in favor, zero against, and five abstentions. The resolution bans all flights in Libyan airspace in order to protect civilians. A collection of countries began enforcing the no-fly zone on 19 March.

On 29 March, in his position as Foreign Minister of Libya, Mussa Kussa wrote to UN Secretary General Ban Ki Moon, nominating the former foreign minister of Nicaragua's socialist Sandinista government and one-time president of the UN General Assembly, Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann as Libya's new ambassador to the UN. The letter stated that Brockmann was nominated, as Ali Abdussalam Treki, also a former General Assembly president who was their first choice, was denied a visa to enter the US under UN SCR 1973.

Reactions to the international intervention The International Federation for Human Rights stated that it welcomed the resolution which finally offers protection to civilians in Libya, who are the targets of crimes which can be considered crimes against humanity. The Human Rights Watch stated that the UN Security Council at last lived up to its duty to prevent mass atrocities. It further commented the Arab League's role, stating that "the league had watched silently as Sudan's Omar al-Bashir committed crimes against humanity in Darfur – or, less recently, as Iraq's Saddam Hussein massacred Shia and Kurds, and Syria's Hafez al-Asad destroyed the town of Hama. But the league apparently sensed the winds of change wafting through the Middle East and North Africa, and felt compelled to respond. The Egyptian presidential aspirations of the league's secretary-general, Amr Moussa, certainly helped as well." al-Qaeda have also stated that they support the uprising against Gaddafi and at least a few dozen fighters have al-Qaeda connections. Egypt has also been shipping arms over the Libyan border to arm the rebels.

Demonstrators in the United States opposing the intervention. According to a French Institute of Public Opinion (IFOP) poll, only 36% of the population supported French participation in any military intervention in Libya in the run-up to the intervention. However, an IFOP poll conducted after the intervention began showed 66% supported the intervention, with no difference of opinion between the leftwing and right-wing. In the US, opposition before the intervention was as high as 74%, according to CNN/Opinion Research Corporation, while after the intervention a CBS News poll indicated 66% of Americans support the air and naval strikes, with 70% of democrats and republicans, and 65% of independents approving of missile and airstrikes. However, only 20% expect the no-fly zone to be "very effective" in protecting civilians and rebels from Gaddafi's forces.

China, India, Russia and Turkey condemned the strikes by international forces. Amr Moussa, the head of The Arab League, expressed great concern over civilians, clearly defining his position as supporting the UN Security Council resolution but not a bombing campaign. However, Amr Moussa later clarified that his comments were misinterpreted, and that he does in fact support the air strikes, and reiterated his support for protecting civilians. Turkey specifically singled out French leadership for ignoring the NATO alliance, which was left divided and split over the operation. NATO members Germany and Poland are not participating in the campaign, and Malta did not offer its airports for use by coalition forces. In Britain the intervention has been broadly supported, though it has also provoked strong opposition from a minority including former MP George Galloway and MPs Jeremy Corbyn and Caroline Lucas. In the US, some politicians have voiced opposition to military action without congressional approval, or have requested clarifications and debate about US goals and how they will be achieved, including Democratic and Republican congressional representatives, Speaker of the House John Boehner, House Armed Services Committee Chairman Buck McKeon, and Democratic House Caucus chair John Larson. Richard Haass, president of the Council on Foreign Relations, has expressed doubts over the possibility of a better regime emerging if the rebels are victorious.

Chapter 2

Late March 2011 Libyan Rebel Offensive

Late March 2011 Libyan rebel offensive Part of Libyan Civil War

Date Location Result

March 26, 2011 – March 30, 2011 Coast of the Gulf of Sidra, Libya Pro-Gaddafi victory 

Rebel advance repelled Belligerents Gaddafi Loyalists

Anti-Gaddafists 

Libyan People's Army

  

Libyan Army Paramilitary forces Foreign mercenaries

Commanders and leaders Khalifa Belqasim Haftar Al-Saadi al-Gaddafi Strength 1,000+ Saadi Brigade Casualties and losses At least 7 killed At least 7 killed

The Late March 2011 Libyan rebel offensive was mounted by Anti-Gaddafi forces after the Battle of Ajdabiya. The offensive was meant to have the rebel forces quickly reach Gaddafi's hometown of Sirte. The rebels managed to take almost 300 kilometers of territory in just two days. However, by day three into the rebel advance, loyalist troops

stopped the opposition forces and the rebels were in full retreat back to their starting positions.

The Offensive Rebels capture oil towns and reach western Libya After loyalist forces lost the Battle of Ajdabiya on March 26, rebels immediately pressed their momentum and took the oil town of Brega without a fight. The next day, on March 27, opposition forces reached the even bigger oil town of Ra's Lanuf and too had fallen without a shot being fired as loyalist forces had earlier retreated to Sirte following Coalition air-strikes. By the end of the day, rebels entered Bin Jawad, 150 kilometers east of Sirte, unopposed and captured the town. Pro-Gaddafi forces had retreat for over 300km (190 miles) to defensive positions between Sirte and Bin Jawad in just two days.

Skirmishes along the road to Sirte On March 28, rebel forces advanced further west toward Sirte and took the town of Nawfaliya. After securing Nawfaliya, they continued westwards to the village of Harawah. There they tried to negotiate with the tribal leaders for the locals to join their uprising. However, the civilians in the village attacked the rebels with automatic weapons and the opposition was forced to withdraw from Harawah. At the same time, the long rebel coloumn, coming from Bin Jawad, was ambushed a number of times on the highway and loyalists managed to flank the rebels and attack them from the rear. This forced the opposition forces to withdraw back to Nawfaliya, 120km (75 miles) from Sirte. Some of them even retreated back to Bin Jawad.

Counteroffensive by pro-Gaddafi forces On March 29, pro-Gaddafi forces intensified attacks on Libyan rebels, forcing them to abandon Bin Jawad. The rebels first retreated from Nawfaliya to Bin Jawad, some 30km further east. Later intense fighting over Bin Jawad was reported, including artillery duels, before the rebels fled in hundreds of vehicles towards Ra's Lanuf. The opposition's military commanders suggested that lack of discipline and stretched supply lines are partly to blame for the retreat. Later during the day, pro-Gaddafi forces advanced to 20km away from Ra's Lanuf and began shelling the town with artillery and mortars, forcing the rebels to retreat further east. On March 30, loyalist forces recaptured the oil refinery town of Ras Lanuf forcing rebels to retreat further to the east. The coalition then began launching air-strikes against Gaddafi's forces around Ras Lanuf and on the road to Uqayla. Reporters on the ground blamed a sandstorm and low visibility from the air for the lack of air-strikes the previous day. Later during the day, rebels were pulling out of Brega to Ajdabiyah. In the evening,

the BBC reported that Brega was in control of pro-Gaddafi forces and they were approaching Ajdabiya. A CNN corespondent in Ajdabiya reported that rebels were "massing outside Ajdabiya for a counter-offensive".

Chapter 3

Casualties of the 2011 Libyan Civil War

Estimates of deaths in the 2011 Libyan civil war vary from 2,000-10,000 as of March 7. An exact figure is hard to ascertain, partly due to a media clamp-down by the Libyan government. Some conservative estimates have been released. Some of the killing "may amount to crimes against humanity" according to the United Nations Security Council and as of March 2011 is under investigation by the International Criminal Court.

Deaths caused by Loyalist forces On February 23, the International Coalition Against War Criminals gave an estimate that 519 people had died, 3,980 were wounded and over 1,500 were missing. Human Rights Watch have estimated that at least 233 people had been killed by February 22. On February 23, Italy's Minister of Foreign Affairs Franco Frattini stated that according to his information 1,000 had died so far. On February 24, the IFHR said that 130 soldiers had been executed in Benghazi and alBaida, after they mutinied and sided with the protesters. On February 25, Navi Pillay, the High Commissioner for Human Rights of the United Nations, said that reports indicated that "thousands may have been killed or injured". On March 20, Abdul Hafiz Ghoga, spokesman for the National Transitional Council, stated that "more than 8,000" people are killed as a result of the uprising.

Deaths caused by Anti-Gaddafi forces Among the security forces there had been more than 450 dead, including civilians in support of the government, mercenaries and government soldiers. There have been many reports that members of the security forces have been killed by both the government and

the opposition. On February 18, two policemen were hanged by protesters in Benghazi. Also, on the same day, 50 African mercenaries, mostly from Chad, were executed by the protesters in al-Baida. Some of them were killed when protestors burned down the police station in which they locked them up and at least 15 were lynched in front of the courthouse in al-Baida. The bodies of some of them were put on display and caught on video. By February 23, the government confirmed that 111 soldiers had been killed.

Alleged deaths caused by Coalition forces The Libyan official sources claimed that at least between 64 and 90 people were killed during the bombardments on the first two days of the U.N. intervention and another 150 had been wounded. These claims have not been verified by independent sources.

Legal status On 26 February 2011, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) stated in UNSC Resolution 1970, "the widespread and systematic attacks currently taking place in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya against the civilian population may amount to crimes against humanity" and referred "the situation" in Libya since 15 February 2011 to the International Criminal Court (ICC), a permanent tribunal that presently can prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity or war crimes. On 4 March, the ICC assigned investigation of the case to Pre-trial Chamber I, consisting of Judge Cuno Tarfusser from Italy, Judge Sylvia Steiner from Brazil and Judge Sanji Mmasenono Monageng from Botswana. Contrary to widespread perceptions, NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussenhas stated on the 28th March that it was impartial and that it interpreted the terms of the UNSC resolutions on the protection of civilians to apply to rebel, as well as government forces. However, it was also reported by the BBC that the rebels felt they had a "private understanding" of the NATO mission. The NATO Secretary General described the possibility that NATO would attack rebel forces who endanger civilian populations as "hypothetical".

Timeline of reported deaths per event Date February 16 February 17-20 February 17-25 February 17 February 18 February 18-23

Opposition fatalities 1 332-479 300 4-10 2 6-14

Government fatalities None reported 163 None reported None reported None reported None reported

Detail Protests in Roujdane. First Battle of Benghazi Tripoli clashes Protests in Ajdabiya. Protests in Qubah. Protests in Misrata.

February 20 February 24March 10 February 24ongoing

4

None reported

Protests in Tobruk.

234-247

65

Battle of Az Zawiyah

243-427

137-171

Battle of Misrata

February 26

22

None reported

March 2 March 4-12

14 71-81

2-10 4-27

March 4

34-100

None reported

March 6 March 6 March 13-15

12-60 5-6 5

1 None reported 25

March 14

4

None reported

March 15-26 March 15

136 1

41 None reported

March 17

None reported

1-2

March 18 March 18 March 19-20 March 21-22

1 3-6 120 9

4 None reported 27-30 None reported

March 22-24

None reported

19-28

16-21

90

Battle of Zintan

7

7

Late March rebel offensive

March 22ongoing March 27-30

Capture and execution of rebel fighters at Sirte. First Battle of Brega Battle of Ra's Lanuf Explosion at an arms depot in Benghazi. First Battle of Bin Jawad Fighting in Zintan. Second Battle of Brega Government re-taking of Zuwarah. Battle of Ajdabiya Rebel fighter plane crashes. Bombing run on the Benghazi military air base. Fighting in Nalut. Fighting in Zueitina. Second Battle of Benghazi Fighting in Yefren. Coalition air-strikes on Tripoli.

Based on the numbers, 1,586-2,077 opposition members/fighters and 586-664 Gaddafi loyalists have been killed by March 29, 2011, for a total of 2,172-2,741 reported deaths, of which some have not been independently confirmed. In addition, another 370 opposition fighters and activists have been confirmed as missing in the fighting in the east and 122 are reported to be missing in the Battle of Misrata for a total of 492 rebels reported missing. However, this number could be higher since it was reported that 700 rebels were missing following the First Battle of Bin Jawad. If these numbers were to be confirmed as true, they would be in line with at least the WHO estimate of more than 2,000 killed or the IFHR estimate of 3,000 dead in the war.

Deaths overall The total number of people killed includes protesters, armed belligerents, and captives executed: Source

Libyan casualties

Time period

United Nations

1,000 killed

February 15 - March 7, 2011

World Health Organization

2,000 killed

February 15 - March 2, 2011

International Federation for Human 3,000 killed Rights

February 15 - March 5, 2011

Libyan Human Rights League

6,000 killed

February 15 - March 5, 2011

National Transitional Council

8,000 killed

February 15 - March 20, 2011

International Criminal Court

10,000 killed

February 15 - March 7, 2011

Chapter 4

Domestic Responses to the 2011 Libyan Protests

The former Libyan flag used between 1951 and 1969 has been used by some protesters as an opposition flag. This is a list of officials who resigned or refused to take orders from the Gaddafi regime during the 2011 Libyan protests.

Government officials Ministers in the General People's Committee   

Justice Minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil, resigned 21 February 2011 Interior Minister and Army Major General Abdul Fatah Younis, defected 22 February 2011 as he announced his support for the protestors Minister for Immigration Ali Errishi, resigned 7 March 2011



Foreign Affairs Minister Moussa Koussa, resigned and fled to Britain on 30 March 2011

Other government officials      

Nouri Al-Mismari, former head of protocol Ahmad Qaddaf al-Damm, a cousin and aide of Gaddafi has fled to Cairo reporting of "grave violations to human right and human and international laws." Saif Al Arab Gaddafi, (not to be confused with Saif Al Islam Gadaffi), second youngest son of Muammar al-Gaddafi joined protestors on 24 February 2011. Abdul-Rahman al-Abbar, Libyan Prosecutor General resigned on 25 February 2011 and joined the opposition. Mohamed Amer Bayou, spokesman for the Gaddafi regime, resigned on 25 February over violence against protesters. By February 27, Libya's biggest oil company, Agaco, turned against the Gaddafi regime.

Libyan diplomatic personnel Country/ Organization

Official

Date

Notes

Ambassador The reason for his resignation Abdulmoneim 20 February 2011 was the "oppression against al-Honi protesters". The Libyan delegation to the Arab League Arab League in Cairo has They condemned his attack on 25 February 2011 renounced "unarmed citizens". Gaddafi and now represents 'the people' Did not resign, but denounced Ambassador Gaddafi in a speech before the Abdel Rahman 25 February 2011 Security Council and no Shalgham longer supports the regime. Did not resign, but no longer Deputy supports government. On 26 United Ambassador February 2011, he stated that Nations 21 February 2011 he supported "in principle" the Ibrahim Omar alternative government being Al Dabashi formed in Benghazi. Delegation to 25 February 2011 the Human

UNESCO Australia

Austria

Bangladesh Belgium

Canada

China

Egypt

Rights Council Entire mission to the UN in Geneva Ambassador Abdoulsalam El 25 February 2011 Qallali Musbah Allafi 20 February 2011

Embassy staff

The Libyan Embassy in Austria condemned 'excessive violence against peaceful 23 February 2011 demonstrators', stated that they represent the Libyan people and offered condolences to the families of the victims.

Ambassador AH 20 February 2011 Elimam Ambassador 21 February 2011 Son of Gaddafi's former protocol chief Nuri AlMismari told Toronto Star he resigned because embassy's chargé d'affaires was "hiding" Counsellor Ihab 23 February 2011 the gravity of the deadly Al-Mismari crackdown back home. “...killing the friends with whom I grew up, they are killing my brothers and sisters.” Second Secretary to the He also called on the army to ambassador 20 February 2011 intervene and called for all Hussein Sadiq al Libya's diplomats to resign Musrati Staff at the Libyan consulate Consular in Alexandria removed the employees in 22 February 2011 Gaddafi-era green flag and Alexandria joined protestors outside

European Union

Ambassador

21 February 2011

France

Ambassador Mohamed Salaheddine Zarem

25 February 2011

Hungary

India Indonesia

Jordan

Malaysia

Mali

Malta

Morocco

Nambia

Netherlands

Embassy staff (undefined)

Two members of the staff left the embassy to join the protesters in front of the building. On the 21st March the Libyan embassy in 22 February 2011 Budapest is seen flying the old tricolor flag which indicates that they have officially changed sides in favor of the National Transitional Council.

Ambassador Ali 21 February 2011 al-Essawi Ambassador Salaheddin M. 21 February 2011 El Bishari Ambassador Mohammed 24 February 2011 Hassan Al Barghathi Distanced themselves from the Embassy staff 22 February 2011 government and called the protests a "massacre." Later accused by Malian officials of being an Consul general "impostor" who initially Musa Al-Koni March 5 recruited Tuareg mercenaries (later referred as before fleeing to Paris with the "Musa Kuni") money entrusted to him for that purpose. Left the embassy to join the Embassy staff protestors in front of it. The 22 February 2011 (undefined) embassy is now flying the flag of the protestors. Staff destroyed images of Embassy staff 23 February 2011 Muammar al-Gaddafi and destroyed the Gaddafi-era flag The second-highest ranking Second-highest diplomat in Namibia, Saad ranking Bakar, his wife and four 3 March 2011 diplomat Saad children has left for a Bakar Mediterranean country to join the opposition movement. Replacement of the GaddafiEmbassy staff 8 March 2011 era flag with the Libyan 1951–

1969 flag as used by the 2011 protesters; no further comments where made. Poland Portugal

Somalia

Ambassador 22 February 2011 Ambassador Ali Ibrahim 25 February 2011 Emdored Ambassador Issa Ashur

Announced he is "joining the revolution", and would 26 February 2011 continue to carry out his duties "as a representative of the Libyan people"

Ambassador; Deputy After days of protests, the embassy announced on 23 Ambassador 23 February 2011 February that they no longer Sweden Abdelmagid support Gaddafi and lifted the Buzrigh; former Libyan flag non-diplomatic staff "The members of the embassy no longer have any link to the regime of Moammar Gaddafi, and call on all countries to follow the example set by the Switzerland Embassy staff 11 March 2011 Republic of France in recognising the National Transitional Council which represents the interests of the Libyan people". Ambassador did not initially resign, even though he distanced himself from the Libyan government. However, Ambassador Ali he resigned on 22 February Suleiman 22 February 2011 saying he does not serve the "dictatorship." On 26 February Aujali; United States 2011, he stated that he of America supported the efforts to form an alternative government in Benghazi. Counsel Saleh Ali Al Majbari, 21 February 2011 Counsel Jumaa Faris

Contrary to previous reports, the Ambassador of Libya to the United Kingdom has not resigned, but did not want to discuss his support for Libyan leader Muammar al-Gaddafi. According to the Toronto Star, the Ambassador of Libya to Canada is on "sick leave". A growing number of Libyan embassies around the world have started to fly the former flag of Libya used between 1951 and 1969.

Military  







 

Abdul Fatah Younis, interior minister who resigned and defected, held the position of Major General, and was the top military leader. Major General Suleiman Mahmoud whom Al Jazeera describes as "a commander of the Libyan army in Tobruk" called Colonel Gaddafi "a tyrant" and announced that he and his forces changed sides towards the protestors. On March 1, Brigadier Musa’ed Ghaidan Al Mansouri the head of the Al Wahat Security Directorate and Brigadier Hassan Ibrahim Al Qarawi defected to the anti-government side. Brigadier Dawood Issa Al Qafsi later joined the opposition as well. Brigadier Dawood Issa Al Qafsi also said that he "join[s] the Feb 17 revolution. With me are officers, non commissioned officers and soldiers in the Armed Forces units in Ajdabia, Braiga, Bisher, Ogaila, Sultan and Zwaitina...Glory to the martyrs of the revolution...We announce that we join the Libyan Military Council formed in Benghazi." This came after he said "two war planes took off from Al Qurdabiyeh base in Sirte for a raid on the town of Ajdabia. It was confronted by Anti-aircraft guns and forced it to flee without human casualties. We call on our honorable people in Sirte to intervene and to advice their sons to refuse bombarding any Libyan town to spare the blood of the innocent of our great people." Two Libyan Air Force colonels each flew their Mirage F1 fighter jets to Malta after being ordered to carry out air strikes against anti-government protesters in Benghazi. One of the Libyan colonels has reportedly requested asylum. On 13 March 2011, Ali Atiyya, a colonel of the Libyan Air Force at the Mitiga military airport, near Tripoli defected and joined the rebellion. Colonel Nuretin Hurala, of the Libyan Navy, comanding Benghazi Naval base and his command, defected to the rebellion.

Other The Arabian Gulf Oil Company, the second largest state-owned oil company in Libya, announced plans to use oil funds to support anti-Gaddafi forces. This will prove a major boost for the embattled rebel forces highly low on funds. Islamic leaders and clerics in Libya, notably the Network of Free Ulema – Libya urged all Muslims to rebel against Gaddafi. The Warfalla, Tuareg and Magarha tribes have

announced their support of the protesters. The Zuwayya tribe, based in eastern Libya, have threatened to cut off oil exports from fields in their part of the country if Libyan security forces continued attacking demonstrators. Youssef Sawani, a senior aide to Muammer Gaddafi's son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, resigned from his post "to express dismay against violence". On 28 February, Gaddafi reportedly appointed the head of Libya's foreign intelligence service to speak to the leadership of the anti-government protesters in the east of the country.

A young Benghazian carrying King Idris' photo. Support of the royal Senussi dynasty has traditionally been strong in Cyrenaica.

Former royals Libyan-throne claimant, Muhammad as-Senussi, sent his condolences "for the heroes who have laid down their lives, killed by the brutal forces of Gaddafi" and called on the international community "to halt all support for the dictator with immediate effect." asSenussi said that the protesters would be "victorious in the end" and calls for international support to end the violence.

On 24 February, as-Senussi gave an interview to Al Jazeera English where he called upon the international community to help remove Gaddafi from power and stop the ongoing "massacre". He has dismissed talk of a civil war saying "The Libyan people and the tribes have proven they are united". Questioned about what shape a new government could take, and whether the 1951 royal constitution could be revived, as-Senussi said that such questions are "premature and are issues that are to be decided by the Libyan people," adding that for now the priority is to stop the "killing of innocent people." On whether he desires to return to Libya he says "The Senussi family considers itself as in the service of the Libyan people." When asked about reestablishing the monarchy, he has stated that he "is a servant to Libyan people, and they decide what they want". The White House said it will not specify which individuals and groups it is working and reaching out with, when asked if it supports as-Senussi's calls for international support. In an interview with Asharq Al-Awsat, he stated that it is too early to answer if the monarchy in Libya could be restored and if he will be active in Libyan poltics. He also says the main objective is to end the violence on the streets in Libya. On 3 March, it was announced that he planned to return to Libya. On 4 March, he called the West to use airstrikes against Gaddafi after his contacts in Libya told him they need airstrikes. He also argued that a no-fly zone would be insufficient but later calls for the no-fly zone. He later stated that international community needs "less talk and more action" to stop the violence. He has asked for a no-fly zone over Libya but does not support foreign ground troops. He sent a letter to current UN secreatary general Ban Ki-moon calling the UN to impose the no fly zone. He has also stated that a no-fly zone is the only way to stop Gaddafi who he has said is relying comptely on the air force. In an interview with Adnkronos, Idris al-Senussi, a pretender to the Libyan throne, announced he was ready to return to the country once change had been initiated. On 21 February 2011, Idris made an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight to discuss the uprising. On 24 February, his brother Hashem called on Gaddafi "to have mercy" on the demonstrators, just as he did with members of the former Royal Family in 1969 when he allowed them to leave the country unharmed after the coup that overthrew the monarchy. On 3 March, it was reported that Prince Al Senussi Zouber Al Senussi had fled Libya with his family and was seeking asylum in Totebo, Sweden. On March 17 Prince Mohamed Hilal El Senusi returned to Libya after 41 years in exile.

Chapter 5

2011 Military Intervention in Libya

Military intervention in Libya Part of 2011 Libyan civil war

The no-fly zone over Libya as well as bases and warships which are involved in the intervention

Date Location Status

19 March 2011–ongoing Libya Ongoing (precision airstrikes, no-fly zone and naval blockade) Belligerents

Countries enforcing UN SC Resolution 1973:

Libyan Arab Jamahiriya:  

Armed forces Militia



NATO              

Foreign mercenaries

Belgium Bulgaria Canada Denmark France Greece Italy Netherlands Norway Romania Spain Turkey United Kingdom United States

Qatar Sweden United Arab Emirates Commanders and leaders Charles Bouchard Muammar Gaddafi Édouard Guillaud Rinaldo Veri Saif al-Islam alSir Stuart Peach Gaddafi Carter Ham Khamis al-Gaddafi Sam Locklear Al-Saadi al-Gaddafi Hamad bin Khalifa Al Abu-Bakr Yunis Thani Jabr Sverker Göransson Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan Casualties and losses 16 soldiers killed and 70 vehicles destroyed near Benghazi: 14 tanks, 20 APCs, 2 mobile MRLs, 1 mobile SAM and 33 1 USAF F-15E Strike Jeeps, SUVs, technicals Eagle crashed (both pilots or trucks; survived) 4 out-of-service mobile MRLs destroyed in Tripoli; 20 surface-to-air missile

sites bombed; 6 Libyan Soko G-2 Galeb aircraft and 2 Mi35 military helicopters destroyed near Misrata 22 tanks, armoured vehicles, and artillery pieces hit by RAF '[A]lmost 100' - probably 98 - dead civilians and 445 wounded, as of 25 March* *Libyan health ministry claims 'almost 100' civilians killed and 445 wounded. The U.S. military claims it has no knowledge of civilian casualties.

On March 19, 2011 a multi-national coalition began a military intervention in Libya to implement United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which was taken in response to events during the 2011 Libyan uprising. On March 19, military operations began, with US and British forces firing over 110 Tomahawk cruise missiles, the French Air Force and British Royal Air Force undertaking sorties across Libya and a naval blockade by the Royal Navy. Air strikes against Libyan Army tanks and vehicles by French jets have since been confirmed. The official names for the interventions by the coalition members are Opération Harmattan by France; Operation Ellamy by the United Kingdom; Operation Mobile for the Canadian participation and Operation Odyssey Dawn for the United States. Since the beginning of the intervention, the initial coalition of Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, Norway, Qatar, Spain, UK and US has expanded to 16 nations, with newer nations mostly enforcing the no-fly zone and naval blockade. The effort was initially largely led by France and the United Kingdom, with command shared with the United States. NATO took control of the arms embargo on 23 March, named Operation Unified Protector. An attempt to unify the military command of the air campaign (whilst keeping political and strategic control with a small group), first failed over objections by the French, German, and Turkish governments. On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no-fly zone, while command of targeting ground units remains with coalition forces. The handover is to occur in the following days.

Proposal for the no-fly zone Both Libyan and international states and organisations called for a no-fly zone over Libya in light of airstrikes against Libyan rebels conducted by Muammar Gaddafi's military in the 2011 Libyan uprising.

Chronology 

21 February 2011 - Libyan deputy Permanent Representative to UN Ambassador Ibrahim Dabbashi "[called] on the UN to impose a no-fly zone on all Tripoli to cut off all supplies of arms and mercenaries to the regime."

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28 February 2011 - British Prime Minister David Cameron proposed the idea of a no-fly zone to prevent Gaddafi from "airlifting mercenaries" and "using his military aeroplanes and armoured helicopters against civilians."

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7 March 2011 - U.S. Ambassador to NATO Ivo Daalder announced that NATO decided to step up surveillance missions of E-3 AWACS aircraft to 24 hours a day. On the same day it was reported that an anonymous UN diplomat confirmed to Agence France Presse that France and Britain were drawing up a resolution on the no-fly zone that would be considered by the United Nations Security Council during the same week. The Gulf Cooperation Council also on that day called upon the UN Security Council to "take all necessary measures to protect civilians, including enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya."

VOA News report on the United States support of the no-fly zone

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9 March 2011 - The head of the Libyan National Transitional Council, Mustafa Abdul Jalil, "pleaded for the international community to move quickly to impose a no-fly zone over Libya, declaring that any delay would result in more casualties". Three days later, he stated that if pro-Gaddafi forces reached Benghazi, then they would kill "half a million" people. He stated, "If there is no no-fly zone imposed on Gaddafi's regime, and his ships are not checked, we will have a catastrophe in Libya."

On 12 March, thousands of Libyan women marched in the streets of the rebel-held town of Benghazi, calling for the imposition of a no-fly zone over Libya. 

9 March 2011 - The United States had naval forces positioned off the coast of Libya, as well as forces already in the region, including the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise. Canada had dispatched naval frigate HMCS Charlottetown to the area, reinforcing the display of Western power. Canadian Defence Minister Peter MacKay stated, "We are there for all inevitabilities. And NATO is looking at this as well ... This is taken as a precautionary and staged measure." Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper stated that the Canadian Forces Air Command is ready to contribute to setting up a no-fly zone if the UN and NATO decided to do this.

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10 March 2011 - France recognized the Libyan NTC as the legitimate government of Libya soon after French President Nicolas Sarkozy met with them in Paris. This meeting was arranged by Bernard-Henri Lévy.

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12 March 2011 - The Arab League "called on the United Nations Security Council to impose a no-fly zone over Libya in a bid to protect civilians from air attack". The Arab League's request was announced by Oman's Foreign minister, Yusuf bin Alawi bin Abdullah, who stated that all member states present at the meeting agreed with the proposal.

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15 March 2011 - A resolution for a no-fly zone was proposed by Nawaf Salam, Lebanon's Ambassador to the United Nations. The resolution was immediately backed by France and the United Kingdom.

Demonstrators urging the international community to establish a no-fly zone and send Gaddafi to the International Criminal Court in Hague. 

17 March 2011 - The United Nations Security Council, acting under the authority of Chapter VII of the UN Charter, approved a no-fly zone by a vote of 10 in

favour, zero against, and five abstentions, via United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973. The five abstentions were: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and Germany. Less than 24 hours later, Libya announced that it would halt all military operations in the country in response to the Security Council resolution. 

18 March 2011 - The Libyan foreign minister, Mussa Kussa, said that he had declared a ceasefire, attributing the UN resolution. However, artillery shelling on Misrata and Ajdabiya continued, and government soldiers continued approaching Benghazi. Government troops and tanks entered the city on 19 March. Artillery and mortars were also fired into the city.

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19 March 2011 - Coalition forces began the military intervention in Libya with strikes against armoured units south of Benghazi and attacks on Libyan airdefence systems, as United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 called for using "all necessary means" to protect civilians and civilian-populated areas from attack, imposed a no-fly zone, and called for an immediate cease-fire, while also strengthening travel bans on members of the regime, arms embargoes, and asset freezes.

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24 March 2011 - In telephone negotiations, French foreign minister Alain Juppé has conceded to let NATO take over all military operations on Tuesday 29 March at the latest, allowing Turkey to veto strikes on Gaddafi ground forces from that point forward. Later reports stated that NATO would take over enforcement of the no-fly zone and the arms embargo, but discussions were still under way about whether NATO would take over the protection of civilians mission. Turkey reportedly wants the power to veto airstrikes, while France wants to prevent Turkey from having such a veto.

U.S President Barrack Obama addressing the nation about the U.S intervention in Libya

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25 March 2011 NATO Allied Joint Force Command in Naples took command of the no-fly zone over Libya and combined it with the ongoing arms embargo operation under the name Operation Unified Protector.

