Английский язык: Учебно-методическое пособие. Часть 1 (специальности 010801 - ''Радиофизика и электроника'', 010701 - ''Физика'', 010803 - ''Микроэлектроника и полупроводниковые приборы'')

М И Н И СТ Е РСТ В О О БРА ЗО В А Н И Я Н А У К И РО ССИ Й СК О Й Ф Е Д Е РА Ц И И В О РО Н Е Ж СК И Й ГО СУ Д А РСТ В Е Н Н Ы Й У Н И В Е РСИ Т Е Т

А Н ГЛИ Й СК И Й Я ЗЫ К У чебно-метод ическое пособие Част ь 1 по специальностям: 010801 –Рад иофизики элект р оника 010701 –Ф изика 010803 –М икр оэлектр оникаи полупр ов од ников ы е пр ибор ы

В О РО Н Е Ж 2004

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У т в ер ж д ено научно-мет од ическим сов ет ом факульт ет ар оманогер манской филологии П р отокол№ 4 от 9 апр еля2004 г.

Сост ав ит ели: И льичев аН .А . Д р озд ов аИ .В . Солов ьев аИ .Ю .

П особиепод готов лено накафед р еанглийского язы кафакульт ет ар оманогер манской филологии В ор онеж ского госуд ар ст в енного унив ер сит ет а. Рекоменд ует сяд ляст уд ент ов пер в ого и в т ор ого кур сов физического факульт ет а.

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Unit I Motion Lead –in 1. a) What examples of motion can you give? (Birds fly … .) b) What examples of acceleration can you give? (Cars speed up … .) 2. Read the following summary and fill in the gaps with the given words. Then read the text to see if you were right. downward – вниз; speed – ск о ро ст ь ; velocity – ск о ро ст ь в о пределенно м направ лении; acceleration – уск о рение; position – по ло ж ение; constant – по ст о янный; moving – движ ущ ийся Motion is everywhere. It occurs when an object changes its 1) … … … .. . The most obvious aspect of the motion of a 2) … … … .. object is how fast it is moving –its speed and velocity. These terms are often used interchangeably. The difference is that 3) … … … .. is a scalar quantity and 4) … … … .. is a vector quantity. 5) … … … .. is defined as the time rate of change of velocity. The acceleration of gravity at the Earth’s surface is directed 6) … … … .. . An object in uniform circular motion has a 7) … … … .. speed. Reading 3. For each question (A-J) choose the part of the text (1-10) which contains an answer. A What can be said about an object whose velocity is changing? B What quantities are represented by magnitude and direction? C What motion does an object experience if it moves in a circle at a constant speed? D What activity is an obvious part of everyday life? E What experiences result from acceleration when you drive down a straight highway or on a circular cloverleaf? F When do we say that motion has occurred? G Who first claimed that all objects, light or heavy, fall with the same acceleration? H What term refers to how far an object travels in a given time interval? I In what directions can acceleration be? J What is the basic difference between speed and velocity? 1

D Motion is everywhere. Birds fly. The wind blows the trees. The rivers flow. Even the continents drift. In the larger environment the Earth rotates on its

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axis. The moon revolves around the Sun. The sun moves in the galaxy. The galaxies move with respect to one another. 2 If an object changes its position (the location of an object), we say that motion has occurred. When an objet is undergoing a continuous change in position, we say the object is moving or is in its motion. We describe motion in terms of distance and time. Two basic kinds of motion are straight line motion and circular motion. 3 The terms speed and velocity are often used interchangeably. In physical science, however, these terms have distinct meanings. The basic difference is that one is a scalar quantity and the other one a vector quantity. 4 A scalar quantity is one that has magnitude or size only. For example, you may be travelling in a car at 90 km/h. This figure is your speed. A vector quantity, on the other hand, is one that has magnitude and direction. For example, suppose you are travelling 90 km/h north. This quantity describes your velocity. 5 The average speed of an object is the total distance travelled divided by the time spent in travelling the total distance. In formula form we have: distance travelled

d V=

Speed = time to travel distance

t

6 When you drive down a straight highway and suddenly increase your speed, you feel as though you are being forced back against the seat. When driving fast on a circular cloverleaf, you feel forced to the outside of the circle. These experiences result from changes in velocity (speed in a certain direction) or, in other words, from acceleration. 7 There are three ways that you can change the velocity of an object. You can (1) increase or (2) decrease its magnitude when travelling in a straight line, or (3) you can change the direction of the velocity vector. When any of these changes occur, we say that the object is accelerating. The faster the change in

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the velocity occurs, the greater the acceleration is. Acceleration is defined as the time rate of change of velocity: êV

change in velocity

=

Acceleration = time for changing to occur

T

8 Since velocity is a vector quantity, acceleration is also a vector quantity. For an object in a straight-line motion, the acceleration may be in the same direction as the velocity or the acceleration may be in the opposite direction of the velocity. In the first instance the acceleration causes the object to speed up and the velocity increases. If the velocity and acceleration are in opposite directions, then the acceleration slows down the object, which is sometimes called a deceleration. 9 There is one very special constant acceleration associated with the acceleration of falling objects: the acceleration of gravity at the Earth’s surface. It is directed downward and is denoted be the letter g. Its magnitude in the SI system is: g = 9.80 m/s2 . The great Italian physicist Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) was one of the first scientists to assert that all objects fall downward with the same acceleration. We can state Galileo’s principle as follows: if frictional effects can be disregarded, every freely falling object near the Earth’s surface accelerates downward at the same rate, regardless of the mass of the object. 10 An object in uniform circular motion has a constant speed. For example, a car going around a circular track at a uniform rate of 90 km/h has a constant speed. However, the velocity of the object is constantly changing direction. Since there is a change in velocity, there is an acceleration. Because the acceleration causes a change in direction that keeps the object in a circular path, the acceleration is actually perpendicular, or at a right angle to the velocity vector. This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration. In general, whenever an object moves in a circle of a radius r with constant speed v, the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration ac is given by the formula: v2 ac = (v squared divided by r) r

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Vocabulary Practice 4. Look at the words in bold and try to explain them. 5. Match the words to the opposites. 1. fast 2. downward 3. uniform 4. outward 5. continuous 6. opposite 7. constant 8. centripetal

A. centrifugal B. same C. interrupted D. irregular E. changeable F. upward G. slow H. inward

6. Fill in the correct words from the list below: average, distinct, straight-line, basic, continuous, frictional, scalar, total, opposite, centripetal 1. … 2. … 3. … 4. … 5. …

… … … … …

… … … … …

motion change quantity . meanings . speed

6. … … … . direction 7. … … … .. distance 8. … … … . effects 9. … … … . acceleration 10. … … … difference

7. Fill in the correct word combination from the above exercise. 1. If a car travels 240 kilometres in 3 hours, we say its … … … … . is 80 km/h. 2. If you swing a ball on a string in a horizontal curve around your head, you must pull inward to supply the necessity … .. … .. to keep the ball in a circular path. 3. Galileo’s principle concerning the same acceleration of falling objects is true if … .. … .. are negligible. 4. When an object is undergoing a … .. … .. in position, we say that it is moving. 5. … .. … .. is one –dimensional motion. 6. Speed is a … .. … .. and velocity is a vector quantity. 7. In physical science the terms “speed” and “velocity” have … .. … .. . 8. The … .. … .. between scalars and vectors is that a vector quantity has only magnitude and a scalar quantity has magnitude and direction. 9. An object slows down if its velocity and acceleration are in … .. … .. s. 10. The average speed of an object is the … .. … … travelled divided by the time spent in travelling.

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8. Underline the correct word. 1. The Earth rotates / revolves on its axis. 2. The acceleration (in the same direction as the velocity) causes the object to slow down / speed up. 3. Various objects fall downward with the same / different acceleration. 4. The acceleration of gravity at the Earth’s surface is directed upward / downward. 5. The velocity of an object in uniform circular motion is constant / changing. 6. A scalar quantity has only size / direction. 7. When you drive down a straight highway and suddenly slow down / increase your speed, you feel as though you are being forced back against the seat. 8. Acceleration is a scalar / vector quantity. 9. If the velocity and acceleration are in the opposite / the same directions, then the acceleration slows down the object. 9. Complete the sentences with one of the derivatives. A. Change (изменение), change (изменят ь), changeable (изменчив ы й), interchangeable (в заимозаменяемы й), interchangeably (в заимозаменяемо). 1. The terms speed and velocity are used … … … . 2. If an object … … … its position, we say that motion has occurred. 3. These terms are … … … . 4. The weather in Britain is … … … . 5. When an object is undergoing a continuous … … .. in position, we say the object is moving or is in motion. B. move (д в игат ь (ся)), move (д в иж ение), movement (пер ед в иж ение, д в иж ение), movements (д еятельност ь за опр ед еленны й пер иод ), moving (т р огат ельны й). 1. The film about ill-treatment of animals was so … … … that she almost wept. 2. Times … … .. slowly. 3. Loose clothing gives you greater freedom of … … … . 4. Please … … … your car; it’s blocking the road. 5. She sat in the corner watching my every … … … . 6. The police have been keeping a close watch on suspects’ … … … . 10. Translate into English using the following words for the underlined parts. 1) Until the time of, 2) it was widely believed, 3) heavier, 4) faster, 5) lighter, 6) fall, 7) to how, 8) postulated, 9) the same, 10) in the absence, 11) predicts, 12) from rest, 13) the distance travelled, 14) the square of the time. a) Д о Галилея b) бы ло пр инято полагат ь, чт о c) более т яж елы е пр ед меты пад аю т d) бы стр ее , чем e) более легкие пр ед меты и, чт о скор ост ь f) пад ения пр опор циональна g) т ому насколько т яж ел пр ед мет . Галилей h)

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пост улир ов ал, чт о в се пр ед мет ы буд ут пад ат ь с i) од инаков ы м ускор ением j) пр и от сут ст в ии в озд уха или д р угого сопр отив ления. О н показал, чт о эт от пост улат k) пр ед полагает, что д ля пр ед мет а, пад аю щ его l) из состояния покоя, m) пр ойд енное р асст ояние буд ет пр опор ционально n) кв д р ат у в р емени, то ест ь d ∝ t2 11. Read the text again and do the following. a) Distinguish between scalar and vector quantities and give an example of each. b) Distinguish between speed and velocity. c) Describe how acceleration is related to velocity, and explain the meaning of a negative acceleration. d) State Galileo’s observation about freely falling objects. e) Explain how an object in uniform circular motion is accelerated yet travels with a constant speed. Follow –up Activities 12. Match the formulas with their descriptions. 1) d a) a formula for centripetal acceleration V= t 2) Vf = V0 + at b) a formula for average velocity V2

3)

c) a formula for acceleration

ac = r êV

4) a=

Vf - V0 =

t

t

d) a formula for the final velocity of an object if its original velocity and acceleration are known.

13. Complete the definitions with the words from the list: resistance, signify, change, divided, centripetal, distance, moving, centre, gravity, displacement, centre 1) In general, the average speed of an object is defined as the distance travelled along its path … … … by the time it takes to travel this … … … . 2) Velocity is used to … … .. both the magnitude (numerical value) of how fast an object is moving and the direction in which it is … … … . The average velocity is defined in terms of … … … rather than total distance traveled. 3) Average acceleration is defined as the … … … in velocity divided by the time taken to make this change.

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4) At a given location on the Earth and in the absence of air … … … , all objects fall with the same acceleration. We call this acceleration the acceleration due to … … … on the Earth. 5) For an object in uniform circular motion the acceleration is toward the … … … of the circle. This acceleration is called … … … acceleration. 14. Complete the answers to the questions (1-5) choosing from the arguments (a-e). 1) - Are velocity and acceleration always in the same direction? - Not necessarily, because … .. 2) - Does an object thrown upward have zero acceleration at the highest point? - No, because at the highest point the ball has zero velocity for an instant … .. 3) - If an object has a constant speed, does it also have a constant velocity? - Not always. An object may move with a constant speed in a curved path... 4) - Does the instantaneous speed always equal the magnitude of instantaneous velocity? - Yes, because … .. 5) - If the acceleration is zero, does it mean the velocity is zero? - No, … .. a) In this case the velocity is not constant because the direction of the motion is continually changing. b) When the ball is moving upward its velocity is positive whereas acceleration is negative (downward). c) As you cruise along a straight highway at a constant velocity of 100 km/h, your acceleration is zero. d) But gravity doesn’t stop acting, so a = - 9.80 m/s2 even there. For if the acceleration (rate of change of velocity) were zero, the ball could stay up there without falling. e) Distance and displacement become the same when they become infinitesimally small. 15. Read the question and complete the answer with the words from the list: total, distance, turning round, magnitude, displacement, starting, average. - Do average speed and average velocity always have the same magnitude? - Sometimes they don’t. Imagine a person walking 70 metres to the east and then 1) … … . and walking back (west) a 2) … … . of 30 metres. The 3) … . distance travelled is 100 metres, but the 4) … … . (change in position) is only 40 metres since the person is now only 40 metres from the 5) … … . point. Suppose this walk took 70 seconds to complete. Then the 6) … … . speed was; distance 100 m

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=

= 1.4 m/s

time 70 s The 7) … … . of average velocity, on the other hand, was: displacement

40 m =

time

= 0.57 m/s 70 m

16. Some “given” or “known” quantities in the following problem are missing. Look at the problem and the solution, then fill in the gaps with the words from the list to explain what numerical values in the equation mean: change in velocity, final velocity (2), slow down, initial velocity (2), average acceleration. An automobile is moving along a straight highway and the driver puts on the brakes. What was the car’s average acceleration? Solution: 5.0 m/s –15.0 m/s a= = - 2.0 m/s2 5.0 s a) 5.0 s - the time taken to … … … b) 15.0 m/s –the car’s … … … c) 5.0 m/s –the car’s … … … d) 5.0 m/s –15.0 m/s –the … … .. e) –2.0 m/s2 –the car’s … … … . The negative sign appears because the … … … is less than the … … … . 17. John’s father is trying to warn his son against speedy driving. Complete their conversation with the words from the list: calculate, multiply, conditions, stopping distance, application, decelerate, brake, speed, increase. F: Well John, you shouldn’t drive your car at a a) … … . of 100 km/h in town. It’s too dangerous. J: Don’t worry, Dad. I never speed up in crowded places. But why not b) … … . speed when the streets become empty. F: Don’t you understand that you can meet with an unpredictable situation if someone tries to run across the street right in front of your car? J: If it happens, I’ll just c) … … . . F: I’m afraid it is not as simple as that. You forget that the braking distance may be quite long. J: It can’t be very long because my car is new. It’s got good tires and good brakes which can d) … … . at 6.0 m/s2 (six meters per second).

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F: Don’t forget about the reaction time of the driver: the time between your decision to apply the brakes and their actual e) … … . . Let’s calculate the f) … ... right now assuming that your reaction time is 0.5 s and the road is dry. J: All right. If I g) … … . 0.5 s by 28 m/s (100 km/h) I’ll get 14 metres, which is the distance my car travels during my reaction time until I put on the brakes. F: Now we should find the distance during which the brakes are applied and the car is brought to rest. v2 –v02 J: I think I’ll use the equation ( x = x0 + ) to h) … … . the whole 2a 0 –(28 m/s)2 - 784 m2/s2 distance. Then we’ll get ( 14 m + = 14 m + = 14 m + . 2 2 2 (-6.0 m/s ) - 12 m/s + 65 m = 79 m) 79 metres. Oh, I’ve never expected it to be so long. F: It will be even longer under wet or icy i) … … . . Then the value of a (a means acceleration) may be only one third of the value for a dry road since the brakes cannot be applied as hard without skidding. J: You really sound convincing, Dad. I think I’ll be more careful on the road. Grammar in Use Present Simple –Present Continuous 18. Identify the tenses in bold (1-6), then match them with the correct tense description (a-g). 1. Slow down! You are driving too fast. 2. Vector quantities give more information than scalar quantities. 3. I usually go away at weekends. 4. You are always forgetting to pay the bills. 5. The population of the world is rising very fast. 6. His flight leaves at 9.00 a.m. 7. He is going to London next week. a) b) c) d) e) f) g)

changing situations; future arrangements; irritation; actions happening right now; scheduled actions (timetables); general truths (laws of nature); repeated actions.

19. Make the statements with doesn’t or don’t where necessary. 1. The Earth / rotate / on its axis. The Earth rotates on its axis.

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2. The Sun / revolve / around the Earth. The Sun doesn’t revolve around the Earth. 3. Matter / exist / in time, / occupy / space and / have / mass. 4. The science of chemistry / deal with / speed and velocity. 5. Objects / fall / down with different acceleration. 6. Galaxies / move / with respect to one another. 7. The sun / set / in the east. 8. A scalar quantity / have / direction. 9. On the moon all objects / fall / at a slower rate than on the Earth. 10. The velocity of a freely falling object / slow down. 11. Heavy objects / fall / faster than light objects. 12. Astronauts / fly/ in submarines. 20. Make sentences using the present continuous to show how our world is changing. 1. More people / recycle / rubbish nowadays. More people are recycling rubbish nowadays. 2. The climate / get / warmer every year. 3. Our knowledge of the world / grow. 4. Computers / become / faster every year. 5. More wild animals / become / extinct these days. 6. Cities / grow / bigger every year. 21. Choose the most appropriate variant. Then say what use it shows. 1. Every year I visit / I am visiting Britain to improve my English. 2. It’s time we turned on the central heating. It gets / it is getting colder every day. 3. What’s the matter? Why do you look / are you looking at me like that? 4. I’m going to buy a new swimming costume. My old one doesn’t fit / isn’t fitting any more. 5. You always complain / are always complaining about my cooking. 6. Water boils / is boiling at 100º C and freezes / is freezing when the temperature drops / is dropping below 0º C. 7. I have a feeling that something goes / is going wrong. 8. People traditionally prepare / are preparing coloured eggs at Easter. 9. I won’t have another drink, thanks. I drive / I am driving. 10. Roger kicks / is kicking the ball and passes / is passing it to Jones. Jones runs / is running down the pitch. He passes / is passing the ball to Smith. 22. Some stative verbs can be used in continuous forms but the meaning changes. Read the sentences below and match the verbs in bold with their meaning. 1. He has a sports car.

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2. He is having lunch now. 3. Mr. Jones thinks we should advertise this product. 4. I’m thinking about my holiday. 5. The soup tastes awful. 6. She is tasting the soup. 7. I see there is a problem in this department. 8. I’m seeing my dentist tonight. a) understand d) have a flavour g) test the flavour of sth. b) own e) consider h) believe c) meet f) eat

Unit II Force and Motion Lead –in 1. a) Is rest or motion the natural state of an object? b) What makes an object at rest begin to move? 2. Fill in the gaps in the following summary with the given words. Then read the text to see if you were right. according to, introduce, relate, contrary to, conclude, incorporate, concerning, prevail. Aristotle’s theory of motion had 1) … … ..ed (господ ст в ов ат ь) for fifteen centuries after his death. 2) … … … (в соот в етст в ии) it an object required a force to keep it in motion. Galileo was one of the first scientists to make a formal statement 3) (от носит ельно) objects at rest and in motion. 4) … … … (в пр от ив ополож ност ь) Aristotle, Galileo 5) … … … ( сд елал в ы в од ) that objects could naturally remain in motion than come to rest. Newton 6) … … … (в клю чит ь) Galileo’s result in his first law of motion. Galileo 7) also … … … d (в в ест и) the concept of inertia. Newton went further and 8) … … … d (соот носит ь) acceleration to inertia or mass. Reading 3. For each question (A-I) choose the part of the text (1-9) which contains an answer.

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A. Who first introduced the concept of inertia? B. What is the unit of force? C. What scientists formulated their views on the theory of motion? D. What forces acting on an object can’t make it move? E. Who first conducted the experiment which showed that almost no force is required to move an object? F. What does the second law of motion state? G. What is the measure of inertia? H. What does the first law of motion state? I. What is the example of the relationship of mass and inertia? 1

C Galileo was one of the first scientists to make a formal statement concerning objects at rest and in motion. But it was Sir Isaac Newton who formulated the laws of motion mathematically. His analysis of motion is summarized in his famous three laws of motion. According to Aristotle’s theory of motion, which had prevailed some fifteen centuries after his death, an object required a force to keep it in motion. That is, the natural state of an object was one of rest, with the exception of celestial bodies. 2 Galileo studied motion using a ball rolling onto a level surface from an inclined plane. The smoother he made the surface, the further the ball would roll. He reasoned that if he could make a surface perfectly smooth, the ball would continue in motion indefinitely or until something stopped it. Thus, contrary to Aristotle, Galileo concluded that objects could naturally remain in motion rather than come to rest. 3 Newton also recognized this phenomenon and incorporated Galileo’s result in his first law of motion. This law can be stated as follows: an object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external unbalanced force. Another way to state Newton’s first law is to say that the natural state of motion is at a constant velocity. 4 Let’s focus on what is meant by an external unbalanced force. Newton’s first law indicates that if an object is to speed up, slow down, or change direction (as in a circular motion), then such a force is required. But first, what is a force? A force is simply a push or a pull. In terms of the first law, we might say that a force is a quantity that is capable of producing motion or a change in motion. Since forces have direction as well as magnitude, they are vector quantities. Forces may act on an object in different directions. If the forces are

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balanced, that is, equal and opposite, motion doesn’t occur. It occurs when the applied forces are unbalanced, that is, when they are not equal and opposite. An external force is one that is applied on or to the object or system. There are also internal forces but they don’t affect velocity.

5 Galileo also introduced another concept. It appeared that objects were resistant to changes in motion. Similarly, if an object was at rest, it seemed to “want” to remain so. Galileo called this property inertia and we say that inertia is the property of matter that resists changes in motion. 6 Newton went on one step further and related the concept of inertia to something that could be measured – mass. That is, mass is the measure of inertia. The greater the mass of an object, the greater its inertia is and vice versa. 7 As an example of the relationship of mass and inertia, suppose you horizontally push two different people on swings initially at rest, one a very large man and the other a small child. You’d quickly find that it was more difficult to get the adult moving. That is, there would be noticeable difference in the resistance to motion between the man and the child. Also, once you got them swinging and then tried to stop the motions, you’d notice a difference in the resistance to a change in motion again. Being more massive the man has greater inertia.

8 In our study of motion, acceleration was defined as the time rate of the change of velocity. What causes acceleration? Newton’s first law answers the question. If an external unbalanced force (net force) is required to produce a change in velocity, then we see that an unbalanced force causes an acceleration. Newton also related acceleration to inertia or mass. Because inertia is the resistance to a change in motion, a reasonable assumption is that the greater inertia or mass of an object, the smaller the change in motion or velocity is when a force is applied. Hence we have this summary: 1. The acceleration produced by an unbalanced force acting on an object (or mass) is directly proportional to the magnitude of the force (a ∝ F) and in the direction of the force. 2. The acceleration of an object being acted on by an unbalanced force is inversely proportional to the mass of the object (a ∝ 1/m).