Enforcement

Coloured in blue are the nations currently involved in implementing the no-fly zone over Libya (coloured in green) Initial NATO planning for a possible no-fly zone took place in late February and early March, especially by NATO members France and the United Kingdom. France and the United Kingdom were early supporters of a no-fly zone and have sufficient airpower to impose a no-fly zone over the rebel-held areas, although they might need additional assistance for a more extensive exclusion zone. The U.S. has the air assets necessary to enforce a no-fly zone, but was cautious to support such an action prior to obtaining a legal basis for violating Libya's sovereignty. However, due to the sensitive nature of military action by the U.S. against an Arab nation, the U.S. has sought Arab participation in the enforcement of a no-fly zone. At a congressional hearing, United States Secretary of Defense Robert Gates explained that "a no-fly zone begins with an attack on Libya to destroy the air defences ... and then you can fly planes around the country and not worry about our guys being shot down. But that's the way it starts." On 19 March, the deployment of French fighter jets over Libya began, and other countries began their individual operations. Phase One started the same day with the involvement of the United States, United Kingdom, France, Italy and Canada.

On 24 March, NATO ambassadors agreed that NATO will take command of the no-fly zone enforcement, while other military operations remained the responsibility of the group of nations previously involved, with NATO expected to take control as early as 26 March. The decision was made after meetings of NATO members to resolve disagreements over whether military operations in Libya should include attacks on ground forces. The decision will create a two-level power structure overseeing military operations. In charge politically will be a committee, led by NATO, that includes all countries participating in enforcing the no-fly zone, while NATO alone will be responsible for military action. Lieutenant General Charles Bouchard has been appointed to command the NATO military mission.

Operation names      

NATO: Operation Unified Protector (arms embargo and no-fly zone) Belgium: Operation Odyssey Dawn and/or Operation Freedom Falcon Canada: Operation MOBILE France: Opération Harmattan United Kingdom: Operation Ellamy United States, Italy, Denmark, Norway: Operation Odyssey Dawn

Forces committed 

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Belgium: Six F-16 Falcon fighter jets of the Belgian Air Component are stationed at Araxos, Greece, and flew their first mission in the afternoon of 21 March. They are monitoring the no-fly zone and have successfully attacked ground targets with no collateral damage on 27 March, as reported by the Belgian Ministry of Defence. The Belgian Naval Component minehunter BNS Narcis is assisting in the naval blockade. Bulgaria: The Bulgarian Navy Wielingen class frigate Drazki will participate in the naval blockade, along with a number of "special naval forces", two medical teams and other humanitarian help. The frigate can leave port on 15 April at the earliest as it needs additional preparations. Canada: Canadian Forces Air Command has deployed seven (6 front line, 1 reserve) CF-18 fighter jets, two CC-150 Polaris refuelling aircraft, two CC-177 Globemaster III heavy transports, two CC-130J Super Hercules tactical transports, and two CP-140 Aurora maritime patrol aircraft. In total 440 military personnel as well as the Halifax-class frigate HMCS Charlottetown are participating in operations. There are reports that there are members of JTF2 working with Britain’s SAS and SBS on the ground in Libya. Denmark: The Royal Danish Air Force is participating with six F-16AM fighters, one C-130J-30 Super Hercules military transport plane and the corresponding ground crews. Only four F-16s will be used for offensive operations, while the remaining two will act as reserves. The first airstrikes from Danish aircraft were carried out on March 23, with four aircraft making twelve sorties as part of Operation Odyssey Dawn.

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France: French Air Force Mirage and Rafale aircraft are participating in the mission, while C-160G SIGINT aircraft are stationed at Souda Bay, Greece. In addition, the French Navy anti-air destroyer Forbin and the frigate Jean Bart are participating in the operations. On 22 March, the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle was sent to be positioned in international waters near Crete to provide military planners with a rapid-response air combat capability. Accompanying the Charles de Gaulle are the frigates Dupleix and Aconit and the fleet replenishment tanker Meuse. France will also station three Mirage-2000 aircraft at Souda Bay, Crete. Greece: The Elli-class frigate Limnos of the Hellenic Navy is currently in the waters off Libya as part of the naval blockade. The Hellenic Air Force provides Super Puma search-and-rescue helicopters and an Embraer 145 AEW&C airborne radar plane. Italy: Four Tornado ECRs of the Italian Air Force participated in SEAD operations, supported by two Tornado IDS variants in an air-to-air refuelling role and four F-16 ADF fighters as escort. As of 24 March, the Italian Navy is engaged in Operation Unified Protector with the light aircraft carrier Garibaldi, the Maestrale-class frigate Libeccio and the Etna-class auxiliary ship Etna. Additionally the Horizon-class frigate Andrea Doria and Maestrale-class frigate Euro are patrolling off the Sicilian coast in an air-defence role. NATO: E-3 airborne early warning and control (AWACS) aircraft operated by NATO and crewed by member nations help monitor airspace over the Mediterranean and in Libya. Netherlands: The Royal Netherlands Air Force provides six F-16AM fighters and a KDC-10 refuelling plane. These aircraft are stationed at the Decimomannu Air Base on Sardinia. Four F-16s are flying patrols over Libya, while the other two are being kept in reserve. Additionally, the Royal Netherlands Navy has deployed the Tripartite-class minehunter HNLMS Haarlem to assist in enforcing the weapons embargo. Norway: The Royal Norwegian Air Force has deployed six F-16AM fighters to Souda Bay Air Base. On March 24, the Norwegian F16s were assigned to the US North African command and Operation Odyssey Dawn. A number of the aircraft have participated in operations over Libya. Prime minister Jens Stoltenberg also stated that Norway will participate in the humanitarian aid to follow. Qatar: The Qatar Armed Forces are contributing six Mirage 2000-5EDA fighter jets and one C-17 military transport aircraft to coalition no-fly zone enforcement efforts. The Qatari aircraft are stationed in Crete. Romania: The Romanian Naval Forces will participate in the naval blockade with the frigate Regele Ferdinand. Spain: The Spanish Armed Forces are participating with four F-18 fighters, a Boeing 707-331B(KC) tanker aircraft, the Álvaro de Bazán-class frigate Méndez Núñez, the submarine Tramontana and one CN-235 MPA maritime surveillance plane. Sweden: The Royal Swedish Air Force readies six to eight JAS Gripen jets for the international air campaign after being asked by NATO to take part in the

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operations on 28 March. In a recent poll some 65 percent of Swedes want their country to take part in the international air campaign to enforce a no-fly zone over Libya. Seven of Sweden’s eight parliament parties are in favour of contributing with Swedish military assets. Turkey: The Turkish Navy will participate with five ships and one submarine in the NATO-led naval blockade to enforce the arms embargo. It is additionally providing six F-16 Fighting Falcon jets for aerial operations. On 24 March, Turkey's parliament approved Turkish participation in military operations in Libya, including enforcing the NFZ in Libya. United Arab Emirates: On 24 March, the United Arab Emirates Air Force sent six F-16 Falcon and six Mirage 2000 fighter jets to join the mission. The planes are based at the Italian airbase at Decimomannu, Sardinia. United Kingdom: The Royal Navy Trafalgar-class submarine (HMS Triumph) and two frigates, (HMS Cumberland and HMS Westminster), are engaged; the Royal Air Force has 8 Tornado and 10 Typhoon fighters operating initially from Great Britain, now forward deployed to the Italian base at Gioia del Colle. Surveillance aircraft are based at RAF Akrotiri. According to anonymous sources, members of SAS, SRR and SBS help to coordinate the air strikes on the ground in Libya. United States: The United States has deployed a naval force of 11 ships, including the amphibious assault ship USS Kearsarge, the amphibious transport dock USS Ponce, the guided-missile destroyers USS Barry and USS Stout, the nuclear attack submarines USS Providence and USS Scranton, the cruise missile submarine USS Florida and the amphibious command ship USS Mount Whitney. Additionally, B-2 stealth bombers, AV-8B Harrier II ground-attack aircraft, EA18 and F-15 and F-16 fighters have been involved in action over Libya. U-2 reconnaissance aircraft are stationed on Cyprus. On 18 March, two AC-130Us arrived at RAF Mildenhall as well as additional tanker aircraft. On 24 March 2 E8Cs operated from Naval Station Rota Spain, which indicates an increase of ground attacks. An undisclosed number of CIA operatives are said to be in Libya to gather intelligence for airstrikes and make contacts with rebels.

French Air Force Dassault Rafale and Royal Air Force Eurofighter Typhoon

Canadian Forces Air Command CF-18 Hornet and USAF F-16 Fighting Falcon

USAF F-15 Eagle and Italian Air Force Panavia Tornado

Swedish Air Force JAS Gripen and Qatari Emiri Air Force Dassault Mirage 2000-5

USAF B-2A Spirit and USAF C-17 Globemaster cargo plane

NATO E-3 AWACS and Canadian Forces Air Command Lockheed CP-140 Aurora

Spanish Air Force CASA/IPTN CN-235 and Royal Navy frigate HMS Cumberland

U.S. Navy cruise missile submarine USS Florida and French Navy guided missile destroyer Forbin

Royal Navy frigate HMS Westminster and USS Kearsarge amphibious assault ship

French Navy aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle and Italian Navy aircraft carrier Garibaldi

Bases committed       

France: Saint-Dizier, Dijon, Nancy, Istres, Solenzara, Avord Greece: Souda, Aktion, Araxos, and Andravida Italy: Amendola, Decimomannu, Gioia del Colle, Trapani, Pantelleria, Capodichino Spain: Rota, Morón, Torrejón Turkey: Incirlik, İzmir United Kingdom: RAF Akrotiri, RAF Marham, RAF Waddington United States: Aviano (IT), Lakenheath (UK), Mildenhall (UK), Sigonella (IT), Spangdahlem (DE)

Actions by other countries 

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Albania: Albanian Prime Minister Sali Berisha said that his country is ready to help. Prime Minister Berisha supported the decision of the coalition to protect civilians from the Libyan regime of Gaddafi. Berisha also offered assistance to facilitate the international coalition actions. In a press release of the Prime Ministry, these operations are considered entirely legitimate, having as main objective the protection of freedoms and universal rights that Libyans deserve. Australia: Prime Minister Julia Gillard and others in her Labor government have said Australia will not contribute militarily to enforcement of the UN mandate despite registering strong support for its implementation, but the opposition Liberal Party's defence spokesman has called upon the government to consider dispatching Australian military assets if requested by NATO. Defence Minister Stephen Smith said the government would be willing to send C-17 Globemaster heavy transport planes for use in international operations "as part of a humanitarian contribution", if needed. Croatia: Croatian president Ivo Josipović said that if it becomes necessary Croatia will honour its NATO membership and participate in the actions in Libya. He also stressed that while Croatia is ready for military participation according to its capabilities, it will mostly endeavor to help on the humanitarian side. Germany: Germany has withdrawn all forces from NATO operations in the Mediterranean Sea as its government decided not to take part in any military operations against Libya. However it is increasing the number of AWACS personnel in Afghanistan by up to 300 to free forces of other nations. Germany allows the usage of military installations on its territory for the intervention in Libya. Jordan: will make a "logistic contribution", according to the British Prime Minister David Cameron. Kuwait: will make a "logistic contribution", according to the British Prime Minister David Cameron.

Action by international forces

The American destroyer USS Barry launches one of the Tomahawk missiles fired by the coalition 19 March 2011 - BBC News reported at 16:00 GMT that the French Air Force had sent 19 fighter planes to cover an area of 100 km by 150 km (60 by 100 miles) over Benghazi to prevent any attacks on the rebel-controlled city. "Our air force will oppose any aggression by Colonel Gaddafi against the population of Benghazi", said French President Nicolas Sarkozy. BBC News reported at 16:59 GMT that at 16:45 GMT a French plane had fired at and destroyed a Libyan military vehicle - this being confirmed by French defence ministry spokesman Laurent Teisseire. According to Al-Jazeera, French aircraft destroyed four Libyan tanks in air strikes to the south-west of Benghazi. The French military claimed that their aircraft had also flown reconnaissance missions over "all Libyan territory". On the same day, British Prime Minister David Cameron confirmed that Royal Air Force jets were also in action and reports suggested that the U.S. Navy had fired the first cruise missile. CBS News' David Martin reported that three B-2 stealth bombers flew non-stop from the United States to drop 40 bombs on a major Libyan airfield. Martin further reported that U.S. fighter jets were searching for Libyan ground forces to attack. The Pentagon and the British Ministry of Defence confirmed that, jointly, HMS Triumph and U.S. Navy ships (including USS Barry, pictured) and submarines fired more than 110 Tomahawk cruise missiles, supported with air attacks on military installations, both inland and on the coast. At the start of operations United States Africa Command commanded by General Carter Ham exercised strategic command. Tactical command in the theater of operations was executed from USS Mount Whitney in the Mediterranean Sea under command of Admiral Sam Locklear, commander United States Naval Forces Europe. United States Secretary of Defense Robert Gates indicated that control of the operation would be transferred to French and British authorities, or NATO, within days.

Regime Forces attacked south of Benghazi 20 March 2011 - Several Storm Shadow missiles were launched by British jets. Nineteen U.S. planes conducted strike operations in Libya. The planes included Marine Corps AV8B Harriers, US Navy EA-18G Growlers were diverted from operations over Iraq and jammed Libyan radar and communications Air Force F-15 and F-16 fighter jets. A military convoy was destroyed south of Benghazi by air strikes. Seventy military vehicles are known to have been destroyed, multiple loyalist ground troop casualties were also reported. Four Danish F-16 fighters left Italy's Sigonella air base for a successful five-hour long "high-risk mission", and four Italian Tornados ECR, accompanied by four Italian F-16 as fighter escorts took off from the Trapani base. A second immediate cease-fire was declared by the Libyan Army on 20 March, starting at 9pm. 21 March 2011 - SA-2, SA-3 and SA-5 air defence systems in Libya have been taken out. Only SA-6, hand-held SA-7s and SA-8 mobile SAMs remain a possible threat to aircraft. A spokesman for the National Transitional Council said Gaddafi's forces were using human shields in defence of their military assets, bringing civilians to Misrata to surround their vehicles and troops to deter airstrikes. RAF Tornados aborted a planned airstrike due to information that a number of civilians were reported close to the intended target. Among the buildings hit late on 20 March and early 21 March were parts of the Bab al-Azizia compound often used by Colonel Gaddafi. Further strikes on Tripoli and, according to Libyan government spokesmen, Sabha and Sirte, took place on late 21 March. 22 March 2011 - During a mission over Libya, a US F-15E crashed in rebel-held territory. It was reported that the aircraft, based at RAF Lakenheath in England, came down following a mechanical fault. Both crewmen were rescued by a US CSAR unit, but there are unconfirmed reports that six local villagers were injured by gunfire from the rescuing US forces. The American military has denied these reports. There are claims that the pilot called in a bomb strike by Harrier jump jets, possibly injuring the civilians. The U.S. announced that Qatari forces would join the operation by the weekend. 23 March 2011 - Coalition aircraft flew at least two bombing missions against loyalist forces near the besieged city of Misrata. Late in the day, it was announced that the remaining pro-Gaddafi forces and their equipment in the city, with the exception of individual snipers, had been forced to retreat or had been destroyed. In the early morning hours, 4 Canadian Forces CF-18 Hornets conducted 2 separate bombing runs on multiple targets at a Pro-Gaddafi munitions depot near Misrata. NATO announced it will enforce

the UN embargo to "cut off the flow of arms and mercenaries" under the name Operation Unified Protector. 24 March 2011 Multiple Tomahawk cruise missiles were launched at targets during the day. French aircraft attacked Al Jufra Air Base 250 kilometres (160 mi) inland and destroyed a Libyan Soko G-2 Galeb light attack jet as it landed at Misrata Airport. Eyewitnesses reported that coalition aircraft had bombed Sabha Air Base, 620 kilometres (390 mi) south of Tripoli. F-16s from the Royal Norwegian Air Force were assigned to the US African command and Operation Odyssey Dawn. A number of Norwegian F-16s took off from Souda Bay Air Base on Crete, Greece, performing several missions over Libya during the day, evening and through the night. 25 March 2011 3 laser-guided bombs were launched from two F-16s of the Royal Norwegian Air Force against Libyan tanks. French Air Force destroyed an artillery battery overnight outside Ajdabiya RAF Tornado fighter/bombers together with the French Air Force struck & destroyed 7 Pro-Gaddafi tanks dug in on the outskirts of Ajdabiya with precision guided munitions. 26 March 2011 F-16s from the Royal Norwegian Air Force bombed an airfield in Libya during the night. Two CF18CF-18s from the Canadian Forces detachment conducted one sortie each, on a mission to release precision-guided munitions against electronic warfare sites near Misrata. French Air Force confirms the destruction by its aircraft of at least 5 Libyan Soko G-2 Galeb aircraft and 2 Mi-35 military helicopters. RAF Tornados destroyed three armoured vehicles in Misrata and a further two vehicles in Ajdabiya with Brimstone missiles. RDAF F-16s knocked out Libyan self-propelled rocket launchers and tanks. 27 March 2011 RDAF F-16s knocked out Libyan self-propelled artillery south of Tripoli

US Military map showing the situation of 28 March 2011 4 Canadian Forces CF18s struck and destroyed Regime ammunition bunkers 92 km. south of Misrata. Air Force and Navy Rafales attacked a command centre south of Tripoli. French and Qatari Mirage 2000-5s conducted joint patrols and air interdiction missions from Souda Air Base. Rafales and Super The number of French Mirage 2000-5s based as Souda was increased to four. 28 March 2011 RAF Tornados destroyed two Libyan tanks and two armoured vehicles near Misratah earlier in the day. The Ministry of Defence said British jets had launched missiles against ammunition bunkers in the morning in the Sabha area of southern Libya.Air operations were planned to focus on the region around Zintan and Misrata. Air

force Rafales and Mirage 2000Ds and a joint patrol of Navy Rafales and Super Etendards bombed an ammunition dump at Gharyan, 100 kilometres (62 mi) south of Tripoli. Mirage F1CRs conducted reconnaissance missions for the first time in the operation. 29 March 2011 The US has used AC-130 gunships and A-10 Thunderbolt tankbusters against Moamar Gaddafi's troops in Libya. U.S. aircraft have fired on a Libyan coast guard vessel, forcing it to limp to shore, after it launched missiles at merchant ships in the port of Misrata, U.S military officials said Tuesday. A U.S. Navy P-3 Orion Maritime Patrol aircraft fired at the ship Vittoria after multiple explosions were seen near the Libyan port Monday evening, according to Joint Task Force Odyssey Dawn statement. A USAF A-10 Thunderbolt said it also fired on two smaller Libyan vessels traveling with the larger ship, destroying one and forcing the other to be abandoned.Two patrols of Air Force Rafales and Mirage 2000Ds and a patrol of Navy Rafales and Super Etendards attacked anti-aircraft missile sites 100 kilometres (62 mi) south west of Tripoli. Two joint patrols of French and Qatari Mirage 2000-5s conducted air interdiction sorties. Mirage 2000Ds and Super Etendards bombed a military depot 30 kilometres (19 mi) south of Tripoli.Tuesday saw two CF-18s fly on a mission to help the rebels by attacking targets in Misrata. 30 March 2011 A joint strike force of Air Force Rafales and Mirage 2000Ds and Navy Rafales and Super Etendards attacked anti-aircraft missile sites 20 kilometres (12 mi) south of Sirte. A patrol of two French and four Qatari Mirage 2000-5s conducted air interdiction sorties.

Military losses on the coalition side

The USAF F-15E that crashed over Libya, numbered 91-0304/LN, in Ostrava, Czech Republic, six months before the accident. Both crew members ejected and were rescued. 

22 March 2011 - One USAF F-15E crashed near Benghazi. Both airmen were recovered alive by Marines from the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit based on the USS Kearsarge. The aircraft reportedly crashed due to a mechanical failure. The rescue operation involved two Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey aircraft, two Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopters, and two McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II aircraft, all launched from the USS Kearsarge. The operation involved the Harriers' dropping 500-pound (227 kg) bombs and strafing the area around the crash site before an Osprey recovered at least one of the downed aircraft's crew.

Reactions Costs On 22 March 2011, BBC News presented a breakdown of the likely costs to the UK of the mission. Journalist Francis Tusa, editor of Defence Analysis, estimated that flying a Tornado GR4 would cost about £35,000 an hour, so the cost of patrolling one sector of Libyan airspace would be £2M –£3M per day. Conventional airborne missiles would cost £800,000 each and Tomahawk cruise missiles £750,000 each. Professor Malcolm Charmers of the Royal United Services Institute similarly suggested that a single cruise missile would cost about £500,000, while a single Tornado sortie would cost about £30,000 in fuel alone. If a Tornado was downed the replacement cost would be upwards of £50m. By 22 March the US and UK had already fired more than 110 cruise missiles. UK Chancellor George Osborne had said that the MoD estimate of the operation cost was "tens rather than hundreds of millions".

Chapter 6

International Reactions to the 2011 Libyan Civil War

The international reactions to the 2011 Libyan uprising are the responses to the ongoing series of protests and confrontations occurring in Libya against the government of Libya and its head of state Muammar Gaddafi. Most states and supranational bodies have condemned Libya's bombing of civilian targets within the country with the notable exception of Nicaragua's Daniel Ortega and Venezuela's Hugo Chavez who were supportive of Gaddafi. Peru also cut off diplomatic relations with Gaddafi's government over the aerial bombings. France and Portugal have recognized the anti-Gaddafi National Transitional Council as Libya's interim government. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 1973 (2011) for a Libyan nofly zone on 17 March. Many states have also either issued travel advisories or attempted evacuations. Some evacuations were successful in either going to Malta or via land borders to Egypt or Tunisia; other attempts were hindered by tarmac damage at Benghazi's airport or refusals of permission to land in Tripoli. There were also several solidarity protests in other countries that were mostly composed of Libyan expatriates. Financial markets around the world had adverse reactions to the instability with oil prices rising to a two-and-a-half year high.

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African Union – The Chairman of the African Union Commission Jean Ping said the AU was in contact with the Libyan government and that it condemned the crackdown against protesters. As of a 7 March meeting with a UK representative, they had little more to add. On 11 March they announced a panel, consisting of the leaders of South Africa, Uganda, Mauritania, the Republic of the Congo, and Mali, to travel to Libya to help end the violence. They also rejected a no-fly zone and any intervention by Western powers, but supported an "African solution" of reform.

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Arab League – Secretary-General Amr Moussa stated initially that he was deeply concerned about the situation in Libya and urged for immediate stop of the violence. Later, after an emergency meeting on 22 February, the organisation suspended Libya from taking part in council meetings and Moussa issued a statement condemning the "crimes against the current peaceful popular protests and demonstrations in several Libyan cities." On 7 March, Moussa said Gaddafi had to seek "reconciliation" with his people if he was to remain in power, but he also suggested many in the Libyan opposition would not be open to such efforts. The Arab League met on Saturday 12 March and voted to ask the UN Security Council to impose a no-fly zone, with Algeria and Syria being the only members to vote against the measure.

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European Union – The High Representative of the European Union for External Policy, Catherine Ashton has condemned the crackdown of protests by Libyan authorities and pushed back any threat of Tripoli towards the EU. "The European Union is extremely concerned about the events unfolding in Libya and the reported deaths of a very high number of demonstrators. The EU urges the authorities to exercise restraint and calm and to immediately refrain from further use of violence against peaceful demonstrators. The legitimate aspirations and demands of the people for reform must be addressed through open and meaningful Libya-led dialogue. (...) We have heard threats, we hear people saying you should do this, you should do that, but in the end the EU will do what is right," Ashton replied concerning threats Libya delivered to the rotating Hungarian presidency of the EU, stating that Tripoli would end co-operation on blocking irregular immigration into the EU if Brussels did not side with Gaddafi. The European Union held meetings regarding Libya on Thursday and Friday, 11– 12 March 2011. The European Union's foreign policy chief, Catherine Ashton, flew to Cairo on 13 March to meet with leaders of the Arab League and discuss a "collaborative approach" with Arab League Secretary-General Amr Moussa on Libya and the rest of the region, and would also meet with Egypt's Essam Sharaf and Nabil Elaraby.

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Group of Eight – Foreign ministers from the G8 met on 14 March in Paris to discuss the situation and a possible no-fly zone.

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Gulf Cooperation Council – On 8 March, the GCC issued a joint statement calling on the UN Security Council to impose an air embargo (no-fly zone) on Libya to protect civilians. On 28 March, after member state Qatar announced it was transferring diplomatic recognition of Libya from Gaddafi's government to the National Transitional Council in Benghazi, the GCC publicly backed the move.

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United Nations – Secretary General Ban Ki-moon in a statement said that bombs against civilians "if confirmed, would constitute a serious violation of international humanitarian law and would be condemned by the secretary-general

in the strongest terms." He later issued another statement saying he was "outraged." o Security Council President and Permanent Representative of Brazil to the UN Maria Luiza Viotti said in a statement after closed-door consultations that the Security Council "condemned the violence and use of force against civilians, deplored the repression against peaceful demonstrators, and expressed deep regret at the deaths of hundreds of civilians" and also called for "an immediate end to the violence and for steps to address the legitimate demands of the population, including through national dialogue. They underscored the need to hold to account those responsible for [the] attacks, including by forces under their control, on civilians." o In the evening of 26 February, the Security Council voted unanimously to pass resolution 1970 introduced by France, the UK, Germany and the US that would sanction ten top Libyan officials, Gaddafi and his family. It also issued travel bans and an arms embargo. The Security Council also referred the situation to the International Criminal Court for a war crimes investigation into "widespread and systemic attacks" against protesters. It was only the second time the Security Council had referred a case to the ICC (the first being Darfur) and the first unanimous referral. o Navi Pillay, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, condemned the violence employed by security forces for its use of live ammunition against protesters. o On 17 March, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1973 (2011) for a Libyan no-fly zone and all measures, short of an occupying ground force, needed to protect civilians. Ten members backed the resolution and five abstained, but only nine votes were needed for it to pass.

Governments Middle East 

Algeria – Algeria was one of just two countries (with Syria) to vote against the Arab League resolution that called on the United Nations to impose a no-fly zone over Libya. Algeria has faced a mounting humanitarian crisis as many fleeing strife in Libya attempt to cross the common border between the two Maghreb states.

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Armenia – The Ministry of Foreign Affairs declared its willingness to provide humanitarian aid to Libya on 23 March. The government also said that Armenia, as a nearby state, was following the events closely and sought a "peaceful solution".

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Azerbaijan – Foreign Minister Elmar Mammadyrov said the Azeri government will not break off diplomatic ties with Tripoli, believing that terminating Libya–Azerbaijan relations is not the best way to "stabilise the situation". Mammadyrov said his government will make an effort to contact and

communicate with "all sides" in the Libyan conflict. An official in the office of President Ilham Aliyev compared crimes allegedly committed by Gaddafi's regime to violations of UN resolutions on Nagorno-Karabakh of which Baku accuses its neighbor Armenia and said both should be dealt with forcefully and equally. 

Bahrain – Foreign Minister Sheikh Khalid bin Ahmed bin Mohammed Al Khalifa speaking to Al Jazeera's David Frost, when asked of the comparative responses in Libya and his own country called the situation in Libya "tragic."

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Egypt – Inspiration for the Libyan protests was linked to the successful overthrow of President Hosni Mubarak. The post-revolution military junta in Egypt is quietly arming rebels in Libya, according to reports. Speaking on 18 March (17 March EST) in Delhi, India, presidential candidate and revolutionary leader Mohamed ElBaradei called upon the United Nations Security Council ahead of a scheduled vote to authorize international military action to support the Libyan rebels.

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Iran – President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad condemned the crackdown asking "How can a leader subject his own people to a shower of machine-guns, tanks and bombs? How can a leader bomb his own people, and afterwards say 'I will kill anyone who says anything?'" Foreign Ministry spokesman Ramin Mehmanparast also condemned the Libyan government's crackdown stating "the Islamic Republic of Iran deems the Libyans' uprising and their rightful demands in line with the region's Islamic awakening."

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Iraq – Iraq sent a high-level delegation to a closed-door summit with world leaders in Paris on 19 March to discuss international action against Gaddafi's regime. Foreign Minister Hoshyar Zebari, representing both the Iraqi government and the Arab League, reportedly "argued passionately in favor of action" at the summit.

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Israel – President Shimon Peres said from Spain that there was "an irony of history" that Gaddafi had once called for "a Middle East without Israel" but that "there will be a Libya without Gaddafi." Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu called both Libya and Iran, another country rocked by demonstrations in recent weeks, "serial violators of human rights" and said Gaddafi is "massacring his opponents". o Leader of the Opposition and former Foreign Minister Tzipi Livni wrote that the protesters were part of "days of momentous change in the Middle East" and cautioned, "In the best-case scenario, the wave sweeping across the region will enable democracy to take root in the Arab world ... but the negative scenario is that this opening will be abused by those ... who seek to use the democratic process to advance an anti-democratic agenda."

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Kuwait – The government condemned Gaddafi and called for all Arab countries to condemn the violence.

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Lebanon – Hezbollah said that "anyone with honour and consciousness in this world cannot, and should not, keep silent on the massacres that the Gaddafi regime is committing across the country on a daily basis. Hezbollah firmly condemns crimes committed by the Gaddafi regime against the oppressed Libyan people. Hezbollah expresses support to the revolutionists (sic) in Libya and we pray that they will triumph over this arrogant tyrant." The Shia population was also reported to have taken notice that Musa Sadr's 1978 disappearance in Libya could be resolved. Lebanon introduced and voted for a United Nations Security Council resolution to establish a Libyan no-fly zone in response to persistent reports Gaddafi's forces were attacking civilians in Libya. o Lebanon and Syria were said to be in talks on a possible rescue mission for its citizens. o Lebanon refused landing permission to a private Libyan aircraft with 10 people on board after Lebanon asked Libya to show the identities of the passengers before take off from Tripoli. Hannibal Gaddafi's wife Aline Skaff was reported to be one of the passengers.

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Mauritania – A member of Parliament condemned the "awful killings" in Libya and expressed solidarity with the protesters.

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Oman – The government lobbied successfully at the Arab League for the regional bloc to call upon the UN to impose a no-fly zone over Libya. Oman is also part of the Gulf Co-operation Council, which also called for the international community to take action in Libya and criticized Gaddafi.

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Qatar – The Foreign Ministry commented: "Qatar is following with extreme concern the current events in Libya as well as the authorities' use of warplanes and firearms against civilians...Qatar denounces the use of these arms and asks the Libyan authorities to stop the use of force against civilians and end the bloodshed." Yahya Mahmassani, who represents the Arab League to the United Nations, suggested Qatar may join in enforcement of a Libyan no-fly zone before the vote to authorize it took place at the United Nations Security Council. Qatar recognized the National Transitional Council as Libya's legitimate government on 28 March amidst an emerging deal for Qatar's national oil company to market oil exported from the petroleum-rich territory administered by the Libyan Republic.