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Newton’s second law of motion may be expressed as unbalanced force F acceleration ∝ or a ∝ mass m F In equation from we have a = which is commonly written as F = ma. m 9 In the metric system the units of mass and acceleration are kg and m/s 2 respectively, so force has units of F = ma = kg ⋅ m/s2. This derived unit is given the special name of newton. Force is expressed in units of newtons. One newton (1N) is the force necessary to accelerate 1kg at a rate of 1 m/s 2. Vocabulary Practice 4. Look at the words in bold and try to explain them. 5. Replace the words in bold with the opposite ones from the list: unbalanced, directly, rough, artificial, external, small, pull, informal, in motion, sloping, slowing down, an adult a) a smooth surface, b) internal forces, c) inversely proportional, d) a small child, e) an object at rest, f) the car is speeding up, g) to push an object, h) equal forces, i) formal statements, j) level surfaces, k) natural state, l) noticeable difference. 6. Fill in with the words in brackets. 1) a. Let’s find … … . ground for a picnic table. b. The ball was rolling down from … … . plane. (an inclined / level) 2) a. The object will remain at … … . or in uniform … … . unless acted upon by an external, unbalanced force. (rest / motion) 3) a. Marble is … … . to the touch. b. If a surface is … … . the ball will not continue in motion indefinitely. (smooth / rough) 4) a. He gave me a … … . from behind and I fell forward into the water. b. The moon’s … … . on the sea causes tides. (pull / push) 5) a. An … … . force is an applied force. b. An … … . force doesn’t affect the car’s velocity. (Internal / external)

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6) a. The acceleration produced by an unbalanced force is … … . proportional to the magnitude of the force and … … . proportional to the mass of the object. (inversely / directly) 7. Complete the sentences using a word from the list below: level, external, formal, opposite, celestial, natural, inclined, uniform, equal, constant, unbalanced, straight 1. Galileo made a … … … (официальны й) statement concerning objects at rest and in motion. 2. … … … . (небесны й) bodies don’t stay at rest. 3. Galileo studied motion using a ball running onto a … … … (гор изонтальны й) plane from an … … … (наклонны й) plane. 4. Motion occurs when the applied forces are … … … (пр отив ополож ны й) and unbalanced, that is, when they are not … … … . (р ав ны й). 5. An object will remain in … … … (р ав номер ны й) motion in a … … … (пр ямой) line unless acted upon by an … … … (в неш ний), … … … (неур ав нов еш енны й) force. 6. The … … … (естеств енны й) state of motion is at a … … … (постоянны й) velocity. 7. Forces may act on an object in … … … (пр от ив ополож ны й) directions. 8. Complete the sentences with the words from the list: introduced, concluded, causes, required, remain, related, resists, prevailed, produce, recognized, reasoned, act on, defined, continue, rolling An unbalanced force … … … an acceleration. (яв лят ьсяпр ичиной) If an object is at rest it seems to want to … … … so. (остат ься) Inertia is the property that … … … changes in motion. (сопр отив лят ься) A force is a quantity that can … … … motion. (в ы зв ат ь) Forces may … … … an object in different directions. (в озд ейст в ов ат ь) The ball could … … … in motion indefinitely on a perfectly smooth surface. (пр од олж ат ь) 7. He used a ball … … … on a level surface. (кат ящ ийся) 8. Acceleration was … … … as the time rate of the change of velocity. (опр ед елят ь) 9. He … … … that the object could naturally remain in motion. (сд елат ь в ы в од ) 10. He … … … . that on a perfectly smooth surface the ball would continue in motion indefinitely. (р ассуж д ат ь, д оказы в ат ь) 11. Newton also … … … this phenomenon. (пр изнав ат ь) 12. Galileo … … … . another concept. (в в ести, пр ед ст ав ит ь) 13. Aristotle’s theory of motion had … … … for some fifteen centuries. (господ ст в ов ат ь)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

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14. Newton … … … acceleration to inertia. (соотнест и) 15. An external unbalanced force is … … … to produce a change in velocity. (т р ебов ат ься) 9. Fill in the gaps with one of the derivatives. resist (со про т ивлят ь ся), resistance (со про т ив ление), resistant (со про т ивляющ ийся, ст о йк ий), resistor (резист о р), irresistible (нео про верж им ый, нео т разим ый) 1. Copper has less … … … than lead. 2. On such a hot day the sea was … … … . We couldn’t … … … . the desire to swim in it. 3. This new type of infection is … … … to antibiotics. 4. The city couldn’t … … … the enemy any more. 5. A … … … is a piece of wire or other material used for increasing electrical … … … . 6. His arguments were … … … . 10. Translate into English using the following words for the underlined parts. 1) is sometimes called; 2) action; 3) opposite reaction; 4) states; 5) statement; 6) refer to; 7) forces; 8) object; 9) exerts a force; 10) force. Т р ет ий закон Н ью т она a) иногд а назы в ает ся законом b) д ейст в ия и c) пр от ив од ейст в ия. Т р ет ий закон Н ью т онаd) ут в ер ж д ает : Для к а ж д о г о д ействия им еется ра вн о е и про тиво по ло ж н о е д ействие. В эт ом e) ут в ер ж д ении слов ад ейст в ие и пр отив од ейст в ие f) от носятсяк g) силам: К огд а од ин h) пр ед мет i) оказы в ает силов ое в озд ейст в ие на в т ор ой пр ед мет, в тор ой пр ед мет оказы в ает р ав ное и пр от ив ополож ное j) силов ое в озд ейст в иенапер в ы й пр ед мет (m1a1 = - m2a2). 11. Read the text again and do the following. 1. State Newton’s first law of motion and explain what the natural state of motion is. 2. Define the terms force, inertia and mass. 3. State Newton’s second law of motion in words and with an equation. Follow –up Activities 12. Read the tasks, then fill in the missing words to give the complete answers.

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velocity, equals, zero (2), directly proportional, determine, divide, gravity, inversely proportional, matter, multiply, acceleration 1. Determine the force necessary to give an object with a mass of 4 kg an acceleration of 6 m/s2 We know that force a) … … . mass times b) … … (F = ma). To calculate the force we must c) … … . 4 kg by 6 m/s2 and get 24 N. 2. A force of 2800 N is exerted on a rifle bullet with a mass of 0.014 kg. What will be the bullet’s acceleration? Acceleration is a) … … to the magnitude of force and b) … … … … . to the mass of the object. To determine the bullet’s acceleration we must c) … … . 2.800 N by 0.014 kg and get d) … … . m/s2. 3. What is the unbalanced force on a car moving with a constant velocity of 20 m/s (45 mi/h) There is no change in a) … … . which means that the acceleration is b) … … . . It also means that the force on a object is c) … … . . 4. What is the weight of a 6-kg package of nails? Mass refers to the amount of a) … … .. an object contains and weight is related to the force of b) … … . . The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Earth is equal to 9.8 m/s2. To c) … . we must multiply 6 kg by 9.8 m/s 2 to get 58.8 N. 13. Choose the right answer. 1. How does a rocket accelerate? a) Rockets accelerate because the gases rushing out of the back of the engine push against the ground or the atmosphere. b) A rocket exerts a strong force on the gases, expelling them; and the gases exert an equal and opposite force on the rocket, propelling it forward. 2. Can a person move a sled with a block of marble on it of a sled exerts an equal and opposite force backward? a) No matter how hard he pulls, the backward reaction force always equals his forward force so the net (unbalanced) force must be zero. He’ll never be able to move this load. b) The man can accelerate forward. There are two forces that affect his forward motion: (1) the force exerted on the person by the sled, pulling backward on him, and (2) the horizontal force exerted on him by the ground. When the ground pushes forward on the man harder than his sled pulls backward, the man accelerates forward. 14. Read the problem. Look at the sketches and answer the questions. Use the expressions: to be at rest, to act upward/downward, the net / the normal (perpendicular to the common surface of contact) force on the box is … ., the force exerted by the table / by your friend is … .

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1. A friend has given you a special gift, a box of mass 10.0 kg with a mystery surprise inside. The box is resting on the smooth horizontal surface of a table. a) Determine the weight of the box. b) How many forces act on the box? c) In what directions do they act? d) What is the magnitude of the force exerted on the box by the table? e) What is the net force on the box? 2. Now your friend pushes down on the box with a force of 40.0 N. a) How many forces are acting on the box? b) What is the magnitude of the normal force acting on the box? c) Why is the box at rest?

3. Your friend pulls upward on the box with a force of 40.0 N a) Is the box’s weight still the same? b) What is the normal force on the box? c) Why doesn’t the box move? d) What is the net force?

15. Nick is talking to his friend Kate who managed to get her car out of the mud without outside help. Read the conversation filling in the words from the list: midpoint, short cut, lonely, magnify, smooth, maximum, at a loss, exceed, tied, stuck, boot N: Well, Kate I really can’t understand what made you choose that rough track through the a) … … … countryside, while there is a wonderful b) … … … motorway to drive on? K: I was late for my grandmother’s birthday, so I decided to take a c) … … .. to save the time. N: What did you feel when you found your car d) … … … . in the mud? K: At first, I felt e) … … … because there was nobody around to ask for help.

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N: Do you mean to say that you got your car out all by yourself? K: Yes, but when I carefully looked around I saw a tree at the side of the track. There was also a strong rope in the f) … … … . I g) … … … one end of the rope to the back bumper of the car and the other end to the tree. Then I started pushing at the h) … … … of the rope with my i) … … … effort. N: But your maximum effort couldn’t be very strong. It couldn’t j) … … … a force of 300 N. K: The car began to budge with the rope at an angle which I estimate to be 5°. If you do the calculations, you will see that I was able to k) … … … . my effort almost six times using the technique. Grammar in Use Present Perfect (I have done)

Present Perfect Continuous (I have been doing)

16. Fill in the gaps with for or since. 1. Chemists have … … .. a long time tried to duplicate the compounds. 2. People have known Einstein’s equation, which relates mass to energy … … . 1905. 3. He has been conducting the experiment … … . last year. 4. Jane has been my friend … … .. many years. 5. The car has been moving with a constant speed … … . about an hour. 6. The children have been swinging … … . ten minutes. 7. I have been waiting for you … … . 10 o’clock. 8. It has been raining … … .. hours. I wish it would stop. 9. … … … . I moved to York, I have been much happier. 10. Humans have consumed alcohol … … . the beginning of civilization. 17. Rephrase the following sentences. 1. I have never tasted muesli before. It’s the first time I’ve tasted muesli. 2. I have never seen such a boring film. It’s the first time … … .. . 3. He has never been to New York before. It’s … … .. . 4. She has never had such a delicious meal. It’s … … .. . 5. She has never flown before. It’s … … .. . 6. She has never read Tolstoy before. It’s … … … . 7. They have never played cricket before. It’s … … .. . 8. She has never heard such a funny story before. It’s … … … . 18. Expand the sentences as in the model. 1. Mrs. Pears is sunbathing (since 10 o’clock). She has been sunbathing since 10 o’clock. 2. Tom and Jerry are swimming (for half an hour).

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3. 4. 5. 6.

Mrs. Houston is reading her book (since 9 o’clock). Sandra and Helen are talking (for 10 minutes). Anna is listening to a new record (since 10 o’clock). Tim and Alan are playing chess (for an hour).

19. Fill in the gaps with the verbs in brackets in the Present Perfect Continuous. 1. He’s wet. He … … … in the water. (play) 2. He’s tired. He … … … hard. (work) 3. She’s cold. She … … … for three hours. (walk) 4. Everything is white. It … … … all night. (snow) 5. He’s confused. He … … … to solve the problem all morning. (try) 20. Look at the following and say how long the following people have been working and how much they have done. It’s 11 o’clock. Name Sandra Kim Bob John Helen

Started / Activity 9 o’clock / type 8 o’clock / clean house 7 o’clock / deliver parcels 10 o’clock / examine patients 10 o’clock / draw pictures

Completed 20 letters 4 rooms 30 parcels 3 patients 4 pictures

E.g. 1. Sandra’s been typing since 9 o’clock / for 2 hours. She has typed twenty letters so far. 21. Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect or Present Perfect Continuous. 1. Go out and get some fresh air! You … … … (sit) there reading all morning. 2. I can’t believe that you … … … (eat) three pizzas already! 3. I feel really tired I … … … . (weed) the garden for the last three hours. I … … … (not rest) for a single moment. 4. Jim … … … (have) three car accidents so far. 5. It’s a along time since I saw your brother. What … … … he (do) lately? 6. I … … … (twist) my ankle. That’s why I’m limping. 7. I have a driving license. I … … … (drive) for four years now. 8. I’m a careful driver. At least I … … … never (have) an accident. 9. Jane needs an antiseptic because she … … … (cut) her finger. 10. Oh, do be quiet! You … … … (grumble) all day.

Unit III Work and Energy

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Lead - in 1. Read the sentences and decide whether they are true (T) or false (F). a. The common meaning of the word work is the same as its technical meaning b. A person standing and holding a heavy load isn’t doing any work in the technical sense. c. Electrical energy supports all life on our planet. 2. Questions. a. Are work and energy related? b. What is the main source of energy on a planet? 3. Read the sentences below and choose the correct word. Then read the text and check if your guesses were correct. a. Work is the result of the 1) movement / action of a force when it acts on an object as the object moves through 2) a distance / outer space. b. Energy is defined as the 3) gift / ability to do work. c. Kinetic energy is the energy of 4) motion / rest. d. Average power is defined as the 5) tempo / rate at which work is done. e. Potential energy is the energy associated with forces that depend on the 6) temperature / position of bodies. Reading 4. Choose from the list A – H the headlines which best suit each part of the text that follows. There is an extra headline which you do not need to use. A. Energy B. Work C. Conservation of energy D. Potential energy 0

E. Different ways in which work can be done F. The common and the technical meaning of the word work G. Power H. Kinetic energy

F When work is done, energy has been expanded. After performing a certain amount of work during the day we become tired. We must obtain rest and food in order to continue the work. The food must serve as fuel to supply the necessary energy. Hence work and energy are related. The technical

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meaning of the word “work” is quite different from the common meaning. A student standing at rest and holding several books is doing no work although he or she will feel tired after a time. Technically speaking, work is accomplished only when a force acts though a distance. 1 As a physical concept work is the result of the action of a force. We define the work done by the force F as the product of the magnitude of the force and the parallel distance through which the force acts. This concept may be written as work = force ⋅ parallel distance or W = Fd Hence work requires not only a force but also motion or the movement of an object through a distance. For example, when a person is mowing the lawn, only the force component parallel to the lawn (the horizontal force) is used to accomplish work. The vertical component of the force is doing no useful work, since the force is tending to push the lawn mower into the ground. Since work is the product of a force and a distance, the units of work are the units of force times length. In the SI system the units of work are the newton – meter (N ⋅ m, force ⋅ length). This unit is given the special name of joule. 2 When a force is applied to change the velocity or direction of an object, work is done against inertia. If we lift an object at a constant velocity there is no net force on it because it is not accelerated. The weight of the object mg presses down, and we push up with an equal and opposite force. The distance parallel to the applied upward force is the height h that we lift the object. Thus the work done against gravity is W = Fd, W = mgh if we lift a 10 –kg mass a distance of 2 m, the work done is W = mgh = 10kg ⋅ 9.8 m/s2 ⋅ 2m = 196 J Friction always opposes motion. Hence to move something, we have to apply a force. The work done by the applied force against friction is W = Fd. 3 The rate of doing work is called power. Power is calculated by dividing the work done by the time required to do it. Power can be written as work W power = , P= time t Because work is the product of force and distance (W = Fd), power may be written in terms of these quantities

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W P=

=

Fd

t t Power has the units of joule per second (J/s). This unit is given the special name of watt (w), and 1 w = 1 J/s. However, to rate the power of motors and engines another unit the horsepower (hp) is commonly used and 1 horsepower = 746 w. 4 Work produces a change in energy. Thus power can be thought of as the energy produced or consumed divided by the time taken, and we can write energy produced or consumed E Power = or P= time taken t From this equation we can see that E=P⋅t This formula is useful in computing the amount of energy consumed in a home. In particular, since energy is power times time, a watt ⋅ hour (wh) is a unit of energy. For a larger unit of energy, a kilowatt (kw) may be used and 1000 watts ⋅ hour is a kilowatt – hour (kwh). 5 Energy occurs in many forms. Two of the most fundamental forms of energy are kinetic energy and potential energy. Kinetic energy is the energy a body possesses because of its motion or, simply is the energy of motion. As we learned, work requires motion, so when work causes a change in motion, there is a corresponding change in kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of an object can be written as 1 1 2 kinetic energy = ⋅ mass ⋅ (velocity) or Ek = mv2 2 2

6 Potential energy is the energy a body has because of its position or location or, simply, the energy of position. Work is done in changing the position of an object, and hence there is a change in energy. For example, if a book (mass = 1kg) at rest on the floor is lifted at a height of 1 m to the top of a table, work is done. Work is done against gravity and this work is equal to W = mgh where mg is the weight of the object (w = mg) h is the height through which the book is lifted. With work being done, the energy of the book changed (increased) and the book on the table has energy and the ability to do work because of its height or position. This energy is called gravitational potential

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energy. If the book were allowed to fall back to the floor, it could do work, such as crunching something. Vocabulary Practice 5. Look at the words in bold and try to explain them. 6. Fill in the correct words from the list below expend, performing, obtain, supplies, requires, accomplish, press down, apply, rated, consume, possess, fell back, calculate Work … … … not only a force but also motion. (нуж д ат ься, тр ебов ат ь) He lifted the book but then it … … … on the floor. (упаст ь обр ат но) Don’t … … … your energy on such a useless job. (т р ат ит ь) Watt … … … the power of motors and engines in horsepower. (исчислят ь, в ы р аж ат ь в чем-либо) 5. Kinetic energy is energy a body … … … because of its motion. (облад ат ь) 6. After … … … a certain amount of work we become tired. (сов ер ш ат ь) 7. He tried hard to … … … work. (зав ер ш ит ь) 8. We must … … … rest and food in order to continue work. (получат ь) 9. You should … … … on the handle with all your strength. (наж ать) 10. Food … … … the necessary energy. (д ав ать, обеспечив ат ь) 11. We pay electric power companies for the electricity which we … … … . (потр еблят ь) 12. To move something, we have to … … … a force. (пр именят ь) 13. We … … … power by dividing the work done by the time required to do it. (в ы числят ь)

1. 2. 3. 4.

7. Fill in the correct word from the list below. Use the word only once. net, gravitational, lawn, ability, to give, certain, to produce, change, opposite, product, fundamental, tired. 1. a … … . amount of work 2. a … … . mower 3. a … … . force 4. an equal and … … . force 5. a … … . in energy 6. a … … . concept 8. 1. 2. 3.

7. … … . a change 8. to become … … . 9. … … . potential energy 10. … … . a name 11. the … … . of a force and distance 12. the … … . to do work

Underline the correct word. When work is done, energy has been expended / wasted. Work and energy are united / related. Energy is sometimes called accumulated / stored work.

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4. A student standing at rest and holding several books is doing work in the technical / common meaning. 5. The speed / rate of doing work is called power. 6. This formula is useful in computing / measuring the amount of energy consumed in a home. 7. Prospective / potential energy is the energy a body has because of its position or location. 8. Energy comes / occurs in many forms. 9. Fill in the gaps with one of the derivatives. a) expend (р асход ов ат ь), expendable (р асход уемы й), expenditure(s) (р асход ы ), expense (at sb. expense –зачей-либо счет ), expensive (д ор огой) 1. Limit your … … … to what is essential. 2. Most children are educated at public … … … . 3. They will … … … all their money on that project. 4. Houses are very … … … in this area. 5. In the Great wars soldiers were considered … … … . b) consume (пот р еблят ь), consumer (потр ебление) 1. … … … s сап complain about faulty goods. 2. The car … … … s a lot of fuel. 3. … … … of oil has declined in recent years.

(пот р ебит ель),

consumption

c) occur (случат ься, пр оисход ит ь) occurrence (пр оисш ест в ие) 1. When did the accident … … … ? 2. Robbery is now an everyday … … … . 10. Translate into English using the following words for the underlined parts. 1) concept, 2) quantity, 3) is possessed by, 4) by which, 5) is transferred, 6) expended, 7) is equal to, 8) law, 9) conservation, 10) in many different ways, 11) total, 12) constant, 13) neither … . nor, 14) created, 15) destroyed, 16) in changing from A. Э нер гияэто од но изсамы х фунд амент альны х a) понятий в науке. Э т о b) в еличина, кот ор ой c) облад аю т пр ед меты . B. Работ а –это пр оцесс, d) с помощ ью кот ор ого энер гия e) пер еход ит от од ного пр ед мет а к д р угому. К оличест в о f) изр асход ов анной энер гии g) р ав няется сд еланной р аботе, поэтому р абота и энер гия имею т од инаков ы еед иницы измер ения. C. h) Закон i) сохр анения энер гии мож но излож ит ь j) по-р азному. Н апр имер , k) сов окупная энер гия изолир ов анной сист емы ост ает ся l) постоянной, энер гия не мож ет бы т ь m) ни n) созд ана, o) ни p)

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уничт ож ена, q) пр и пер еход е изод ной фор мы в д р угую энер гия в сегд а сохр аняет ся. 11. Read the text again and do the following tasks. а) Define the terms work, energy and give their units in the SI system. b) Distinguish between kinetic energy and potential energy. c) Explain whether energy is scalar or vector quantity. Follow –up Activities 12. Read the following beginnings and endings and match them. Beginnings Endings 1) Work is done on an object by force a) energy of motion when … … 2) Energy can be defined as … … b) the net work done on a body (by the net force) equals the change in the kinetic energy of that body. 3) Kinetic energy is … … c) energy can be transferred from one type to another, but total energy remains constant. 4) Potential energy is … … d) the object moves through a distance d. 5) The work-energy principle states e) energy associated with forces that that … … depend on the position or configuration of bodies. 6) The law of conservation of energy f) the rate of which work is done (work states that … … done divided by the time required to do it) or the rate at which energy is transferred. 7) Power is defined as … … g) the ability to do work. 13. Choose the true answers to the following questions. Fill in the gaps with the words from the list: expends, height, power, joules, work, divide, distance, opposite, rate, weight, gravity, move 1. A weight lifter holds 300 1b over his head. Is he doing work on the weights? a) The weight lifter is doing … … because the … … is heavy, so he will feel tired after a time. b) No work is being done since the weight lifter is not moving his weight through a … … .

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2. A weight lifter holds 300 1b over his head. Did he do work on the weights? a) Yes, he did, because he pushes his weight up with an equal and … … force. The distance parallel to the applied force was the … … . So he did work against … … . b) The weight lifter didn’t do any work because he didn’t … … his weight through a horizontal distance. 3. Persons A and B do the same job, but B takes a longer time. Who expends the greater amount of power? a) B expends the greater amount of power because he works longer. b) A … … . the greater amount of power because the same amount of work is done in each case. Besides, power is the … … of work. To calculate power, we must … … work by the time required to do it. 4. What is the unit for which we are charged by the electric company? a) We are paying for energy (… … ). b) We are paying for … … , so we are charged for watts. 14. Read the dialogue between Peter and his mother filling in the words form the list: consume, multiply, electric, amount, compute, watts, time M.: I’m worried about the motor you bought yesterday, Peter. I think our a) … … … . Bills will be very high as soon as start working on it. P.: Don’t be afraid, mum. My motor doesn’t b) … … … much energy. It’s a one horsepower motor. M.: What does it mean? P.: One horsepower is 746 W c) … … … , or about 0.75 kW. Do you remember how to d) … … … the amount of energy consumed in a home? M.: Not exactly. P.: Energy is power times e) … … … . The cost of electricity is 10 c per kWh. So, to run the motor for 10 hours will cost only 75 c. M.: As far as I understand, we first multiply o.75 kW by 10 to compute the f) … … … of energy consumed in 10 hours, which is 7.5 kWh, and then we g) … … … this figure by 10 because he cost of electricity is 10 c per kWh. That’s pretty cheap. 15. Fill in the missing letters in the following words to five different forms of energy other than kinetic and potential energy: H _ _ T, _ _ DIANT, SO _ _ D, C _ E _ I _ AL, NU _ _ EAR.