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Syria – President Bashar al-Assad has rejected any foreign intervention in Libya and called on the Libyan people to resist any threat and end the conflict. Syria was the only one of two Arab League states to vote against a request to the UN for a no-fly zone, the other country being Algeria. Syria has also said it was absolutely against foreign military forces or inteference in Libya. The Syrian foreign ministry said- "Syria affirms its rejection of all forms of foreign interference in Libyan affairs, since that would be a violation of Libya's

sovereignty, its independence and the unity of its land,". Libyan rebels allege that Syrian mercenaries were flying planes for the Libyan regime, and that they shot down two Syrian fighter planes. 

Tunisia – The Tunisian Revolution, which set off a revolutionary wave throughout the Greater Middle East, was cited as an early inspiration for protests in Libya. Al Jazeera uncovered a secret diplomatic mission to post-revolutionary Tunis from Gaddafi's regime on 19 March, eventually prompting an intervention by Tunisian police to rescue the news team from harassment by the Libyan envoy and hotel security staff. Tunisian authorities have been overwhelmed by refugees from Libya attempting to cross the border since the Libyan uprising began, especially after the UN Security Council imposed a no-fly zone over Tunisia's larger eastern neighbor.

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Turkey – The government warned Libya that it was making a mistake in ignoring its peoples' demands. This came despite calls from Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan to his ministers not to comment on the situation pending evacuations of Turkish citizens which had been hampered. Turkey sent flights to Benghazi, but they were turned back because there was no air traffic control. Consequently Turkey sent in catamarans to evacuate its citizens, though some had flown out earlier and some were driven out of Libya to one of its neighbours. Still, Turkish Trade Minister Zafer Caglayan said his country had evacuated almost 600 of its nationals from Libya after looters raided the facilities of Turkish construction companies, but there are no known reports of Turkish citizens being harmed in the raids. On 15 March, Erdoğan said that he telephoned Muammar Gaddafi to urge him to appoint a president with popular support among the Libyan people. "Every leader that is deaf to the demands of society will sooner or later fall to the winds of change," Erdoğan warned at a speech in Istanbul.

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United Arab Emirates – The government condemned the violence against the protesters and President Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan instructed his family's charity foundation to provide relief aid to the people of Libya.

Sub-Saharan Africa 

Botswana – The government condemned the violence. "The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation has today, called in the Libyan representative to protest in the strongest possible terms, against the killings and condemn these actions. The government urges the Libyan government to exercise restraint in addressing the situation." Botswana then severed diplomatic ties with Libya on 24 February because "the leader of Libya was not remorseful and made defiant pronouncements despite the violence visited on [its] people..."

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Chad – President Idriss Déby Itno said he was "100 percent sure" that Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb looted Libyan military arsenals and stole surfaceto-air missiles, saying, "The Islamists of al Qaeda took advantage of the pillaging

of arsenals in the rebel zone to acquire arms, including surface-to-air missiles, which were then smuggled into their sanctuaries in Tenere." Déby also said al Qaeda was actively fighting against Gaddafi in the rebellion, saying "There is a partial truth in what [Gaddafi] says. Up to what point? I don't know. But I am certain that AQIM took an active part in the uprising." 

Comoros – The government obtained help from Turkey in evacuating Comorian nationals from Libya during the uprising. Libya continues to maintain a military presence in the archipelago country ahead of a scheduled transfer of power.

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Equatorial Guinea – Media reported that President Teodoro Obiang Nguema called Gaddafi twice and attempted to rally African Union support for the embattled Libyan strongman, though Malabo later insisted the phone calls were "misrepresented" and said the president was acting only in his capacity as the current AU head. The government has prohibited reports on the North African revolutionary wave from the Equatorial Guinean airwaves.

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Gabon – Gabon voted for the UN resolution imposing a Libyan no-fly zone on 17 March in its capacity as a nonpermanent member of the United Nations Security Council.

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The Gambia – President Yahya Jammeh urged Gaddafi to step down and criticised the African Union for its "unacceptable silence." The Gambian government arranged for the evacuation of over 300 citizens of ECOWAS countries on 19 March, state-owned media reported.

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Guinea – The government refused to permit Guinean citizens to rally in support of Gaddafi on 25 March.

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Lesotho – The government was concerned about the situation.

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Liberia – The government condemned the violence and expressed regret at the loss of lives of Africans in Libya. However, President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf said that based on the Liberian experience with international military intervention, she did not believe the Libyan conflict could or should be resolved by foreign armed forces' action in the country.

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Mozambique – President Armando Guebuza condemned the violence in the Arab world, including Libya, calling it "unacceptable". Guebuza said that "authorities should listen more to people". Foreign Minister Oldemiro Baloi said four of seven Mozambicans in Libya were evacuated in late February, but the other three elected to remain in the country.

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Nigeria – Nigeria voted for the UN resolution to establish a Libyan no-fly zone in its capacity as a nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council on 17 March.

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South Africa – In a statement issued on 21 February, the government expressed "grave concern" over reports of numerous civilian deaths following the protests in Libya and called on all parties involved to "exercise restraint in order to prevent further loss of life". The government called on the both sides "to seek a speedy and peaceful resolution" to the conflict. A later statement reiterated the government's support for the call made by the AU Peace and Security Council for an “end to the indiscriminate and excessive use of force against demonstrators”. Deputy Minister Marius Fransman urged the Libyan government to abide by UN Security Council Resolution 1970 and ensure the safety of foreign nationals and their assets. The Libyan government was asked to facilitate the departure of those wishing to leave the country as well as provide for the safe passage of humanitarian relief into the country. The South African government remained "committed to provide assistance upon request from the Libyan people in ensuring a smooth transition to democratic rule". President Jacob Zuma has also ordered the Treasury to freeze the assets of Gaddafi and his close associates. South Africa voted for the UN resolution to establish a Libyan no-fly zone in its capacity as a nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council on 17 March.

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Seychelles – In a press communique issued on 24 February, President James Michel, who voiced support for both sanctions from the United Nations and calls for international mediation by the African Union, stated, “We are deeply concerned by the disproportionate use of force against defenceless Libyan citizens. It is totally unacceptable and cannot be justified under any circumstances. We join with other members of the international community to call for an immediate end to the brutal repression of citizens." Seychelles has been one of the few African countries that have condemned the Gaddhafi regime outright.

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Swaziland – The Ministry of Foreign Affairs reported on 24 March that a Swazi national has apparently gone missing in Libya since the start of the conflict.

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Tanzania – Several prominent Muslim leaders in the East African country, which has benefited from significant investment from the Libyan government in the past, have expressed support for Gaddafi, whom the Tanzanian government has thus far declined to condemn.

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Uganda – Foreign Affairs Minister Sam Kutesa said the position of his government is that Gaddafi "should not kill his people", but said Kampala does not support international military intervention. Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni, whose longtime relationship with Gaddafi has been at turns friendly and combative, is chairing an African Union delegation intended to broker peace in Libya. The delegation was denied permission to fly to Tripoli after the UN Security Council imposed a no-fly zone over the country.

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Zambia – Foreign Affairs Minister Kabinga Pande said the government was planning for the evacuation of Zambian nationals from Libya in late February. Pande said ties between Libya and Zambia are unaffected, and he said his government's position is that there should be no foreign intervention in Libya.

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Zimbabwe – Prime Minister Morgan Tsvangirai's Movement for Democratic Change party declared its sympathies lie with the Libyan opposition. On 7 March, the Zimbabwean Ambassador to Libya was forced to flee back to the Southern African country after accusations mounted that Harare had allowed Gaddafi to hire Zimbabwean mercenaries.

Americas 

Argentina – The gvernment expressed "deep concern", regretted the loss of lives, and called for a quick, peaceful solution.

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Brazil – The Ministry of External Relations issued a statement condemning "the acts of violence that were carried out during recent popular demonstrations, leading to civilian deaths" and called "on the officials in that country to uphold and protect the right of free expression of the protesters". The Brazilian Government also urged the Libyan authorities to "urgently address the need to ensure the safe withdrawal of Brazilian citizens who are in the cities of Tripoli and Benghazi". Brazil, a nonpermanent member of the United Nations Security Council, abstained from a vote on the UN resolution to establish a Libyan no-fly zone on 17 March.

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Canada – Foreign Affairs Minister Lawrence Cannon has condemned crackdowns on "innocent protesters", and called on the Libyan security forces "to respect the human rights of demonstrators and uphold their commitment to freedom of speech and the right to assembly." Cannon announced on 22 February that it is sending flights to Libya to rescue stranded Canadians, who will be flown through Europe back home. 331 Canadians are registered with the embassy in Tripoli, and 91 have told staff they plan to leave. o Canada suspended its diplomatic presence in Libya on 26 February and recalled Ambassador to Libya Sandra McCardell. o Canada imposed a freeze of the assets of Libyan leader Moammar Ghadaffi and his family on 27 February 2011. o 3 Canadian Forces aircraft (2 C-17 and 1 C-130J) are on standby in Malta to pickup stranded Canadians in Libya with on denied entry to land o Canada has dispatched the Frigate HMCS Charlottetown to the Mediterranean. It will join an international flotilla off the coast of Libya. o Canada has dispatched six CF-18 Hornet fighter aircraft to help enforce the no-fly zone.

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Chile – The Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a second statement on 23 February expressing that "upon the persistence of unjustified use of force against

civil population, the Government of Chile deplores and energetically condemns the governmental repression against its citizens, an action contrary to the spirit of dialogue claimed by Chile and the international community to solve the political crisis in that country, and deeply opposed to the full respect for the human rights consigned in the charter of the United Nations. Therefore, the Government of Chile urges Libyan authorities to establish mechanisms for dialogue and citizen participation and to immediately cease the repression against its own people." 

Colombia – President Juan Manuel Santos condemned the way the Libyan regime is acting upon its people and said that "what is happening in Libya is unacceptable." Colombia voted for the UN resolution to establish a Libyan no-fly zone in its capacity as a nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council on 17 March.

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Cuba – Former President Fidel Castro, who remains influential within the Communist Party of Cuba, expressed concern that the United States was preparing to invade Libya.

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Dominica – Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit said he was concerned about the events in Libya.

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Grenada – The government condemned the violence.

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Mexico- The government condemned the violence and repression of the Libyan crack down, and evacuated 12 of their 123 citizens to Italy. 6 more fled to Tunisia and 2 were airlifted to Malta by another nation's flight. Mexico also gave its full support to America’s Libyan policy.

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Nicaragua – President Daniel Ortega said he had telephoned Libya to express his solidarity with Gaddafi.

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Peru – President Alan García said that "Peru strongly protests against the repression unleashed by the dictatorship of Muammar Al-Qadhafi against the people who are demanding democratic reforms to change the government which has been led for 40 years by the same person." Garcia said that Peru would ask the UN Security Council to establish a no-fly zone over Lybia to prevent the use of the country’s warplanes against the population. Peru also became the first country to cut ties with Libya on 23 February "until the violence against the people ceases" as a result of the aerial bombing of Tripoli.

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Saint Vincent and the Grenadines – Several opposition leaders were angry that the government was still accepting aid from Libya. They call it "blood money."

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United States – President Barack Obama said that he was "deeply concerned" by the violence. Later, US Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton, stated that "Now is

the time to stop this unacceptable bloodshed." The U.S. State Department ordered all family members of its embassy employees and non-essential personnel to leave Libya. Obama and Clinton sharpened their criticism after the formation of a rival government in Benghazi, issuing statements urging Gaddafi to step down. Clinton added on 27 February that the U.S. has begun "reaching out" to the organisers of an "interim" government" and that "We’ve been reaching out to many different Libyans who are attempting to organize in the east and, as the revolution moves westward, there as well. I think it’s way too soon to tell how this is going to play out, but we’re going to be ready and prepared to offer any kind of assistance that anyone wishes to have from the United States." The United States cosponsored and, after pushing successfully for the inclusion of language allowing member states to take additional military action to protect civilian targets under threat in Libya, voted for a UN Security Council resolution establishing a Libyan no-fly zone, which it is expected to take a major role in enforcing, on 17 March. o The United States suspended embassy operations on 25 February, after a plane left for Istanbul carrying the last remaining embassy personnel. o The United States also moved to freeze $30 billion in assets belonging to the Libyan government and to Colonel Muammar el-Qaddafi and his family. o On 3 March two American warships were passing through the Suez Canal on their way to waters off Libya. 

Uruguay – The Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated on its website that "they are following the violence in Libya with deep concern." The government expressed "concern about the acts of violence taking place in the country, mourning the loss of lives," and urged the government of Libya to conduct a constructive dialogue that allows a pacific end to the current events, with due respect to human rights and democratic values." It also expressed satisfaction over the condemning of the bombings by the United Nations Security Council.

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Venezuela – On March 1, President Hugo Chávez said: "We must be prudent. We know what our political line is: We don't support invasions, or massacres, or anything like that no matter who does it. A campaign of lies is being spun together regarding Libya [...] I'm not going to condemn him. I'd be a coward to condemn someone who has been my friend." Like Fidel Castro he also warned that the United States was preparing an invasion of Libya to seize control of its oil reserves. Chávez also proposed an international meditation effort between Gaddafi and the opposition to provide a "peaceful solution" to the uprising. Venezuelan Foreign Minister Nicolás Maduro expressed hope that the Libyans would find "a way of solving their problems peacefully without the interference of imperialist states whose interests in the region had been affected".

Asia 

Bangladesh – The South Asian country had one of the largest foreign populations in Libya when protests began in mid-February, with over 65,000 Bangladeshi nationals living and working in the country. As of late March, only 30,000 have been evacuated, with many of the rest believed to be among the masses of refugees that have tried to cross national borders into Tunisia, Algeria, and Egypt.

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India – The government strongly condemned the violence after an Indian man was killed and many others were injured during the protests. On 17 March, India abstained from voting on a United Nations Security Council resolution to establish a Libyan no-fly zone in its capacity as a nonpermanent member. o India deployed two warships for rescue of its citizens from Libya, INS Mysore and INS Jalashwa.

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Indonesia – President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono stated that the number of dead had become "inappropriate." He also wrote a letter to UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon urging the body and the international community to take action helping the people of Libya to prevent more tragedy and casualties. The Minister of Foreign Affairs Marty Natalegawa said that Indonesia is deeply concerned with the situation in Libya, while also announced that Indonesia is seeking the end of the unrest peacefully, democratically and with dialogue.

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Japan – Foreign Minister Seiji Maehara denounced the Libyan government for "the use of extreme violence" against civilian demonstrators and urged it to immediately stop the crackdown.

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Kyrgyzstan – President Roza Otunbayeva compared Gaddafi to her predecessor, Kurmanbek Bakiyev, and asked why the international community had not moved to freeze Bakiyev's assets during the 2010 revolution against the former president. Ukraine has aided Kyrgyzstan in the evacuation of its citizens from Libya.

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Malaysia – The government closed its embassy in Tripoli, though it expected the closure to be "temporary". At least 126 Malaysians were evacuated from Libya along with the Malaysian ambassador to the country. Prime Minister Najib Razak said the UN should continue to exert pressure if Gaddafi did not stop using violence "against his own people" and professed support for Libyan selfdetermination, but he criticized the notion of military intervention in the North African country. Razak also rejected comparisons between Malaysia and Libya, suggesting his country's democracy has allowed people to express their views in a way the Libyan model has not allowed. The Socialist Party of Malaysia ripped Gaddafi, saying his government "was never socialist nor 'government by the masses', but an increasingly dictatorial rule of an oligarchic family" and praising

the efforts of the Libyan opposition in "fighting the repressive Gaddafi regime" and "challenging the global capitalist system". 

Maldives – The government called on Gaddafi to step down.

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Pakistan – The Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement on both the Libyan uprising and the no-fly zone on 22 March, saying, "Peaceful political solution needs to be evolved by the Libyan people themselves in the spirit of mutual accommodation and national reconciliation."

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People's Republic of China – Foreign Ministry spokesperson Ma Zhaoxu said Beijing hopes Libya can "restore social stability and normalcy as soon as possible and spare no effort to protect the safety of Chinese people, organizations and assets in Libya." More than 30,000 Chinese nationals worked in Libya, including on oil fields, small shops. On 17 March, China abstained from voting on a United Nations Security Council resolution to establish a Libyan no-fly zone. o China began their evacuation efforts immediately on February 23 by chartering jets and ferries to Tripoli. o On February 25, the Chinese PLA Navy guide missile frigate Xuzhou was ordered to be the guardship to Chinese evacuation efforts, after being detached from anti-piracy operations off Somali coast. It passed the Suez Canal three days later. o A total of 35,860 Chinese citizens had been evacuated from Libya as of 11:10 p.m. March 2, Beijing Time. Aside from the 35,860 nationals, an additional group of 2,100 foreign citizens of 12 different countries have been evacuated as well. Evacuation effort has been sped up to 15 chartered jets per day.

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Philippines – Acting Foreign Affairs Secretary Albert del Rosario was sent to Tunisia to supervise the repatriation of Filipino expatriates.

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South Korea – The government has sent chartered jets to Tripoli and is also dispatching the ROKS Choi Young (DDH-981) that was taking part in anti-piracy operations off the coast of Somalia.

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Singapore – The government has evacuated 10 Singaporeans from Tripoli to Cairo, where it has an embassy. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs also reiterated its advice that Singaporeans should defer all travel to Libya for during this time.

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Tajikistan – During the early stages of the uprising, the government solicited the support of Russia and Ukraine to help evacuate citizens of Tajikistan from Libya. Ukraine helped evacuate at least 16 Tajikistanis in February.

Europe 

Albania – Prime Minister Sali Berisha said his government supports the Libyan no-fly zone and is standing by to help its enforcement. Albanian Prime Minister Sali Berisha said that his country is ready to help.

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Austria – A Defence Ministry spokesman said that the Austrian Army had evacuated 62 European nationals.

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Belarus – A spokesman for the Ministry for Foreign Affairs declared on February 21 that "we hope for a swift cessation of violence and reinstatement of peace and order in that friendly country". The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute reported it had evidence Belarus made arms shipments to Libya before and during the uprising against Gaddafi, with one Il-76 transport arriving in the North African state just before the UN imposed an arms embargo against Libya, and that Libyan officials close to Gaddafi had flown between Belarus and Libya during the uprising. The Belarusian Ministry for Foreign Affairs dismissed these reports as "lies".

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Belgium – Foreign Minister Steven Vanackere was concerned about the issue. "I don't think the situation in Libya can be compared to what happened in Tunisia or Egypt. The average income is bigger and the wage gap is not so outspoken. I think it's mostly the lack of political and personal freedom that is driving people into the streets... For the European Union, Libya is a country with a particular position. Many African refugees who are on their way to Europe, are being stopped in Libya. The fact that Muammar Gaddafi is threatening to open the door to Europe for refugees, is making some nervous. But it's a ridiculous threat."

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Bosnia and Herzegovina – On 17 March, Bosnia and Herzegovina voted for a United Nations Security Council resolution to establish a Libyan no-fly zone in its capacity as a nonpermanent member.

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Bulgaria – Prime Minister Boyko Borisov called for Gaddafi to step down.

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Czech Republic – Prime Minister Petr Nečas denounced violence against civilians in Libya, saying, "The bloodshed aimed against the civilian population is an unprecedented violation of human rights and has no place in the civilised world. We are shocked at the brutality of the reaction of the Libyan regime to the civic demonstrations."

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Denmark – Prime Minister Lars Løkke Rasmussen condemned the attacks against civilians. "Popular protests have been met with violence. It is deeply, deeply disturbing. I condemn in the strongest terms what is completely unacceptable violence that we have witnessed in Libya in recent days... There is every reason to sharply distance oneself from Gaddafis completely unacceptable statements about suspending refugee cooperation with the European Union if the

EU continues to support Libya's pro-democracy groups" he said. Danish Foreign Minister Lene Espersen required EU sanctions against Gaddafi. 

Finland – Foreign Minister Alexander Stubb condemned the violence against civilians and said: "This is about citizens’ right to participate in social decisionmaking and respect for human rights. Dialogue with citizens must be launched. Finland also considers it important that the violence is investigated and those guilty are brought to account for their acts. Finland demands that Libya cooperates to ease and speed up the evacuation of foreigners."

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France – President Nicolas Sarkozy said that the "violence must cease immediately." He also called for the imposition of a no-fly zone over Libya to prevent the Libyan Air Force from bombing the protesters. Prime Minister François Fillon said he was "horrified by the amount of violence." France also announced they were sending military aircraft to evacuate its citizens on 22 February. EU Affairs Minister Laurent Wauquiez described the repression as "completely unacceptable". On 10 March the French government recognized the National Libyan Council (NLC) as the legitimate government of Libya. France cosponsored and voted for a UN Security Council resolution establishing a no-fly zone in Libya on 17 March, and began enforcement of the no-fly zone on 19 March.

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Greece – A Greek ship arrived in Ra's Lanuf on 22 February to rescue stranded citizens.

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Georgia – Foreign Minister Grigol Vashadze was also supportive of the prospect of EU sanctions against Gaddafi.

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Germany – Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle demanded the end of violence, while Germany's state secretary for EU affairs Werner Hoyer declared: "We are watching with great concern and indignation the violence used by state authorities in Libya and in other states.". Germany issued a travel warning for Libya. Angela Merkel declared that Gaddafi's [second] speech is "very very frightening" and that "he has declared war against his own people". Germany has sent three planes, a Lufthansa jet as well as two Transall transport planes of the German military, which landed in Tripoli on 22 February and are expected to leave later that day. Germany abstained from voting on a no-fly zone resolution as a nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council on 17 March.

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Iceland – Foreign Minister Össur Skarphéðinsson said that the Libyan government had committed war crimes by firing at unarmed citizens with heavy artillery and planes. He later added that the government of Iceland harshly condemns the acts of Libyan government. He also said that he supported the "wave of freedom" in North-Africa and that the government of Iceland supports every force which wants Gaddafi out.



Ireland – Although no formal comments have been made about the conflict by any Irish officials due to an ongoing election campaign, Irish Air Corps and Department of Foreign Affairs are planning to fly its 40 citizens out of Libya. Two aircrafts left Casement Aerodrome for Valetta in Malta on the night of 22 February. The two planes landed in Libya at around 16:50 GMT on 23 February but later returned to Valetta with no passengers on board.



Italy – On 19 February, Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi declared his worries about the regional instability. "I haven't yet heard from Gaddafi. The situation is evolving and so I don't feel I should disturb anyone." On 21 February, Berlusconi has called the attacks on protesters "unacceptable." He called on the EU to step in to prevent the situation from escalating into a civil war. Foreign Minister Franco Frattini added on 21 February: "Italy as you know is the closest neighbour of both Tunisia and Libya so we are extremely concerned about the repercussions on the migratory situation in the southern Mediterranean." Frattini spoke of the "possibility of a reform of the constitution that could be taken up soon by the People's Congress." Defence Minister Ignazio La Russa confirmed the dispatch of at least one Italian electronic warfare and reconnaissance naval vessel near Libyan territorial waters. It is believed that some special force soldiers may be aboard the ship, although their purpose was unknown.

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Luxembourg – Foreign Minister Jean Asselborn said he is "not afraid" of "a dictator who shoots at his own people."

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Macedonia – The government called for a "peaceful and sustainable solution" to the political crisis in the country.



Malta – On 21 February, Prime Minister Lawrence Gonzi said that the government of Malta was closely watching the events and condemned all forms of violence and bloodshed. Gonzi said the evolving situation was discussed at a cabinet meeting and Malta hoped that the best would come out of this situation for Libya and the region. He added that Libya's territorial integrity was respected. On 27 March, President George Abela expressed optimism that the revolutionary wave in North Africa, including the uprising in Libya, would reduce the amount of illegal immigration to Malta and Southern European countries. "This wave of democratisation should give the people [of North Africa] a future in their own countries," said Abela.



Moldova – The government denied rumors that it has supplied Muammar Gaddafi with Russian- and Soviet-built weaponry.

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Netherlands – The government dispatched a KDC-10 transport to Libya on 22 February. It left later that evening with Dutch and EU citizens. Foreign Minister Uri Rosenthal said he hoped that another aircraft could land the following day.

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Norway – In a statement, Foreign Minister Jonas Gahr Støre condemned the violence against "peaceful protesters in Libya, Bahrain and Yemen", saying the protests "are an expression of the people’s desire for more participatory democracy. The authorities must respect fundamental human rights such as political, economic and social rights. It is now vital that all parties do their utmost to foster peaceful dialogue on reforms.".



Poland – The Foreign Ministry said that they are closely observing the events in Libya. A government aircraft was sent to pick up any Polish citizens in Libya. However, after only fifteen Poles decided to leave the country, the aircraft took British, Danish and Romanian citizens on board.



Portugal – On 10 March, Portuguese daily Publico reported that Gaddafi would agree to talks on the transition of power, quoting a diplomatic source talking about Foreign Minister Luis Amado's meeting with Gaddafi's envoy in Lisbon. Media also reported Portugal had switched its diplomatic recognition from Gaddafi's government to the National Transitional Council in Benghazi, following France's earlier decision to do so. Portugal voted for the creation of a no-fly zone in Libya in its capacity as a nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council on 17 March.



Romania – The governmentsent an aircraft, to evacuate Romanians in Libya. According to the Foreign Ministry, 500 Romanians are in Libya.

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Russia – The government condemned the use of violence against the civilians, and said that Libya has to "respect human rights and international law". Russia abstained from voting on a UN Security Council resolution to create a no-fly zone over Libya rather than use its veto to block the resolution.

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Serbia – Labor and Social Policy Minister Rasim Ljajić stated that Serbia condemns every form of human rights violation, including the events in Libya, but that it is not necessary to create a special policy on the international level. The Government organized evacuation of citizens, some 500 were evacuated by planes from Tripoli and another few hundred on ships from Ra's Lanuf port. Serbian planes also evacuated citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Ukraine. In total around 1000 people were evacuated and further 250 refused to leave Libya. o On March 2, 2011, Serbian Defence Minister Dragan Šutanovac announced that Serbia has suspended all military and economic cooperation with Libya based on the UN decision to impose sanctions on Libya. o On March 3, 2011, Foreign Ministry withdrew an agreement on visa-free travel between Libya and Serbia from the ratification process in the Parliament.



Spain – On 20 February, Foreign Minister Trinidad Jiménez convened a press meeting with fellow EU foreign ministers, at the European Council in the hope of getting them to evacuate the EU’s citizens from Libya. All arm sales to Libya were suspended three days later.

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Slovenia – Prime Minister Borut Pahor said that "as the head of the Slovenian Government I condemn the violence used by African governments, especially in Libya, against the people which demand political and social changes. Repression must end; a democratic dialogue must begin about the future of these countries."

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Switzerland – The government has stated that Gaddafi's assets in the country will be frozen.

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Ukraine – Foreign Minister Kostyantyn Hryshchenko stated that out of concern for the safety of the more than 2,500 Ukrainians believed to be living and working in Libya at the start of the unrest, his government will not break off relations with Libya. Hryshchenko also said Ukraine was to take a leading role in evacuating nationals of Azerbaijan from Libya. Only 404 Ukrainians had been evacuated as of 4 March, though, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine admitted. Perhaps the most famous Ukrainian to return home from Libya was Halyna Kolotnytska, reportedly Gaddafi's favorite of the several nurses who attended him and a personal confidante of the leader.



United Kingdom – Prime Minister David Cameron criticised Libya's response to the protests as "unacceptable, counter-productive and wrong." Foreign Secretary William Hague stated that "the United Kingdom condemns what the Libyan government has been doing...and we look to other countries to do the same." The government also announced that in light of the unrest it has decided to revoke some arms export licenses stating that "licenses will not be issued when officials judge that there is a risk that the exports may provoke regional or internal conflicts or be used to facilitate internal repression." The United Kingdom cosponsored and voted for a UN Security Council resolution to establish a no-fly zone over Libya on 17 March. o On 27 February, the government revoked the diplomatic immunity for Gaddafi and his family o Former Foreign Secretary, David Owen called for a no-fly zone to be imposed immediately. However, the BBC have suggested that the UN would be unlikely to authorise such an action. o On 22 February 2011 the Royal Navy ship, HMS Cumberland, was deployed to waters close to Libya in preparation to rescue British nationals. On 23 February, he issued a press release saying that there are "many indications of the structure of the state collapsing in Libya." He also urged the Libyan state to listen to the Libyan people's demands. o Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne also announced on 27 February that £20 billion of British assets of Gaddafi, his family and

"those acting on their behalf " had been frozen "so that they cannot be used against the interests of the Libyan people".

Oceania 

Australia – Prime Minister Julia Gillard condemned Gaddafi's use of force on protesters, stating "There is no excuse and no tolerance from the Australian government for violence being reaped against peaceful protesters. So our message to the government of Libya, to Colonel Gaddafi, is that they must respect peaceful protest." Foreign Minister Kevin Rudd called for sanctions against Libya. After detailing to parliament the speech made by Gaddafi on 22 February, Rudd said "these are not the words of a responsible political leader, these are the words of a dictator out of control". Rudd has also said further steps should be taken, including suspending Libya from the United Nations Human Rights Commission. During a visit to Egypt he also said, "Libya is in the middle of a civil war and that civil war has now reached the streets of Tripoli. It seems to us increasingly that the days of this regime are numbered. The key thing is to see the unity of international opinion on this matter so that those within Libya know that the world is as one."



New Zealand – In remarks at a press conference, Prime Minister John Key said New Zealand recognised the "deteriorating situation" in Libya. Key blamed the escalating protests on socioeconomic inequality and "constrained civil liberties" and said that embassy staff in Tripoli were working to locate 26 New Zealanders living in Libya. On 3 March, the New Zealand Foreign Ministry said that all 29 New Zealand nationals in Libya who sought to leave the country had been evacuated with the assistance of the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Ireland. Four New Zealanders have remained in Libya voluntarily.

Non-UN Member governments 

Kosovo – On 26 February, President Behgjet Pacolli stated he "was completely on the side of the people of Libya." On 19 February, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs said that it had identified 50 of its citizens in Libya. In the absence of formal diplomatic relations between Kosovo and Libya, Kosovars in distress were advised to contact Kosovo's embassy in Ankara, Turkey. As of 24 February, 27 citizens of Kosovo had been evacuated from Libya. Eight Kosovar students were reported to have left Tripoli on February 25, and the Foreign Ministry said on 26 February that 20 expatriates were at Tripoli's airport waiting to leave on a Turkish plane. On February 27, media reports citing foreign ministry officials said that only 24 of 61 Kosovars had left Libya, while the remaining were expected to evacuate soon.



Palestine – On March 2, WAFA reported that 104 students from the West Bank and Gaza studying in Libya were requested to leave the country by The Palestinian Authority. It was also reported that the local embassy in Tripoli had

asked that any Palestinian in Libya, wishing to leave, apply for a return to the West Bank. On 3 March, The Palestinian Authority's Gen Adnan Damiri made public the fact that 43 PA police officers who had been training in Libya were attempting to get home with help from the PLO's local embassy after PA President Mahmoud Abbas had instructed the embassy to provide the officers with food and shelter. Another 26 officers had been studying at Libya's Naval Academy, but had returned home safely. On 6 March, Ma'an News Agency reported that all the students had left Libya safely. 