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16. Choose the statements characterizing the following sources of energy. Fill in the boxes with suitable numbers. Talk with a partner about advantages and disadvantages of a particular source of energy. Coal Oil Gas Nuclear energy Hydropower

3

1. It is used primarily for the generation of electricity. 2. It is a clean-burning fuel used in heating as well as in business and industry. 3. It is the most abundant fuel supply with an estimated 300 –to 400 year reserve at the current consumption rate. 4. It presents a minimum pollution problems. 5. It is our most widely used source of energy. It is mainly used for transportation. 6. It is a controversial energy source whose opponents point out the possibility of an accident which may cause gross environmental contamination. 7. There may be enough of it only for the next 50 or 60 years. 8. Unfortunately, its use brings with it variety of environmental problems. Sulfur dioxide (д в уокись сер ы ) from its combustion is a major source of acid rains. 9. It is used not only as a fuel but also as a starting material for the petrochemical industry. 10. Most of the feasible locations for its generation have been utilized. If we start increasing its use, it will cause environmental problems. 11. It has the problem of waste disposal. 12. It has become increasingly important over the years. Some 15-20 percent of the electricity in the Unite Sates is generated by this source of energy. France generates more that 70 percent of its electricity by using it, and several other countries are not far behind. Grammar in Use Past Simple – Past Continuous 17. Identify the tenses in bold, then match them with the correct tense description. How is each tense formed? When do we use each tense? 1. He wound up the clock and hung it on the wall. 2. Margaret got off the train. Rain was falling heavily and a cold wind was blowing across the platform. 3. The bus was slowing down while the car was beginning to speed up.

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4. 5. 6. 7.

Last year electric power companies charged from about 8 c to 15 c per kWh. At three o’clock yesterday afternoon the reaction was running smoothly. The car was travelling 60 km/h when the driver braked to stop. Coal used to be the dominant source of transportation when steam locomotives travelled across the country. 8. Galileo dropped stones from the top of the Tower of Pisa to determine whether objects fall at the same rate. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

A longer past action interrupted by a shorter action. Action which happened in the past at a definite time. Action which was in progress at a stated time in the past. Action describing an event from the lives of people who are no longer alive. Action describing a past habit or state which is now finished. Two or more simultaneous past actions. Actions which happened immediately one after the other in the past. Actions describing background information in a story.

18. A. Look at the notes below and say what John did yesterday at the following times. Use the linking words from the list: first, then, next, after that, finally. S1 First, John woke up at 6 am. S2 Then, he had a shower at 6:20. 6 am wake up 6:05 –6:20 am have a shower 6:30 –7 am have breakfast 7:15 –8 am travel to university 8 am –1 pm attend classes 1:30 –2 pm have lunch break 3 pm get home B. Now in pairs ask and answer questions about what John was doing at the time in the list below: 6:15 am, 6:45 am, 7:10 am, 7:30 am, 9am, 11:45 pm, 2:30 pm. S1 What was he doing at a quarter past six in the morning? S2 He was having a shower. 19. Join the sentences using as, when and while as in the examples: 1. I was watching TV. I heard a strange noise. As/when/while I was watching TV I heard a strange noise. I was watching TV when I heard a strange noise. 2. He was cycling to work. He fell of his bike. 3. Ben was washing the dog. It jumped out of the bath and started barking. 4. Paul and Peter were playing cards. Paul’s parents came home. 5. Ted was making lunch. The doorbell rang.

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20. Put the words in brackets into the past Simple or the Past Continuous. Which was the longer action in each sentence? 1. While she … was opening … (open) the letter, the phone … rang … (ring). “was opening he letter” was the longer action. 2. Jane … … … (stare) out of the window when I … … … (enter) the office. 3. They … … … (watch) the evening news when suddenly the lights … … … (go out). 4. The dog … … … (find) a bone while it … … … (play) in the garden. 5. When I … … … (get) to the cinema, Jack … … … (wait) for me. 6. I … … . (walk) down the street when I … … … (see) an accident. 7. The boys … … … (play) football when suddenly they … … … (hear) a loud cry. 21. Put the verbs in brackets into the Past Simple or Past Continuous. 1. The men a) (drink) together when an argument b) (break out). The men soon c) (come) to blows and the publican d) (call) the police. The situation just e) (begin) to get out of hand, when the police f) (arrive) and g) (take) the two men to the police station. While they h) (get) out of the police car, one man i) (succeed) in getting away. They still j) (look) for the man two hours later. 2. James Watt, a Scottish engineer a) (develop) an improved steam engine. A very clever idea b) (come) to his mind when he c) (try) to sell one of his engines. He d) (decide) to rate the engine in horsepower so as to compare the rate work could be done by an engine to the rate work could be done by an average horse.

Unit IV Temperature and Thermometers Lead - in 1. a) What spheres of our daily life does temperature affect? (e.g. food, clothes, living quarters … ...) b)What role does temperature play on a more global scale? (weather phenomena, thermal pollution, clues to the ages of various stars … … ) c) Can people do without thermometers and rely on their sense of touch in their daily life?

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2. Read the sentences below and choose the correct word. Then read the text and check if your guesses were correct. a) Temperature is an absolute / relative measure of hotness or coldness. b) If the temperature of a substance increases, the motion of its molecules becomes faster / slower. c) Temperature is measured accurately through the sense of touch / use of a thermometer. d) Mercury which usually fills a glass tube of a thermometer is coloured with a red dye to make it beautiful / visible. e) A degree Celsius almost is twice as large / twice as small as a degree Fahrenheit. Reading 3. You are going to read the text. Six sentences have been removed from it. Choose from the sentences A – F the one which fits each gap (1-6). A. Centigrade (cent “one hundred” (as in century) and grade, German for degree) referred to the 100 degrees between the ice and steam points. B. It expands on heating, and a column of liquid is forced up the capillary tube. C. This perception is unreliable and may vary a great deal for different people. D. We simply add 273 to the Celsius temperature. E. The molecules of all substances are in constant motion. F. Common names for the ice and steam points are freezing and boiling points respectively. Temperature tells us whether something is hot or cold. In fact, we can say that temperature is a relative measure of hotness or coldness. On the molecular level we find that temperature depends on the kinetic E energy of the molecules of a substance. 1 The observation is true even for solids in which the molecules are held together by intermolecular forces. In general, the greater the temperature of a substance, the greater the motion of its molecules. On this basis we say that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance. Humans have temperature perception in the sense of touch. Our sense of touch doesn’t allow us to measure temperature accurately. 2 The quantitative measurement of temperature is accomplished through the use of a thermometer, an instrument designed to measure temperature. There are many kinds of thermometers but their operation always depends on some property of matter that changes with temperature. It is thermal expansion. Nearly all substances expand with increasing and contract with decreasing temperature. Common thermometers today consist of a hollow glass tube filled

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with mercury or with alcohol coloured with a red dye to make it visible. 3 The glass also expands but the liquid expands much more. Thermometers are calibrated so that numerical values can be assigned to different temperatures. The calibration requires two reference points and a choice of unit. Two common reference points for a temperature scale are the ice and steam points of water. The steam point is the temperature at which pure water boils at one atmosphere of pressure. 4 Two common temperature scales are the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales. The Fahrenheit scale has an ice point of 32° (read “32 degrees” ) and a steam point of 212°. The interval between the ice and steam points is evenly divided into 180 units. The Celsius scale is based on an ice point of 0° and a steam point of 100°. There are 100 equal units or divisions between these points. So a degree Celsius is almost twice as large as a degree Fahrenheit. At one time the Celsius scale was commonly called the “centigrade” scale. 5 The scale is now referred to correctly as the Celsius scale. There is no known upper limit of temperature; however, there is a lower limit. The lower limit occurs at about –273° C or –460° F, and it is called absolute zero. Another temperature scale, called the Kelvin scale, has its zero temperature at this absolute limit. The scale is sometimes called the absolute temperature scale. The unit of the Kelvin scale is the kelvin, abbreviated K and it has the same magnitude as a degree Celsius. Notice that since the Kelvin scale has absolute zero at its lowest reading, there can be no negative Kelvin or absolute temperatures. Because the Kelvin and degree Celsius are equal intervals we can easily convert from the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale. 5 In equation form we have Tk = Tc + 273. For example, a temperature of 0° C equals 273 K, and a Celsius temperature of 27° C is equal to 300 K (Tk = Tc + 273 = 27 + 273 = 300 K). Converting from Fahrenheit to Celsius and vice versa is also quite easy. The formulas for these conversions are 9 T f = (Tc + 32) (Celsius Tc to Fahrenheit Tf); 5 and 5 Tc = (T f − 32) (Fahrenheit Tf to Celsius Tc). 9 For example, suppose it is very chilly 5° F outside. This value is equivalent to a temperature of –15° C. (Use the second equation to verify this result).

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Vocabulary Practice. 4. Look at the words in bold and try to explain them. 5. A. Match the words to the ones that express a contrasting meaning. Column A Column B 1. expand a. steam point 2. solid b. coldness 3. ice point c. unequal 4. hotness d. contract 5. upper e. liquid 6. equal f. lower B. Fill in the gaps with the words from the above columns. 1. Temperature is a relative measure of … … and … … . 2. The … … limit of temperature is not known; the … … limit of temperature occurs at –273° C. 3. Metals … … as they are heated and … … as they get colder. 4. There are 100 … … units between the ice and steam points. 5. A degree Celsius and a degree Fahrenheit are … … . 6. The … … of water is 32° F. 7. The … … of water is 373° K. 8. Cheese is a … … and milk is a … … . 6. Fill the correct words from the list below. scale, equals, properties, sense of touch, readings, measure, convert, designed, accomplished, operation 1. Temperature is a … … … of how hot or cold an object is. (мер а) 2. Many … … .. of matter change with temperature. (св ойст в а) 3. Instruments … … … to measure temperature are called thermometers. (пр ед назначенны е) 4. The … … … of oven thermometers depends on different degrees of expansion of different metals. (д ейст в ие) 5. The most common … … … today is the Celsius … … … . (ш кала) 6. We shouldn’t rely on our … … … when we need to measure temperature accurately. (осязание) 7. It is easy to … … ... from one unit to another in the metric system because it can be accomplished by using factors of 10. (пер ев од ит ь) 8. This task can be … … … in several days. (зав ер ш ена) 9. A temperature of 10° C … … … 283° K. (р ав нят ься) 10. What are the temperature … … … for the week? (показания) 7. A. Fill in the correct word from the list below.

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upper, increasing, intermolecular, reference, equal, molecular, thermal, hollow, lowest, temperature 1. … 2. … 3. … 4. … 5. …

… … … … …

… … … … …

level forces expansion temperature glass tube

6. … … … 7. … … … 8. … … … 9. … … … 10. … … …

points reading scale limit intervals

B. Fill in the correct word combination from the above exercise. 1. Many properties of matter change with … … … … . 2. Two standard … … … … on a scale are the freezing point and the boiling point. 3. In a gas … … … … are so weak that the molecules do not even stay together. 4. The distance between the freezing and boiling points is divided into … … … … . 5. The most important … … … … in scientific work is the absolute or Kelvin … … … . 6. Most substances expand when heated. However, the amount of … … … … depends on the material. 7. The thermal properties of the substance were studied on the … … … … . 8. There is no known … … … … of temperature. 9. The Kelvin scale has absolute zero as its … … … … . 10. The thermometer consists of a … … … … … … filled with alcohol coloured with a red dye. 8. Fill in the gaps with one of the derivatives. A. measure (мер а), measure (измер ят ь), measurement (измер ение, р азмер ы (pl.), сист емамер ) 1. There are several systems of … … … used around the world. Each system uses different standard units. 2. Can you … … … accurately with this ruler? 3. The … … … s of the room are 20 feet by 15 feet. 4. Words can not always give the … … … of one’s feelings. 5. An hour is a … … … of time. B. equal (р ав ны й), equal (бы т ь р ав ны м), equation (ур ав нение), equivalent (р ав ноценны й) 1. He changed his pounds for the … … … amount of dollars. 2. In the … … … 2x + 1 = 7, what is x? 3. They are of … … … height. 4. x = y means that x … … … y.

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5. … … … is a statement that two expressions (connected by sign =) are equivalent. 9. Translate into English using the following words for the underlined parts. 1) a measure of how, 2) when heat, 3) when cooled, 4) the amount, 5) vary, 6) depending on, 7) resistance, 8) changes with, 9) radiated, 10) solids, 11) glow with 1. Т емпер ат ур а–эт о a) мер атого, насколько гор ячили холод ен пр ед мет. 2. Больш инст в о в ещ ест в р асш ир яется b) пр и нагр ев ании и сж имается c) пр и охлаж д ении. О д нако d) в еличина р асш ир ения или сж атия e) в ар ьир ует сяf) в зав исимости от мат ер иала. 3. Э лект р ическая g) сопр отив ляемость в ещ ест в а h) меняется в зав исимости от т емпер ат ур ы . П р и в ы соких т емпер ат ур ах цв ет, i) излучаемы й пр ед мет ами тож е меняется. Т акие j) т в ер д ы е т ела как ж елезо k) св ет ятсяор анж ев ы м или д аж ебелы м. 10. Read the text again and do the following: 1. Describe how temperature affects the motion of molecules in a substance. 2. Define the term temperature. 3. Explain how a temperature scale is constructed with reference to the three major scales. 4. Explain how to convert from one temperature scale to another, using the appropriate formulas. Follow –up Activities 11. Your friend has taken his temperature. It is 98.6° F. He doesn’t know what this is on the Celsius scale . Put the following sentences into the correct order. Then explain to your friend how to convert from one temperature scale to another. A Note that a degree Celsius is almost twice as large as a degree Fahrenheit because a range of 100° on the Celsius scale corresponds to a range of 180° on the Fahrenheit scale. B Remember that 0° C (zero Celsius) corresponds to 32° F.

C 5

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Thus, each Fahrenheit degree is equal to 100 / 180 = C° (five ninths degree 5 9 Celsius). Now we should simply multiply 66.6 by and get 37°. 9 D If you subtract 32.0° from 98.6 you get 66.6° F above the freezing point. 12. While in Europe an American tourist hears on the radio that the temperature that day will have a high of 15° C. What is the temperature on the Fahrenheit scale? Choose the right word. Do the calculations. 9 First we a) divide / multiply 15 by to get b) … … . Then c) subtract 32 from / 5 add 32 to d) … … . and get e) … … . . 13. The temperature of outer space is estimated to be 3 K. What is the equivalent temperature on the 1) Celsius scale and 2) Fahrenheit scale? Complete the solutions with the words and numbers from the list: equivalent; - 454°; add; subtracting; 3; - 270° C; multiply. 1) We can easily convert from Kelvin to Celsius by a) … … - 273 from b) … … . It will be c) … … to d) … … . 2) To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit we should c) … … - 270 by 9/5 and f) … … 32 to get g) … … . 14. Read the problem and then fill in the gaps in the solution with the words and numbers from the list: expansion; 12; heated; - 50°C; equation; 4.8; original; 200 m; cooled; directly; contraction Problem: Bridge expansion. The steel bed of a suspension bridge is 200 m long at 20° C. If the extremes of temperature to which it might be exposed are –30° C to + 40° C, how much will it contract and expand? Solution. Most substances expand when a) … … … and contract when b) … … … . However, the amount of expansion or c) … … … varies depending on the material. The change in length ∆L of almost all solids is d) … … … proportional to the change in temperature ∆ T. The change in length is also proportional to the e) … … … length of an object, Lo. We can write this proportionality as an equation: ∆ L = α Lo ∆T

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where α, the proportionality constant, is called the coefficient of linear f) … … … for the particular material and has units of (C°)-1. We find that for steel α = 12 ⋅ 10-6 (C°)-1. The increase in length when it is at 40° will be ∆ L = (12 ⋅ 10-6/C°) g) (… … … ) (40° –20°) = 4.8 ⋅ 102 m, or h) … … … cm. When the temperature decreases to - 30° C, ∆T = - 50° C. So the chnage in length is ∆L = (12 ⋅ 10-6/C°) (200 m) i) (… … … ) = - 12.0 ⋅ 10-2 m or a decrease in length of j) … … … cm. 15. Opening a tight jar lid. Your mother can’t open a tight jar lid. You offer her your help. Fill in the gaps in the conversation with the words from the list: expand, cope, jar, metal, tight, hot Mother: I can’t open this a) … … … lid. It’s too b)… … … . You: Shall I help you, mum? Mother: I don’t think you will c) … … … with it either. But you may try if you wish. You: Look, mum. I’m just holding it under d) … … … water for a short time. Then a little effort and the lid is open. Mother: I can’t understand why e) … … … water has made it easier to open. You: Hot water has made the lid f) … … … . Mother: But the jar was also struck by hot water, so it must have g) … … … ed too. You: The lid is made of h) … … … and i) … … … s generally j) … … … more than glass for the same temperature. 16. Anomalous Behavior of Water Below 4° C. A. State whether the following sentences are true or false. a) Most substances expand with an increase in temperature. b) Water at 0° C increases in volume until it reaches 4° C. c) Water has its greatest density when it freezes. d) Ice is less dense than water. e) The water at the bottom of a lake is usually frozen first. f) Water expands as it freezes to ice. B. Choose the correct word. Then tell your classmates that the complete freezing of lakes and rivers could cause sever damage to their plant and animal life. Explain what processes prevent it. When the water in a lake or river is above 4° C and begins to cool by contact with cold air, the water at the a) surface / bottom sinks because of its b) smaller / greater density and it is replaced by warmer water from c) below /

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above. This mixing continues until the temperature reaches d) 4° C / 0° C. Water then freezes first at the e) surface / bottom and ice remains on the surface since it is f) more / less dense than water. It acts as an insulator and g) reduces / increases the flow of heat out of the water. The water at the h) bottom / top remains at 4° C until almost the whole body of water is frozen. Grammar in Use Past Perfect Simple – Past Perfect Continuous 17. Fill in the Past Perfect. 1. He felt sick because he … … … (eat) too much. 2. She signed the letter after she … … … (write) it. 3. He bought a car after he … … … (save) enough money. 4. I realized that I … … … (lose) the keys. 5. She told me she … … … (work) in France and Germany. 6. She was upset because Andrew … … … (not telephone). 18. Fill in the Past Perfect Continuous. 1. Emily was angry. She … … … (argue) with her parents for an hour. 2. Michael felt sick. He … … … (eat) chocolates all afternoon. 3. Janet was frightened. She … … … (watch) a horror film for half an hour. 4. John was very tired. He … … … (read) all night. 5. The streets were covered in snow. It … … … (snow) all day. 6. You were very dirty. I … … … (clean) the cellar. 19. Put the verbs in brackets in the Simple Past or Past Perfect. 1. I (be) sorry that I (not be) nicer to him. 2. Nobody (come) to the meeting because Angela (forget) to tell people about it. 3. Because he (not check) the oil, the car (break) down. 4. She couldn’t find the book that I (lend) her. 5. When she (come) in, we all knew where she (be). 6. The lesson (already start) when I (arrive). 7. It was a firm that I (never hear) of. 8. They (never find) where he (hide) the money. 20. Read the story and answer the following questions. On Tuesday afternoon, everyone in my family was very busy –except me. During the afternoon Helen repaired her car; John practised his karate; Kate did some gardening; Stephanie played tennis; Roger swam for half an hour; Pam

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went horse-riding; Philip painted the ceiling in his room light blue. I spent the afternoon sitting reading. 1. Who had black grease on her hands at teatime? Why? Helen, because she had been repairing her car. 2. Who had dirt on her hands and knees? Why? 3. Who was wearing a short white skirt? Why? 4. Who was wearing a white jacket and trousers and a black belt? Why? 5. Who was wearing high boots and a hard hat? Why? 6. Whose hair had light blue streaks in it? Why? 7. Whose hair was all wet? Why? 21. Fill in the Present Perfect Simple or Continuous or Past Perfect Simple or Continuous. 1. Her feet ached last Monday. She … … … (walk) for six hours. 2. Dan is cold. He … … … (swim) in the lake. 3. He can’t pay the bill. He … … … (lose) his wallet. 4. He wrote his article after he … … … (gather) enough material. 5. He was hot. He … … … (run) for an hour. 6. She … … … (clean) the house by 6 o’clock. 7. Her eyes are red. She … … … (cry).

Unit V Heat Lead –in 1. a Can heat flow from a colder object to a hotter object when in thermal contact? b What examples of heat transfer in everyday life can you give? (e.g. We can feel the warmth of the fire on exposed skin; heat from the Sun reaches the Earth, etc.) c How do people use a knowledge of the methods of heat transfer to prevent heat transfer in everyday life? (e.g. thermos bottle, etc.) 2. Read the summary and choose the correct word. Then read the text and check if your guesses were correct. When two objects are kept a) at a distance / in contact, heat flows from a hot object to a cooler one. The b) spontaneous / arranged flow of heat is always in the direction to equalize the temperature. Heat is a form of energy. When heat is c) removed from / added to a substance, the temperature

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increases but temperature changes are d) the same / different for different substances. The greater the specific heat of a substance the greater is its e) capacity / size for heat. The amount of heat necessary f) to transform / change the temperature of a given amount of substance depends on the mass, the specific heat and the temperature change. Reading 3. Choose from the list A-H the headlines which best suit each part of the text that follows. There is an extra headline which you do not need to use. A. B. C. D. E. F.

Specific heat of a substance. Latent heat. Units of specific heat. Determining the original amount of energy. A common unit for measuring heat. Measuring the amount of heat necessary to change the temperature of a given amount of substance. G. Thermal equilibrium. H. Heat as energy transfer.

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G When a pot of cold water is placed on a hot burner of a stove, the temperature of the water increases. We say that heat flows from the hot burner to the cold water. The spontaneous flow of heat is always in the direction to equalize the temperature. We commonly speak of the “flow” of heat –heat flows form a stove burner to a pot of coffee, from the Sun to the Earth, from a person’s mouth into a fever thermometer. If the two objects are kept in contact long enough for their temperatures to become equal, the two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium, there is no heat flow between them.

1 When heat flows from a hot object to a cooler one, it is energy that is being transferred from the hot to the cold object. Thus, heat is a form of energy. The ultimate sources of heat are the kinetic and potential energies of molecules. 2 Energy transfer involves work. For example, when we do work, there is frequently a substantial amount of heating caused by friction. The conservation

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of energy tells us that the work done plus the heat energy produced must equal the original amount of energy available. total energy = work done + heat produced (usually by friction) Et = W + H 3 Notice that as energy, heat has the unit of joule (J). This is known as the mechanical equivalent of heat. A traditional unit for measuring heat energy is the calorie. A calorie (cal) is defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise one gram of pure liquid water by one degree Celsius (from 14.5° to 15.5° C) at normal atmospheric pressure. In terms of the SI energy unit, 1 cal = 4.186 J. A kilocalorie is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water one degree Celsius. The calorie that we have defined is not the same as the one used when discussing diets and nutrition. A diet calorie (Cal) is equal to one kilocalorie and is commonly written with a capital C to avoid confusion. We sometimes refer to a “big” calorie and a “little” calorie. 1 food Calorie = 1000calorie 1 food Calorie = 4186 joules 4 When heat is added to a substance the temperature increases. But how much does the temperature rise? That depends. If you add equal amounts of heat to equal masses of iron and aluminum, you might be surprised to find that their temperatures changes are different. If the temperature of the iron increased by 100° C, the corresponding temperature change in the aluminum would be only 48° C. You would have to add more than twice the amount of heat to the aluminum to get the same temperature change as for an equal mass of iron. This result reflects the fact that the internal forces of the materials are different. We express this difference in terms of specific heat. The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat, necessary to raise the temperature of one kilogram of a substance one degree Celsius. 5 Water’s specific heat is 1.0 kcal / kg ⋅°C because one kilocalorie is the amount of heat that raises the temperature of one kilogram of water one degree Celsius. Other substances require different amounts of heat to raise the temperature of one kilogram of the substance by one degree. Notice that the units of specific heat are kcal / kg ⋅°C (amount of heat per unit mass per degree change in temperature). The SI units or J / kg ⋅°C. The greater the specific heat of a substance, the greater is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass. Put another way, the greater the specific heat, the greater is its

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capacity for heat. In fact the full name for specific heat is specific heat capacity. 6 The amount of heat necessary to change the temperature of a given amount of a substance depends on three factors: the mass (m), the specific heat (designed by C), and the temperature change (∆ T). In equation form we write amount of heat to change temperature = mass ⋅ specific ⋅heat temperature change H + m c ∆T Vocabulary Practice 4. Look at the words in bold and try to explain them. 5. Match the words to their opposites Column A 1. confusion 2. substantial 3. equilibrium 4. internal 5. equal 6. add 7. increase

Column B a. imbalance b. external c. different d. remove e. decrease f. order g. small

6. Fill in the blanks with the correct words from the list: energy, equal, internal, pure, temperature, specific, thermal, diet, heat, ultimate 1. … … … equilibrium 6. … … … change 2. … … … flow 7. … … … forces 3. … … … source 8. … … … heat 4. … … … unit 9. … … … amounts 5. … … … calorie 10 … … … water 7. 1. 2. 3.