The Gaza Strip's Hamas Government issued a statement saying it "strongly condemns massacres, airstrikes and artillery fire against [the] Libyan people by the Libyan regime."

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Republic of China – The Foreign Ministry said it had evacuated 18 ROC nationals from Libya, but one businessman is voluntarily staying in the country. In recognition of the dangerous situation in the North African country, a government spokesman said Taipei is strongly advising its citizens against travel to Libya. On 22 March, the government called upon Gaddafi to renounce the use of violence and honor a ceasefire.

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Transnistria – The government dismissed rumors that Gaddafi's soldiers were equipped with guns supplied from Transnistria, describing the scenario as "impossible" because Transnistria is unrecognized by the World Trade Organization and as such cannot legally sell weapons to the Libyan government.

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Somaliland – The Ministry of Foreign Affairs said it was working with the International Organization for Migration to evacuate at least 200 Somalilanders believed to be living and working in Libya in recognition of the dangerous conditions there.

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Vatican City – Archbishop Nuncio Silvano Maria Tomasi said the Holy See has asked that Gaddafi "put an end to violence against civilians". Pope Benedict XVI said the unrest in the Arab world, including in Libya, should be resolved. L'Osservatore Romano, a major Vatican City newspaper linked to the clergy, called Gaddafi "merciless" and sharply condemned violence against the Libyan citizenry.

NGOs Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb condemned Gaddafi and expressed solidarity with the protesters. "We were pained by the carnage and the cowardly massacres carried out by the killer of innocents Gaddafi against our people and our unarmed Muslim brothers who only came to lift his oppression, his disbelief, his tyranny and his might." It also said: "[We] will do whatever we can to help you, with power from Allah, because your fight is the fight of every Muslim who loves Allah and His Messenger. It is time for the] impostor, sinful, hard-hearted bastard Gaddafi to meet the same end as Hosni Mubarak

and Zine El Abidine Ben Ali]. We declare our support and aid to the Libyan revolution in its legitimate demands, and we assure our people in Libya that we are with you and we will not let you down." The statement came amid warnings by the Libyan deputy foreign minister that the group has organised an Islamic emirate in Darnah; however the residents of the city said it was not true and that the Libyan government was trying to "scare Europe." Avaaz.org, an international civic organisation, initiated an appeal, to international officials to impose specific actions to stop the violence against civilians and prosecute violators, which collected 400,000 signatures as of 23 February. Doctors Without Borders issued a statement saying that while there were members in Libya working with wounded protesters more needed to be sent with medical supplies, including necessary surgical materials, and faced difficulties due to blocks on entering the country. Arjan Hehenkamp, the director of operations, said: "All information we receive points towards a critical situation in terms of medical care for the injured. We need to be working alongside Libyan health professionals to care for people who have been caught in the violent clashes over recent days. It is unacceptable that medical staff and supplies are kept away from people who need them." Juventus was said to be concerned about a 7.5 percent stake in the company owned by the Libyan Arab Foreign Investment Company, otherwise known as Lafico. The shares in Juventus fell 2.3 percent to 84.8 euro on 25 February. The London School of Economics came under fire for its links with Saif al-Islam Gaddafi. After he got a PhD in 2008 the Gaddafi International Charity and Development Foundation (GICDF) gave the school a gift of £1.5m the following year. A professor, David Held, who was a beneficiary of the gift was also appointed a trustee of GICDF before the gift was formally accepted. The LSE was also said to be investigation allegations of of plagiarism and said that the degree can be "revoked if there are substantiated concerns about the manner in which it was attained – for example if there is a later discovery of plagiarism." Several activists and groups around the world have issued statements condemning "imperialist" intervention in Libya on false pretexts of defending "human rights". These activists claim the pretexts are false not only because of the collusion of the media in spreading misinformation, omissions, and fabrications in order to justify intervention, but that the same western powers that are calling for intervention have either kept silent on, or have justified much bigger violations of human rights in other situations when these violations were committed either by their allies or by themselves. The Arab nationalist activist website The Free Arab Voice has issued a statement to that effect.

Individuals Egyptian Islamist Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi declared his support for the rebels led by the National Libyan Council in the 2011 Libyan uprising, urging Arab nations to recognize

them and “to confront the tyranny of the regime in Tripoli". He suggested weapons be sent to the rebels to assist the, and said “Our Islamic nation should stand against injustice and corruption and I urge the Egyptian government to extend a helping hand to Libyan people and not to Gaddafi.”

Travel advisories and evacuations Overview Various states including Britain, the United States, Germany, Italy, France, Pakistan, the Netherlands, Turkey, Peru, China, India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh and Greece put into place arrangements for the evacuation of their citizens from the country on the 23rd. However evacuation appeared to be difficult due to "chaos" at the international airport in Tripoli as well as a "destroyed" runway at Benina International Airport and the temporary closure of all Libyan ports. Consequently, many international flights, including those of British Airways, were cancelled, although others appeared to operate. Further reports indicated that Libyan harbours in many cities were closed. To address that problem, many governments have sent civilian and military aircraft and ships to evacuate their citizens. TV coverage indicated that the airport in Malta had turned into a hub for various European rescue missions. Both Italy and Bulgaria joined China in warning against all travel to Libya while Spanish Foreign Minister Trinidad Jimenez said counterparts from around the 27-state EU were considering pulling people out, particularly from the eastern opposition stronghold of Benghazi. May expats and local refugges were fleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 people have been crossing the Libya-Tunisia border daily. Among those escaping the violence are foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisians, Vietnamese, Chinese and Turks, as well as war-displaced Libyans. During the uprising many countries evacuated its citizens. On 25 February 500 passengers, mostly Americans, sailed into Malta after a rough eight-hour journey from Tripoli and 2 day wait for the seas to calm down. A planned evacuation flight for Canadian citizens from Tripoli, for which 213 people had stated they need to board, was grounded in Rome due to lack of coverage by the airline's insurance. A Canadian Foreign Affairs official described the "deteriorating security situation" in Tripoli as the reason for the cancellation. Greece's Foreign Ministry completed an air evacuation in different cities of Libya for Greek and Cypriot citizens by the use of C-130 military transport planes provided by the Greek Air Force.

Timeline of the evacuations On 22 February, British Foreign Secretary William Hague announced that HMS Cumberland had been redeployed to Libyan waters where she will assist in the evacuation of British citizens and other nationals. The Cumberland entered the Port of Benghazi on 24 February, leaving the same day for Malta with an international collection of passengers that included British, Commonwealth, European and American nationals. Cumberland is returning to Benghazi to continue evacuations of foreign nationals.

India has launched a multi pronged sea and air rescue operation to evacuate the 18,000 Indian nationals currently trapped in Libya. Two Indians have died in the clashes between pro and anti-Gaddafi forces. Two aircraft from Air India will shuttle passengers from Libya to Delhi and Mumbai. A chartered passenger vessel will shuttle Indian citizens from Libya to Malta. The Indian Navy vessels INS Jalashwa, INS Aditya and INS Mysore have been deployed to the region. Italy sent in an airlift to rescue its 1,500 residents in Libya on 22 February. The Netherlands said it wanted to evacuate 100 of its citizens and prepared an aircraft for the evacuation. It also sent the navy frigate Tromp to lend support by sea. The UK’s Royal Navy frigate HMS Cumberland was sent to international waters near Libya to help with the evacuation if necessary. Greece, Germany, Austria, Portugal and other EU nations planned or conducted airlifts. A Spanish military plane was already on standby on 22 February. On 23 February both Portugal and Austria sent military planes to Tripoli to evacuate their nationals and those of other EU countries as companies with major interests in the country including British energy giant BP and Italy's ENI and Finmeccanica were also preparing to repatriate their employees. Various states including Britain, Chile, the United States, Germany, Spain, Australia, Greece, Portugal, Germany, France, Austria, Italy, France, Serbia, the Netherlands, Turkey, Peru, India, China, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Bangladesh put into place arrangements for the evacuation of their citizens from the country on 23 February. The Brazilian Government deployed a ship from the Greek port of Piraeus on to fetch 180 of an estimated 600 of its nationals in Benghazi and transported them to Malta, from where they traveled to Brazil. Brazil then obtained permission from the Libyan government for five flights to land in Tripoli to rescue the remainder of its citizens. China was sending Greek ships to evacuate 15,000 of the 30,000 Chinese citizens in Libya. Canada had initially chartered a private aircraft to pickup Canadians and now have a Boeing C-17 Globemaster III from the No. 429 Squadron RCAF on standby in Germany to fly to Tripoli via Rome if and when needed. The Governor General of Canada's plane (Bombardier Challenger 600 from No. 412 Squadron RCAF) is also in Rome (there for state visit) and is on standby as well. India launched a multi-pronged sea and air rescue operation to evacuate its 18,000 nationals trapped in Libya. Two aircraft from Air India shuttled passengers from Libya to Delhi and Mumbai. A chartered passenger vessel will also shuttle Indian citizens from Libya to Egypt or Malta. The Indian Navy vessels INS Jalashwa, INS Aditya and INS Mysore are being deployed to the region. Two Indians also died during the protests. On the evening of 25 February a joint British and German operation consisting of two Britsh and two German military transport planes evacuated 22 Germans and about 100 other Europeans, mostly British oil workers from the airport at Nafurah to Crete.

On 27 February two Royal Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft with British Special Forces evacuated approximately 100 foreign nationals, mainly UK. Irish, German and Romanian oil workers, to Malta from the desert south of Bengahzi, one of which was shot at and suffered some damage, but no one was injured. The same day Gaddafi's trusted nurse Galyna Kolotnytska arrived back in Ukraine. In the afternoon of Feb' 27th, It is reported that 57 Nepalis, employmed to swork in Libya, landed at the Tribhuvan International Airport, but over 1,300 Nepalese nationals are yet to be rescued from the chaos in Libya. By 28 February Turkey considered its evacuation complete, having brought over 17,000 nationals home. At the same time China had already evacuated nearly 29,000 nationals by land, sea and air, using both Crete and Malta as staging posts. Two vesels docked in Valletta, Malta bringing 3,200 workers, mostly Chinese. Various petroleum companies evacuated their expatriate employees. BP said that it was preparing to evacuate about 40 expatriate workers from Libya, where it has suspended onshore oil exploration due to the political unrest. Norway’s Statoil said it already has started pulling out a handful of international staff and has closed its Tripoli corporate office. Shell said it had completed a withdrawal of its staff on 22 February. Brazilian conglomerate Odebrecht said they were putting into place mandatory evacuations for the nearly 5,000 staff they have in Libya. Other oil companies also withdrew their employees to ensure their safety, including: Gazprom, Shell, Suncor, Pertamina and BP. Other companies that decided to evacuate their employees include Siemens and Russian Railways. About 15 Danes who were in Libya working for FLSmidth left on 24 February.

Protests against the Government of Libya

An anti-Gaddafi protest in Chicago, Illinois in late February 2011 A crowd of about 250 Libyans called on the ambassador to Malta, Saadun Suayeh, to resign and for the Libyan embassy to replace the current Libyan flag with the older Libyan monarchy flag. Suayeh said he would not give in to demands. He stated that Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi "should not go", adding "His (Gaddafi's) presence for the time being is definitely a guarantee for the country's unity,". It was claimed that Libyans in Malta are being offered as much as €500 each to demonstrate in favour of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi. One Libyan man turned up to

back Col Gaddafi but was ushered away from the embassy as anti-government protesters gathered. Portraits of the Libyan leader were set on fire, while other protesters took off their shoes and used them to hit pictures of Gaddafi. About 200 protesters gathered outside the consulate in Istanbul in support of the protesters. In Albert Square, Manchester in the United Kingdom, over 100 people demonstrated in support of the protesters. In London, protesters gathered outside the embassy. One man scaled the building unchallenged and removed the Libyan flag and replaced it with the flag of the Kingdom of Libya. Date City 17 February Alexandria 17 February London 19 February Geneva 19 February Washington, DC 19 February Atlanta, GA 19 February Kansas City, MO 20 February Toronto, ON 20 February Alexandria 20 February Portland, OR 21 February Edmonton 21 February Cairo 21 February Marseilles 21 February Valletta 21 February London 21 February Manchester 21 February Lansing, MI 21 February Seattle, WA 22 February Belgrade 22 February Kiev 22 February Melbourne 22 February Brandon, MB 22 February Ottawa, ON 22 February Montreal, QC 22 February Paris 22 February Gaza City 22 February Berlin 22 February Amman

Country Notes Egypt UK Switzerland US US US Canada Egypt US Canada Egypt France Malta UK UK US US Serbia Libyans stoned the embassy. Ukraine Australia Canada Canada Canada France Palestine Germany Jordan

22 February Kuala Lumpur 22 February Budapest 22 February Tunis 22 February Istanbul 22 February Sacramento, CA 22 February Orlando, FL 22 February Pullman, WA 23 February Sydney

23 February Cairo 23 February Athens 23 February Dublin

Malaysia Hungary Tunisia Turkey US US US Australia New Zealand Egypt Greece Ireland

23 February Rome

Italy

23 February Wellington

Protesters said they would stay there till Gadaffi leaves.

23 February Tokyo Japan 23 February Beirut Lebanon 23 February Edinburgh UK 23 February London UK 23 February Denver, CO US 23 February Columbia, MO US 24 February Detroit, MI US 25 February New York City, NY US 26 February Valletta Malta 26 February San Francisco, CA US

26 February Glasgow

UK

26 February Chicago, IL

US

Stop the War said that: "It is very important that people here show their support for the protesters. Let's mobilise and unite in our thousands to send the message that we stand in solidarity with those struggling for a better world."

UK squatting by 'Topple the Tyrants'

Topple the Tyrants occupation of Saif al-Islam Gaddafi's house Topple the Tyrants is an activist group which occupied a London home belonging to Seif al-Islam, son of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, in March 2011. The home the group occupied is an eight-bedroom mansion in Hampstead Garden Suburb, London, which had been listed by Seif as for sale for €12.75 million as the 2011 Libyan protests began. As of 10 March 2011, Scotland Yard had stated the issue was being treated as a "civil matter", and that no arrests had yet been made. Coord|51.5796|-0.1740|type:landmark_region:GB-BNE|display=title.

Mediation proposals There have been several peace mediation prospects during the crisis. There was some speculation that Tony Blair, who had dealings with Gaddafi in the last few years, would mediate the crisis, Blair instead tried to downplay his dealings with Libyan regime and

turned his back on Gaddafi. The South African government also floated the idea of an African Union-led mediation effort to prevent "civil war". Another initiative came from Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez. Though Gaddafi accepted in principle a proposal by Chávez to negotiate a settlement between the opposition and the Libyan government, Saif al-Islam, later voiced some skepticism to the proposal. On news of Gaddafi in principle accepting the Chávez's proposal for international mediation, there was a worldwide decrease in oil and gold prices. The proposal is also under consideration by the Arab League, according to Chairman Amr Moussa. The Libyan opposition was cold to the proposal, saying that while they are willing to save lives, any deal would have to involve Gaddafi stepping down, while the US and French governments dismissed any initiative that would allow Gaddafi to remain in power.

No-fly zone Prime Minister David Cameron of the United Kingdom proposed the idea of a no-fly zone to prevent Gaddafi from airlifting mercenaries and using his military aeroplanes and armoured helicopters against civilians. Italy said it would support a no-fly zone if it was backed by the United Nations. U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert M. Gates was cautious on this option, warning the US Congress that a no-fly zone would have to begin with an attack on Libya's air defenses. This proposal was rejected by Russia and China. On 7 March, US Ambassador to NATO Ivo Daalder announced that NATO decided to step up surveillance missions to 24 hours a day. On the same day it was reported that one UN diplomat confirmed to AFP on condition of anonymity that France and Britain were drawing up a resolution on the no-fly zone and it go before the United Nations Security Council as early as this week. On 8 March, the GCC issued a joint statement, calling on the UN Security Council to impose a no-fly zone on Libya to protect civilians. On Saturday 12 March the foreign ministers of the Arab League agreed on asking the UN Security Council to impose a nofly zone over Libya. The Group of Eight are meeting in Paris on 14 March to discuss their potential support of a no-fly zone. On 17 March, the United Nations Security Council voted to impose a no-fly zone, and other measures, to protect the Libyan people.

Relations with the rebels On March 4 one British diplomat, accompanied by a Secret Intelligence Service officer and six Special Forces troops were landed by helicopter close to Benghazi. However, they were quickly surrounded by the local militia who demanded to know who they were and what they were doing. They claimed that they were unarmed but their weapons were discovered and they were detained. Then Richard Northern, the British ambassador to Libya, was purportedly recorded having a conversation with one of the rebel leaders to

try and solve the situation (this tape was played on Libyan state television). On March 6 the British were released but their weapons were confiscated. The British left Libya by the frigate HMS Cumberland, which docked briefly in Benghazi before setting sail to Malta. On 7 March, Robert Fisk of The Independent reported that the US government had asked Saudi Arabia if it could supply weapons to the rebels in Benghazi. The Saudis have been told that the opponents of Gaddafi need anti-tank rockets, mortars and surface-to-air missiles. However, on 8 March the US State Department denied the reports and that the United States would arm opposition groups without explicit international authorization. It maintained that United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970, which imposed international sanctions on Libya including an arms embargo, applied to both the Gaddafi regime and the rebel groups. U.S. global security consultancy Stratfor reported that Egypt's special operations force Unit 777 and Tunisian volunteers were in Libya fighting for the rebels. On 10 March, France became the first nation to recognize the National Transitional Council as the sole Representative of Libya. A source also announced that France plans to send an ambassador to Benghazi. Portugal, who hosted the Libyan emissary Wednesday night and also heads the United Nation's Security Council sanctions committee, also recognized the National Transitional Council. Portugal's foreign minister Luis Amado said, “the Gaddafi regime is over, its legitimacy is over”. Both the European Union and the Arab League have started dealing with the National Transitional Council, though it is unclear whether this constitutes full diplomatic recognition in either instance. Similarly, although the United Kingdom advocated alongside France for EU recognition of the interim government in Benghazi, it is unclear whether London has itself transferred recognition to the council.

International aid On 2 March, the Royal Navy destroyer HMS York had arrived in Benghazi carrying medical supplies and other humanitarian aid donated by the Swedish government. The medical supplies, a donation to the Benghazi Medical Centre, were supposed to have been flown direct to Benghazi airport but when the airport was closed down, they were diverted to Malta. They were transferred from the airport to the frigate at short notice by the Armed Forces of Malta. On 8 March, a convoy of trucks from the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP) had entered Libya and was due to arrive in the eastern port city of Benghazi on the same day, the WFP said in a statement. A convoy carrying seventy metric tonnes of high-energy date bars crossed the Egyptian border overnight on its way to the eastern port. On 7 March, U.N. aid coordinator Valerie Amos stated that fighting across Libya meant that more than a million people fleeing or inside the country needed humanitarian aid.

Financial markets Regional financial stock-market indices fell on 20 February on concern of spreading instability. Global stock markets fell the next day. On 22 February, crude oil and bonds climbed while Asian stocks fell on concern for stability in OPEC-member state Libya. US stock-market futures also dropped on the first working day following the aerial bombardments of protesters. On 27 February, Saudi Arabia's Tadawul stock market index fell to a six-month low along with other regional Arab markets due to the clashes in Libya that caused a price increase in oil and amid fears that a recovery from the global economic crisis would slow. The following day Asian stock also declined because of the unrest.

Media Libya's state television made no mention of the anti-government protests in the eastern provinces of the country, and continued with its usual programming until 17 February. During the morning news bulletin on 16 February, state TV repeatedly showed demonstrations in support of Colonel Gaddafi, which were about 200 to 300 strong and allegedly "from across the country". At one point a crowd could be heard chanting antiAl Jazeera slogans. The Qatar-based outlet channel had started broadcasting footage from a pro-Gaddafi demonstration live from Sirte, Gaddafi's home town, that numbered 1,000. State TV also showed live coverage of a speech by Gaddafi from the previous evening, in which he denounced both the United States and their alleged "Zionist" allies in front of a cheering crowd on 16 February. It also began broadcasting images of burning buildings and cars in what viewers said was the first time government media had acknowledged the growing unrest in the east, which it suggested was spreading to the point that the government had no choice but to address it directly, possibly even with force of arms on the 20th. Gadhafi was shown with his supporters during a rally in Nalut on 19 February. Libya's privately owned and London-based electronic newspaper al-Yawm, which reports favourably on Gaddafi's son, Sayf-al-Islam, was the only Libyan source of any kind to freely report on the anti-Gaddafi protests in both the cities of Benghazi and Al Bayda. The paper usually carries balanced, un-opinionated reporting published a total of 16 articles on the anti-Gaddafi regime protests, quoting allegedly tapped "trustworthy" sources in Benghazi and Al-Baydam, and carried no reports on the pro-Gaddafi demonstrations in Tripoli. 4 protesters were killed in Al-Baydam, the Al-Yawm paper said, as a crowd attempted to storm the Internal Security Building, set fire two cars and the burnt down headquarters of the local traffic police on the 16th. According to the state-owned Al-Shams and Al-Jamahiriya newspapers, mobile phone users were sent a text message warning them against taking to the streets on 17 February as a result of "directives from the state security service", which is the body that monitors and controls the country's two mobile telecommunications networks. The front page of Al-Jamahiriya was dedicated to pro-Gaddafi demonstrations and his timely public

appearance at the Ahly football Club in Tripoli the day before, while state-owned AlShams led exclusively with coverage of this event. It later added that additional security forces had been bussed in to "control" the situation and that they had "out-of-town" accents "and foreign agents". Quryna, which had once been a part of Saif-al-Islam's Al-Ghad Media Corporation but was taken over by the state in 2010, carried an upbeat report about order being restored in Benghazi. One article reported on the families of "17 February 2006 martyrs" who met Gaddafi and condemned the protests. Domestically, BBC News reported on 18 February, that the "leading pro-government newspaper", Al-Zahf Al-Akhdar, has adopted a seemingly uncompromising stance towards the protests, stating: Any risk from these minuscule groups [protesters] - this people and the noble revolutionary power will violently and thunderously respond, ... The people's power, the Jamahiriya [system of rule], the revolution, and Colonel Gaddafi are all red lines and those who try to cross or come near these lines are suicidal and playing with fire. State TV broadcast images of Colonel Gaddafi paying a brief visit to Tripoli's Green Square, early on 18 February, during which supporters chanted pro-government slogans. BBC News stated that "diplomats reported the use of heavy weapons in Benghazi," on 18 February. The government imposed a near-total news blackout, and foreign reporters are banned from the country, although at least one BBC reporter has ignored this and is broadcasting from opposition controlled Benghazi, as was Al Jazeera. The British newspaper, the Independent Online, reported on 20 February that at least one state-run newspaper, Al-Zahf Alakhdar, blamed the protests on Zionism.

Chapter 7

Protests against the 2011 Military Intervention in Libya

Protest in Minneapolis in the United States on March 21, 2011 against the American military intervention in Libya Beginning on March 19, 2011, and continuing through the 2011 military intervention in Libya, anti-war protests against military intervention in Libya were held in many cities worldwide.

March 2011 Brazil 

According to an article by Fabíola Ortiz on March 25 on the online magazine Upside Down World, two small protests were organized in Brazil against the decision of military intervention in Libya.

Chile 

In response to the US military intervention in Libya, a demonstration was held in Chile's capital Santiago on March 20 protesting the visit by Barack Obama. Leftwing political parties, professors, students, human rights activists, and other Chilean people participated in the demonstration.

Greece 

On March 20, about 5000 supporters of the Communist Party of Greece (ΚΚΕ), mainly high school and university students, protested outside the parliament building in central Athens against the government's support for the NATO-led intervention in Libya. They carried anti-government banners and placards that read "The imperialists out of Libya" and "US-EU-NATO kill people", shouted anti-intervention slogans and torched the flag of the European Union.



On March 20, similar protest was held on the Crete. Communists marched to the Souda Bay naval base that provided command and logistics support to the NATOled intervention. The protesters demanded the closure of the NATO base.

Mali 

On March 25, thousands of Malians demonstrated in Bamako, the capital of Mali, to protest against the NATO-led military operation in Libya. The crowd marched first to the French embassy and then to the embassy of the United Sates. Protesters shouted "Down with Sarkozy! Down with Obama!" The demonstration, organized by Islamic groups in the nation, brought traffic to a halt in Bamako city center.

Nicaragua 

From March 19 to March 24, three demonstrations were organized in Nicaragua to protest the military intervention. On the March 24 protest, which was the third protest since the beginning of the military operation in Libya, hundreds of supporters of president Daniel Ortega marched in Nicaragua's capital Managua. The rally, organized by Ortega's followers called Nicaraguan Solidarity Committee with Libya, started from the embassy of Libya and ended outside the headquarters of the United Nations Development Program. Leaders of the demonstration called the military intervention "imperialist military aggression backed by the UN." Protesters shouted "No war", "Yes to peace", displayed banners with pictures of Gaddafi, chanted slogans in support of Gadhafi, and attacked the United States.

Philippines 

On March 20, anti-war protest against NATO intervention in Libya was held in Manila, the capital of the Philippines. Protesters burned a replica of the flag of the United States.



On March 21, the Union of Catholic Asian News (UCAN) reported that peace organizations in the Philippines have joined Islamic protesters to condemn the UN-backed air strikes in Libya. Jolly Lais, spokesperson of the Muslim group Bangsamoro National Solidarity Movement (BANGSA) said, "This brazen

military aggression betrays the double standard by which the United Nations uses". The left-wing political party Bayan Muna called the airstrikes "a brutal act of armed intervention against a sovereign nation." 

On March 25, Philippine Muslims protested the military action after Friday prayer at a mosque in Manila. The anti-war protesters displayed pro-Libya placards that read "Appeal to U.S. Save Humanity Stop Bombing to Libya".

Russia 

Russian youth groups the Nashi and the Stal demonstrated outside embassies of several western countries to protest the military intervention in Libya. They picketed in front of the British, French and American embassies and the NATO mission in Moscow. Oleg Sokolov, leader of the Stal, described the western intervention as "massacre" and said "it is clear that the West's real intention is not to bring democracy to Libya".



Interfax reported the Molodaya Gvardiya (Young Guard of United Russia), a proKremlin youth group and the youth wing of the United Russia, have planned to picket embassies of the United States, Canada, Belgium, the United Kingdom, Italy, and France on March 23. Activists of the Molodaya Gvardiya took part in a flower-laying ceremony in front of the Libyan embassy in Moscow to commemorate the victims of the NATO attack in Libya.

Serbia

Protest in Belgrade on March 26, 2011 against the military intervention in Libya 

On March 20, an anti-intervention protest was held in Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. Protesters carried pictures of Muammar Gaddafi and Josip Broz Tito.



On March 26, a second anti-intervention protests was held in the center of Belgrade at the Republic Square by Libyan students studying in Serbia and a Libyan-Serbian friendship organization. Protesters carried the flag of Libya and pictures of Gaddafi.



On March 27, a third anti-intervention protest was held in Belgrade. About two hundred people, including Libyan students and expats, demonstrated at the Manjež park. The protesters chanted slogans like "Support from Serbia", "A true friend of Serbia and Libya", "Libya and Serbia", "NATO killers", displayed photos of Gaddafi, and carried placards opposing NATO.

Spain 

On March 20, 400 people protested in Barcelona against the NATO intervention choiring "support to the Libyan people, nor NATO or Gaddafi" and "no more

blood for oil". One of the organizers of the protest Pere Ortega believed the military intervention will make Gaddafi's posture stronger. The protesters carried banners that read "Nor tyrannies or occupations. Solidarity with the people in struggle". 

On March 26, thousands of people rallied in Madrid, the capital of Spain. The march was organized by human rights groups and other social organizations under the banner "For the emancipation of the Arab nations: neither dictators nor imperialists". On the same day, an anti-war demonstration calling on governments to stop the air attack on Libya was held in front of the Rota Naval Base.

Sri Lanka 

Trade unions in Sri Lanka from across the political spectrum have voiced their opposition to the military intervention in Libya. On March 21, Sri Lankan trade union leader and the governor of the Western Province Alavi Mowlana said on a media briefing in Colombo that Sri Lankan trade unions will organize protests in the country's largest city demanding the United States and the Western nations to stop the military intervention. He said anti-imperialist organizations in Sri Lanka will organize the initial protest campaign against the United States-led military intervention at the Colombo Grand Mosque on March 25.



On March 24, protests against the NATO-led air attacks were organized by political parties allied to Sri Lanka's president Mahinda Rajapaksa. Approximately 500 supporters of the National Freedom Front (NFF) participated in the demonstrations. Protester chanted anti-Western slogans, slogans against the Secretary-General of the United Nations Ban Ki-moon, waved placards and burned used tyres outside the United Nations (UN) office in Colombo. According to BBC correspondent in Sri Lanka Elmo Fernando, the demonstrators shouted slogans urging Ban Ki-moon to quit his post and "go home", and described the military intervention in Libya as war crimes. National Freedom Front (NFF) leader and MP Wimal Weerawansa, who's party organized the protest, said, "We are against the biased behaviour of the UN on Libya in favour of the US and Britain. The people of Libya should decide how to resolve their own internal problems." Banners that read "We condemn killing innocent civilians in Libya" and "Banki Moon go to hell" were seen in the demonstration. Protesters burned effigy of US president Barack Obama and beat it with shoes. Some of the protesters described Barack Obama as "murderer".



On March 25, hundreds of Sri Lankan Muslims protested in Colombo. The demonstrators marched from the Jummah Mosque in Kollupitiya to the embassy of the United States on Galle Road in Colombo. Protesters held placards supporting Muammar Gaddafi and burned effigies of Barack Obama.

Turkey 

Approximately 100 people, mostly members of the Labor Party (EMEP), demonstrated on March 20 outside the French Consulate General in Istanbul protesting against France, the US and other western countries. They shouted slogans like "Get out of Libya" and "Libyan people are not alone".



On March 21, members of a left-wing Turkish political party protested outside the French embassy in Turkey's capital Ankara. The demonstrators held banner that read "Murderer France, get out of Libya!"

United Kingdom 

On March 20, anti-war protesters demonstrated outside London's Downing Street waving placards that stated "The lessons of Iraq and Afghanistan have not been learnt". Groups that organized the protest included the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) and the Stop the War Coalition (StWC). Labour Party politician Jeremy Corbyn and vice president of the StWC, George Galloway, took part in the protest. According to Corbyn, "This war is about oil, control and a message to the rest of the world and region that we can do it if we want to." Kate Hudson, the chair of CND, called the military intervention "utterly reprehensible". Galloway described the intervention as "imperialist war-making." On the other hand, anti-Gaddafi protesters in London opposed the anti-intervention protesters.



On March 21, approximately 150 people demonstrated in London in support of Gaddafi and protesting against the UK's intervention in Libya.