Fill in the correct word combination from the above exercise. A … … … … … … specifies the energy value of food. Kinetic and potential energies of molecules are the … … … … … … of heat. A calorie is the amount of heat necessary to raise one gram of … … … liquid … … … by one degree Celsius. 4. Two objects were kept in contact until they reached … … … … … … . 5. Aluminum requires almost two times as much heat as an … … … … … … of iron. 6. Equal amounts of heat produce different … … … … … … in different substances.

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7. The direction of the … … … … … … between two objects depends on their temperature. 8. Substances require different amount of heat to raise the temperatures because their … … … … … … are different. 9. The greater the … … … … … … of a substance the greater the amount of heat is required to raise its temperature. 10. A common … … … … … … . Is called a calorie. 8. Underline the correct word. 1. The internal / external forces of materials are different. 2. The calorie as a traditional unit for measuring heat is written with a capital C / small c to avoid confusion with a diet calorie. 3. When we do work there is frequently a substantial / small amount of heating caused by friction. 4. If you remove / add heat from / to a substance, its temperature increases. 5. Various substances require the same / different amounts of heat to raise the temperature. 6. The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat necessary to lower / raise the temperature of one kilogram of a substance one degree Celsius. 7. The greater the specific heat of a substance, the greater / smaller is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature. 9. Fill in the correct word from the list below: transferred, involves, add, flows, avoid, refers, depends on, express, define, requires, causes 1. Heat … … … . from one object to another because of a difference in temperature. (т ечь, пер еход ит ь) 2. Energy transfer … … … work. (пр ед полагат ь, в клю чат ь в себя) 3. Friction … … … heating. (в ы зы в ат ь, бы т ь пр ичиной) 4. Can you … … … the calorie (д ат ь опр ед еление) 5. Heat is related to the amount of energy … … … from one body to another. (пер емещ аю щ ийся) 6. The direction of heat flow between two objects … … … on their temperature. (зав исет ь) 7. Water … … … almost ten times as much heat as an equal mass of iron to make the same temperature change. (нуж д ат ься) 8. If you … … … heat to a substance, its temperature increases. (д обав лят ь) 9. Heat … … … to a transfer of energy. (иметь отнош ение) 10. They … … … the difference in internal forces of materials in terms of specific heat. (в ы р аж ат ь) 11. The “common calorie” and the “dietary calorie” are designated differently to … … … confusion. (избегат ь)

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10. Complete the sentences with one of the derivatives. A. confuse (см еш ив ат ь , спут ыват ь ), confused (спут анный, сбит ый с т о лк у), confusing (запут анный, сбивающ ий ст о лк у), confusion (пут аница, неразбериха) 1. All your changes of plan have made me totally … … … . 2. To avoid … … … , the teams wore different colours. 3. You shouldn’t … … … them by asking so many questions. 4. The instructions were so … … … I couldn’t understand them. 5. Make sure you don’t … … … him with someone else. B. define (о пределят ь , дават ь о пределение), definite (о пределенный, чет к ий), definitely (т о чно , чет к о ), definition (о пределение) 1. He explained his intentions very … … … . 2. Some words are hard to … … … because they have many different uses. 3. Some … … … in the textbooks were difficult to understand. 4. I want a … … … answer, “yes” or “no” . 5. I have no … … … plans for tomorrow. 11. Translate into English using the following words for the underlined parts. 1) change to, 2) steam, 3) at, 4) under, 5) keep adding, 6) a quantity, 7) continue, 8) with the conversion of, 9) remain, 10) goes from … … to, 11) bonds, 12) to separate, 13) go into, 14) not into, 15) associated with, 16) phase change, 17) latent heat A. В од а a) пер еход ит в b) пар c) пр и т емпер ат ур е 100° С d) пр и нор мальном атмосфер ном д ав лении. Е сли e) д обав лять т епло к f) опр ед еленном количест в у в од ы пр и т емпер ат ур е 100° С, то онабуд ет g) пр од олж ат ь кипеть h) с пр ев р ащ ением ж ид кост и в газ, но т емпер ат ур а буд ет i) остав ат ьсяпостоянной. B. Н а молекуляр ном ур ов не, когд а в ещ ест в о j) пер еход ит из ж ид кости в газ, д олж набы т ь пр оизв ед енар абот а, чт обы р азор в ат ь молекуляр ны е k) св язи и l) р азд елит ь молекулы . Э нер гия т епла д олж на m) пойти на р абот у n) р азд еления молекул, а o) не на ув еличение молекуляр ной кинетической энер гии, котор ая бы ув еличила темпер ат ур у. Т епло, p) св язанноес q) пер еменной фазы , назы в ает сяr) скр ы т ой теплотой.

12. Read the text again and do the following without referring to the text. 1. Explain what is meant by the statement “Heat is energy in transit” . 2. Explain the difference between a calorie and a Calorie. 3. Define the term “ specific heat” .

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Follow – up Activities

13. Can the destruction of sensitive plants be reduced by watering them in the evening if temperature may drop below freezing? Answer by choosing the correct variant. The destruction of sensitive plants due to freezing can be a) enhanced / reduced by watering them in the evening. When water becomes ice it will b) release / absorb a certain amount of heat. The heat will be c) taken way from / given to the plant. It will d) tear the plant apart / help the plant survive. 14. What makes water particularly good for heating systems (i.e. hot water radiators). Put the sentences into the correct order to give the explanation. 4 1. The heat flow in the opposite direction (when iron and water are both cooled) would be the same. 2. It means that water requires almost ten times more heat to raise its temperature than the corresponding amount of iron. 3. Water is ideal because it satisfies the requirement of a minimal drop in temperature. 4. The specific heat of water is quite high (1.00 kcal / kg ⋅ °C = 4186 J / kg ⋅ °C) in comparison with, for example, iron (0.11 kcal / kg ⋅ °C = 840 J / kg ⋅ °C). 5. The temperature decrease in iron would be ten times greater than in the same amount of water. 15. Explain why burns caused by steam on the skin are often more severe than burns caused by water at 100° C. Explain by answering the questions. Use prompts to answer. a) it causes a rise in its temperature, b) because the steam becomes much hotter than … … ., c) because added heat goes into changing the liquid into a gas, d) it starts boiling. 1. What happens to a quantity of water when it reaches a temperature of 100° C? 2. Why doesn’t the temperature of the water change when we keep adding heat? 3. How does the temperature of the steam change if heat is added? 4. Why are the burns caused by the steam more severe? 16. You need to calculate how much it would cost to heat a bathtub full of water (80 kg) from 12° C to 42° C for four people taking a bath daily for one month.

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Fill in the gaps in the solution with the following words: cost, mass, heat, times, month, corresponds, change, express Firstly, I would like to find out how much a) … … … it takes to heat a bathtub. According to the equation the heat needed to b) … … … the temperature is the c) … … … of water times specific heat d) … … … the temperature change (H = mc ∆T) = 80 kg ⋅ (1.0 kcal / kg ⋅ °C) ⋅ ( 42 –12) °C = 2400 kcal. Thus we get 2400 kcal. Now I have to e) … … … heat in energy units called Kilowatt – hours. Each kilocalorie f) … … … to 0.00116 kWh, so if we multiply 2.400 by 0.00116, this amount of heat will be 2.8 kWh. At 10 ¢per kWh the g) … … … . Is 2.8 ⋅ 10 ¢ = 28 ¢. For four people taking a bath a day for one h) … … … it would cost 4 ⋅ 30 ⋅$ 0.28 = $ 33.60 to heat water. 17. Equal amounts of heat are added to equal masses of aluminum and copper at the same temperature. Which metal will have a higher final temperature? Put together the beginnings and ends of the sentences to explain how you have solved the problem. 1. First, we must find out a) the amount of heat required to raise its temperature 2. The table of specific heat b) 0.22 by 0.92 to get 2.5 3. Then we should point out that the c) 2.5 times more heat than cooper greater the specific heat of a substance, the greater is 4. Finally we should divide d) the specific heats of these metals in the table 5. It means that aluminum needs e) 2.5 times greater than aluminum 6. Copper will have a final temperature f) gives 0.22 kcal / kg for aluminum and 0.092 kcal / kg for copper 18. Catherine has thrown caution to the wind eating too much ice cream and cake. Now she is worried about her extra calories. Read the conversation between Bill and Catherine filling the words from the list: calculations, convert, divided, weight, height, extra calories, climb, to calculate, gravity C: I wish I hadn’t eaten so much ice cream and cake. I’m afraid I’ll put on a lot of weight a) … … … after this party. B: Stop worrying. I think I can help you. How many b) … … … have you got? C: I’ve overeaten by about 500 Calories. B: And what’s your total weight? C: About 60 kg. B: Let me think, my c) … … … show that you must climb a vertical d) … … … of 3600 m to work these calories off.

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C: Does it mean I have to e) … … … a very high mountain to lose weight? You must have made a mistake. B: There can’t be any mistake. You can check on me. First, let’s f) … … … Calories into joules. C: 500 Calories is 500 kcal, which in joules is equals to (500 kcal) (4.186 ⋅ 103 J / kcal) = 2.1 ⋅ 106 J. (two point one multiplied by ten exponent six joule) B: Do you remember the formula g) … … … work done to climb a vertical height? C: Yes, it sounds like work is mass times the force of h) … … … times height (W = mgh) B: Given that work equals 2.1 ⋅ 106 J, height is work i) … … … by mass times W 2.1 ⋅ 106 the force of gravity h = = = 3600 m which gives 3600 m. 2 mg (60kg) (9.80 m /s ) C: Now I see that you’re right. I’ve come to the same result. It means I must start climbing stairs to compensate for what I’ve overeaten. Grammar in Use Future Forms 19. Make sentences giving predictions about the next century. Use will or won’t as in the example. 1. Wild animals / become extinct. Wild animals won’t become extinct. 2. Industries / use cleaner methods of production. 3. Pollution / disappear. 4. People / die of serious diseases. 5. Children / stop going to school. 6. People / use electric cars. 7. People / destroy the earth’s forested areas. 8. People / go on holiday to Mars. 9. Robots / do most of the work. 10. People / use bicycles instead of cars. 20. What does will / shall express in each sentence? 1. Tidy your room or I won’t let you go to the party. (threat, request) 2. Please, let me go out with my friends, mum. I’ll do my homework later. (request, promise) 3. Shall I carry your shopping bags for you? (offer, suggestion) 4. Your brother will have a very successful career. (warning, prediction) 5. What a wonderful view! I’ll take a picture. (on-the-spot decision, prediction) 6. Shall we try this new dish? (offer, suggestion)

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7. Will you take out the rubbish, please? (suggestion, request) 8. He will probably become an artist. (promise, prediction) 21. Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Simple or the Future Simple. 1. When he … … … (return), I’ll give him the key. 2. I’ll stay in bed till the clock … … … (strike) seven. 3. The lift … … … (not start) until you press that button. 4. When you look at yourself in the glass, you … … … (see) what I mean. 5. Stay here till the lights … … … (turn green). 6. A: What are your plans for the future? B: I want to go to university after I … … … (finish) school. 7. If you … … … (pay) for dinner, I … … … (pay) for the theatre. 8. I’m exhausted. I wonder if David … … … (come) to help. 9. A: Are you going to visit Aunt Mabel this afternoon? B: Yes, I … … … (visit) her before I … … … (do) the shopping. 22. Match the following sentences with the correct tense definition. 1. Look out! That dog is going to bite you. 2. The London train arrives at 4:45. 3. I’m seeing my bank manager this morning. 4. I’m going to buy a new car next year. 5. I think I’ll make some tea. Do you want some? 6. I’m sure she’ll pass the test. 7. Look at the dark clouds in the sky. It’s going to rain. a) on-the-spot decision, b) timetable, c) evidence that something will definitely happen in the near future, d) future intention, e) fixed arrangement in the near future, f) prediction 23. Put the verbs in brackets into the future simple, the present simple, the present continuous or use the correct form of “be going to”. 1. A: The shops are closed tomorrow. B: I … … … (buy) bread and milk today then. 2. A: Can we go out to play, Mum? B: No, we … … … (have) dinner now. 3. A: … … … (you / do) anything on Friday morning? B: No, I’m free. 4. The aeroplane is in flames. It’s … … … (explode). 5. A: I’m really thirsty. B: I … … … (get) you a glass of water. 6. A: Are you looking forward to your party? B: Yeas, I hope everyone … … … (enjoy) it. 7. A: I … … … ( go) to the cinema. There is a new film on. Do you want to come with me?

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B: What time … … … (the film / start)? 24. Match the following sentences with the correct tense description. 1. I’ll be flying to Morocco this time tomorrow. 2. By 11 o’clock she’ll have been waiting for 5 hours. 3. He’ll have finished by tomorrow afternoon. 4. Will you be going into town today. a) duration of an action up to a certain time in the future. b) action in progress at a stated future time. c) polite inquiry about people’s arrangement. d) action which will be finished before a stated future time. 25. Put the verbs in brackets into Future Perfect, Future Perfect Continuous or Future Continuous. 1. A: I’ll phone you at 9 o’clock tomorrow. B: Oh, no! I … … … (sleep) then. 2. By the time he arrives in London, John … … … (drive) for five hours. 3. This film … … … (probably / not / finish) until midnight. 4. Tom … … … (write) his third novel by the end of this year. 5. By Friday I … … … (work) on this project for two weeks. 6. A: Perhaps I … … … (come) and visit you in the afternoon. What … … … (you / do) around 3 o’clock? B: I … … … (get) ready for my aerobics class.

Grammar Reference Unit I Present Simple – Present Continuous Present Simple

Present Continuous

Form I / We / You / They read. He / She / It/ reads. Do you read? Does he read? I do not (don’t) read. He does not (doesn’t) read.

Form I am / We / You / They are reading. He / She / It is reading. Are you reading? Is he reading? I am (‘m) not reading. They are not (aren’t) reading. He is not ( isn’t) reading.

Use The present simple is used:

Use The present continuous is used:

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a) for permanent states, repeated actions and daily routines. He usually gets up at 9 o’clock. b) For general truths and laws of nature. The total energy of an isolated system remains constant. c) For timetables (trains, planes, etc.) and programs. The train for Manchester leaves at 11:45 on Sunday.

a) for actions happening now or for temporary actions. She is working hard these days. b) for fixed arrangements in the near future. I am going to my doctor this afternoon. c) with always when we want to express our irritation at somebody’s action. They are always shouting at each other. d) For changing or developing situations. The population of the world is rising very fast.

The present simple is used with the following time expressions: always, usually, sometimes, never, often, on Mondays, in the evening, etc.

The present continuous is used with the following time expressions: now, at the moment, these days, at present, tonight, nowadays, still, etc.

Sate Verbs State verbs are verbs which are normally not used in the continuous tenses. These include: a) verbs of the senses: hear, see, smell, taste, feel, seem, etc. The soup tastes salty. b) verbs expressing feelings and emotions: love, like, desire, prefer, dislike, hate, enjoy, want, etc. I want to read this book now. c) other verbs such as: agree, believe, suppose, understand, forget, know, remember, think, have, own, need, etc. I have a dog. Some state verbs have continuous tenses, but there is a difference in meaning: THINK –I think you are wrong. (= believe) - What are you thinking about? (= are considering) SEE –I can see an aeroplane in the sky (= perceive with my eyes) - I am seeing Susan tonight. (= am meeting) HAVE –He has two cars. (= owns, possesses) - He is having breakfast. (= eating) SMELL –The room smells of perfume. (= has the smell) - The cat is smelling its food. (= is sniffing) TASTE –The soup tastes awful ( = has an awful flavour)

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- She is tasting the soup. ( = is testing its flavour) Unit II Present Perfect – Present Perfect Continuous Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous

Form I / We / You / They have finished. He / She / It / has finished. Have you finished? Has she finished? You have not finished. She has not finished.

Form I / We / You / They have been working. He / She / It has been working. Have you been working? Has she been working? You haven’t been working. She hasn’t been working.

Use We use the Present Perfect for: a) recently finishes actions whose result is visible in the present. Tom has just finished writing the article. b) actions which started in the past and continue up to the present. We have been friends for twenty years. c) actions which happened at an unstated time in the past. I have met a lot of interesting people in my life.

Use We use the Present Perfect Continuous for: a) actions which began in the past and continue up to the present with emphasis on the duration. I have been writing this article for two hours. b) past actions of certain duration that have visible results in the present. They are wet. They have been walking in the rain.

The Present Perfect is usually used with the following time expressions: already, yet, just, always, ever, never, so far. Both the Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous are used with the following time expressions: how long e.g. How long have you been in Rome? How long have you been building the house? for (duration) e.g. I have been in Rome for a week. We have been building the house for a few months.

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since (starting point) e.g. I have been in Rome since last week. We have been building the house since last summer. lately / recently e.g. Have you seen any good film lately / recently? She has been going out a lot lately / recently. Unit III Past Simple

Past Continuous

Past Simple

Past Continuous

Form I / He / She / It / We / You / They worked / came. Did she work / come? Yes, she did. / No, she didn’t. She did not work / come.

Form I / He / She / It was / We / you / They were working. Was he / Were they working? Yes, he was. / No, they were not. He was not / They were not working.

Use The past simple is used: a) for an action which started and finished in the past at a stated time. I met my friends for lunch last Monday. b) for past actions which happened immediately one after the other. He slipped, fell over and broke his ankle. c) for past habits or states which are now finished. In prehistoric times people used to live / lived in caves. d) for actions describing events from the lives of people who are no longer alive. Shakespeare wrote a lot of plays.

Use The past continuous is used for: a) for an action which was in progress at a stated time in the past. At 8 o’clock last night she was watching TV. b) for an action which was in progress when another action interrupted it. He was painting the bedroom when suddenly he fell off the ladder. c) for two or more simultaneous past actions. They were dancing while he was playing the guitar. d) for actions describing background information in a story. Todd and Emily were riding through the forest. The sun was shining and the birds were singing. The past continuous is used with the following time expressions: when, while, as, all day / night / morning, etc.

The past simple is used with the following time expressions: yesterday / last night / week / Monday, etc., two days / months, etc. ago, then, when, How long ago? In 1992, etc.

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Unit IV Past Perfect – Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous

Form She had left / waited. Had she left / waited? Yes, she had. / No, she hadn’t. She had not left / waited.

Form He had been waiting. Had he been waiting? Yes, he had. / No, he hadn’t. He had not been waiting.

The past perfect is used: a) for an action which happened before another past action or before a stated time in the past. She had already left when I got home. She had arrived by 8 o’clock. b) for an action which finished in the past and whose result was visible in the past. Bill wasn’t in his office. He had already left.

The past perfect continuous is used: a) for an action continuing up to a specific time in the past. (The emphasis is put on the duration of an action). He had been waiting for an hour before she arrived. b) for an action which lasted for some time in the past and whose result was visible in the past. She was tired. She had been cleaning the house all morning. The past perfect continuous is used with the following time expressions: for, since, how long, before, until, etc.

The past perfect is used with the following time expressions: before, after, already, for, since, just, till / until, when, by, by the time, never, etc.

Unit V Future Forms We can refer to future actions with the future simple, be going to, the present continuous, the present simple, the future continuous, the future perfect and the future perfect continuous. Future Simple be going to Form Form

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I / We / They / He will call. Will he / they call? Yes, he will. / No, they won’t. I/ We/ They / He will not (won’t) call. The future simple is used: a) for actions or predictions which may or may not happen in the future with the verbs think, believe, expect, etc, and the adverbs perhaps, probably, etc. He will probably arrive next week. b) for decisions taken at the moment of speaking (on-the-spot decisions). I think I’ll buy it. c) for threats, warnings, promises. Stop or I’ll shoot. Put on your coat or you’ll catch cold. I’ll write to you every day, I promise.

I am / You are / She is going to come. Are you / Is she going to come? Yes, I am. / No, she isn’t. You are not / She is not going to come. Be going to is used: a) for plans or intentions. I’m going to repaint the kitchen next month. b) in predictions when there is evidence that something will happen in the near future. Watch out! We’re going to have an accident. (We can see a car coming).

Present Simple Present Continuous Present Simple is used with future meaning when we refer to programs or Present Continuous is used for fixed timetables. arrangements in the near future. The film starts in ten minutes. I’m flying to London tomorrow. Note: the future simple is not used after while, before, until, as soon as, after, if, by the time, when. We use the present simple or present perfect instead. e.g. He will fix the tap as soon as he comes form work. “When” can be followed by the future simple if it is used as a question word. e.g. When will you return? I don’t know when she will be back. Future Perfect Future Perfect Continuous Form Form He / She / They will have returned. I /You / We will have been reading. Will she / he / they have returned? Will I / You / We have been reading? Yes, he / she / they will. / No, he / she Yes, I / we will. / No, I / we won’t. I / You / We will not have been / they won’t. He / She / They will not have reading. returned. Use Use The future perfect is used for an action The future perfect continuous is used which will be finished before a certain to emphasize the duration of an action

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time in the future. up to a certain time in the future. e.g. She will have finished the project e.g. By tomorrow morning she will by next week. have been sleeping for twelve hours. The future perfect is used with the The future perfect continuous is used following time expressions: by, by the with by … … . for. time, before, until, by then, etc.

О снов наялитер ат ур а 1. Giancoli Douglas C. Physics. Principles with Application / Douglas C. Giancoli. –New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 1998. –1096 p. 2. Graver B.D. Advanced English Practice / B.D. Graver. – Oxford University Press, 1996. –320 p. 3. Shipman J.T. An Introduction to Physical Science / J.T. Shipman, J.D. Wilson. –Massachusetts Toronto: D.C. Heath and company, 1990. –630 p. Д ополнит ельнаялит ер ат ур а 1. Dooley J. Grammarway 2 / J. Dooley, V. Evans. –Express Publishing, 1998. –152 p. 2. Dooley J. Grammarway 3 / J. Dooley, V. Evans. –Express Publishing, 2000. –216 p. 3. Evans V. Round –Up. English Grammar Practice / V. Evans. –Pearson Education Limited, 2000. –176 p. 4. Э лект р онны й каталог Н аучной библиот еки В ор онеж ского госуд ар ст в енного унив ер сит ет а. –(http://www.lib.vsu.ru/)

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Сост ав ит ели: ст.пр . И льичев аН атальяА лексеев на ст.пр . Д р озд ов аИ р инаВ ольтов на к.ф.н., пр . Солов ьев аИ р инаЮ р ьев на