United States March 19 

On March 19, a demonstration in Times Square, New York City, that was originally meant to protest the Iraq War turned into a protest against the military intervention in Libya. U. S. Representative Charles B. Rangel joined the protesters and expressed anger over the fact that the Congress was not consulted before the military strikes. Nearly 80 people attended the demonstration.



Eric Ruder and Sam Bernstein of the SocialistWorker.org, published by the International Socialist Organization (ISO), reported anti-war protesters in Seattle, who gathered to protest the Iraq War on March 19, displayed signs that read, "U.S./UN/NATO--Hands off Libya!".



On March 19, the anti-war group Act Now to Stop War and End Racism (A.N.S.W.E.R.) organized a protest in Boston claiming the United States and the United Nations attacked Libya for oil.



Hundreds of people demonstrated on Chicago's Michigan Avenue on March 19. Protesters distributed anti-war leaflets and shouting "We need money for jobs, not the war. We need money for schools, not the war. We need money for health care, not the war". Several speakers of the protest, that was originally held to mark the eighth anniversary of the Iraq War, condemned military action against Libya. Protesters chanted "No UN, no Qaddafi, let the people rule Benghazi!"



The Workers World, published by the Marxist–Leninist Workers World Party (WWP), reported around 1500 protesters rallied at Lafayette Park in Washington, D.C. on March 19 and demanded an end to the military operation in Libya along with the wars on Iraq and Afghanistan. Protests in San Francisco marked both the first day of the US-led air strike in Libya and the eighth anniversary of the Iraq War. According to the Workers World, hundreds of protesters marched in Saint Paul, Minnesota shouting "Do not expand wars against Libya!"

March 20 

The Workers World reported, thousands of anti-war protesters, led by the Act Now to Stop War and End Racism (A.N.S.W.E.R.), demonstrated in Los Angeles on March 20. According to the Workers World, "Libya was clearly on the minds of everyone there and news of the criminal attack electrified the demonstration."

March 21

Demonstrators in Minneapolis, Minnesota show placards on March 21, 2011 to protest the military intervention in Libya by the United States 

On March 21, anti-war protest was held in Minneapolis. Nearly 75 members of a local anti-war group called the Anti-War Committee (AWC) demonstrated outside the Federal Building in downtown Minneapolis. A protest, organized by Dustin Krutsinger, was held by students at the University of Iowa in Iowa City. Sign reading "Obama No 'Change' From Bush" was seen in the demonstration. In Memphis, Tennessee, an anti-war protest was held where sign which read "Instead of War Invest in People" was seen.



The Workers World reported, the International Action Center (IAC) organized a demonstration at the Westwood in Los Angeles Federal Building on March 20 to demand an end to the US, French and British attack on Libya. According to the Workers World, members of the BAYAN-USA, the All African Peoples Revolutionary Party — GC, Unión del Barrio and the Anti-Racist Action (ARA) also participated in the demonstration.



In Philadelphia, a protest was held by the Philadelphia Against War on March 21. Demonstrators gathered outside the Philadelphia City Hall and denounced the

US/NATO military intervention in Libya. Protesters held signs that read "Not another U.S. war for oil" and "Stop U.S. attacks on Arab and African people". The Workers World reported the protest was endorsed by the Brandywine Peace Community and the International Action Center (IAC). 

According to the Workers World, the International Action Center (IAC) organized a picket line on March 21 in the Times Square, New York City to protest the coalition air attack in Libya.

March 23 

According to the Liberation, a newspaper published by the Marxist-Leninist Party for Socialism and Liberation (PSL), protests were held at Austin, Texas and outside the New Federal Building in San Francisco. In the San Francisco protest, speakers included Henry Clark of the West County Toxics Coalition, who claimed the US attack Libya for its oil reserves, an Iraq War veteran, a representative of the Code Pink, Richard Becker of the ANSWER Coalition, and Saul Kanowitz of the PSL. Protesters chanted "Humanitarian aid, it’s a lie, bombs fall and people die!"

March 26 

On March 26, an anti-war demonstration, organized by the ANSWER Coalition, was held outside the White House in the Washington, D.C. Protesters carried placards that read "$ for Jobs and Schools, not War on Libya" and "Stop U.S. French and British War on Libya". Brian Becker, national director of the ANSWER Coalition, said, "United States has no right to bomb Libya. It has no right to pretend it's a champion of freedom and democracy. Only Libya can determine its destiny". According to the PSL's newspaper Liberation, the demonstration was attended by activists from different cities across the country, and by progressive organizations such as the FMLN-DC (Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front). Protesters in the demonstration chanted "War in Libya—We say NO! U.S. intervention has got to go!"

Chapter 8

Muammar Gaddafi's Response to the 2011 Libyan Civil War

Gaddafi's statements Gaddafi has attributed the protests against his rule to people who are "rats" and "cockroaches", terms that have been cited by Hutu radicals of the Tutsi population before the Rwanda genocide began, thus causing unease in the global community. Gaddafi accuses his opponents as those who have been influenced by hallucinogenic drugs put in drinks and pills. He specifically refers to substances in milk, coffee and Nescafe. He claims that Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda are distributing these hallucinogenic drugs. He also blames alcohol. Gaddafi has also claimed that the protests against his rule are a "colonialist plot" by foreign countries to control oil and "enslave" Libyan people. He has asserted that he will chase down the protesters and cleanse the country "house by house," and that his opponents will be executed. Gaddafi has also stated that "those who don't love me do not deserve to live". Gaddafi's son Seif al-Islam Gaddafi has stated that family will "fight to the last man and woman and bullet”. He denied wrongdoing by government forces. "We are not killing our fellow citizens. We are not dropping bombs on them. We and our loyal army have shown unprecedented tolerance towards our own people, who are already armed with tanks and heavy artillery. But even despite that we do not touch innocent civilians." He said that the largest demonstration the opposition had made was of a few thousand people in Bengazi, and that the opposition was made up of terrorists who publicly executed soldiers of the Libyan army on "dozens of videos" on the Internet. He said that "Libya does not use mercenaries, period", and that half of Libya's population are blacks, some of whom were being falsely labeled as mercenaries. He accused opposition members, whom he called "armed bandits, who are sitting in the tanks", of being "eager to divide the country into two parts — the East and the West." Gaddafi still has extensive stockpiles of mustard gas. The regime was supposed to destroy its stockpiles of 23 tons, but failed to dispose of 9.5 tons. The international Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons granted it an extension to destroy

the rest before May 2011. Gaddafi reportedly said that he "could use mustard gas, but won't massacre his people".

Arms traffic to Gaddafi Russia has billions of dollars worth of arms deals with Gaddafi and government officials were also late to condemn the massacres of civilians. The EU's arms trafficking watchdog organization has observed flights between Tripoli and Belarus. It has been concluded that Belarus is currently arming Gaddafi. Some of the planes have visited a military base in Baranovichi, Belarus, which has a dedicated military base that only handles stockpiled weaponry and military equipment. Gaddafi's sons have attended Belarusian-Russian military exercises before.

Treatment of civilians Eyewitnesses have reported mercenaries taking over ambulances to kill injured protesters. During ongoing international military operations in Libya to enforce a no-fly zone, the National Transitional Council claimed that Gaddafi was importing civilians to Misrata to use as human shields for pro-Gaddafi tanks and soldiers in an effort to deter airstrikes.

Executions of unwilling soldiers Soldiers who have refused to take part in killing those who oppose Gadhafi have reportedly been executed. Several incidents have been documented on videos leaking out of the country.

Replacement of unwilling soldiers with mercenaries Soon after Gaddafi started to fight against civilians evidence surfaced that Libyan military units have refused to shoot protesters and Gaddafi had hired foreign mercenaries to do the job. Gaddafi's ambassador to India confirmed that defection of military units had indeed led to such a decision. Video footage of this started to leak out of the country. Nigerians reported advertisements for mercenaries in Nigerian newspapers in the early days of the conflict. One group of mercenaries from Niger, who had been recruited from the streets with promises of money, included a soldier of just 13 years of age. On 18 February, it was reported that armed forces with military members from Chad were operating in Benghazi, having been "paid with 5,000 (Dinars) and provided with the latest car models to 'get rid' of Libyan citizen-demonstrators." On 21 February, a lawyer working in Benghazi said that a local security committee formed by native civilians had taken control of the city and had arrested 36 mercenaries from Chad, Niger and Sudan who were allegedly hired by Gaddafi's body guards to fight in the city. On 22 February,

there were reports of mercenaries from Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Niger, Mali, Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, and possibly even Asia and Eastern Europe, fighting in Al Bayda. Mercenaries allegedly killed 150 people in the city of Al Bayda. Various other reports told of Chadians operating in Southern Libya, Benghazi and Tripoli. Mercenaries from Chad, Mali and Niger were reportedly working in the rest of eastern Libya. On 23 February, Gaddafi reportedly deployed mercenaries from nearby countries such as Mali, Niger and Chad with some mercenaries from Chad and Niger reportedly in Bengazi and other eastern cities. On 24 February, the Aruba School in the coastal town of Shehat became the prison for almost 200 suspected pro-Gaddafi mercenaries. They are reportedly part of Libya's Khamees' battalion, the well-equipped 32nd brigade led by Khamis Gaddafi. Rebel forces claimed that after the fall of Bin Jawad to Gaddafi's forces, mercenaries publicly raped, mutilated, and executed captured fighters. Gaddafi's former Chief of Protocol Nouri Al Misrahi stated in an interview with the Al Jazeera that Nigerien, Malian, Chadian and Kenyan mercenaries are among foreign soldiers helping fight the uprising on behalf of Gaddafi. On 25 February, speculation that members of the Zimbabwe National Army were covertly fighting in Libya grew as Zimbabwe’s Defence Minister Emmerson Mnangagwa avoided giving a straight answer to a question posed in Parliament about it. On the same day, the Foreign Ministry of Chad denied allegations that mercenaries were fighting for Gaddafi, although he admitted it was possible that individuals had joined such groups. In some cases misidentifications have been reported. Peter Bouckaert reported one case of captured soldiers in Al-Bayda who seemed to be from southern Libya. Libya has a significant black population that could be mistaken for mercenaries but are actually serving in the regular army. Also, many Chadian soldiers who fought for Gaddafi in past conflicts with Chad were given Libyan citizenship. The Daily Telegraph studied the case of a sixteen-year-old captured Chadian child soldier in Al-Bayda. The boy, who had previously been a shepherd in Chad, had gone to a border town to look for work. At a bus stop, a Libyan man had offered him a job and a free flight to Tripoli, but in the end he had been airlifted to shoot opposition members in Eastern Libya. Othman Fadil Othman, the Gaddafi official who had hired the boy in Chad, was captured along the boy in the airport and he claimed he did not know either that they were sent to shoot opposition members. However, according to the Telegraph, "It seemed more likely that Mr Othman was trying to save his skin than tell the truth. A beefy, confident man of 30, with three wives and several children back home – he told us with a smirk – he spent a career as a party organiser in Gaddafi's bizarre Soviet-style dictatorship, telling people what to do. He worked for the youth wing headed by the dictator's son Saeef. Mr Othman still couldn't quite bring himself to condemn the colonel. It was painfully obvious that he was hopelessly unsuited for Gaddafi's attempt to terrorise his own people into submission. Like nearly all the captives Mr Othman had no military training. Unleashing thugs and mercenaries like him had backfired disastrously." Non-aligned Yugoslavia and its successor Balkan countries have had long and friendly relations with Libya since Tito's era, with cooperation ranging from civil engineering to

military trade. In response to unconfirmed allegations that Gaddafi hired Serbian mercenaries during the early stages of the Libyan uprising, the Serbian Ministry of Defence denied that any of its active or retired personnel were participating in the events in Libya, calling the allegations "total stupidity". Officially, Serbia has suspended all military trade with Libya. The Serbian newspaper Alo, known to publish sensationalistic stories, claimed that Serbs were among the first foreign mercenaries hired by Gaddafi in the early days of the conflict. Al Jazeera reported that two Libyan colonels who defected in Malta after they said they refused orders to bomb civilians claimed that Serbian mercenaries were among the fighter pilots taking orders from Gaddafi. The rumors of Serbian and Ukrainian military staff training and helping Gaddafi forces have also been heard in Libya at the beginning of the conflict. However, when asked by Serbian TV Pink, Gaddafi said that opposition forces tried to bribe a Serbian officer to say that he was mercenary for Gaddafi, which he refused, quoting this incident as an example of a failed war propaganda. Miroslav Lazanski, a Serbian military expert based in Belgrade, rubbished the allegations, saying that Serbian pilots never flew the Sukhoi aircraft that comprised the backbone of the Libyan Air Force. However, during Opération Harmattan, a French fighter jet shot down a warplane violating the no-fly zone reported to be a Soko G-2 Galeb, a type of jet that was used by Yugoslav pilots during the Kosovo War.

Other methods of suppressing protests Gaddafi currently offers an automobile, money and weapons for gangs of three people who will be accompanied by one Gaddafi's officials to drive around Tripoli to deter opposition activities. The population of some cities are loyal to Gaddafi, one example is his hometown of Sirt which has been well developed. Control over Tripoli comes in large part from several elite security brigades, which were well-supplied with arms and training while the regular army was somewhat neglected in order to guard against potential coups. Southwestern Libya contains a large population of sub-Saharan Africans, primarily Chadian refugees who Gaddafi settled there in the 1970s–1980s. Gaddafi has also been recruiting soldiers from among the Tuareg people in southwestern Libya, although the tribe as a whole have announced their support for the protesters. Internationally, several Latin American nations including Venezuela and Cuba have released statements of supports for Gaddafi due to shared social revolutionary backgrounds and alliances. Gaddafi has also been hiring mercenaries from neighboring African states; he had spent decades cultivating influence to create a pan-African union. He had influence with rebel groups in neighboring Chad, where many of his mercenaries reportedly originate. However, it appears that many of the mercenaries were untrained peasants who were offered jobs, only to be flown into a war zone and asked to fight or else be killed. The government recruits Libyans abroad. Libyans studying in the US have received phone calls from the Libyan embassy urging them to take part in pro-Gaddafi demonstrations or lose government-funded scholarships. Gaddafi has a history of

financing rallies in the US, including paying reportedly $2000 to every attendant in a proGaddafi rally when he visited the United Nations in 2009.

Censorship International journalists were banned by the Libyan authorities from reporting from Libya except by invitation of the Gaddafi government. Additionally, reports suggest that the Internet is widely disrupted. On 13 February, Gaddafi warned against the use of Facebook, and security organisations arrested several prominent internet activists and bloggers. The novelist Idris al-Mesmari was arrested hours after giving an interview with Al Jazeera about the police reaction to protests in Benghazi on 15 February. Rolling Internet censorship occurred mostly but not entirely at night; all Internet traffic was abruptly lost on 18 February. Furthermore, some satellite phones were jammed. By 8 March, the government had allowed a large number of foreign reporters into Tripoli, however the journalists have complained of having their movements restricted and the government has complained of biased reporting. A BBC News crew was beaten and then lined up against a wall by Gaddafi's soldiers, who then shot next to a journalist's ear and laughed at them.

Government media campaign Throughout the uprising, Gaddafi has been able to use the state owned television channel, Al-Jamahiriya, to appear as if he and his forces are in control and to craft a progovernment message. For example, channels that appeal to Libyan youth have broadcast Libyans reciting Gaddafi's historical accomplishments and patriotic songs. On 8 March, the state television broadcast what appeared to be Gaddafi loyalists celebrating in Martyrs' Square in Zawiyah; however, analysis determined that the footage was actually shot elsewhere, outside of Zawiyah. Analysts speculate that this effort at propaganda may not have much of an effect with a population that is accustomed to such tactics.

Chapter 9

National Transitional Council

Transitional National Council of the Libyan Republic ‫يلاقتنالا ينطولا سلجملا‬ al-majlis al-waṭanī al-intiqālī

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto: Freedom, Justice, Democracy

Brown: Districts under NTC control. Green: Districts under Gaddafi control. Blue: Districts with no-overall control.

Claimed: Tripoli

Capital

Temporary headquarters: Benghazi

Official language(s) Demonym Government - Chairman of the Transitional National Council Interim Prime Minister

Arabic (de facto) Libyan

Mustafa Abdul Jalil Mahmoud Jebril

Establishment -

2011 Libyan uprising

17 February 2011

National Council established

27 February 2011

The Transitional National Council (Arabic: ‫يلاقتنالا ينطولا سلجملا‬, al-majlis alwaṭanī al-intiqālī), also known as The Interim Transitional National Council or the Libyan National Council, is a body formed by anti-Gaddafi rebels during the 2011 uprising in Libya. Its formation was announced in the city of Benghazi on 27 February 2011 and its intended purpose is to act as the "political face of the revolution". On 5 March 2011, the council issued a statement in which it declared itself to be the "sole representative of all Libya". An interim government was formed by the council on 23 March 2011. The council refers to the state as the Libyan Republic while the Gaddafi government's name for Libya is the "Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya".

Background 2011 uprising After popular movements overturned the rulers of Tunisia and Egypt, its immediate neighbours to the west and east, Libya experienced a full-scale uprising beginning in February 2011. By 20 February, the unrest had spread to Tripoli. As of late February 2011, much of Libya had slipped out of Gaddafi's control, falling to the Anti-Gaddafi forces. Eastern Libya, centered around the second city and vital port of Benghazi, was firmly under the control of the opposition. The opposition began to organise themselves into a functioning government.

Early efforts to form a government

Opposition meeting in Al Bayda, 24 February 2011 On 24 February 2011, politicians, former military officers, tribal leaders, academics and businessmen held a meeting in the eastern city of Al Bayda. The meeting was chaired by former justice minister Mustafa Abdul Jalil, who quit the government a few days before. The delegates discussed proposals for interim administration with many delegates asking for UN intervention in Libya. The podium at the meeting displayed the pre-Jamahiriya flag. On 25 February 2011, Al-Jazeera TV reported that talks are taking place between "personalities from eastern and western Libya" to form an interim government for the post-Gaddafi era. On 26 February, it was reported that former justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil was leading the process of forming an interim body, to be based in Benghazi. Mr Abud Al Jeleil stated that "Gaddafi alone bore responsibility for the crimes that have occurred" in Libya; he also insisted on the unity of Libya and that Tripoli is the capital. The efforts to form an alternative government have been supported by the Libyan ambassador in the United States, Ali Suleiman Aujali. The Libyan deputy ambassador to the United Nations, Ibrahim Omar Al Dabashi, has stated that he supported a new alternative government "in principle".

Establishment of a national council A National Transitional Council was formed on 27 February 2011 to act as "the political face of the revolution". Its spokesman Hafiz Ghoga made clear at the launch press conference that the national council is not a provisional government and Ghoga also added that the newly formed council was not contacting foreign governments and did not want them to intervene. He later clarified that an airstrike mandated by the United Nations would not be considered a foreign intervention. An Al Jazeera English journalist in Benghazi has reported that a fully fledged interim government will not be formed until Tripoli is under opposition control. This is in contrast to claims made by former justice minister Mustafa Abdul Jalil on the previous

day about the formation of a provisional government. These comments have now been clarified by the council as his "personal views". On 5 March 2011, the council issued a statement in which it declared itself to be the "sole representative of all Libya". It was also stated that Mustafa Abdul Jalil was chairperson of the council.

Formation of a transitional government On 23 March the council established a transitional government, and Mahmoud Jibril was appointed as interim Prime Minister, claiming that the council serves as the "legislative body", and the government will serve as the "Executive body". Jebril is known to be leading the meeting and negotiations with French President Nicolas Sarkozy, a meeting that resulted in France officially recognizing the council as the sole representative of the Libyan people.

Aims and objectives of the national council The "Declaration of the founding of the Transitional National Council" states the main aims of the council are as follows:    

  

Ensure the safety of the national territory and citizens Coordination of national efforts to liberate the rest of the Libya Support the efforts of local councils to work for the restoration of normal civilian life Supervise of the Military Council to ensure the achievement of the new doctrine of the Libyan People's Army in the defense of the people and protect the borders of Libya Facilitate the election of a constituent assembly to draft a new constitution for the country; be put to a popular referendum Form a transitional government to pave the holding of free elections Guide the conduct of foreign policy, and the regulation of relations with other countries and international and regional organizations, and the representation of the Libyan people

In another statement clarifying the goals for a post-Gaddafi Libya, the council has committed itself an eight-point plan to hold free and fair elections, draft a national constitution, form political and civil institutions, uphold intellectual and political pluralism, and guarantee citizens' inalienable human rights and the ability of free expression of their aspirations. The council also emphasized its rejection of racism, intolerance, discrimination, and terrorism.

Council structure and membership Transitional National Council (legislative body)

Transitional National Council ‫يلاقتنالا ينطولا سلجملا‬, al-majlis al-waṭanī al-intiqālī Type Unicameral

Type

Leadership Chairman

Mustafa Abdul Jalil

Deputy Chairman

Abdul Hafiz Ghoga

Members

31 members Meeting place Benghazi, Libya (interim)

The Transitional National Council is a 31 member body that claims to be the "only legitimate body representing the people of Libya and the Libyan state". Al Jazeera English reported that each city or town under opposition control will be given five seats on the new council and that contact will be established with new cities that come under opposition control to allow them to join the council. The identities of members of the council were not disclosed at the launch conference. What is known is that human rights lawyer Hafiz Ghoga is the spokesperson for the new council. An Al Jazeera English journalist in Benghazi stated that Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil still had a leadership role within the new council. The Council declared that Jeleil is the head of the council. The council met formally for the first time on 5 March 2011 when it was announced that the council has 31 members. The names of some of the members are being kept secret to prevent threats to their families that are still in Government held areas of Libya. Membership of the council The council has 31 members; the identities of several members has not been made public to protect their own safety. The members of the council include:   

Mustafa Abdul Jalil - Chairman of the Council Abdul Hafiz Ghoga - Deputy Chairman of the Council and Spokesman Othman Suleiman El-Megyrahi - Batnan Area

      

Ashour Hamed Bourashed - Darna City Abdelallah Moussa El-myehoub - Qouba Area Ahmed Abduraba Al-Abaar - Benghazi City Fathi Mohamed Baja - Benghazi City Abdelhafed Abdelkader Ghoga - Benghazi City Zubiar Ahmed El-Sharif - Representative of Political Prisoners Fathi Tirbil and Dr. Salwa Fawzi El-Deghali - Representative of Youth and Women

Interim government (executive body) On 5 March 2011, a crisis committee was set up to act as the executive arm of the council. A transitional government was announced on 23 March 2011. The executive body consists of:    

Mahmoud Jebril – Interim Prime Minister Omar El-Hariri – Minister of Military Affairs Ali al-Essawi – Minister of Foreign Affairs Ali Tarhouni – Minister of Finance

Other ministers are yet to be announced.

Local government In opposition-held Benghazi, a 15 member "local committee" made up of lawyers, judges and respected local people has been formed in order to provide civic administration and public services within the city. Residents have organised to direct traffic and collect refuse. Many shops and businesses have opened again. A newspaper and two local radio stations have also been established. Similar "local committees" are being formed in other cities controlled by opposition groups.

Commercial bodies The council has established the following commercial bodies to manage its financial affairs:  

The Central Bank of Benghazi - to act as the "monetary authority competent in monetary policies in Libya" Libyan Oil Company - to act as the "supervisory authority on oil production and policies in the country"

Armed forces The Anti-Gaddafi forces is a Libyan armed force which was constituted during the 2011 Libyan civil war by defected military members in order to engage in battle against both remaining members of the Libyan Armed Forces and paramilitary loyal to the rule of Muammar Gaddafi. The Libyan People's Army is the army. The Free Libyan Air Force is the NTCs air arm, with assets including captured/defected fighter jets and helicopters.

Foreign relations Foreign policy In its 5 March 2011 "Founding Statement", the Council stated, "Furthermore, we request from the international community to fulfill its obligations to protect the Libyan people from any further genocide and crimes against humanity without any direct military intervention on Libyan soil." Ali Al-Eisawi was designated the Council's foreign affairs spokesperson in March 2011.

Recognition Entity

Date of recognition

Status of reciprocal diplomatic relations An Élysée source announces that France plans to send an ambassador to Benghazi.

1

France

10 March 2011

2

Qatar

28 March 2011

3

Portugal

-

4

Arab League

-

On 29 March, A French official told AFP that Antoine Sivan, a French diplomat, is on his way to Benghazi to represent France as an ambassador.

The Portuguese government has yet to issue a formal statement. Stated the council represents the Libyan people, and will establish communication channels

International response Countries The council has stated that it would like to be recognised by the international community. The Chair of the Council told Al Jazeera that “there are official contacts with European and Arab [countries]”.

Most of the following countries have expressed their support for the council: 

Bulgaria: Foreign minister Nikolay Mladenov said his country will not recognize the National Transitional Council as a legitimate government, stating that such an action would be against Bulgaria's long-term interests and the safety of its citizens in Libya.



France: On 5 March 2011, French foreign ministry spokesperson Bernard Valero stated France's support for the council saying that France “pledges support for the principles that motivate it and the goals it has set itself”. French foreign minister Alain Juppé referred to Gaddafi's actions as “criminal folly”.



Italy: On 28 February 2011, Italian foreign minister Franco Frattini said that (at this time) "only Italy has contacts with the new Libyan National Council". Italian government has supported the UN resolution and has stated their willingness to support and participate on international military intervention.



Portugal: Portugal has recognized the National Transition Council as the government of Libya, but the government has yet to release an official statement.



Qatar: On 28 March, 2011, the government of Qatar recognized the National Transitional council as the sole legitimate representative of the Libyan people.



United Kingdom: On 5 March 2011, Defence Secretary Liam Fox stated that “a small British diplomatic team” was in Benghazi. On 10 March, Britain and France released a statement calling on Europe to recognize the National Transitional Council.



United States: Secretary of State Hillary Clinton indicated she is to meet antiGaddafi opposition leaders during an upcoming trip to Egypt and Tunisia. After a meeting between Clinton and representatives of the council, the European Union and the U.S have decided to talk to the council without officially recognizing them, in order to seek further information on the group and its goals. On 17 March 2011, ahead of a U.N vote on a no-fly zone, Under Secretary of State William Burns affirmed U.S support for a no-fly zone, as well as more aggressive measures to restrain Gaddhafi. He stated that the U.S is investigating transferring Gaddhafi's frozen assets to the rebels to help them to acquire weapons, and that the National Transitional Council may open an embassy in Washington. On 29 March, the U.S. confirmed that it will send a formal representative to Bengazi. The confirmation came after a conference in London, where the council's Prime Minister met with Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, as well as with other participating countries in the conference.

International organisations The following organisations have expressed their support for the council: 

Arab League: Reports indicate that the Arab League had been involved in a move by "a European leader close to Gaddafi" to encourage Gaddafi to leave Libya in return for him not being prosecuted for his actions against the population. The Arab League voted for a no-fly zone at a special meeting in Cairo. The National Transitional Council was said to have given its consent, and Amr Moussa, secretary general of the Arab League had been speaking to the National Transitional Council's head, Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil, for the first time. Following a special meeting of foreign ministers held on 12 March 2011, the Arab League voted to ask the United Nations to establish a no-fly zone over Libya. The league also declared that the Gaddafi regime had "lost its legitimacy" and that it would instead "cooperate with the national council". Libya is currently suspended from the proceedings of the Arab League.



Gulf Cooperation Council: GCC have issued a statement that Gaddafi and his regime have lost their legitimacy and that they will form a relationship with the National Transitional Council.



European Union - EU leaders at a summit expressed political backing for the Libyan National Council. The Commission President José Manuel Barroso stated that "The problem has a name: Gaddafi. He must go". EU leaders also announced it would cut off all ties with Gaddafi and would instead deal with the council. After a meeting between Clinton and representatives of the council, the EU and the U.S have decided to talk to the council without officially recognizing them, in order to seek further information on the group and its goals.

Individuals The following individuals have expressed their support for the council: 





Ibrahim Al-Dabashi, Deputy Libyan ambassador to the U.N, has stated that he is now representing the National Transitional Council. Prior to the establishment of the council, he along with the whole Libyan mission to the U.N have stated they no longer represent Gaddafi and now represent the Libyan people. Mohammed El Senussi, Current Pretender to the Libyan Throne, stated he supports the National Transitional Council as long as they continue to act in the best interest of the Libyan people. Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Egyptian Islamist Sheikh, declared his support for the rebels led by the Council in the 2011 Libyan uprising, urging Arab nations to recognize the Council and “to confront the tyranny of the regime in Tripoli". He suggested weapons be sent to the rebels to assist the, and said “Our Islamic nation should stand against injustice and corruption and I urge the Egyptian government to extend a helping hand to Libyan people and not to Gaddafi.”

Military intervention United Nations resolution 1973 authorized a multi-national effort to establish a no-fly zone. On 19 March, British, French and United States air forces began attacking targets in Gaddafi-controlled Libya, thereby initiating UN military intervention.

Chapter 10

International Reactions to the 2011 Military Intervention in Libya

The international reactions to the 2011 military intervention in Libya are the responses to the ongoing military intervention in Libya by NATO and allied forces to impose a no-fly zone. The intervention was authorized by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, approved in New York on 17 March, in response to the civil uprising in the North African state. Overall response from governments has generally been split between strong opposition, both from allies of longtime Libyan leader Muammar al-Gaddafi and from governments that generally oppose international military action; conditional support; and strong support, mostly from Western nations and established critics of Gaddafi.

Supranational 

African Union – A committee of five member states, comprised of officials from Mali, Mauritania, the Republic of the Congo, South Africa, and Uganda, was denied entry to Libya after the UN Security Council voted to establish a no-fly zone over the country. The ad hoc panel demanded an immediate end to the attacks on Libya.



Arab League – The Secretary General of the Arab League, Amr Moussa, on 20 March said that the Arab League had wanted "the protection of civilians and not the shelling of more civilians", but on 21 March reiterated his support for the operation, something that is in accordance with what he said on 20 March, concerning the civilian casualties caused by the foreign intervention.



Gulf Cooperation Council – The secretary-general of the GCC strongly endorsed the use of international force in Libya on 21 March, lauding coalition forces for "protecting the people from bloodshed". GCC member state Qatar is joining coalition efforts to enforce the no-fly zone.



Intergovernmental Authority on Development - The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) described the military intervention in Libya as an open invitation to terrorists. IGAD said, "Our fear is that what is happening now in Libya may motivate terrorist groups in Somalia, Afghanistan and Iraq to regroup on African soil.”

Governments Middle East 

Algeria – The Movement of Society for Peace, a Muslim Brotherhood-linked pro-government party in Algiers, called upon the coalition to halt military strikes against targets in Libya and urged the Arab League to affirm a "crystal clear and frank position on the side of the Libyan people". At a press conference after meeting with President Abdulaziz Bouteflika, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov said that Russia and Algeria both oppose the international intervention in Libya on principle. On 21 March, Algerian Foreign Minister Mourad Medelci said his government believes "this intervention to be disproportionate in relation to the objective set out by the United Nations Security Council resolution" and demanded "an immediate cessation of hostilities and foreign intervention."



Azerbaijan – An official in the office of President Ilham Aliyev recommended that the government formally approve of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, saying, "Ensuring the security of civilians in Libya is, of course, an important issue," though he complained that the UN was acting swiftly to stop Gaddafi's alleged crimes but was not making the same effort to enforce resolutions on Nagorno-Karabakh that the Azerbaijani government contends its neighbor Armenia has violated.



Egypt – After the UN Security Council voted to establish a Libyan no-fly zone, Egypt declined to join in enforcement, despite having the largest military in the Arab League and voting with that body to endorse the no-fly zone's creation. Foreign Minister Nabil Elaraby said Egypt was choosing to stay out of the conflict due to the large number of Egyptian nationals in Libya. Presidential candidate Amr Moussa, the head of the Arab League, described airstrikes against Gaddafi's military in support of the UN mandate as "bombardment of civilians ... [that] led to the deaths and injuries of many Libyan civilians" and said he intended to call an emergency meeting of the Arab League, multiple members of which are now involved in enforcing the no-fly zone, to respond to the situation.



Iran – On 21 March, Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei accused the West to have "come after Libyan oil". He also stressed that "Iran utterly condemns the behaviour of the Libyan government against its people, the killings and pressure on people, and the bombing of its cities... but it (also) condemns the military action in Libya". Khamenei stated that he preferred arming the rebels rather than bombing the country Iran's Ambassador to the UN Mohammad

Khazaei said on 17 March 2011: "Iran has showed that it is not interested in meddling in any country's internal affairs, nor wants military presence, and thus condemns any such actions." 

Iraq – A spokesman for the Iraqi government told Reuters on 21 March that Baghdad backs the military intervention that followed "to protect the Libyan people". Powerful Shia cleric Moqtada al-Sadr, however, criticized both the international action and the Gaddafi regime, saying the government in Tripoli should relinquish power but warning that airstrikes could cause civilian casualties.



Israel – The government endorsed the intervention. Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu said, "Western intervention in Libya will have a positive ripple effect in Iran and elsewhere in the region". Netanyahu also said "I would expect that the world put similar pressure on Iran. Iran is at least equal to Libya, and I believe that its importance is even greater."



Jordan – The government was party to an international summit on 19 March in Paris to weigh military intervention in Libya after the UN Security Council voted to create a no-fly zone over the country, but a government spokesman said Jordan's armed forces would not be involved in enforcing the UN mandate. Prime Minister David Cameron announced Jordan would be making a "logistical contribution" to international military efforts in Libya.



Kuwait – The government approved of the creation of the no-fly zone. UK Prime Minister David Cameron announced Kuwait would be making a "logistical contribution" to international military efforts in Libya.



Lebanon – Lebanon introduced and voted for United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, claiming to act on behalf of the Arab League.



Libyan Arab Jamahiriya – Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi, defacto leader of regime, called the air strikes "terrorism" and said he and his supporters would fight "crusaders" and "imperialists" to the death. The head of the General People's Congress, Mohamed Abu Al-Quasim al-Zwai, called the attacks "barbaric". State media has consistently reported that airstrikes have targeted "military and civilian" areas, and the government alleges around 100 civilian deaths have been caused by international forces. The regime accused coalition powers of "trying to push the country to the brink of a civil war" and alleged the airstrikes are intended to help the rebels, not protect civilians.



Mauritania – President Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz condemned international intervention in Libya after France, the United States, and the United Kingdom spearheaded airstrikes against Gaddafi's forces in support of a UN mandate.



Morocco – The government was party to international talks in Paris on 19 March to discuss how to implement the UN mandate in Libya after the UN Security Council voted for a no-fly zone.



Qatar – The government confirmed it was dispatching Qatari Air Force fighter jets to Libya on 20 March. "Qatar will take part in the military operation out of belief in the need for Arab states to contribute, for the situation has become unbearable in Libya," Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani said.



Tunisia – The post-revolution government of Tunisia declined to join international military operations in Libya, with a spokesman saying it was "out of the question".



Turkey – After initially opposing international intervention in Libya, on 20 March, the Foreign Ministry released a statement after the UN Security Council voted to impose a no-fly zone over the North African state saying "Turkey will make the necessary and appropriate national contribution on grounds that the operation will protect the interest of the Libyan people ... and provide them salvation". Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu, who leads the opposition Republican People's Party, endorsed international military action in Libya, saying, "If the United Nations has passed such a resolution, then this [operation] has gained international legitimacy," and praising Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's shift toward supporting the no-fly zone and other measures. The Great Union Party's leader said Turkey should not allow international forces to use its base at İncirlik as a staging ground for operations in Libya. On 21 March, Turkey's representative to NATO blocked the alliance, many members of which have already deployed forces to the Mediterranean for action in Libya, from formally joining enforcement of the Libyan no-fly zone, though Turkey voted along with the rest of NATO members for enforcement of a less controversial arms embargo. A deal was ultimately reached through intensive negotiations between Ankara, London, Paris, and Washington for NATO to assume responsibility for the no-fly zone as well.



United Arab Emirates – The United Arab Emirates Air Force was to be involved in enforcing the no-fly zone, but the government opted to narrow its mission to providing humanitarian aid before reversing itself and sending 12 fighter jets to the Mediterranean to support international efforts.

Sub-Saharan Africa 

Chad – President Idriss Déby Itno, who came to power with Libyan help, criticized the Western military intervention, warning it could have "heavy consequences" and worrying about the precedent it set.



Gabon – Gabon voted for the UN resolution imposing a Libyan no-fly zone on 17 March in its capacity as a nonpermanent member of the United Nations Security Council.



Kenya – Vice President Kalonzo Musyoka expressed opposition to international intervention in Libya and said it was "the time for Africa" to negotiate a solution to the crisis in the AU member state. It was unclear whether he was voicing his personal views or representing the position of the Kenyan "unity government" in his comments.



Namibia – President Hifikepunye Pohamba, whose party received support from Muammar Gaddafi during the Namibian War of Independence, condemned the NATO intervention and described the intervention as "interference in internal affairs of Africa." In his official speech he said, "As we celebrate our 21st independence anniversary, our Libyan brothers and sisters are attacked by nonAfrican forces. Namibia reiterates the decisions of the AU Peace Council and Namibia rejects in the strongest terms any interference in internal affairs of Africa."



Nigeria – Nigeria voted for the UN resolution to establish a Libyan no-fly zone in its capacity as a nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council on 17 March.



Rwanda – On 22 March, President Paul Kagame told the BBC Africa Have Your Say programme: "It was the right thing to do. I fully support that. The fact that mistakes were made elsewhere in other instances doesn't make it right not to act in this particular case."



South Africa – South Africa voted for the UN resolution to establish a Libyan no-fly zone in its capacity as a nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council on 17 March. On 21 March, President Jacob Zuma called "for an immediate ceasefire in Libya" and demanded that "operations aimed at enforcing the no-fly zone and protecting civilians should be limited to just that." He also demanded that "the UN Security Council Resolution should be implemented in letter and spirit by all members of the UN Security Council." Some unnamed government officials have voiced concern that three of the five African Union states on the five-nation ad hoc panel, which South Africa is a member of, intended to mediate the crisis are "financially reliant" upon Gaddafi and his regime. They reportedly questioned whether Pretoria should be party to the five-nation panel.



Uganda – President Yoweri Museveni on 21 March accused Western nations of double standards, a thirst for more oil and declared, that he is "totally allergic to foreign, political and military involvement in sovereign countries, especially the African countries." He called upon the Libyan opposition groups, if they are patriots, to fight their war by themselves.



Zimbabwe – On 21 March, President Robert Mugabe sharply condemned international military action in Libya, claiming coalition nations are "vampires" trying to get their hands on the country's oil. The Movement for Democratic Change, led by Prime Minister Morgan Tsvangirai, took a milder tone, calling for a ceasefire.

Americas 

Argentina – Argentina opposed the NATO offensive and said, "all possible diplomatic resources had not been exhausted".



Bolivia – President Evo Morales, the 2006 recipient of the Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights, demanded that U.S. President Barack Obama be stripped of his Nobel Peace Prize for authorizing the attack against Libya.



Brazil – Brazil abstained from voting on United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 and opposed the military intervention in Libya.



Canada – Canada has strongly supported both NATO and the UN with respect to military intervention in Libya. According to Canada's defense minister Peter MacKay, as of March, 2011 Canada has committed six CF-18s, 2 reconnaissance CP-140 Aurora aircraft to the operation as well as 435 military personnel. HMCS Charlottetown has also been dispatched to the area and Lt.-Gen. Charles Bouchard of Canada will take command of the NATO mission in Libya.



Colombia – Colombia, a nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council, voted to approve United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973.



Cuba – The government condemned the NATO military intervention in Libya. A statement issued by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Cuba said, "Conflicts should be resolved through dialogue and negotiation, and not by the use of military force".



Ecuador – President Rafael Correa described the military intervention "unacceptable". A statement issued by the Ecuador's Foreign Ministry said the government "warned that the declaration of a no-fly zone by the Security Council of the United Nations on Libya could lead to a broader intervention."



Paraguay – Foreign Affairs Secretary Jorge Lara Castro said the NATO bombing of Libya "reflects UN weakness, particularly at the Security Council".



Peru – President Alan García expressed support for the NATO intervention. "[The intervention] is demonstrating that international law is fundamental to the coexistence of peoples," García said.



Uruguay – President Jose Mujica opposed the Libya bombings by the NATO coalition, calling them an "inexplicable contradiction".



Venezuela – President Hugo Chávez, the 2004 winner of the Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights, condemned the attacks, calling it an attempt by the West and the U.S. to control the oil in Libya. Chavez said about the NATO intervention, "They are throwing bombs, and those bombs fell down on any place such as a hospital or a house. That is something imperialistic, the indiscriminate bombings."

Asia 

Bangladesh – Out of concern for Bangladeshis remaining in Libya, a statement from the government said, it asked for coalition forces in the Libyan theatre to interpret their UN mandate conservatively. The statement implored international forces to enact strikes "only when absolutely essential and solely for neutralising military targets". Dhaka also called for an internal solution to the emerging factionalism in Libya.



India – On 17 March, India abstained from voting on the United Nations Security Council resolution to establish a Libyan no-fly zone in its capacity as a nonpermanent member. The Ministry of External Affairs said, "India views with grave concern the continuing violence, strife and deteriorating humanitarian situation in Libya. It regrets the air strikes that are taking place. The measures adopted should mitigate — and not exacerbate — an already difficult situation for the people of the country". India called upon all parties to abjure use of or the threat of use of force and to resolve their differences through peaceful means and dialogue.



Malaysia – The Foreign Ministry issued a statement on 19 March in which it "took note" of the resolution and expressed its hopes for a cessation of violence. In a statement published 26 March, the minority Socialist Party of Malaysia said it "strongly denounces the imperialistic military intervention in Libya" and accused "Western imperialist powers" of trying to control Libyan oil and halt the momentum of the Middle Eastern and North African revolutionary wave.



North Korea – The government denounced its longtime nemesis, the United States, for the military intervention in Libya. In an interview with the Korean Central News Agency (KCNA), a Foreign Ministry spokesperson described the military intervention as "infringement on national sovereignty" and "inhumane crime against the people of Libya".



Pakistan – The Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement on 22 March, saying, "Peaceful political solution needs to be evolved by the Libyan people themselves in the spirit of mutual accommodation and national reconciliation." The statement also called Gaddafi's claims of civilian deaths resulting from

coalition airstrikes "extremely distressing". On 28 March, Foreign Secretary Salman Bashir criticized the United Nations over the passage of the resolution and singled out the Australian government specifically for supporting it, saying, "It's one thing to pontificate from afar and quite another to actually understand a society you're trying to change. Pakistan will react very strongly against any attempt to intervene in the internal events of a sovereign nation." Bashir insisted that "the UN must respect the sovereignty of states and abide by the principle of non-interference and non-intervention" and called the no-fly zone "a mistake". 

People's Republic of China – On 17 March, the People's Republic of China abstained from voting on,rather than use its veto to block, the United Nations Security Council resolution to establish a Libyan no-fly zone. The Foreign Ministry said that it has "serious reservations" about a UN decision calling for a no-fly zone over Libya and regretted the military strike against Libya. Along with Russia, the PRC said the resolution's backers failed to explain adequately how the no-fly zone would work and what the rules of engagement would be.



Sri Lanka – Foreign Affairs Minister G. L. Peiris said, "The government does not approve air strikes on Libya since they cause suffering to the people of that country."



Vietnam – A Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesperson said, "Viet Nam is deeply concerned about the escalating tension and recent military activities in Libya with many consequences to the lives of Libyan people and regional peace and stability. Viet Nam urges the parties concerned to exercise restraint, put an early end to military activities, promote dialogue and seek peaceful solutions in line with the United Nations Charter and the principles of international law and the respect of the independence and sovereignty of states."

Europe 

Albania – Prime Minister Sali Berisha supports the decision of the coalition to protect civilians from the Libyan regime of Gaddafi. In a press release of the Prime Ministry, these operations are considered entirely legitimate, having as main objective the protection of freedoms and universal rights that Libyans deserve. Berisha said his country is ready to help.



Belarus – A statement issued by the Foreign Ministry said, "The missile strikes and bombings on the territory of Libya go beyond Resolution 1973 of the UN Security Council and are in breach of its principal goal, ensuring safety of civilian population. The Republic of Belarus calls on the states involved with the military operation to cease, with immediate effect, the military operations which lead to human casualties. The settlement of the conflict is an internal affair of Libya and should be carried out by the Libyan people alone without military intervention from outside."



Belgium – The government committed several F-16 Fighting Falcon jets and at least one ship to aid in enforcing the UN mandate in Libya.



Bosnia and Herzegovina – On 17 March, Bosnia and Herzegovina voted for a United Nations Security Council resolution to establish a Libyan no-fly zone in its capacity as a nonpermanent member.



Bulgaria – Prime Minister Boyko Borisov made an official statement supporting the resolution and called for Gaddafi to step down, but told TV7 that the intervention was an "adventure" oil grab by the western powers. President Georgi Purvanov criticised the intervention, and said that NATO should have had a unanimous support for it. Foreign Minister Nikolai Mladenov dissented from Purvanov's position, calling the president's comments "absurd" and criticising him for airing his misgivings publicly.



Croatia – President Ivo Josipović said that if it becomes necessary Croatia will honour its NATO membership and participate in the actions in Libya. He also stressed that while Croatia is ready for military participation according to its capabilities, it will mostly endeavor to help on the humanitarian side.



Czech Republic – On 20 March, Foreign Minister Karel Schwarzenberg said the EU should not "get involved too much", adding, "If Gaddafi falls, then there will be bigger catastrophes in the world. It's no use for anyone if we intervene there loudly, just to prove our own importance." The next day, Schwarzenberg appeared to backtrack after facing criticism for allegedly boosting Gaddafi, saying, "At the moment, as long as the weapons are speaking, we can only hope and urge for this [conflict] to stop." The Czech Republic supports the EU's call for an "immediate end" to violence against civilians in Libya. President Václav Klaus is against the no-fly zone over Libya, saying enforcing a no-fly zone effectively constitutes a war.



Denmark – On 19 March, the Danish Parliament voted unanimously to send fighter jets to enforce the no-fly zone, marking the only time so far in the nation's history that military commitment was supported by full parliamentary unity.



Finland – Minister for Foreign Affairs Alexander Stubb said his government has "considered" participating in coalition efforts in Libya, but ruled out sending the Finnish Air Force's F/A-18 Hornets to enforce the no-fly zone and said he did not see a role for Finland in the coalition. President Tarja Halonen explained, "We are not, in this respect, a country that really specialises in air forces." She also warned, "Any use of force casts long shadows," opining that the international intervention could stretch on for "longer than we now believe".



Germany – Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle was skeptical of the no-fly zone and on 15 March called the idea "potentially dangerous" although he recommended greater political pressure be put on the Libyan leader. Accordingly

Germany, in 2011 being a non-permanent member of the UN security council, abstained from resolution 1973 on Libya. This decision was criticised from various political sides in Germany, including his CDU coalition partners, saying it was a "mistake of historical dimension". 

Hungary – Foreign Minister János Martonyi said that Hungary "is glad that this decree came to life, the UN made the right decision". He also noted that he wished such a decision would have been made sooner to save more civilian lives. Hungary hold the Presidency of the Council of the European Union at these times.



Latvia – Foreign Minister Ģirts Valdis Kristovskis affirmed his government's support for the UN resolution, saying it was "unacceptable for the international community to remain in an observer's role" during the crisis. "The people of Libya ... should themselves decide their future, and therefore conditions should be put in place for them to do so freely," Kristovskis added. He also praised NATO's decision to take over international operations in the Libyan theater, saying it "raises hope that a sustainable solution will be achieved".



Luxembourg – On 24 March, Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker said his government "generally welcomes" the resolution, to which he insisted on "strict adherence" on the part of coalition forces. Juncker added that he wanted NATO to take control of coalition military efforts in Libya as soon as possible.



Macedonia – In a statement dated 21 March, the government in Skopje said it "supports and joins" efforts to enforce the UN mandate in Libya and called for a "peaceful and sustainable solution" to the political crisis in the country.



Malta – President George Abela expressed strong support for the no-fly zone, telling The Australian on 27 March that "it has eliminated Gaddafi’s air force", though he fretted the intervention might not have been "timely enough".



Netherlands – On 22 March, the Netherlands agreed to aid military involvement. The government will send 6 F-16 Fighting Falcon, a naval ship, a refuelling jet and about 200 personnel to Libya. They will not attack ground targets, but will be helping with maintaining the arms embargo.



Norway – On 19 March, the government authorized the Royal Norwegian Air Force to head for Libya and prepare for missions there. Norway has approved 6 General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon fighters and necessary personnel.



Poland – Prime Minister Donald Tusk announced that Polish soldiers would not take military action in Libya, although he voiced support for the UN Resolution and pledged to offer logistical support.



Russia – Russia abstained from voting on a UN Security Council resolution to create a no-fly zone over Libya rather than use its veto to block the resolution.

Days late, the Foreign Ministry said that it noted "with regret this armed action, taken in conjunction with the hastily passed U.N. Security Council Resolution 1973". On 21 March, Prime Minister Vladimir Putin described the resolution as "defective and flawed" stating that it "resembles medieval calls for crusades", comments that were later called “unacceptable” by President Dmitry Medvedev. On the same day Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov commented after a meeting with the Secretary-General of the Arab League, Amr Moussa, that Moscow supported the Arab League resolution which had called for a no-fly zone over Libya. 

Serbia – The government issued a statement saying that Serbia is deeply concerned about the situation in Libya, especially the risks to the lives of civilians. The statement said that Serbia calls for the respect of UN Security Council Resolution 1973 and international humanitarian law in order to immediately stop civilian deaths and further demolition of the country and that Serbia fully endorses Libya’s territorial integrity and wholeness. Foreign Minister Vuk Jeremić called on all three sides to immediately put an end to all military operations for the sake of protecting civilian lives. The ruling party representative MP in the National Assembly stated that while Serbia has a clear position to advocate for the respect of human rights it has a reason to believe that bombing a country is not the happiest way to reach the realization of human rights.



Slovenia – The government "welcomed" the adoption of the resolution, which neighboring Bosnia and Herzegovina voted to approve, by the United Nations Security Council.



Sweden – Foreign Minister Carl Bildt announced that his government would consider military action in support of a no-fly zone if it is requested by NATO. On 29 March, the government approved the deployment of JAS 39 Gripen multirole jet fighters to Libya to enforce the no-fly zone, though it included the stipulation that they will not be used to carry out airstrikes unless they are targeted by surface-to-air missiles or anti-aircraft artillery.



Switzerland – The government "recognized" the UN Security Council's decision to mandate action on 18 March. Defence Minister Ueli Maurer said he didn't think the no-fly zone or airstrikes would be sufficient to stop Gaddafi. Maurer said he supported the resolution but wanted Switzerland to remain neutral in the conflict. Foreign Minister Micheline Calmy-Rey said that the Swiss policy of neutrality extended to the conflict, though she suggested that allowing coalition aircraft to use Swiss airspace for conducting operations over Libya was not a violation of that policy.



Ukraine – In a statement on 21 March, President Viktor Yanukovych acknowledged the resolution and said Ukraine would comply with its provisions, but expressed caution and reiterated Kiev's opposition to any effort by a foreign power to occupy Libya. Ukraine, he added, would continue to focus on efforts to

evacuate civilians and nationals of Ukraine and its allies from Libya. "It is fundamentally important for us that even despite the establishment of a no-fly zone over the territory of Libya, all the possibilities of providing humanitarian aid and evacuation of civilians were preserved," Yanukovych said. 

United Kingdom – On 21 March, Parliament voted 557 to 13 in favour of the military involvement. A ComRes/ITN survey found that only one in three UK citizens agree with the decision to take military action in Libya although the Londoners polled in the survey "agreed they would like to see Gaddafi removed, but not through bombing" and most polled praised Prime Minister David Cameron. A poll by YouGov a few days later showed that more of the British public supported the no-fly zone than not.

Oceania 

Australia – After the creation of a no-fly zone, which Foreign Minister Kevin Rudd vocally supported, Prime Minister Julia Gillard voiced strong support for international military action in the skies above Libya, though Defence Minister Stephen Smith said he does not expect Australia will send military assets to the theatre beyond possibly supplying humanitarian efforts with Royal Australian Air Force transport planes like the C-17 Globemaster.



New Zealand – Foreign Minister Murray McCully praised the United Nations Security Council's vote to create of a no-fly zone over Libya, but added that he worried "it will be a case of too little too late". Prime Minister John Key also lauded the vote and international efforts in Libya, noting that New Zealand is adopting sanctions against Gaddafi's regime, but said he doesn't think New Zealand has much to offer in military assets for the no-fly zone. Although Key said he would not commit military support, he said, "It's quite clear that Gaddafi has been undertaking violence against his people, it's abhorrent, we want to see that end, and we do want to see a smooth and peaceful transition to a new leader." Labour Party leader Phil Goff echoed the government's support for intervention and said a solution should be sought as so not to leave the conflict at an "impasse".

Non-UN member governments 

Libyan Republic – The National Transitional Council in Benghazi asked for international support and has been vocally appreciative of coalition efforts, though Chairman Mustafa Abdul Jalil complained to Al Jazeera during the Second Battle of Benghazi about perceived delays in action by the combined air forces, saying, "The international community is late in intervening to save civilians from Gaddafi's forces." The militia has taken advantage of coalition airstrikes, retaking Ajdabiya, Brega, Uqayla, and Ras Lanouf on its push westward from Benghazi. A spokesman for the council said representatives of the

interim government are consulted by military commanders of the coalition forces in an effort to coordinate airstrikes with militia movements and local intelligence. 

Republic of China – The government warned Gaddafi to comply with United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973.



Vatican City – Pope Benedict XVI called for an immediate ceasefire by all sides. "I appeal to international organisations and those with political and military responsibilities to immediately launch a dialogue to suspend the use of arms," the pope said in the Vatican.

Individuals Muslim Brotherhood-linked Egyptian scholar Yusuf al-Qaradawi expressed his support for the no-fly zone put in place by the United Nations over Libya, saying, "The operation in Libya is to protect the civilians from Gaddafi’s tyranny." Qaradawi also slammed Arab League leader and likely presidential candidate Amr Moussa for remarks criticizing the international intervention. Former Mozambican President Joaquim Chissano expressed "uncertainty" toward the nofly zone imposed by the UN Security Council. "The military measures should not damage the people more than the regime," Chissano said. The leader of the Muslim general council in Tanzania called international military intervention in support of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, a measure that received the votes of three fellow African states on 17 March EST, an attack on Islam and described it as "barbaric" and a "massacre". The council called for an immediate ceasefire.

Chapter 11

Timeline of the 2011 Libyan Civil War

Map of Libya

• Cities controlled by pro-Gaddafi forces • Cities controlled by anti-Gaddafi forces

(supported by coalition forces)

• Ongoing fighting/unclear situation (situation as of 29 March 2011) The 2011 Libyan civil war began on 15 February 2011 as a civil protest and has since become a widespread uprising. On 25 February, most of Libya was reported to be under the control of the Libyan opposition and not the government of Muammar al-Gaddafi. Gaddafi remained in control of Tripoli, Sirte and Sabha. However, by 15 March, government forces had retaken more than half a dozen lost cities. Except for most of Cyrenaica and a few towns, including Az Zawiyah, in Tripolitania the majority of cities had returned to government control. On 17 March, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution which authorized member states "to take all necessary measures… to protect civilians and civilian populated areas under threat of attack in the Libyan Arab Jamhariya, including Benghazi, while excluding an occupation force". Following the implementation of the no-fly zone, the Battle of Ajdabiya and the Second Battle of Benghazi, the rebels recovered all territory lost in the loyalist offensive. As of 30 March, out of Libya's twenty-two districts, 12 were under government control, seven were under rebel control, and three were contested territories.

Early phase 15 February 

In the evening approximately 200 people began demonstrating in front of the police headquarters in Benghazi following the arrest of human-rights activist Fathi Terbil. They were joined by others later who totaled between 500 to 600 protesters. The protest was broken up violently by police, causing as many as forty injuries among the protesters.



In Al Bayda and Az Zintan, hundreds of protesters called for "the end of the regime" and set fire to police and security buildings. In Az Zintan, the protesters set up tents in the town center.

16 February 

Protests continued in Benghazi, where hundreds of protesters gathered at Maydan al-Shajara before security services tried to disperse the crowd using water cannons. After clashes between the two groups, the police left. Al-Yawm estimated a crowd of more than 1,500 people attempting to storm the internal

security building in Al Bayda. The protesters set fire to two cars and burnt down the headquarters of the traffic police. In the ensuing clashes with police six people died and three were injured. In Al-Quba, more than 400 protesters over a wide range of ages set fire to the police station. Protests were also reported in Darnah and Az Zintan, though there were no injuries. 

Pro-government rallies of many dozens of loyalists and Tripolitanian people also took place.



Reportedly as a response to the demonstrations, Libya released 110 members of the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group from prison on 16 February.

17 February - Day of Revolt 

Libyans called for a "Day of Revolt." The National Conference for the Libyan Opposition stated that "all" groups opposed to Gaddafi both within Libya and in exile planned the protests in memory of the demonstrations in Benghazi on 17 February 2006 that were initially against the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons, but which turned into protests against Gaddafi.



In Benghazi, the government released thirty prisoners from jail, armed them and paid them to fight against protesters. Several demonstrators were killed by snipers and gunfire from helicopters. The Evening Standard and Al Jazeera English estimated that fourteen people were killed. The latter reported that an eyewitness saw six unarmed protesters shot dead by police. The BBC reported that "at least 15 people" were killed in the clashes. Furthermore, .50 calibre sniper ammunition was used against protesters.



Libya al-Youm reported that four people were shot dead by sniper fire in Al Bayda and a Libyan human-rights group reported thirteen people had been killed. In Ajdabiya and Darnah at least ten and six protesters were killed by police, respectively. Protests also took place across Tripoli and in Zentan, where a number of government buildings including a police station were set on fire.

18 February 

Thousands of anti-government protesters gathered in front of the Benghazi courthouse. According to the BBC News, a "doctor at Benghazi's Jalla hospital" told them that he had "seen 15 bodies – all dead from gunshot wounds" by the time he left the hospital "in the early hours of [the day]". Police and army personnel later withdrew from the city after being overwhelmed by protesters. Some army personnel also joined the protesters; they then seized the local radio station. In Al Bayda, unconfirmed reports indicated that the local police force and riot control units joined the protesters. Two police officers who were accused of shooting protesters were hanged by protesters.



The Libyan government began hiring African mercenaries, mostly from Chad, to support its own forces. It was reported that "they were paid for 5,000 (Dinars) and the latest model cars just to get rid of demonstrators", according to inside sources. Twelve people were killed on the Giuliana Bridge in Benghazi when mercenaries opened fire. Fifty mercenaries and two Libyan conspirators were executed by protesters in Al Bayda. Other conspirators were killed in Derna after protesters captured them, locked them up in a prison, and then burned it down.



The Libyan newspaper Quryna reported that about 1,000 non-political prisoners had escaped from a Benghazi prison. A security source told Agence France-Presse that four inmates were shot dead during a breakout attempt in Tripoli.



The government of Libya initially restricted access to the Internet in the country for several hours, but later imposed a more comprehensive and sustained blackout.

19 February

Opposition protests outside the White House, Washington, D.C. on 19 February 

Widespread protests continued for another day. Demonstrators in Benghazi had reportedly taken control of Benina International Airport early in the day.



The opposition warned civilians of a massacre by the government, unless the international community applied pressure. Witnesses in Libya have reported helicopters firing into crowds of anti-government protesters. The army withdrew from the city of Al Bayda. Human Rights Watch and the Libyan newspaper Quryna said thousands of demonstrators had poured out onto the streets in Benghazi and other eastern cities on 18 February, a day after the clashes in which 49 people were killed, and that some protests were still continuing. Artillery, helicopter gunships and antiaircraft missile launchers were used to kill protesters. Security forces reportedly opened fire at a funeral in Benghazi on Saturday, killing at least fifteen people and injuring scores more. The funeral was to honour protesters killed by security forces during the on-going protests.



A doctor from Benghazi's Al-Jalah Hospital said staff there had received fifteen bodies and were treating numerous people following the shootings at the funeral. "This is not a well-equipped hospital and these injuries come in waves," he said. "All are very serious injuries, involving the head, the chest and the abdomen. They are bullet injuries from high-velocity rifles." The hospital counted forty-four deaths in three days, and was struggling to treat the wounded. The residents of Benghazi told Al Jazeera that at least 200 people had died, while the Human Rights Watch put the countrywide death toll at a "conservative" 104 on the 19th. A bank was looted in Benghazi.



Anti-Gaddafi protests were also reported in Misrata, where thousands of people took part in peaceful protests. They were demonstrating against state brutality and censorship, rather than calling for a change in government.



Both pro- and anti-government protests broke out in other major cities, including Al Bayda, Derna, Tobruk and Misrata.



Several hundred government supporters and party activists took to the streets in large numbers, and security forces prevented large demonstrations against Gaddafi's 42-year-old regime. A bank was wrecked and looted in Tripoli.



According to figures compiled by Agence France-Presse from local sources, at least forty-one people had been killed since demonstrations first started on 15 February. The toll excludes two policemen, newspapers said, who had been hung in Al Bayda on 18 February. Human Rights Watch, citing phone interviews with hospital staff and eye witnesses, said that security forces had killed more than eighty anti-Gaddafi protesters in eastern Libya. Opposition groups later put the number of dead at over 120. The residents of Benghazi told Al Jazeera that at least 200 people had died while Human Rights Watch put the countrywide death toll at a "conservative" 104. The security forces (troops and police) of Benghazi were in their barracks while the city was in a state of civil mutiny.



Mohamed Abdulmalek, the chairman of the human rights group Libya Watch, commented that the delay of protests in the west was due to the heavy presence of

Libya's State Security Forces and secret police were out there and "not because the people did not want to go out". 

The UK's former Foreign Secretary and Chairman of the Commons Intelligence and Security Committee, Sir Malcolm Rifkind, told BBC Radio 4's Today Programme that the protests across the Middle East were resembling the antiCommunist/pro-democracy events in Eastern Europe of 1989. British Foreign Secretary William Hague said he was "deeply concerned" by the "unacceptable violence" used against protesters.

20 February 

Protests escalated with residents also reporting small protests beginning in Tripoli, indicating a widening of the unrest from the eastern half of the country into Gaddafi's center of power. Hospitals confirmed that they have run out of supplies and doctors estimate the death toll in Benghazi to be between 200 and 300. After the people of Benghazi beat back the police and captured several key military barracks local military brigades joined the protesters. By this time, protesters in Benghazi numbered in the tens of thousands, possibly in the hundreds of thousands. Reports also emerged of pro-Gaddafi militia by the Elfedeel Bu Omar compound "being butchered by angry mobs." Al Jazeera said that protesters were in control of the city as loyalist security forces fled to the airport. Further military units are reported to have defected in order to protect protesters. Several senior Muslim clerics and tribal leaders from around Libya called for an end to the bloodshed by the regime, and for the government to step down. A "spontaneous" protest occurred in Tripoli by night where the protesters quickly overran police. One tribal leader threatened to block oil exports.



The Tuareg tribe in the south was said to have answered a call by the larger Warfalla tribe to take part in the protests. The Tuareg towns of Ghat and Ubary were also locations for violence, with members of the tribe reportedly attacking government buildings and police stations.

Gaddafi's son Saif al-Islam addressing Libya on state television, 20 February. 

Gaddafi's second son Saif al-Islam appeared on state television and blamed the violence and protests, including "acts of sabotage and burning", on "foreign agents", and in particular, Israel, echoing the attempts made by other Arab leaders in Egypt, Tunisia and Yemen to dismiss and downplay the unrest. He said that the unrest "may cause civil war". He also said that Libya was different from its neighbours. He ended by warning, "We will fight to the last man and woman and bullet. We will not lose Libya. We will not let Al Jazeera, Al Arabiya and BBC trick us." There were also unconfirmed rumours that Muammar al-Gaddafi had left for Brazil or Venezuela leaving Saif El Islam in charge. State-run AlShababiya was reportedly attacked in the evening following Saif El Islam's address.



The United States Department of State, through the American Embassy, issued a travel warning to US citizens due to the continuing unrest in the country. The European Union called on the government to refrain from using force and to answer the protesters' grievances.



In the night, clashes escalated in Tripoli, with protesters trying to seize control of Green Square. Witnesses reported snipers firing into the crowds, and Gaddafi supporters driving around the square shooting and running demonstrators over. Protesters burned a police and security forces' station and the General People's Congress' building.

21 February 

Gaddafi's son Saif al-Islam called for a "general assembly" to discuss grievances.

Representatives of the Libyan Community in Ireland demonstrating in Dublin against Gaddafi on 21 February 

In Benghazi, protesters took control of the streets, and looted weapons from the main security headquarters. Demonstrators also lowered the Libyan flag from above the main courthouse and replaced it with the flag of the country's old monarchy. Libyan Air Force warplanes and attack helicopters launched airstrikes on protesters, reportedly targeting a funeral procession and a group of protesters trying to reach a military base. Two senior mutineering air force pilots flew their Dassault Mirage F1 fighter jets to Malta and requested political asylum after defying orders to bomb protesters. Two civilian helicopters also landed in Malta, carrying seven passengers who claimed to be French oil workers.



Reports indicated the People's Hall in Tripoli, which serves as the meeting place for the General People's Congress, had been set on fire. There were also reports that the state television building had been smashed up by protesters and that at least one Tripoli police station was burned down. Libyan Navy warships were

reported to have begun bombardment of residential areas causing an unknown number of casualties. Banks and other government buildings were looted throughout the day. Demonstrators clashed with security forces, and heavy gunfire was heard throughout the city. At least sixty-one people were killed. 

Some people alleged that they were offered money to turn up for pro-Gaddafi rallies outside Libya. Within Libya, state-run television showed pro-Gaddafi rallies, though the international media doubted the authenticity of these protests as possibly having been staged.



The Libyan Navy reportedly shelled demonstrators from the sea, and Gaddafi allegedly issued execution orders to soldiers refusing to fire on protesters.



There were reports that Gaddafi had fled Tripoli after the People's Hall and the state television headquarters were overrun and burned by protesters – according to rumours he had fled either to the town of Sebha or to Venezuela. British Foreign Secretary William Hague also said that he had received information that Muammar al-Gaddafi had left Libya and was travelling to Venezuela. Venezuelan government officials denied reports that Muammar Gaddafi had left Libya and was on a plane bound for Caracas. It was later reported that one of Col. Gaddafi's sons arrived on the island of Margarita around the time that Hague made his allegation.



BBC News reported that the Libyan Army was "fighting forces loyal to Colonel Gaddafi, who appears to be struggling to hold on to power." A group of army officers also called upon their fellow soldiers to "join the people" and remove Gaddafi from office. Islamic leaders and clerics in Libya urged all Muslims to rebel against Gaddafi. The ambassador to Poland stated that the flood of defections by elements of the Army and Air Force, as well as by government ministers, cannot be stopped and that Gaddafi days in power are numbered. He also said that firing on the protesters was only increasing the unrest and that it is the sign of a dying regime. Libyan ambassadors to Indonesia, Bangladesh, the EU, and India also resigned in protest of the actions of the Gaddafi regime.

22 February

Gaddafi making a twenty-second statement on state television. 

Gaddafi made a brief appearance on state television in which he said he had been speaking to the youth in Green Square. He also said: "I am in Tripoli and not in Venezuela. Do not believe the (news) channels belonging to stray dogs." The location and time of Gaddafi's statement could not be independently verified by news organizations outside of Libya. In the video, Gaddafi holds an umbrella, and the apparent rainfall is consistent with the meteorological situation in Tripoli earlier that day. Gunfire was reportedly heard throughout the night of 21–22 February. Loyalist soldiers were reported to have continued some bombarding to keep defecting soldiers away from the protests. Fighter jets were reported to have targeted army ammunition depots in order to prevent troops from joining the protesters.



A Libyan naval vessel was reportedly sighted off the coast of Malta. According to Al Jazeera, five Italian fighter jets overflew the ship, and the Italian Navy began conducting surveillance. The ship reportedly had its flag lowered, suggesting that the crew may want to defect. The Armed Forces of Malta have several times denied reports in the international media that it was monitoring any such vessels approaching Maltese shores.



The former ambassador to India, Ali al-Essawi, stated that he feared returning to Libya. He also confirmed that fighter jets were used to bomb civilians, and that foreign mercenaries, who seemed to have come from other African countries, were "massacring" people.



The former ambassador to Bangladesh, A. H. Elimam, was also reported to have "disappeared" after 9:00 Bangladesh time. Al Jazeera said the last conversation with him noted "a sense of panic" in his voice and that his phone had been switched off. He indicated a feeling of being threatened by an intelligence officer at the embassy, who was from the same village as Gaddafi. The Bangladeshi Foreign Ministry and other diplomats in that country could not confirm his whereabouts.



A doctor in Tripoli told Asharq Al-Awsat that mercenaries broke into his hospital and killed injured people.

Gaddafi during his hour-long speech, also on state television. 

The former British Foreign Minister David Owen said that a "military intervention" via a no-fly zone was immediately necessary. The Austrian Army reported that the airspace around Tripoli had been closed, but later retracted the statement. The Austrian Defense Ministry spokesman Michael Huber said: "One of our sources said that initially that it (airspace) was closed, but then another later confirmed otherwise. Our plane was able to leave."



Eyewitness report that thousands of African mercenaries were flown into Tripoli to put down the uprising. One insider source reportedly says that Gaddafi now could only rely on his own clan and 5,000 men, out of 45,000, and knew he could not retake Libya. According to this source, he apparently planned to force a Pyrrhic victory on his opponents; to whittle down their numbers with many skirmishes, harm the economy by sabotaging oil reserves, and in every sense damaging infrastructure to the best of his ability, stating "I have the money and arms to fight for a long time". Oil infrastructures may be sabotaged to cut

economic supply to rebel clans, while fights may lead thousands to flee Libya to pressure them. Thus, all may prefer to accept the Gaddafi's status quo.

“

I am a Bedouin warrior who brought glory to Libyans

”

—Muammar Gaddafi during his speech on 22 February 

In a second speech within twenty-four hours, believed by commentators to be made from his family compound in the Bab al-Azizia military barracks in southern Tripoli, Gaddafi blamed foreign powers and hallucinogens being forced on the protesters for the unrest. He rejected stepping down, saying he had no official position from which he could step down, and stated that he would "die as martyr". The scenery of the speech indicated that Gaddafi was in Libya.



In his hour-long speech he blamed the uprising on "Islamists", and then warned that an "Islamic emirate" has already been set up in Al Bayda and Derna, where he threatened the use of extreme force and genocide-like tactics, to stop the Islamfication of Libya. Gaddafi vowed to fight on and die a "martyr" on Libyan soil. He then called on his supporters to take back the streets on the 23rd from protesters and tribal rebels, who were demanding that he step down. He also went on to state that he had "not yet ordered the use of force", and warned viewers that "when I do, everything will burn".



Gaddafi vowed to fight his opponents "until the last drop of his blood had been spilt" rather than step down, describing anti-regime protesters as "rats" and "mercenaries" working for foreign nations and corporate agendas. Gaddafi said the rioting urban youths that were opposed to his rule were manipulated by others who gave them drugs and who were trying to turn the country into an Islamic state. (In earlier speeches he blamed "Zionists" for the riots.) Furthermore, he threatened a Tiananmen-style crackdown. The speech has been since been parodied in a viral YouTube video entitled Zenga Zenga.



Abdul Fatah Younis, who held the position of top general and interior minister, escaped from house arrest, resigned, and called for the army and police to fight Gaddafi and his regime. Until his resignation, General Younis was regarded as the second most powerful man in Libya.



Human Rights Watch said that at least 233 people had been killed up to 22 February.



By nighttime, the Arab League had suspended the Libyan delegation from meetings until the Libyan people were safe.

23 February

A young Libyan carrying King Idris's photo during a protest in Benghazi on 23 February. 

British foreign minister William Hague said in a press release that there are "many indications of the structure of the State collapsing in Libya". He also urged the Libyan state to listen to people's demands. Luxembourg's Foreign Minister Jean Asselborn called the situation in Libya a genocide and called for massive intervention from the international community. He argued a resolution was now needed allowing control of Libyan airspace so as to stop mercenaries entering the country. He called Gaddafi a "sick and dangerous" "tyrant". Peru fully severed diplomatic ties with Libya's government. and the African Union conducted a security meeting on the rapidly changing situation in Libya. The European Union agreed in principle to impose sanctions, the form of which to be decided the following Friday, and the Dutch government met in emergency session to consider freezing billions of euros of assets invested by Tamoil, the Libyan government's oil company.



The Warfalla, the largest of the numerous tribes in the country, joined calls from other tribes for Gaddafi to stand down.



Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil, the country's justice minister, who had resigned on 21 February in protest at the "excessive use of violence" against protesters, and diplomats at Libya's mission to the United Nations, called on the Libyan army to help remove "the tyrant Muammar Gaddafi". He has also asserted that Gaddafi personally ordered the Lockerbie bombing of 1988.



Youssef Sawani, a senior aide to Muammar Gaddafi's son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, resigned from his post "to express dismay against violence" and thousands of foreigners continue to leave, with chaos at Tripoli International Airport.



Tripoli's streets were deserted after Gaddafi urged attacks on protesters, but Tobruk was still full of protesters. Italian Foreign Minister Franco Frattini said there were credible reports that about 1,000 people have been killed in Libya's week old rebellion. Frattini also confirmed that the eastern half of Libya, known as Cyrenaica, was no longer under Gaddafi's de facto control. Unconfirmed reports suggest that the government now only controls a few parts of Tripoli and the southern desert town of Sabha. Misrata is confirmed to be under protester control. The pre-Gaddafi 1951–1969 royalist Libyan flag was also reportedly raised in Zawiya, 50 km (30 miles) west of Tripoli. Both coastal Tripolitania and most of northern Cyrenaica were in rebel hands by the middle of the day. The Paris based International Federation for Human Rights said that the anti-Gaddafi protesters also control Sirte, Misrata, Khoms, Tarhounah, Zenten, Az Zawiyah and Zouara. Libyan government forces were sent to Sabratha after demonstrators burned government buildings and joined in the rebellion, according to Libyan newspaper Quryna.



Gaddafi pressed the United States to foster division and disagreements in Saudi Arabia and exerted heavy pressure on the US as well as on oil companies to reimburse the $1.5 billion Libya had paid in 2008 into a fund to settle terrorism claims from the 1980s.



By the end of the day, headlines in online news services were reporting a range of themes underlining the precarious state of the regime – former justice minister Mustafa Abud Al-Jeleil alleged that Gaddafi personally ordered the 1988 Lockerbie bombing, resignations and "defections" of close allies, the loss of Benghazi, the second-largest city in Libya, reported to be "alive with celebration" and other cities including Tobruk and Misrata reportedly falling with some believing that government had retained control of "just a few pockets", family members of Gaddafi allegedly refused entry to safe countries (an unscheduled plane said to be carrying Gaddafi's daughter Aisha was denied permission to enter Malta, although the Maltese government later denied knowing whether she was on board), mounting international isolation and pressure, and reports that Middle East media consider the end of his "disintegrating" regime all but inevitable.



Around midnight, some reports began to emerge describing the situation as civil war or revolution, with Gaddafi trying to ensure control over the capital and his political base Tripoli.

24 February 

Protesters assumed complete control of Tobruk, where soldiers and residents celebrated by waving the former Libyan flag used during the Kingdom of Libya (1951–1969), firing guns into the air and honking horns. Army units in Tobruk and throughout eastern Libya sided with protesters, with some soldiers and officers participating in demonstrations. Commanders pledged to defend the "liberated territory" with their lives after Gaddafi threatened to take it back by force. Two airmen bailed out of their jet, which crashed into the desert, after defying orders to bomb Tobruk. In the collapse of central authority, residents formed public-defence committees for security, and opened welfare organisations to ensure that residents had enough to eat. At newly established security checkpoints, demonstrators handed out bottled water and juice to passing motorists.



Cities and towns close to Tripoli were reported to be falling to protesters, while in Tripoli itself, pro-Gaddafi militia patrolled the streets to prevent demonstrations. In the east, civilian protesters and military units that had defected and reorganized armed themselves to prepare for an upcoming "Battle of Tripoli". Meanwhile Gaddafi prepared for the defense of the city by gathering pro-government forces in the capital and deploying tanks in the suburbs.



The North African wing of al-Qaeda announced that they would support the Libyan uprising. In a televised phone call to the people of Az Zawiyah, where fighting was taking place, Gaddafi claimed the revolts could be blamed on Osama bin Laden, and that young Libyans had been duped with drugs and alcohol. Gaddafi dispatched an envoy to Zawiyah, who warned protesters of a "massacre" if they did not leave.



Pro-Gaddafi Libyan forces and foreign mercenaries opened fire on a mosque in Zawiya, where residents, some armed with hunting rifles, had been holding a sitin to support the protesters in Tripoli. The troops blasted the mosque's minaret with an anti-aircraft gun, killing 10 people and wounding 150. Thousands of people then gathered in Zawiyah's main square to demonstrate against Gaddafi. Hours after the attack, Gaddafi gave a speech on state television, where he expressed condolences for the deaths, but scolded the city's residents for siding with the uprising, saying "shame on you, people of Zawiyah, control your children", and that "they are loyal to Bin Laden. What do you have to do with Bin Laden, people of Zawiyah? They are exploiting young people... I insist it is Bin Laden". He also blamed teenagers on hallucinogenic pills given to them "in their coffee with milk, like Nescafé".



Pro-Gaddafi militia and foreign mercenaries also attacked an airport outside Misrata, which was defended by protesters armed with rifles, in what would become the Battle of Misrata. During the fighting the militia bombarded the protesters with rocket-propelled grenades and mortars, while the protesters managed to seize an anti-aircraft gun and turn it against the militia. At the same time, officers from an air force school near the airport mutinied, and with the help of local residents, overran an adjacent airbase where Gaddafi loyalists were holed up, and disabled fighter jets to prevent their use against protesters. Five people were killed during the fighting: four protesters and one pro-Gaddafi militiaman, and another forty wounded.



In Tripoli, militia and foreign mercenaries continued patrolling the streets, firing guns into the air, while neighbourhood-watch groups barricaded side streets to try to keep the fighters out. Security forces also raided numerous homes around the city and arrested suspected political opponents. Armed militiamen entered a hospital to search for government opponents among the wounded.



Ahmed Ghadaf al-Dam, a cousin and one of Gaddafi's closest aides, defected to Egypt, protesting what he called "grave violations of human rights and human and international laws.



The European Union called for Libya to be suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council, and for the United Nations Security Council to approve a probe to investigate "gross and systematic violations of human rights by the Libyan authorities", while Switzerland froze all of Gaddafi's assets in the country. Sources in the UK government including British Treasury, announced that Gaddafi's assets were being tracked and that £20 billion in liquid assets and a £10million mansion in London would be seized within days.

25 February 

For the first time in days, thousands took to the streets of Tripoli to protest, with protester and civilian death tolls rising.



The dual military and civilian Mitiga International Airport, about 11 kilometres (6.8 miles) east of Tripoli, seemed to have been taken over by anti-Gaddafi protesters in the afternoon, "after a series of defections". The Guardian described the takeover as "confirmed". Ian Black, a correspondent of The Guardian stated, "If Mitiga air base near Tripoli is confirmed as having gone over to the Libyan popular uprising it would be a serious blow for the regime close to the heart of the capital."



Colonel Gaddafi appeared at 18h55 (local time) in Green Square in Tripoli, with a microphone shouting to the crowd of Gaddafi loyalists "Sing, dance and be ready, we will fight those who are against us" and "If the people of Libya and the Arabs

and Africans don’t love Moammar Gadhafi then Moammar Gadhafi does not deserve to live."

26 February 

In the Libyan city of Az Zawiyah, about 50 km away from the capital Tripoli, an amateur video appears to show soldiers switching sides and joining antigovernment protesters. Witnesses tell Al Jazeera Arabic that Libyan protesters have taken control of a number of areas in the capital, Tripoli. Security forces had abandoned the working-class Tajoura district after five days of anti-government demonstrations, residents told foreign correspondents who visited the area.



In Benghazi, a small naval base is now controlled by the opposition. The naval force consisted of a missile cruiser, a frigate, a decommissioned minesweeper and a decommissioned submarine. The commander of the fleet that remains, after his superiors deserted their posts, says that he will defend the city against Gaddafi forces, saying that "He [Gaddafi] means nothing to me, he sees the east part of the country as enemies and he will do anything to exterminate us".



In Benghazi, a spokesman for the revolution told Agence France-Presse on Saturday they were drawing up plans for a transitional government to take power but in the nearby town of Ajdabiya, local residents said food was becoming scarce.



By the end of the day, an interim government had been formed by former justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil. The Libyan ambassador in the US, Ali Suleiman Aujali became the first Libyan diplomat to recognise the new government.



For the first time, US President Barack Obama urged Gaddafi to step down from power and avoid further violence. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton took the same stance.

National Transitional Council established 27 February 

After distancing itself from the Gaddafi regime, Italy officially suspended the "friendship" treaty it holds with Libya. The treaty forbids warfare or military confrontation between the two nations, but the suspension of the treaty would allow otherwise.



The UN Security Council Saturday night voted unanimously to impose sanctions against the Libyan authorities, slapping the country with an arms embargo and freezing the assets of its leaders, while referring the ongoing violent repression of civilian demonstrators to the International Criminal Court.



Gaddafi gave an interview to Serbian television station RTV Pink, calling the UN Security Council resolution "invalid in accordance with the United Nations Charter" and that the resolution was based on the news reports rather than on actual state in Libya. He vowed to stay in Libya blaming the "foreigners and AlQaeda" for the unrest, saying that the protests began when "the gangs of drugged young men attacked regular army forces".



A National Libyan Council was formed in the city of Benghazi. This body is not a provisional government but rather a seeks to act as the "political face of the uprising" The efforts of former justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil to form a provisional government appear to have stalled.



The Libyan capital, Tripoli, a city of around one million people, was largely quiet this morning, with militiamen erecting additional roadblocks and tanks parked at major intersections. Residents said the Libyan leader is arming civilian supporters to set up checkpoints and roving patrols around the capital to control movement and quash dissent.



Az Zawiyah, a city of 290,000 just thirty miles west of Tripoli, appeared to be a potential focal point for clashes as anti-government forces mounted tanks and anti-aircraft guns throughout the city center, and Gadafi forces surrounded the outskirts with tanks and military checkpoints, according to an Associated Press reporter who visited the city.



Britain revoked the diplomatic immunity of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi and his family, Foreign Secretary William Hague said on Sunday, urging the dictator to step down. Belgium will shut down its embassy in Libyan capital Tripoli on Monday, temporarily discontinuing diplomatic activities in the troubled north African country, the foreign ministry said. Britain, Canada, France, and the United States are among the countries that have already temporarily shut their embassies in Tripoli and evacuated their staff amid growing unrest over demands for long-time ruler Gaddafi to quit.



US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton offered "any kind of assistance" to Libyans and opposition groups seeking to overthrow Gaddafi.



Hafiz Ghoga, spokesman for the new National Libyan Council that was launched in the eastern city of Benghazi, said the council was not an interim government, was not contacting foreign governments and did not want them to intervene. "We will help liberate other Libyan cities, in particular Tripoli through our national army, our armed forces, of which part have announced their support for the people," Ghoga said, but he did not give details about how the council would help. Although not a direct response to Clinton's remarks, Ghoga said: "We are completely against foreign intervention. The rest of Libya will be liberated by the people and Gadhafi's security forces will be eliminated by the people of Libya."

28 February 

Battle of Misrata: it was reported that opposition forces shot down a government warplane.



The United States Navy began positioning several ships near the coast of Libya, though it is still unclear what action they might take. Calls for a military enforced no-fly-zone on Libya became increasingly prominent. British Prime Minister, David Cameron, proposed the idea of a no-fly zone to prevent Muammar Gaddafi from airlifting mercenaries and using his military aeroplanes and armoured helicopters against civilians. Rhetoric used by Secretary of State Hillary Clinton suggests the implication of such is likely. Clinton also stepped up her rhetoric against Gaddafi, calling for his immediate removal.



Muammar Gaddafi has reportedly appointed the head of Libya's foreign intelligence service to speak to the leadership of the anti-government protesters in the east of the country.



The US froze US$30 billion of assets belonging to the Libyan government, the largest amount of assets ever frozen.



On Monday, pro-Gadhafi forces tried to retake control of the western border crossings with Tunisia that had fallen under opposition control and they bombed an ammunition depot in the rebel-held east, residents in the area said. The Libyan Defense Ministry denied the bombing.



During the day regime forces attacked Zawiya and Misrata, but were repelled by anti government forces with a small number of casualties on both sides.

1 March 

On 1 March, Australian Minister for Defence Stephen Smith confirmed that his government was considering military options against Gaddafi, saying that international intervention to enforce a no-fly zone was probable. Smith asserted that "no one is expecting" Gaddafi to leave power voluntarily. Al Jazeera reported that Misrata was once again under attack, this time from a combined armor and air assault. According to a witness quoted by Al Jazeera, Gaddafi's forces were using heavy weapons against protesters and rebels in the city, while the antiGaddafi forces were fighting back with small arms.



Abdul Fatah Younis, Gaddafi's former interior minister and the leader of a growing rebel force, told Al Jazeera that if Gaddafi could not be dislodged from Tripoli, he would welcome foreign intervention in the form of targeted airstrikes, though he said a land invasion was unwanted and offered the use of Libyan military airbases only in case of emergency to foreign aircraft. Al Jazeera also

reported that anti-Gaddafi forces had repulsed a six-hour offensive by government forces attempting to seize Zawiya, securing the city for the opposition. 

Also on 1 March, rebel leaders were debating whether to ask for Western airstrikes under the United Nations banner against military assets of the regime. One senior official said, "If he falls with no intervention, I'd be happy, but if he's going to commit a massacre, my priority is to save my people."



Brigadier Musa'ed Ghaidan Al Mansouri, the head of the Al Wahat Security Directorate, and Brigadier Hassan Ibrahim Al Qarawi defected to the protester side.



Brigadier Dawood Issa Al Qafsi later defected to the opposition as well. The brigadier also confirmed that the eastern towns of Braiga, Bisher, Ogaila, Sultan and Zwaitina are under opposition control as well.



By night, the UN had suspended Libya from the UN Human Rights Council.



Britain's foreign secretary William Hague said that a no-fly zone could be imposed "even without a Security Council resolution – it depends on the situation on the ground".



On Tuesday, Gadhafi's regime sought to show that it was the country's only legitimate authority and that it continued to feel compassion for areas in the east that fell under the control of its opponents. A total of eighteen trucks loaded with rice, flour, sugar and eggs left Tripoli for Benghazi – the country's second-largest city – 1,000 kilometres (620 miles) east of the capital. Also in the convoy were two refrigerated cars carrying medical supplies.



Gaddafi's regime attempted to retake Gharyan and Zliten. The regime's forces were repelled from Zliten, but remained local at Gharyan, where there was on going fighting.

2 March 

The Gaddafi regime attempted to retake the city of Marsa Brega, but the attack was largely repelled by the rebels. At least fourteen were reported killed in the fighting, although reporters who came in from the Benghazi area saw only four dead, two of which were apparently pro-Gaddafi fighters. The attack on Marsa Brega was believed to be more towards psychological warfare against the eastern cities.



Warplanes were also sent to Ajdabiya in an attempt to bomb the weapons storage. Two fighter jets attacked the weapons storage area, one of which was shot down by anti-aircraft guns.



Benghazian residents stated that a convoy of armed opposition fighters, accompanied by army officers, had embarked on a long journey south. They were expected to attempt to reach Tripoli by navigating around the town of Sirte.



The opposition's interim-government council had formally requested the UN to impose a no-fly zone and to conduct precision air strikes against Ghaddafi's forces. US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, after backing down from the idea of a no-fly zone, re-engaged in supporting the idea of a military enforced no-fly zone. The Arab League stated that a no-fly zone was necessary. It also said that in cooperation with the African Union, it could impose a military-enforced no-fly zone without the UN's backing.



By the end of the day, rebels in the southwest city of Ghadames managed to take control of the city.



As the day closed, there were also reports of pro-Gaddafi forces massing around the town of Nalut (held by the opposition), with some fearing an imminent attack to retake the city; an attack did not happened.

3 March 

The International Criminal Court announced it would begin to launch an investigation into war-crimes committed by Gaddafi, his sons and his inner circle. Opposition forces were also to be investigated as well to assure no crimes were being committed on its side.



The Libyan opposition rejected calls from Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez to conduct peaceful dialogue with Gaddafi, after Chávez convinced Gaddafi to start "peaceful talks with protesters". The Libyan opposition refused to conduct talks or negotiations with the government.

4 March 

Occasional air-strikes continued on Ajdabiya's weapon-storage area, with no reported casualties.



Regime forces in Tripoli prepared for an expected mass protest by the people after Friday prayers. By the afternoon, demonstrators gathered in the thousands, but did not amount to a siege of the city.



Regime forces attempted to retake the oil refineries in Zawiya, but were met with heavy resistance, with casualties on both sides according to witnesses. During the night, pro-Gaddafi forces withdrew to the outside of the city, according to local witnesses.



According to eye-witness accounts, opposition forces had begun an assault on the small port town of Ra's Lanuf. The opposition forces claimed that they number 7,000 personnel in the attack on Ra's Lanuf. They also reported that there were "massive" defections at the local pro-Gaddafi military base in Ra's Lanuf.



By night, the opposition forces managed to capture the entire town of Ra's Lanuf, including the airbase.

5 March 

In battles occurring in the morning of 5 March in Az Zawiyah, thirty-three people were reported killed, twenty-five of them rebels and eight pro-Gaddafi soldiers. Pro-Gaddafi forces used tanks to destroy residential buildings and kill some protesters, but rebels were able to overcome them by capturing some and lighting another six tanks on fire. By mid-day pro-Gaddafi soldiers were reported to have been beaten back.



Witnesses reported that a fighter jet was shot down in Ra's Lanuf after it attempted to bomb the town. They later report that they had found the remains of two pilots. This incident is confirmed through video evidence.



Rebels prepared to try to capture the city of Sirte, Gaddafi's home town and stronghold. Rebels took control of Bin Jawad, a town between Ra's Lanuf and Sirte. Political divides and hostilities had already formed amongst the local population in Sirte because of the killing of several tribesmen by Gaddafi loyalists.



After previously backing down from the idea, France re-engaged in support for a no- fly zone and was working with the US and UK to get the resolution passed.



The National Council established by the opposition declared itself Libya's sole representative.

Gaddafi counteroffensive 6 March 

Opposition forces advancing on Sirte were targeted by Libyan warplanes in the morning, although the effectiveness of the airstrikes was unclear, and a witness fighting for the opposition reported heavy fighting in Bin Jawad as Gaddafi loyalists apparently launched a counterattack against the town. Al Jazeera reported that opposition forces were massing for a decisive battle at the town of Wadi-al-Ahmar, which could determine control of Sirte itself.



At least some advancing rebels withdrew toward Ra's Lanuf under helicopter attack, Al Jazeera and Reuters reported, and Libyan warplanes again bombed

positions near both Ra's Lanuf and Zawiyah. Bin Jawad was retaken by loyalist forces as the rebels retreated, but Al Jazeera reported opposition forces pushed west after reportedly shooting down an attack helicopter and two warplanes and reasserted control over the hamlet. Al Arabiya and other agencies reported that forces loyal to Gaddafi began shelling the city of Misrata, the largest opposition stronghold in Tripolitania, around midday. 

According to local witnesses, the rebels fended off the attack on Misrata by Gaddafi's forces. Sixteen rebels and civilians were killed, including a twelve-yearold boy. Twenty-two of Gaddafi's soldiers were killed, and another twenty captured.

7 March 

France and the UK were attempting to get a no-fly zone established through the UN Security Council, after previously backing down from the idea. The gulf states in the Middle East had officially called for a no-fly zone to be placed, and an Arab League emergency meeting will discuss the implication of one backed by it own organization.



Hundreds of Gaddafi's soldiers entered Zawiya with tanks. According to local witnesses, the soldiers used the tanks to fire at houses and many homes were destroyed. The death toll was a minimum of eight, with dozens of civilians casualties expected to be found. Rebels still controlled Zawiya, however, but was fighting the fiercest battle yet, according to witnesses. Some witnesses went on to say "the whole town is in ruins".



By the morning of 7 March, BBC News had reported that the town of Bin Jawad was under the control of government forces and they were advancing on Ra's Lanuf.



While rebels in Ra's Lanuf managed to successfully fend off attacking infantry forces, fighter jets continued to launch air-strikes in Ra's Lanuf, causing several casualties.

8 March 

Air-strikes continued on Ra's Lanuf, which is still held by rebels. The air strikes on 8 March have not caused casualties yet. Zawiya is still held by rebels, but under repeated artillery fire by Gaddafi's forces. Video evidence provided by Sky News reporters who sneaked into Zawiya debunk the regime's claims that they control Zawiya.



The opposition council headquartered in Benghazi has issued a statement to Gaddafi, saying that if he and his family were to call off fighting and leave the

nation within seventy-two hours, the council will not prosecute them for crimes committed.

9 March 

Rebels still held on to Zawiya but were still under assault by tanks, snipers, and heavy artillery from Gaddafi's forces. Local witnesses said the regime's military temporarily captured Zawiya's main square, but by night were driven back to 1 kilometre (0.62 miles) from the city center.



The rebels attempted to move against Bin Jawad once more; however, after firing off around fifty rockets and making some advances, they were hit by artillery and air strikes and retreated to Ra's Lanuf. The rebels then claimed that they had eventually retaken Bin Jawad, although this could not be confirmed.



The European Parliament urged all European nations to recognize the National Interim Council as the government of Libya.

10 March 

On 10 March, France officially recognized the National Interim Council as Libya's only legitimate government. Portugal later also recognized the council.



Zawiyah was retaken by loyalist forces. Reporters from the The Times and ITV reported from the square in the city where they confirmed it was under government control and clean-up operations were underway. At the same time on the eastern front, after beating back the rebels from Bin Jawad, loyalist forces launched their largest attack yet against Ra's Lanuf and began to move into the town. Opposition forces were in retreat from the city along with some of the civilian population and were attempting to regroup east of Ra's Lanuf.



In spite of "Libyan state television claiming that Kadafi loyalists had cleared Ras Lanuf of "armed gangs" and Gaddafi loyalist forces intensifying their attack "with heavy artillery from the sea and the air", anti-Gaddafi forces still controlled the town.

11 March 

On the morning of 11 March, the first loyalist ground troops entered Ra's Lanuf with 150 soldiers, backed up by three tanks, and managed to get to the city center. At the same time, four transport boats came in from the sea and unloaded 40–50 soldiers each on the beach near the Fadeel hotel. They were engaged by hard-core rebel remnants, who had not retreated from the town the previous day. Government troops captured the residential area, but the rebels continued to hold out in the oil port facilities throughout the day and recaptured much of the town in a counteroffensive in the afternoon.



The same day, rebels claimed they were still in control in Zawiya; however, just a few hours later, a pro-Gaddafi rally was held in the center of the city, witnessed by 100 foreign journalists, confirming the city was retaken.

12 March 

On 12 March, rebels fighting in Ra's Lanuf retreated in the afternoon to the town of Uqayla west of Marsa Brega. Later during the day, the government took foreign journalists to the city for confirmation of the town's fall.



The Secretary of the Arab League, Amr Moussa, called for a no fly zone to be put in place after previously resisting the idea. The Arab League met and did not allow Libyan diplomats from Gaddafi's government to join despite Gaddafi's government's request to attend. The Arab League "called on the United Nations Security Council to impose a no-fly zone over Libya in a bid to protect civilians from air attack". The Arab League's request was announced by Youssef bin Alawi bin Abdullah, Oman's foreign minister. He stated that all member states present at the talks agreed with this.



The Arab League also announced it now recognizes the National Transitional Council as the government of Libya.



Al Jazeera cameraman Ali Hassan al-Jaber was shot dead near Benghazi. He was the first journalist killed since the uprising started.

13 March 

Before dawn on 13 March, loyalist forces, advancing eastward from Ra's Lanuf, had taken the town of Uqayla and the village of Bisher and were heading toward Brega. Rebel forces in Brega had started a retreat for Ajdabiya. Brega was captured later in the day by pro-Gaddafi forces.



According to human rights watchers, the Libyan capital Tripoli is in a state of fear as forces controlled by Gaddafi have arrested people along with disappearances taking place. According to residents of the city scores of anti-government protesters have been arrested and subject to torture.



Ali Atiyya, a colonel of the Libyan Air Force at the Mitiga military airport, near Tripoli defected and joined the rebellion.



Amnesty International condemned the killing of Al-Jazeera journalist, Ali Hassan al-Jaber the day before.



Rebels forces came back to fight in Marsa Brega. Reports from rebels and Al Jazeera sources claim that the rebels have recaptured the town, killing 25 of Gaddaffi's soldiers and capturing 20 in the process. With the destruction of the

Ra's Lanuf oil refinery, Gaddafi only controls one oil refinery in Al-Zawiyah. Most military analysts believe that Gaddafi is running out of fuel; and his supply lines are vulnerable and extended. Tanks on average get about one mile to the gallon, showing the heavy cost in fuel in running a war. 

Al-Jazeera reported that Al-Zawiyah was being besieged by pro-Gaddafi forces, with no further details given; it's unclear whether the report was accurate or in error.

14 March 

On 14 March, the fighting in Brega was at a stalemate, with rebel forces holding the residential district and loyalist forces holding the oil facilities.



Meanwhile on the western front, loyalist forces launched an artillery barrage on Zuwarah. A group of rebels managed to fend off a loyalist assault against a rebel checkpoint outside of the city, but within hours, government tanks had captured the city's main square. Rebels in Zuwarah still launched counterattacks at night. Government warplanes also launched airstrikes on rebel targets in Ajdabiyah. A few occasional clashes also took place around the outskirts of Misrata.



Former Libyan army commander Khalifa Belqasim Haftar, who served in the Libya–Chad war has returned to Libya to aid and support the rebels.

15 March 

On 15 March, pro-Gaddafi troops attacked Ajdabiya. Reuters reported that civilians and rebels were massively retreating from Ajdabiya, giving up their position, which was confirmed by a journalist from Le Monde. Soon after, the official Libyan television announced that the forces of Gaddafi were in full control of Ajdabiya. Al Jazeera reported that the opposition's airforce has destroyed and sunk two Gaddafi warships and hit a third, off the coast of Ajdabiya and Benghazi. In the meantime, the oil town of Brega was reclaimed by pro-Gaddafi forces. Google maps show that the desert breaks away to farmland and trees near Benghazi, and the rebel tactics may have changed to withdraw into terrain that's better suited to a lightly equipped rebel force where they could try to simply bleed the regime dry.



By that evening, there were conflicting reports that rebel forces in Ajdabiya had either retreated from the city or there was still some fighting. It was confirmed that loyalist forces had entered the city centre earlier in the day. Rebel forces claim they repulsed the attack, while the government claims otherwise.



The Independent reports that four men have been arrested in Ajdabiya by the rebel forces, with evidence linking them to the death of Ali Hassan Al Jaber, who was killed near Benghazi on Saturday. Under questioning, the suspects allegedly

confessed that they had been ordered to silence opposition figures and drive out international presence from territories of the protest movement. The men had five guns, some of them with silencers, and they also had night sights. Bullets from two of them matched those used to kill the Al Jazeera journalist. Several thousands of dinars were found in their pockets, but the suspects denied that the money were related to the assassination. 

Sporadic gunfights were reported inside Benghazi, as rebels are fighting with proGaddafi loyalists after the rebels began searching in Benghazi for sleeper agents working for the regime.



According to Mustafa Gheriani, an opposition spokesman, a rebel frigate seized an Greek oil tanker carrying 25,000 tons of fuel for the government.

16 March 

On 16 March, Al Manara Media reported more defections. Two fighter jets allegedly landed at Benghazi airport and joined the rebel forces. It was also reported that two battalions of loyalist forces defected in Sirte, taking control of the city's airport. Also, Manara stated that twenty-five soldiers and an officer from the fifth battalion, who were in the city of Misrata, also defected and joined the revolution. And in Tobruk, six cars filled with loyalist troops from the Khamis battalion have surrendered themselves to the rebels in Tobruk. However, no other independent media confirmed the defections.



During the daytime of 16 March, both the government forces and the rebels were still fighting in Ajdabiya, with neither side gaining the upper hand. By night, things were changing in the rebels' favor, as government soldiers themselves told journalists that they were facing stronger resistance from the rebels, forcing many government soldiers to retreat. Agence France-Presse reported at least twenty-six deaths in fights around Ajdabiya. The UN called for a ceasefire on both sides, and established a draft resolution for a no-fly zone.



Loyalists also attacked Zintan and Misrata. In Misrata, the rebels defeated attacking loyalist forces in the south and west corners of the city, capturing several tanks. Low-intensity warfare continues in eastern outskirts of the city, with rebels holding ground and the city in their control. At least eleven deaths were reported. The situation in Zintan was unclear.



The New York Times announced that four of its journalists were reported missing as of 15 March. Second-hand reports indicated that the journalists may have been swept up by Libyan government forces.



A Libyan pilot, who was interviewed by the BBC News, testified that he had documents which prove that the Algerian military and particularly its airforce were assisting Gaddafi's forces.

Libyan no-fly zone approved 17 March 

Just after midnight on 17 March, government troops successfully reoccupied the southern gate of Ajdabiya after a three-hour fight. Later in the morning loyalist forces sealed the eastern entrance to the city and entered the small port town of Zueitina to the northwest of Ajdabiya. Gaddafi also vowed to attack Benghazi that same night. He promised amnesty to rebels that laid down their arms but said his forces would show "no mercy" to those that continued fighting. Rebel leader Mustafa Abdul Jalil said the rebels would stand firm and would not be intimidated.

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Washington shifted its position to support aggressive armed action against Gaddafi's forces. US Ambssador to the UN Susan Rice pushed for the Security Council to approve a no-fly zone and aerial bombing of Gaddafi's army in today's vote. The Council will also consider the possibility of placing the money in Gaddafi's frozen accounts in the US under rebel control to help them purchase weapons. Gaddafi threatened to retaliate against passenger air and sea traffic in the Mediterranean Sea if Libya is attacked.

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The day marked the first time the rebel forces used aircraft and heavy armor to launch a counterattack at Ajdabiya. A helicopter raid eventually stopped the Gaddafi army from progressing any further. Pro-Gaddafi elements of the air force responded by bombing the Benghazi airport. Two pro-Gaddafi fighter jets were shot down in the attack, with little damage to the airport.

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Two important videos were uploaded on that day. First was on Facebook, showing youths fighting with Gaddafi's forces in the streets of Misrata. The cameraman declared that Gaddafi's Battalion tried to enter the city but was blocked on the main costal highway. The other video was showing children in the hospital of Ajdabiya, being severely wounded or close to death, by airstrike bombs. It is not known whether those children were in shelters at the moment of wounding.

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Over 1,000,000 signatures have been collected through Avaaz.org from all over the world, for the imposition of a no-fly zone in Libya.

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Politiken reports that the Danish parliament is prepared to send the Danish Air Force to Libya to enforce a no-fly zone, even if the United Nations is unable to agree on intervention. The article also has reports of a family in Ajdabiya that witnessed airstrikes on the city's hospital, bus station and various blocks of flats.

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US State department official William Burns says the opposition Libyan National Council may set up an office in Washington DC.

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The Times newspaper of Malta reported that activists were attempting to block an oil shipment to Tripoli that would have departed from Malta. According to the activists, the deal was made by Yahya Ibrahim Gadhafi, an official from a Libyan national oil company.

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In 22:30 GMT, United Nations Security Council adopted UN Resolution 1973 (2011), which authorizes member states 'to take all necessary measures… to protect civilians and civilian populated areas under threat of attack in the Libyan Arab Jamhariya, including Benghazi, while excluding an occupation force'. The vote was 10-0 with five abstentions. China and Russia, both of which have veto power, abstained, as did Brazil, India and Germany. The Guardian reported that the US, Britain, France and several Arab countries, would join forces to throw a protective ring around the rebel stronghold of Benghazi within hours of the vote. Reuters reported that Italian defense minister Ignazio La Russa announced that Italy would serve as a base for any military action against Libya.

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According to Al Jazeera, a few hours before the UN voting, Gaddafi stated in Portugal's public media that "The UN Security Council has no mandate. We don't acknowledge their resolutions. If the world is crazy, we will be crazy too". On the contrary, after the voting, Libyan Deputy Foreign Minister Khalid Kaim stated to reporters in Tripoli that his regime is ready for the ceasefire decision, but requires an interlocutor to discuss how to implement it."

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The Wall Street Journal reported that Egypt's military had begun shipping arms to the rebel forces in Libya several days beforehand.

18 March 

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Rebel fighters began attacking government positions near the western mountain town of Nalut. One rebel fighter was reported killed, and four pro-Gaddafi fighters were claimed to have been killed, along with 18 captured. Around midday the Gaddafi government announced an immediate ceasefire in accordance with the UN Security Council resolution. saying it "accepts that it is obliged to accept the U.N. resolution" and that it was acting to protect its civilians from likely military action which had been authorized by the UN Security Council resolution. In the evening, pro-Gaddhafi forces were reported to approach Benghazi, with clashes occurring at Magroun and Suluq which are about 50 kilometres (31 miles) from the city. However, the government stated that it was the rebels who were advancing against their positions in Magroun. This was later confirmed via recorded video from the field by Agence France-Presse. Also, there was fighting in the port town of Zueitina, where a government force had landed from the sea the previous day and took the town. The rebels had been besieging them since then. According to the rebels, several of their fighters, along with a number of civilians, were killed and they also claimed to have captured twenty government

soldiers. Later, anti-aircraft fire following a loud explosion was heard in Benghazi.

Coalition intervention 19 March 

By unanimous vote, Denmark's Parliament authorized direct military action by its air force to help enforce UN Security Council Resolution 1973, marking the only time so far in the nation's history that military commitment was supported by full parliamentary unity. Despite the Libyan government's assertion that they are respecting the UN-mandated ceasefire, pro-Gadhafi forces entered the suburbs of Benghazi, and were shelling the city with mortars and artillery. One rebel jet was shot down over Benghazi by rebel forces.

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Pro-Gaddhafi forces were reported in the suburbs of Benghazi and shelling the city with artillery from 20 kilometres (12 miles) away. Pro-Ghaddafi tanks inside Benghazi were reported by a BBC News journalist.

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Also on 19 March, a Mig-23BN was shot down over Benghazi by ground fire. A rebel spokesman later confirmed that the plane belonged to the Free Libyan Air Force and had been engaged in error by rebels. Fox News initially reported that the plane was "bombing their (rebels) eastern stronghold".

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The Libyan government said the rebels violated the UN "no fly" resolution by using a helicopter and a fighter jet to bomb Libyan armed forces.

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Libyan state television said that interior minister Abdul Fatah Younis, who had defected to the opposition one month ago, had returned to the government. The head of the Libyan National Council, Mustafa Abdul Jalil, denied this report that defected interior Minister Abdel Fatah Younis has defected the rebels and joined Gaddafi forces again. On a live phone call with Al Jazeera, Younis himself confirmed that he is still in Benghazi and on the rebels' side, and that videos of him on state television are from a meeting with Gaddafi months ago.

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At 4 p.m. (Libyan time), French fighter jets began entering Libyan airspace in reconnaissance missions in support of the Libyan no-fly zone.

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Mohammed Nabbous, founder of Libya Alhurra TV, died in the Second Battle of Benghazi.

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At 6:45 p.m. local time, a French fighter jet fired the first shots, hitting Gaddafi loyalist armored vehicles. Al Jazeera reported the next day that the air raid had destroyed a convoy of fourten tanks and several trucks loaded with RPGs and ammunition, fourteen pro-gaddafi soldiers are reported dead after the raid.

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According to Al Jazeera, some citizens of Benghazi were leaving the city and moving northwest to other anti-Gaddafi held towns. Later reports from Al Jazeera/Pentagon relations told that American warships had launched cruise missiles at Libyan airfields as part of a multi-phase operation called Odyssey Dawn. After that, the US plans to focus on the skirmishes on the ground. The Pentagon said that the United Arab Emirates and Qatar would also be involved in military operations in Libya, but would announce their involvement themselves.

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Odyssey Dawn, falls under the operational command of the US African Command, under General Carter Ham. Tactical execution is being run out of the USS Mount Whitney, Admiral Sam Locklear commanding. Off the coast of Libya, there are: 11 vessels from Italy, 11 from the US (including three submarines, each with 112 missiles on board), one from the UK, one from France and one from Canada.

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Later that day, Gaddafi's Secretary General of the People's Congress, Mohammad al-Zawi, had a press conference in which he repeatedly claimed that the ceasefire was in action, contradictory to reports from Al Jazeera, BBC News and other Western news sources. Libyan state television later claimed that Gaddafi forces had shot down a French military plane. No evidence supports this so far other than this source.

20 March 

At about 2:30AM local time, anti-aircraft gunfire was heard for about seven minutes echoing throughout the city of Tripoli. It is unknown what targets may or may not have been hit. Later, Libya state television reported that airstrikes killed 48 people and wounded 150 in civilian areas. Citing an armed forces statement it said the capital Tripoli as well as cities of Benghazi, Misrata and Zuwarah were also hit. Libyan armed men on the port of Tripoli captured an Italian ship comprising of crew members eight from Italy, two from India and one from Ukraine. The Italian Ship named ASSO 22, belongs to Augusta Off Shore Society, was sending staff of the ENI Petroleum Co. to Libya. It arrived in Tripoli on Saturday afternoon after the staff departed, the crew was held up by the armed personnel of the port.

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Al Jazeera reported that on 20 March a bombardment had destroyed fourteen tanks, twenty armored troop carriers and several trucks filled with ammunition and RPGs, killing fourteen pro-Gaddafi soldiers in the process. Three of Gaddafi's tanks have just reached the centre of rebel-held Misrata, a spokesman for the armed opposition tells Al Jazeera. The same source reported that pro-Gaddhafi boats did not allow help to reach Misrata. Casualties are reported to be too high to count.

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China, Russia and the Arab League have condemned the violence from the US and France with Russia claiming that the UN resolution was "hastily adopted". At

about 5:10PM local time, a health official in Tripoli increased the death toll from 48 to 64. More anti-aircraft fire was heard in Tripoli at about 8:30PM local time. At 9:00PM local time the government once again called for a ceasefire. However Al Jazeera reporters later questioned the spokesperson for the military, he replied that no one would in the public would be informed of this by media. At 10:26PM local time a loud explosion was reported nearby Gaddafi's compound, Bab alAzizia in Tripoli. It was confirmed by CNN Nick Robertson that a building at the heart of the Azizia compound has in fact been destroyed.

21 March 

It was reported by Al Manara Media, that Khamis al-Gaddafi, the leader of the Khamis Brigade and son of Muammar al-Gaddafi, had died from his injuries sustained when Muhammad Mokhtar Osman allegedly crashed his plane into Bab al-Azizia a week earlier. However, this had not been confirmed by any other independent media. The crashing of the plane had also not been previously reported or confirmed by any other independent media except Al Manara.

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Swiss journalist Gaëtan Vannay, reporting from Zintan in Tripolitana, said the eastern environs of Zintan has seen fighting between rebels and attacking regime forces for the past two days. There is heavy shelling on the city by pro-Gaddafi forces.

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Following a meeting with UN Secretary-General Ban Ki Moon, the SecretaryGeneral of the Arab League, Amr Moussa, stated his support for the no-fly zone being implemented over Libya.

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The BBC reported that the Libyan Permanent Mission to United Nations is now flying the former Libyan flag and an image of this flag appears on the mission's official website which has also removed an image of Muammar al-Gaddafi from its index page.

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There are four pro-Gaddafi tanks on the road outside Ajdabiya, which fire on any vehicle that goes over a rise approaching the city.

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Vladimir Putin, Prime minister of Russia states that the execution of the no-fly zone is comparable to the medieval crusades. Russian president Dmitry Medvedev described Putin's comments as "unacceptable".

22 March 

Late 21 March, Al Arabiya quoted a Libyan government official who said administration of Misrata was re-taken by forces loyal to the Gaddafi regime, however rebels claim that they still control the city. A caller from Misrata to CNN's Anderson Cooper 360 reported that there was still resistance. He also said that four government tanks were killing people, including children.

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The Commander of the International Coalition for Libya has stated that civilians were being targeted by pro-Gaddafi forces in Misrata. Muhammad of Misrata has told The World Today that Pro-Gaddafi forces in Misrata have been ordering people to march to the city square and demonstrate their support for Gaddafi's regime and that when an anti-Gaddafi demonstration broke out, the pro-Gaddafi forces fired into the crowd of 4,000 using heavy artillery and snipers, killing 27 people.

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One in three Britons agree with the decision to take military action in Libya, according to a poll published on Monday. The ComRes/ITN survey found that 43% disagreed with the action and 22% were unsure. However, a separate survey by YouGov showed the opposite result with a majority of Britons questioned supporting the campaign.

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According to a reporter embedded with the rebels, coalition forces began bombing Gaddafi forces around Adjabiya.

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A US F-15E warplane crashed in Libya; its pilots have minor injuries. One of the pilots was picked by a US V-22 Osprey and the other was picked up by the rebels. The crash was blamed on mechanical failure.

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In response to Russia's call for an immediate cease fire, U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates said, "some Russians were swallowing Muammar Gaddafi's lies about civilian casualties in Libya" and said the coalition forces were doing their best to avoid civilian casualties.

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Hussein el Warfali, commander of the pro-Gaddafi Eagle Brigade in Tripoli, has been reported killed.

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Plans by Coalition forces to hit Gaddafi's compound with Storm Shadow cruise missiles have been aborted as Journalists had been taken there to show them the damage from the original attack.

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A video taken allegedly demonstrates mercenaries being made to eat raw dog by the Khamis Brigade as part of training.

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Following an interview with US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton by ABC News, it was reported that "People close to Moammar Gadhafi are reaching out to allies around the world exploring their options". Secretary Clinton also stated that she was aware of reports that one of Gaddafi's sons had been killed in non-coalition air strikes but that the "evidence is not sufficient" for her to confirm this.

23 March 

Gaddafi's forces launch heavy bombardment on the town of Zintan.

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Gaddafi's forces in Misrata captured the main hospital and positioned snipers on the roof of it. The opposition requests a hospital ship be sent to Misrata.

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Coalition forces launch air-strikes on Gaddafi's forces within the city of Misrata itself. Coalition jets also launched air-strikes against Gaddafi forces at the eastern gate of Ajdabiya. People fleeing the city stated that only the center of the city remained in rebel hands while the outskirts were under government control.

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A British military officer claimed that Libya's air force "no longer exists as a fighting force" due to coalition airstrikes and that coalition aircraft are now "operating with impunity" over Libya. Air Vice Marshal Greg Bagwell stated: "We've blown up all their airplanes."

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Libya's pro-democracy fighters formed an "interim government", headed by Mahmoud Jibril.

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8 explosions from coalition bombings are heard after sunset in Eastern Tripoli.

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The Bab Al-Aziziya compound was also bombed again.

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Pro-Gaddafi forces re-enter Misrata and attack its main hospital.

24 March - NATO takes command of naval operations  

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Fourteen Tomahawk missiles were launched overnight in Libya by the allies, says a spokesman for US Africa Command in Germany. Fighting in both Ajdabiya and Misrata continues. Tanks re-entered Misrata after previously retreating. The regime attempted to capture Misrata's port with naval warships, but witnesses claim they retreated. The coalition plans to step up airstrikes on Ajdabiya and government positions, and is beginning to coordinate with rebels. A French fighter jet also reportedly shot down a Libyan military trainer aircraft which was breaking the no-fly-zone. It was a Soko G-2 Galeb, single-engine military aircraft. A member of the opposition forces was claiming a major success – killing 30 government snipers in Misrata. He also says that all Libyan government military vessels have abandoned the port. The Al Jufra Air Base was bombed by French aircraft. Libyan Deputy Foreign Minister Khaled Kaim stated that the base was struck before dawn. A spokesman for the anti-Gaddafi forces said that Gaddafi troops in Ajdabiya were trying to surrender. Col. Ahmad Omar Bani stated that the anti-Gaddafi forces "received information from freedom fighters in Ajdabiya saying some Gaddafi fighters have offered to leave their tanks". NATO took command of the naval arms embargo.

25 March - NATO takes command of air operations

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The United Arab Emirates committed six F-16 and six Mirage fighters to help enforce the no-fly zone over Libya. Western warplanes bombed Muammar Gaddafi's tanks and artillery in eastern Libya on Friday to try to break a battlefield stalemate and help rebels take the strategic town of Ajdabiya. French and British jets bombed targets near Ajdabiya the eastern town overnight, including government forces' artillery. Libyan leader Colonel Muammar Gaddafi is said to be arming volunteers to fight the uprising against his rule. Canadian Lt. Gen. Charlie Bouchard will command the NATO military air and sea operations under the name Operation Unified Protector. Abdul Ati al-Obeidi, a former prime-minister of the Gaddafi regime, stated that the Gaddafi regime is open to talks with the pro-democracy rebels and accept political reforms, possibly including elections.

Second rebel offensive 26 March 

Rebel forces recaptured Ajdabiya after Gaddafi forces retreated and with little threat also captured Brega and advanced towards Ra's Lanuf.

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The outskirts of Misrata were hit by airstrikes.

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Benghazi resident Iman al-Obeidi entered a Tripoli hotel, showed bruises and scars to foreign journalists and stated that she had been sworn at, tied up, urinated on and raped by 15 pro-Gaddafi security officers, who had detained her for two days (photos:). Pro-Gaddafi security officers assaulted several journalists and removed the woman from the hotel. The security officers said that they were taking al-Obaidi to a hospital. Al-Obaidi said she was being taken to prison. Charles Clover, a journalist with the Financial Times who attempted to defend her from Gaddafi's security forces, was deported from Libya. Clover said that he had been told the night before to leave because of what Libyan government officials said were "inaccuracies in his reporting".

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Bilgasim Al-Ganga, number three in pro-Gaddafi forces is said to be detained by anti-Gaddafi forces.

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Gaddafi's forces heavily bombard the city of Misrata, sometimes targetting residences. One family has been reported killed by such a blast. Gunners on rooftops shoot at anyone who goes out onto the street.

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The French army issued the 8th press release on Opération Harmattan where they stated that at least five Soko G-2 Galeb fighter planes and two Mil Mi-24 attack helicopters that were preparing attack in Zintan and Misrata regions were shot down in the last twenty-four hours. They are making further analyses to have a more precise assessment.

27 March  

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Rebel fighters have taken control of the small town of Uqayla and the oil town of Ra's Lanuf. Rebels recaptured Bin Jawad, a hamlet another 50 kilometres (30 miles) to the west as they moved towards Gadaffi's hometown Sirte. With the capture of Bin Jawad, the rebels have regained all the ground in the east they lost to the proGaddafi counter-offensive in the days prior to the imposition of the UN mandated no-fly zone. Rebel forces claim to advance further along the coast, taking the town of An Nawfaliyah, 100 kilometres (62 mi) from Sirte. Rebels have said they plan to halt their advance there overnight as pro-Gaddafi forces were supposedly stationed 50 kilometres (31 mi) down the road ready to defend Sirte. NATO says it has agreed to take over command of the military operation that is enforcing UN resolutions on Libya. Eight people were killed and 24 wounded in Misrata as forces loyal to Gaddafi fired mortars while advancing towards the city from the west. The rebels signed an oil export deal with Qatar, and announced that shipments of crude would start in "less than a week".

28 March    

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National Council spokesman Shamsi Abdul Molah made the incorrect claim that the rebel forces had captured Sirte. Pro-Gaddafi troops used Grad multi-rocket launchers to bombard the city of Zintan from the north. Al Jazeera reports that pro-Gaddafi soldiers in the town of Jalu, some 200 km south of Ajdabiya, surrendered to rebel forces. AFP reported that the rebels' advance on the city of Sirte has been halted about 137 km (85 mi) from the edge of Sirte by pro-Gaddafi forces. The opposition forces have seized An Nawfaliyah and were advancing towards an area called the Red Valley, but found it to be full of mines. Fighting is ongoing near An Nawfaliyah. Qatar becomes the third country (after France and Portugal) to recognize the National Transitional Council as the only official government of Libya. Pro-Gaddafi forces heavily bombard Misurata with tank shells and mortars from the north and northwest. Pro-Gaddafi snipers continue to shoot the city's residents. About 4000 migrant workers, mostly Egyptians, are waiting by Misurata's port to be evacuated. By evening, the rebels advanced to about 50 km from Sirte. British jets bombed ammunition bunkers in southern Libya. The British defence ministry also stated that several tanks and armoured vehicles were also destroyed, including "22 tanks, armoured vehicles and artillery pieces in the vicinity of Ajdabiya and Misrata"

Second Gaddafi counteroffensive 29 March 

Pro-Gaddafi troops use heavy weaponry to force the rebels to retreat from Nawfaliya towards Bin Jawad.

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A US Lockheed P-3 Orion fired on a Libyan 12-meter patrol vessel after it launched missiles at merchant ships in the port of Misrata "to stop them from firing into the port, harming civilians and damaging other vessels". A US A-10 Thunderbolt II also fired on two smaller Libyan vessels traveling with the larger ship, destroying one and forcing the other to be abandoned. Vice Admiral Bill Gortney confirmed the US has employed "A-10s and AC-130s over the weekend"

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The mother of Iman al-Obeidi said she had been asked to convince her daughter to retract the allegations in return for her freedom and cash or a new home. "Last night at 3, they called from Gaddafi's compound and asked me to convince my daughter Eman to change what she said, and we will set her free immediately and you can take anything you and your children would ask for," her mother stated

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Rebels temporarily retreated from Bin Jawad after intense mortar fire, but returned and fighting is currently directly west of Bin Jawad, according to BBC News correspondent Nic Springgate. Later, Springgate confirmed that the rebels had once again retreated from Bin Jawad, this time some of them as far as Ra's Lanuf.

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The Pentagon says that coalition forces launched 22 Tomahawk missiles overnight, while flying 115 strike sorties.

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Hillary Clinton and an envoy from the Libyan political opposition group trying to overthrow Moammar Gadhafi hold talks in London.

30 March 

Forces loyal to Gaddafi recaptured the oil-refinery town of Ra's Lanuf forcing rebels to retreat further to the east. The coalition then began launching air-strikes against Gaddafi's forces around Ra's Lanuf and on the road to Uqayla. Reporters on the ground blamed a sandstorm and low visibility from the air for the lack of air-strikes the previous day. Later during the day, rebels were pulling out of Brega to Ajdabiyah. In the evening, BBC News reported that Brega was in control of pro-Gaddafi forces and Ajdabiya was coming under attack by loyalist troops.

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The UK government expelled five diplomats from the Libyan embassy in London stating that they "could pose a threat" to national security.

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Rebel forces, suffering a shortage of skilled armored vehicle drivers, sent out an appeal by Free Libya radio for anyone who could drive a T-55 tank to report for duty immediately.

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It was reported that US Central Intelligence Agency and UK MI6 operatives were in Libya to gather intelligence for coalition airstrikes and make contacts with rebel forces.

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The UK government confirmed that the Libyan Foreign Minister, Mussa Kussa, had resigned and defected to the UK.

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The head of intelligence, the oil minister, the secretary of the Libyan General People's Congress and a deputy foreign minister also defected and escaped Libya.